Answers all the questions and write one essay for every question that asked to
sohk
Week85.pptxWeek 9
Material Convergence In Disasters
Covergence
“A virtually universal phenomenon following disasters is the mass movement of people, messages, and supplies toward the disaster-struck area.”
Types of Convergence
Personal : Actual, physical moment of persons on foot, by auto, or other vehicle
Informational: The movement or transmission of messages
Materiel: Physical movement of supplies and equipment
Zones
Contiguous zone
Immediately surrounding the site of destruction and casualties
Proximate Zone
Surrounding communities
Together with contiguous zone – learn of disaster immediately, source of earliest outside response and assistance
Survivors go to these areas, taken to them for immediate medical help, emergency relief, shelter
Remote Zone
Highly variable in size
In large disaster can be from 100 miles to the entire nation or world
Materiel Convergence
“The spontaneous generosity and outpouring of unsolicited aid to disaster-stricken populations”
Is it a valuable resource? YES
Can it cause negative consequences? YES
Has been called a “second disaster”
What do you think…
What is an inappropriate donation?
What donations will they have too much of?
What donations will they not have enough of?
Why don’t people want to donate cash?
What do you think happens in communities when the need is exceeded?
Realities of Donations
Arrive in excess of the actual needs
In large proportion, are compromised of unneeded and unusable materials
Require the services of large numbers of personnel and facilities which could be used for more essential tasks and functions
Materially add to the problem of congestion in and near the disaster area
May be disruptive to the local economy
All Disaster Relief Supply Chains are Emergent…
Supply Chains
Commercial Supply Chains
Concerned with minimizing private costs
Supply Chains
Humanitarian Supply Chains
Concerned with minimizing social costs
Private costs plus economic valuation of human suffering
Characterized as chains that are working without a clear idea of the demands in what is needed, when it is needed, where it is needed
System is temporary, unstable (transportation, production, energy, communications)
People involved may only participate in one event, the chain does not improve with experience
Commercial Versus Humanitarian
How is the level of control in commercial supply chains different from humanitarian?
The Problem…
Huge quantity of items
Arriving in a short timespan to area with limited space/resources/people to process and distribute
People are in great need
http://foxsanantonio.com/news/local/donate-supplies-to-help-hurricane-maria-victims-in-puerto-rico
Focus of the problem
Non-priority items
Could have been priority and arrived to late
Arrive too early
Are never needed
Are not needed in the volume in which they arrive
Impact on the Infrastructure
Breakdown of the commercial supply chain
This chain should still function, however it can be disrupted by the donation supply chain
This can impact the restoration of the area’s infrastructure
Example: Fiji – 1980s
Fiji – Cyclone Eric - 1985
Approx. 80% of built structure was destroyed (including agricultural economy)
Humanitarian aid arrive quickly
Local businesses and distribution channels disrupted
not rebuilt quickly - the focus was on bringing in aid
Humanitarian aid competed directly with local businesses
Businesses closed (cutting off locally generated assistance) and humanitarian aid delayed because they had to get more supplies
Impact on the Infrastructure
Can delay high priority items
Example: Hurricane Mitch – Honduras 1998
Excessive clothing donations, there was no enough space for storage
Boxes stacked up on the runway at the airport
Obstructed landings for planes carrying high priority items
Impact on the Infrastructure
Local economic impact
If donations are available in mass, then people will no longer shop at the businesses still functioning in the community
Discussion
What relationship does the video you just watched have to disaster donations?
Is that a message that is hard to get across to the general public? Why?
Further Challenges
Social Control Measures delaying supplies
Example: Hurricane Katrina
Curfews and perimeters delayed supplies from entering into areas of need
Did not have the proper permits
Damage to built environment
Example: Hurricane Katrina
Drivers and coordinators were not always aware of the damage to the infrastructure
Difficulty locating distribution centers
Storage issues
Further Challenges
Lack of communication
Organizations outside of the area may not be in communication with organizations or individuals in the area – assessing needs
Organizations collecting may not have a clear idea of who to send the donations to
Security Issues
Especially in terrorist attacks
Example: 9/11
Spontaneously donated food (could not check the quality of the food, could not be refrigerated)
Could contain intentionally hazardous contaminants
http://www.npr.org/2015/12/14/459718247/bears-for-newtown-tax-assessor-recalls-gift-influx-after-sandy-hook-shooting
Further Challenges
Non-priority Items
Example: 9/11
Donors sent in dog food and dog booties for the search and rescue dogs
Example: Sandy Hook Elementary School
Approx. 67,000 teddy bears donated to the community
In addition to tens of thousands of dollars in toys
Reminder: Town population = 27,000
20 children and 6 educators were killed in a school shooting
They had to open an 80,000 square foot warehouse to store the donations (it filled and they had to open more spaces)
At least one parent who lost their child went “shopping” in the space, had forgotten to buy Christmas presents for their son
Further Challenges
Cultural Differences
Example: Indian Ocean Tsunami
Temporary Shelters
Food
Medication (e.g. Viagra)
Clothing
The need has been met
Organizations will not say no to donors
Take too long to transport into the area
Groups
Is it possible for us to effectively communicate to people that donations are not always helpful but can actually hurt the affected community? If yes, how? If no, why not?
