world literature

At the turn of the 20th century, Europe was feeling pretty darned good! It controlled empires that encircled the globe. European technology was unsurpassed. Even its art and music were the envy of the rest of world. In 1900, Europeans believed the world was their oyster.

However, this feeling was not to last. By the end of 1918, after four long years of war, European confidence was badly shaken. Ten million soldiers had died on the battle fields, another 20 million had been wounded. Empires that had lasted for centuries lay in ruin.

In the late 19th century European leaders believed that by creating a balance of power they could prevent large-scale war. The idea was that if the major powers of Europe ---countries like England, France, Russia, and Germany---- were balanced in strength, no one country could dominate the rest. War could be avoided.

Otto von Bismark, the Chancellor of Prussia who led the unification of the German states disliked the fact that Germany was sandwiched between Russia and France. To avoid war, Bismark made an alliance with Austria-Hungry and Italy which became known as the Triple Alliance. In response, France Russia and Great Britain formed their own alliance known as the Triple Entente.

On the surface, these alliances could be seen as a way to maintain a balance of power and thereby preserve peace but suspicions ran high. Political and military leaders spent countless hours developing plans in case a war began. Countries engaged in militarism---building up of arms, weapons, ships and men.

The tension between countries was matched by tension within countries. Especially in southeastern Europe, in an area known as the Balkans. In the Balkans, the spirit of nationalism and independence ran high. Some ethnic groups revolted. Out of the numerous dissatisfied ethnic groups, one emerged in Sarajevo, Bosnia called the Black Hand. They wanted independence from their mother country, Austria-Hungry and for all Serb people to have their own country. Their solution to the situation was to assassinate Franz Ferdinand, heir to the Austro-Hungarian Empire, when he visited Sarajevo to make an inspection of the Austro-Hungarian troops. Seven young men who had been trained in bomb throwing and marksmanship were recruited to accomplish the task.

On June 28, 1914, Franz Ferdinand and his pregnant wife Sophie toured Sarajevo in an open car. Seven assassins were stationed along the route that Franz Ferdinand's car would follow from the City Hall to the inspection. The first two terrorists were unable to throw their grenades because the streets were too crowded and the car was travelling quite fast. The third terrorist, a young man called Cabrinovic, threw a grenade which exploded under the car following the Archduke’s car.

Although the Archduke and his wife were unhurt, some of his attendants were injured and had to be taken to hospital. After lunch at the City Hall, Franz Ferdinand insisted on visiting the injured attendants in hospital. However, on the way to the hospital the driver took a wrong turn. Realizing his mistake the driver stopped the car and began to reverse. Another terrorist, named Gavrilo Princip, stepped forward and fired two shots. The first hit the pregnant Sophia in the stomach. Sophie died almost instantly. The second shot hit the Archduke in the neck. He died a short while later.

The Black Hand assassins hoped to use the killing to trigger a rebellion that would lead to a larger Serbian nation. The Austrian government blamed the Serbian government for not controlling groups like the Black Hand. On July 5, an Austrian ambassador met with Kaiser William II of Germany. Austria-Hungary was promised a “blank check” or unconditional support from Germany regardless whatever action Austria-Hungary decided to take in punishing Serbia. Furthermore, elements within the Austro-Hungarian government had been itching to strike at Serbia during the immediate pre-war years, but had lacked a credible excuse to do so.

On Thursday 23 July 1914, Austria issued a list of 10 demands to be met by Serbia. The ultimatum insisted that Austria-Hungary be allowed to participate in Serbia’s investigation of Archduke Franz Ferdinand’s assassination and, in particular, to take direct part in the judicial process against the suspects. The demands also required Serbia to stamp out all forms of anti-Austrian activism and propaganda emanating from the country. Serbia agreed to all demands except the participation by Austria in Serbia’s judicial process. On July 24 Serbia sought help from Russia and received a promise of support if Austria attacked. On July 28, Austria declared war on Serbia. On July 29, the first Austrian artillery shells fell on Serbia’s capital, Belgrade.

In the next several days:

Russia declared war on Austria-Hungry. Germany declared war on Russia. France declared war on Germany and Austria-Hungary. Britain joined France and Russia.Europe was at war.

