Annotated Bibliography

The textile archaeology of Roman burials: Eyes Wide Shut

JOHN PETER WILD

� e excavation of a Roman cemetery presents the archaeologist with a series of particular challenges: the list seems to lengthen by the year, not least in response to today’s heightened sensitivities with regard to the treatment of the dead. Some problems, however, are of longer standing. In situations where textile remains might be, or might have been, present, Roman archaeologists seem too o� en to suff er from a form of myopia, not contracted from leading lights in other periods (Walton Rogers 2007; Stutz 2003, 295–304). It is symptomatic perhaps that in the archaeological literature the expression ‘unaccompanied burial’ regularly crops up – that is, a grave containing no readily recognisable grave goods, e.g. pottery, glass vessels or metalwork. But we know from our own experience that even in disaster situations – like the 200 earthquake in Haiti – the dead are rarely ‘unaccompanied’, it is a human reaction to cover them with textiles. � e archaeologically attested burial of naked bodies can be regarded as a deliberate ritual act, as in the case of the North European bog-bodies, like Lindow Man (Stead et al. 986; Turner, Scaife 995; Joy 2009). So, is the excavator of ‘unaccompanied burials’ missing something? Adjacent to the small Roman town of Ashton in Northamptonshire, a ‘managed’ inhumation cemetery of some 200 graves was excavated in 983 in advance of road building (Frere 984, 30 � g. 7; Frere 985, 288; Dix 984, 26–27; Upex 2008, 82, col.pl. 22). Most were at � rst sight empty, apart from the skeleton. � e grave in Fig. , for example, had a stone revetment, possibly once retained by planking. � ere were no grave goods, but the attitude of the skeleton, its arms crossed, suggests that it was originally con� ned in a textile wrapping. How should that be visualised? How can one record a negative? � erein lies a problem. Decaying organic materials have a better chance of being recognised and understood in an enclosed context, such as in the late fourth-century lead coffi n found in 998 within a stone sarcophagus at Spital� elds, London (� omas 999; Wild, forthcoming ). � anks to the persistence of a conservator, who had noted the glint of gold thread in the sludge on the bottom of the inner coffi n, the contents were saved at the eleventh hour and examined in detail in the laboratory: not just gold, but damask silk was eventually identi� ed. By contrast, as is well known, in the Roman-period cemeteries on the desert fringes of the Nile Valley, there is far better preservation of textile material. � ere, the problem is one of inadequate recording by the excavator rather than lack of imagination. Albert Gayet is pilloried for his eff orts at Antinoe a century ago (Calament 2005, 63–89, � gs6a, 8a, 8b; Nauerth 2006), and he certainly had a � are for publicity, but in terms of recording and publication he was not so much worse than his contemporaries.

Dressing the Dead in Classical Antiquity8

� ere is still room for improvement in the � eld of Eg yptolog y. � e fate of the Roman-period mummy no. 770 in Manchester Museum has not been a happy one. In 975 her wrappings were unceremoniously hacked off , without any archaeological three-dimensional recording, in pursuit of other lines of scienti� c enquiry. Making sense of the original textiles, including parts of a tunic, has been extremely diffi cult (David 979). It is easy to be critical. Let me now try to be more constructive, and turn to some of the textile situations which a rather less myopic archaeologist might be asked to bear in mind while digging. I will look � rst at the practice of cremation burial, which is of more concern in the western Roman provinces, where it has a long prehistory (Philpott 99, 8, 27–222), and then at inhumation burial, which is empire-wide and correspondingly multifarious in character. Burial practice was governed by locally valid cultural constraints. At each funerary event there were arguably three principal interested parties: the burial subject (the deceased), the burial agents (the family, with perhaps a master of religious ceremony) and the burial observers (the community). � eir common interest was to draw attention to the social standing of the deceased, and that could be achieved by the conspicuously high quality of the grave goods, among them textiles, deposited with the dead.

Fig. . Inhumation burial in the late Roman cemetery at Ashton, Oundle, Northamptonshire (photo by J. P .Wild).