What other challenges other than those listed might we see caused by donations in affected communities?
The Media’s Role
Private donations can be considered a consequence of media coverage
Mixed evidence in research – some research says there is not a significant connection
However, some studies show that success in fundraising is connected to amount of news coverage (number of reports and length of reports)
Newsworthiness of an event (domestic and international)
The Media’s Role
Focus on one event may increase earmarked donations
If the media begins their reporting before the local response efforts then they set the tone of how the event is perceived
As the number of deaths increase, the media coverage increases, and private donations increase as well
Number of children who die in slow-onset disasters versus the 300,000 tsunami victims
The Media’s Role
The “Issue Attention” Cycle (Downs, 1972)
Directly related to the amount of donations coming into a disaster zone
Length of coverage times determine when the donations will slow
The Issue Attention Cycle
5 stages
1. The pre-problem stage
The event has occurred, but the public is not yet aware of it
2. Alarmed discovery and euphoric enthusiasm
The public becomes aware of the event, they are alarmed at the discovery, experience euphoric enthusiasm to help
Donations are collected and transported to affected area
3. Realizing the cost of significant progress
General realization of how much it will actually cost to completely solve the problem
The Issue Attention Cycle
5 stages
4. Gradual decline in intense public interest
Interest in the event declines, donations decline as a result
5. Post problem stage
Another problem has taken over, the cycle begins again
The Timeline of Disasters
Think for a moment, what might a timeline of disaster donations look like?
How could emergency managers and organizations/agencies effectively set up a donations infrastructure?
Pre-positioning Supplies
Can allow for the immediate delivery of goods
Alleviate challenges of insufficient supplies, availability of high priority items, how quickly response can begin
Experience with disasters and resources help with this
Construction of a timeline and and understanding of all hazard needs (or hazard specific needs) is necessary
Why do people give?
Why do you think that people might give, what is their motivation?
Why might they be motivated to give goods and not cash?
Donor Interests
Are there ways in which donor interests might conflict with survivor interests?
Survivor Interests
What are the interests of survivors?
Who takes donations
Survivors
Individuals in need outside the affected area
Collectors
Entrepreneurs
Groups
Why do you think that some organizations do not refuse unneeded donations from donors?
Do you think it is possible to stop the donations before they enter into the community? Is it ethical?
Informational Convergence
Convergence on communication centers, in the form of inquiries, offers of assistance
“Jamming”, “Swamping”, “Overloading” of existing communication facilities
If communication systems are down then the problem becomes more acute
Competition emerges between public and relief agencies for access to the channels which are still functioning
Can be detrimental to organizations and agencies, informal inquiries may overwhelm the channels
Informational Convergence
Is the answer to deny the general public access to these channels?
Informational Convergence
Is the answer to deny the general public access to these channels?
Evidence shows that this forces public to improvise informal, unofficial channels of communication
Resulting in officials having little understanding of the significant needs of the population
Informational Convergence
Challenges in measuring impact (1957):
1. Difficult to establish a “normal” capacity for systems which have been partially destroyed or which have lost some of their operating personnel
2. Personnel located at telephone switchboards, radio stations, etc. normally keep some form of tally or record of incoming messages – under stress of disaster those records might be neglected
Informational Convergence
Challenges in measuring impact (1957):
3. While there might be a record of total number of messages or calls, there is no way of knowing the number of attempted communications that were rejected due to disruptions in channels
4. When tallies are kept of incoming and outgoing messages, they might not describe if those messages were disaster related or not
5. Large volume exists outside official or formally established channels (word of mouth communications)
Informational Convergence
Can we control it?