German Motives

Germany had little interest in Austria’s problems with Serbia. In recent years, Russia had become increasingly involved in European affairs, while simultaneously modernizing and expanding its military. German military leaders felt that war with Russia was inevitable at some point. Therefore, they argued, it would be far better to fight Russia now, while its army was still poorly armed and untrained, rather than to wait until it could pose a greater threat. Some historians claim that Germany deliberately encouraged Austria to go to war with Serbia in order to set off a war with Russia.

Furthermore, German military leaders believed there was a good chance that Britain would remain neutral and that France also might stay at arm’s length, despite its treaty with Russia. This wishful thinking helped the German military leaders convince themselves that the war would be winnable and also helped them to sell their plan to the Kaiser Wilhelm II.

British Motives:

For centuries, Britain had been the greatest naval power in the world and also had the largest collection of colonies. In the first years of the twentieth century, however, Germany made a massive and costly effort to build up a comparable naval fleet of its own, with the specific goal of matching Britain on the high seas. Germany also had recently shown a stronger interest than before in acquiring new colonies. Britain, seeing these developments as a dangerous threat to the balance of power in Europe, argued to Germany (through diplomatic channels) that the country had no need for a large navy or a large number of colonies. Germany ignored Britain’s rebuffs and continued as before. Just as some German leaders favored an “anticipatory” war against Russia, some British leaders felt similarly about Germany.

French Motives:

In 1871, France had lost the territories of Alsace and Lorraine to Germany in a war—a bitterly humiliating blow that left France desperate to regain these lands. While fearful of an all-out German invasion, some French leaders felt that if Germany were distracted by a war with Russia, France might have a chance to seize Alsace and Lorraine.

Russian Motives:

Russia’s motives for entering the war are less clear-cut. On the other hand, there was support in Russia for the Serbian cause, and a military victory would likely help the tsar politically. Nevertheless, war was a risky proposition given the poor state of the Russian military at the time. Tsar Nicholas II, who was personally hesitant about joining the war, briefly flip-flopped over ordering mobilization. Ultimately, however, he caved under pressure from overly optimistic Russian military leaders and advisers who had strong nationalistic leanings.

Why did the United States enter WWI?

When World War I erupted in 1914, President Woodrow Wilson, reflected the views of much of the nation when he announced that his country would be “impartial in thought as well as in action”. However, remaining neutral became very difficult for the United States. Great Britain was one of America’s closest trading partners, and tension soon arose between the United States and Germany over the latter’s attempted quarantine of the British Isles. Several U.S. ships traveling to Britain were damaged or sunk by German mines, and in February 1915 Germany announced unrestricted warfare against all ships, neutral or otherwise, that entered the war zone around Britain. One month later, Germany announced that a German cruiser had sunk the William P. Frye, a private American vessel. President Wilson was outraged, but the German government apologized and called the attack an unfortunate mistake.

On May 7, the British-owned Lusitania ocean liner was torpedoed without warning just off the coast of Ireland. Of the 1,959 passengers, 1,198 were killed, including 128 Americans. The German government maintained that the Lusitania was carrying munitions, but the U.S. demanded reparations and an end to German attacks on unarmed passenger and merchant ships. In August, Germany pledged to see to the safety of passengers before sinking unarmed vessels, but in November sunk an Italian liner without warning, killing 272 people, including 27 Americans. With these attacks, public opinion in the United States began to turn irrevocably against Germany.

In addition, after Germany’s invasion of neutral Belgium in 1914, stories began to circulate about atrocities committed against Belgian civilians. These stories, both true and exaggerated, were seized upon for propaganda. So-called “atrocity propaganda” spread far and wide, painting the Germans as a barbaric nation bent on ruthless, indiscriminate destruction. This propaganda was soon sweeping the US, firing anti-German sentiment. Also by this time, the US had a vested financial interest in the outcome of the war in Europe. American businesses and banks made huge loans to the Allies. If they didn’t win then they were unlikely to get their money back.

In 1917, Germany, determined to win its war of attrition against the Allies, announced the resumption of unrestricted warfare in war-zone waters. Three days later, the United States broke diplomatic relations with Germany, and just hours after that the American liner Housatonic was sunk by a German U-boat. On February 22, Congress passed a $250 million arms appropriations bill intended to make the United States ready for war. In late March, Germany sunk four more U.S. merchant ships, and on April 2 President Wilson appeared before Congress and called for a declaration of war against Germany. Four days later, his request was granted.