9The textile archaeolog y of Roman burials : Eyes Wide Shut

In the funerary rite of cremation there were two opportunities for the introduction of textiles into the chain of events. Initially, the body of the deceased on the bier and on the pyre would be clad and wrapped in textiles. Later, a� er the heat of the pyre had died down, the larger cremated bone fragments would be gathered from the ashes for interment, either directly into a pottery or glass vessel or into a cloth or bag (Cool 2004, 444; Gleba 2008, 87–88), which might or might not be put into another container. A piece of linen tabby from one such bag, for example, preserved by the lead salts leaching from the unusual lead canister in which it was found, came from an early second-century grave near the legionary fortress at Caerleon in South Wales (Wheeler 929; Boon 959). In more elaborate chamber tombs, all manner of further textile items might be added alongside the familiar grave goods made of inorganic materials. � e cremation practices of the late Iron Age and early Roman periods in the western Roman provinces were particularly complex (Pearce 998; Niblett 2004; Philpott 99, 27–222; Heinzelmann et al. 200; Koster 200). Textiles play a prominent role. An aristocratic grave et al. 200; Koster 200). Textiles play a prominent role. An aristocratic grave et al of about AD 40–50 at Stanway near Colchester, arguably the burial of a druid, can serve as an example (Crummy et al. 2007, 20–253). � e rectangular mortuary pit held an array of et al. 2007, 20–253). � e rectangular mortuary pit held an array of et al grave goods including a gaming board (on which the cremated bone had been placed), a set of surgical instruments, a set of divining rods and feasting paraphernalia. A wool cloak in � ne diamond twill, with a suggestion of purple, seems to have been spread below the instruments, rods and gaming board, and folded back over them (Wild 2007, 347–348; Crummy et al. 2007, et al. 2007, et al � gs 02, 03). � at at least appears to be a plausible interpretation of the tiny scraps of fabric adhering to the metal objects, but one has to remember, as a possible alternative, the earlier Iron Age custom of wrapping each object separately in cloth before burial. Almost everything in the princely burial chamber at Hochdorf in Baden-Württemberg was wrapped in cloth (Banck-Burgess 999, 2–28), and there are signs of the practice in Britain too (Burns et al. 996, 09, � gs 75a, 75b). On the actual funeral pyre of course, the clothing and textiles on or over the deceased will go up in smoke (Cool 2004, 438–440). Indeed, in the later second century an anonymous wealthy Lingonian in Gaul made explicit provision for that in his will: ‘I want all my gear to be cremated with me … and the textiles in we� -faced compound tabby (polymitabe cremated with me … and the textiles in we� -faced compound tabby (polymitabe cremated with me … and the textiles in we� -faced compound tabby ( ) and tapestry (plumaria(plumaria( ) … that I have le� behind’ (Le Bohec 2003, 353–356; on dating, see Le Bohec 99, 44–46). If the tapestry incorporated gold thread, however, something might survive the � ames. � at was the case at Nijmegen in the Netherlands just a� er AD 00 when a prominent local lady was cremated with a textile that incorporated gold thread, perhaps a garment, or more likely a so� furnishing (Koster 200, 4–45 (grave 9); Wild 200). Tiny fragments of gold clearly aff ected by the heat were found among the cremated bone in a glass bottle (Koster 200, 44, pl. 37). � e thread had been Z-twisted from a gold ribbon only 0.8 mm wide. Scanning electron micrographs (Fig. 2) show traces of the original core thread (possibly silk) adhering to the inside of the spiral (Cooke, Lomas 200; Wild 200). Inhumation burial, practically universal across the Empire by the end of the third century, is relatively kind to organic materials, but presents the archaeologist with greater challenges. I shall do no more here than present a check-list of possible scenarios. Inevitably one turns to the Syrian deserts and the Nile Valley for the most satisfactory surviving evidence, though one has to be aware of their regional idiosyncrasies.

