3 page essay
Bella edwards
Weinberg7E_PP_chap16.pptxGoal Setting
Chapter 16
Defining Goals and Types of Goals
Subjective goals: General statements of intent such as having fun or doing your best
Objective goals (scientific definition): Attaining a specific standard of proficiency on a task, usually in a specified time
Outcome goals: Focusing on a competitive result of an event (e.g., beating someone)
(continued)
Defining Goals and Types of Goals (continued)
Performance goals: Focusing on achieving standards of performance or objectives independently of other competitors—usually making comparisons with one’s own previous performance
Process goals: Focusing on the actions an individual must engage in during performance to execute or perform well
Activity 16.2: Sample Coach-Athlete Goal-Setting Session
Instructors: When you are in the normal view of the PowerPoint slides, you should right-click on the image and then choose “Open hyperlink” to play the video. In the slide show view, you will simply click on the image to play the video. You must have an Internet connection in order to link to the streaming video.
In this video, Dr. Dan Gould acts as a coach and conducts a simulated goal-setting session with a first-year collegiate runner, including a debrief of how the session went.
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Types of Goals and Behavior Change
Outcome, performance, and process goals all play roles in behavior change. The key is knowing where to focus each goal.
Don’t focus all your attention on outcome goals.
Use a combination of all three types of goals.
Outcome goals can facilitate short-term motivation but often lead to anxiety before and during competition.
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Types of Goals and Behavior Change (continued)
Performance and process goals are more precise than outcome goals and less dependent on the behavior of others.
Performance and process goals are particularly useful before or during competition (on rare occasions).
Too much focus on a specific performance goal (e.g., running a personal best) can create anxiety.
Process goals have all the advantages of performance goals.
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Importance of Subjective Goals
Subjective goals are not the focus of sport and exercise psychology research, but they are useful.
Considerable attention has been paid to subjective goals in the literature on personal productivity and applied business management.
Identify and clarify personal values and priorities via subjective goals. Then link subjective goals to specific objective goals.
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Effectiveness of Goal Setting
Research in business and general psychology has shown that goal setting works extremely well in enhancing performance.
Goal-setting effectiveness has been demonstrated in 20 countries in studies with more than 40,000 participants using over 90 tasks.
Goal-Setting Research
Meta-analyses (statistical reviews of the literature) show that goal setting works to enhance performance and physical activity behavior.
In sport and exercise psychology, goal setting has been shown to work well in sport, although not quite as well as it does in business.
Almost all athletes use some type of goal setting to enhance performance.
(continued)
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Goal-Setting Research (continued)
Top three goals for athletes:
Improving performance
Winning
Enjoyment
Athletes prefer moderately difficult, difficult, and very difficult goals.
Major goal barriers for college athletes: lack of time, stress, fatigue, academic pressure, and social relationships
(continued)
Goal-Setting Research (continued)
Major goal barriers for Olympians: lack of confidence, lack of goal feedback, too many goals or conflicting goals, lack of time, work commitments, and family and personal relationships
Women set goals more often and find them more effective than men do.
Athletes do not systematically write down goals.
(continued)
Goal-Setting Research (continued)
The more experience athletes have with goal setting, the better they are at developing effective goal-setting strategies.
Athletes set goals to provide direction and help them stay focused.
Athletes using multiple goal strategies exhibit the best performance.
Individual differences must be considered.
Goal-Setting Practices of Coaches
Virtually all coaches set goals for competition and practice (individual and team) as well as personal coaching-related goals.
There was a good deal of variability in coaches’ understanding of the principles of goal setting as well as in the frequency with which they used goals.
Coaches reevaluated their goals.
Coaches dictated some goals and got input from the players about others.
(continued)
Goal-Setting Practices of Coaches (continued)
Although coaches used performance, process, and outcome goals, they tended to favor performance and process goals.
The main reason for setting goals was to provide purpose and direction, followed by player improvement and fostering team cohesion (team goals).
Goal barriers were seen as physical (e.g., injury), psychological (e.g., lack of confidence), and external (e.g., parental overinvolvement).
(continued)
Goal-Setting Practices of Coaches (continued)
The most important aspect of goal commitment was personal enjoyment.
The only disadvantage to goal setting was seen when goals were set too high and produced consistent failure.
Coaches set both short- and long-term goals but focused more on short-term goals that provided feedback on the progression toward meeting the long-term goals.
Coaches were inconsistent in writing down their goals.
Why Goal Setting Works
Indirect thought process view: Goals influence performance indirectly by affecting psychological factors, such as anxiety, confidence, and satisfaction.
Direct mechanistic explanation specifies that goals
direct attention to the important elements of the skill,
mobilize performers’ efforts,
prolong performers’ persistence, and
foster the development of new learning strategies.
Goals influence psychological states: Athletes who set performance (rather than outcome) goals have less anxiety and more confidence and satisfaction.
Principles of Goal Setting
Set specific goals.
Set moderately difficult but realistic goals.
Set long- and short-term goals.
Set performance, process, and outcome goals.
Set mastery-approach versus performance-avoidance goals.