Dressing the Dead in Classical Antiquity20

Above: Fig. 2. Scanning electron microscope image of twisted gold ribbon from cremation grave 9 at Nijmegen West (photo by W. D. Cooke).

Far le� : Fig. 3. Mummy of young woman, probably from Antinoe, now in Musée du Louvre, Paris (inv. no. AF 6882), showing mitred wrapping with linen strips (drawing by Priscilla Wild).

Le� : Fig. 4. Clothed body of ‘Euphemia’ from Antinoe, now in Musées Royaux d’Art et d’Histoire, Brussels (inv. no. E.045) (drawing by Priscilla Wild).

2The textile archaeolog y of Roman burials : Eyes Wide Shut

At one end of the spectrum stands the wrapped mummy (Fig. 3): at the other the corpse dressed in Sunday-best clothes (Fig. 4) – Euphemia from Antinoe in this case (Calament 2005, 23, 547, 364–365), who has recently been deconstructed by Mark Van Strydonck and his colleagues (Van Strydonck et al. 20). Mitred wrapping of the mummi� ed body (eg Walker, Bierbrier 997, 38 n. , 07, no. 99) was a job for professionals (Fig. 3): the cost to the family for new and recycled linen was considerable (Montserrat 997, 37, 4; Wessely 922, no. 56). � e mummy might be covered with a painted linen shroud (Walker, Bierbrier 997, 20), itself bound into position (Walker, Bierbrier 997, 49). But the outward form might be built on a host of textile oddments inside. � e iconoclastic bishop Epiphanius on his travels in Syria took a dislike to a dyed and painted curtain (perhaps like the Artemis hanging in Riggisberg ) (Schrenk 2004, 82–88): ‘I tore it and recommended the custodians of the place to wrap the body of some poor man in it and bury him’ (Epiphanius, Epist. ad Johann. Episc. Hierosol. IX; Migne 864, 390). � e cross-binding Epist. ad Johann. Episc. Hierosol. IX; Migne 864, 390). � e cross-binding Epist. ad Johann. Episc. Hierosol is still visible on a piece of curtain in Cairo (De Moor, Fluck 2009, 04, � g. 6) and there are parallels elsewhere (De Moor, Fluck 2009, 9, � g. 2). Large pieces of sailcloth complete with their original reinforcing strips and even an attached brailing ring were used to pad out a late Ptolemaic mummy, now in Lyon (Wild 200, 25–27). Bodies wrapped in linen cloth, bound overall with tape (o� en red or red-striped) or secured with rope like a parcel, were o� en buried without any further protection and seem to be a feature of late antiquity (Huber 2006, 60 � g. 2; Calament 2005, 272). Schematised binding with rope is shown in a delightful sketch from the catacomb of Commodilla in Rome: the grave-digger with his miner’s pick and hanging lamp on a chain stands guard over a trussed corpse (Nicolai et al. 999, 60, pl. 64). Lazarus, too, is conventionally depicted in early Christian art as a neat parcel (Beckwith 958, pl. I). � e quality of the wrappings, even in secondary use, seems to have mattered. � e wealthier Palmyrenes opted for torn-up silk (Schmidt-Colinet et al. 2000, 5, 55–57). � e desiccated body et al. 2000, 5, 55–57). � e desiccated body et al of Bishop Paulinus, transported back to Trier in AD 386 (Boppert 990, 238), was wrapped in silk, and an outer layer of silk is claimed to have been wrapped around his cedarwood coffi n, converting the whole assemblage into a relic (Schaa� ausen 884, 238–242; Schneider 884, 77–78; Dreyspring, Schrenk 2007). At a number of urban centres across the Empire, bodies were sealed in plaster, usually within a coffi n. � e corpse was � rst wrapped in recycled linen of various sorts, without additional binding. An example is the burial of a mother and child at York, wrapped together in household towelling (Henshall 962, 08–09, pl. 33; see Carroll, this volume and pl. 2). Grave 99 at Poundbury near Dorchester shows similar negative impressions in the plaster – but the occupant of this sarcophagus had his feet covered with some fabric that contained gold thread (Crowfoot 993). In contrast to such mortuary packaging, it became increasingly common in later Roman times to inter the dead fully clothed (Fig. 4). Actually, to be more precise, the principal garments were mostly spread out over the body, followed sometimes by the entire contents of over the body, followed sometimes by the entire contents of over their clothes chest. How o� en the corpse was enclosed within a garment is a moot point that requires further investigation. Tomb D in a small cemetery with exceptionally well-preserved organic remains at Les Martres-de-Veyre in Central Gaul, dating to about AD 80, held a pinewood coffi n containing the remains of a girl dressed in a breast-band or girdle, a wide � tting Gallic coat of wool