Set practice and competition goals.
Record goals.
(continued)
Principles of Goal Setting (continued)
Develop goal achievement strategies.
Consider participants’ personalities and motivations.
Foster an individual’s goal commitment.
Provide goal support.
Provide evaluation of and feedback about goals.
(continued)
Principles of Goal Setting (continued)
Set specific goals.
Specific goals, as compared with general “do your best” goals, are most effective for producing behavior change.
General goal: Reduce cholesterol.
Specific goal: Reduce cholesterol from 290 to 200 by . . . [how].
Set moderately difficult but realistic goals.
Specific goal: Reduce cholesterol from 290 to 200 by . . . [how].
(continued)
Principles of Goal Setting (continued)
Set long- and short-term goals.
Use goal staircases that link long- and short-term goals.
Set performance and process goals as well as outcome goals.
For every outcome goal, set several performance and process goals that will lead to the desired outcome.
Figure 16.1
Figure 16.1 A goal-setting staircase for a group of 8- to 11-year-old figure skaters.
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Set Mastery-Approach Versus Performance-Avoidance Goals
Mastery approach (e.g., improve my time in a mile run by 5 seconds)
Mastery avoidance (e.g., don’t run the mile slower than last time)
Performance approach (e.g., finish in the top 10 of the race)
Performance avoidance (e.g., don’t finish in the bottom half of the field)
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Set Mastery-Approach Versus Performance-Avoidance Goals (continued)
Research suggests that one should
focus on mastery-approach goals (goals about what you want to accomplish relative to your own performance), and
avoid goals that focus on failing to attain a task accomplishment (mastery-avoidance goals) and not losing or not performing well in comparison to others (performance avoidance goals).
Principles of Goal Setting (continued)
Set practice and competition goals.
Record goals.
“Ink it, don’t think it.”
Develop goal achievement strategies.
Strategies include how much and how often things will be done in an effort to achieve a goal. Be flexible, however.
(continued)
Principles of Goal Setting (continued)
Consider participants’ personalities and motivations.
Consider factors such as achievement motivation (high versus low achievers), stages of achievement motivation, social comparison, task or ego orientation, and dispositional hope when setting goals.
Motivational climate also influences goal-setting effectiveness.
(continued)
Principles of Goal Setting (continued)
Foster an individual’s goal commitment.
Promote goal commitment by encouraging progress and providing consistent feedback. Solicit the athlete’s or exerciser’s input.
Provide goal support.
Enlist support from significant others to make goal setting effective.
Provide evaluation of and feedback about goals.
Goal evaluation and feedback are essential parts of facilitating behavior change via goal setting.
Table 16.1
Table 16.1 Forms of Goal Evaluation
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Hope
Hope involves the thinking process whereby people have an overall perception that goals can be met and they have the skills to go about achieving those goals.
People high in hope have a sense of goal-directed determination or agency and planning of ways to meet goals or labeled pathways.
Trait and state measures of hope have been found to correlate to psychological adjustment, achievement, problem solving, and health.
Hope-Based Power 4W Goal-Setting System
Wish power: Identifying dream goals
Want power: Realistic short- and long-term goals that lead to one’s dream goal
Way power: Developing multiple plans and strategies for achieving one’s goals
Will power: The determination and discipline required for working toward goals and overcoming obstacles that arise while achieving them
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Group Goals
The future state of affairs desired by enough members of a group to work toward its achievement
Attaining specific standards of group proficiency, usually within a specified time
Group Goal-Setting Principles
Establish long-term goals first.
Establish clear paths of short-term goals en route to the long-term goals.
Involve all members of the team in establishing team goals.
Monitor progress toward team goals.
Reward progress made toward team goals.
Foster collective team confidence or efficacy concerning team goals.
SMARTS Goals
Specific
Measureable
Action-oriented
Realistic
Timely
Self-determined
Activity 16.4: Using Goal Setting in an Exercise Class
In this video, Dr. Evie Oregon, sport and exercise psychology specialist and experienced exercise instructor, discusses the problems of students setting unrealistic goals.
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Design of a Goal-Setting System
Stage 1: Instructor’s preparation and planning
Assess abilities and needs.
Set goals in diverse areas.
Identify influences on goal-setting systems (athlete’s commitment, potential, and opportunity for practice).
Plan goal achievement strategies.
Stage 2: Education and acquisition
Schedule meetings.
Focus on one goal (initially).
(continued)
Designing a Goal-Setting System (continued)
Stage 3: Implementation and goal follow-up and evaluation
Identify appropriate goal evaluation strategies.
Provide support and encouragement.
Plan for goal reevaluation.
Areas in Which to Set Goals
Goals can be set in many areas, including individual, team, and psychological skills.
See table 16.2 for sample goals.
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Common Problems in Goal Setting
Convincing students, athletes, and exercisers to set goals
Failing to set specific goals
Setting too many goals too soon
Failing to adjust goals
Failing to recognize individual differences
Not providing goal follow-up and evaluation
Figure 16.3
Figure 16.3 Adjusting goals downward: Maintaining a positive perspective through a stepwise approach.
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