Dressing the Dead in Classical Antiquity22

tabby and a pair of twill stockings (Audollent 923, 3–4, 27, 44–46; Romeuf 200, ; Van Driel-Murray 999). � ere was a basket of fruit, but no extra textiles. � e precise depositional facts, alas, were not recorded. A much more complex situation obtains for the rich coffi ned burials from a mortuary chapel attached to St Maximinus’ church in Trier (Reifarth 2005). � e deceased were members of the imperial court circle of late Roman Trier. � e burials are being studied by Nicole Reifarth using 3D scans, high-resolution digital mapping and a video microscope, to peer into the recesses of the encrusted remains – all non-invasive techniques (Reifarth et al. 2006; Reifarth 2007; Dreyspring 2002). In grave 279, for instance, the outline et al. 2006; Reifarth 2007; Dreyspring 2002). In grave 279, for instance, the outline et al of the body is visible, the collapsed skull and a scatter of pine shavings intended to soak up bodily � uids. On top of the body lay a violet-coloured undergarment and above that, a red silk damask tunic. A wool blanket had been spread over everything. � e cemeteries of Antinoe in Gayet’s brief accounts reveal great variety in burial practice, which he struggled to classify. In many cases, the deceased were interred in their own clothes, supplemented sometimes by the deposition of extra garments and/or additional shroud-like wrappings and bindings (Calament 2005, 276, 278). Gayet was fascinated by questions of identity, and the origin of a group of apparently ‘intrusive’ burials with atypical dress forms (Calament 2005, 280–293). Textile accessories for the comfort of the deceased are another possible feature to be aware of. Cushions are currently exhibited with Euphemia in Brussels (Fig. 4). Heads might rest on pillows or cushions (Schieck 2009), and the body might be laid on a pile mat or rush mat (Fujii et al. 989, 28; Ogawa, Naruse 976, 27, 98–99) or a blanket (Reifarth 2005, et al. 989, 28; Ogawa, Naruse 976, 27, 98–99) or a blanket (Reifarth 2005, et al Grab 249). To round off this brief tour of the horizon, I turn to a sarcophagus uncovered in a � eld at Castor near Peterborough, Cambridgeshire in 968. It was my � rst textile test as an excavator. � e sarcophagus had already lost part of its lid to the plough. � e content was at � rst sight uninspiring : it was ‘empty’, apart from a thick layer of mud at the bottom containing a few bone fragments. With some care we removed the mud, recording and retaining any items obvious to the naked eye (pl. ). With hindsight – and techniques have moved on vastly in the past forty years – that was a mistake. We were simply jettisoning vital evidence along with the mud. But we found in situ a pair of gold earrings, a silver � bula, sundry other grave goods and a copper-alloy bangle of twisted wire, still around what was le� of the lady’s right arm. Attached to it were metal-replaced remains of a linen textile (pl. 2), which I only noticed because I was half-expecting it. I thought at the time that it might represent clothing, but it could equally be the remains of cloth wrapping or binding – in fact there are now so many other possibilities to consider that I am almost glad that, so far, the grave remains unpublished!

Acknowledgements

I am grateful to Melanie Giles for the reference to Stutz 2003 and to Christopher Sparey- Green for information about the Poundbury cemetery.

[email protected]

23The textile archaeolog y of Roman burials : Eyes Wide Shut

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