Not limited to the persons located in the zones near the disaster zone
External informational convergence originates simultaneously in many parts of the nation and world
In comparison – Initial external personal convergence originates from contiguous and proximate zones
When the event is reported, persons in remote zones attempt communication with persons or agencies in disaster area – compounding the problem with limited channels
Questions…
How does informational convergence differ today from how it did in 1957? Specifically, is it possible to overload channels?
Do you think it is easier to cause confusion in informational convergence today than it used to be? Why or why not?
Convergence
Internal Convergence
Persons from various parts of the zone or from other areas converge on particular points or centers within the zone
Disaster Zone
The foot movement by the survivors searching for missing, information and assistance, points of egress
Remote Zone
Primarily information and material
Personal Convergence
The actual physical movement of persons one foot, by auto or other vehicle
Initial personal convergence focuses primarily on disaster area and specific points within that area
Remains focal point until recovery is well underway
There are areas of focus created outside the disaster area as the response evolves
Evacuation of injured, dead, homeless
Establishing centers of information and communication
Establishing relief centers
Personal Convergence
Immediate Challenges:
While agencies and organizations are trying to gain control, there is a mass influx of convergers
Types of Convergers
1. The returnees
2. The anxious
3. The helpers
4. The curious
5. The exploiters
The Returnees
“Evacuation and convergence are essentially reciprocal processes in disaster”
Disaster survivors who have left or who have been evacuated from the disaster area
Also includes…
Residents who were temporarily absent when the disaster struck
Non-resident property owners assessing damage to their property
“Substitute” returnees who are relatives and/or friends of disaster victims to assess damage/loss (retrieve, guard, salvage property)
The Returnees
Most evacuees will be returnees at some point
Timing dependent on…
Accessibility of the area
Primary/Secondary threats to the area
Means of transportation available for return
Degree of injury or incapacitation of the area
Returnees can begin to come back within hours of the event
The Returnees
Motivations to return:
1. Immediate goals of location and helping other persons and assessing damage to and protective private property
2. Longer range goals of returning to familiar surroundings, and re-establishing pre-existent social relationships
Evidence suggests
Those who have experienced high personal losses may not return in person for days or weeks (may send substitutes)
Those with minimal loss may stay in the area or return within a short time
The Returnees
Searching for familiar surrounding, familiar cultural patterns in order to find greater security
Hiroshima & Nagasaki
Cities in Japan were the first and second to experience a nuclear detonation
August 6 & 9, 1945
Approx. 129,000 people died
While the cities were initially evacuated, returnees converged within 24 hours
Settled and took permanent residence in the rubble of their homes
The Returnees
Lack of research into this group
Evidence prior to 1957
Lower-class evacuees may return faster and in greater numbers
They may also refuse to evacuate all together
The Anxious
Convergers who may be separated family members, extended family members, friends
This type of convergence begins with reporting of the event, starts a “chain reaction” of information seeking behavior
Strains and overloads the existing communication and transportation facilities
Persons in contiguous or proximate zones may try to call or drive into the area to find loved ones
Persons in disaster areas use phones to get further information, attempt to communicate directly with loved ones
The Anxious
Anxiety is a determinant of convergence behavior
Anxious convergers can be within the disaster area, searching for missing family, friends, neighbors
Has negative affects on the congestions and “confusion” in disaster area
Long-term affects as people converge from further away as time goes on
Not widely studied, however is a large part of external convergence
The Helpers
Includes formal relief, there is generally some record of how many people and what type of assistance was rendered
Informal, volunteer assistance is not always recorded, may be unnoticed or under evaluated
Result: formal agencies may overestimate their own impact if they do not account for informal assistance
Volunteer hours can be reported towards reimbursements by FEMA’s Public Assistance Programs
The Helpers
“The need is to be not just cared for but cared about.”
Public shelters are used by only about 25% of the population, generally less
People tend to prefer to shelter with family and friends
These individuals tend to be unrecognized helpers
The Helpers
Internal person-oriented convergence – survivors of the affected area
Try to locate and assist members of own family
Turn attention to relatives, neighbors, friends
Then will address community concerns
This movement, survivors trying to help others may be characterized a “confusion”
The Helpers
Speed of external convergence
May be influenced by personal connections
Distance traveled
Earlier volunteers will be from the contiguous zone
May be trying to find people they know
May have been alerted to the need for help from evacuees
Constitutes first wave of helpers
The Helpers
Proximate Zone
Still within an hour or two travel time
More concern for people in the area – drive into the area to help
Less concern for people in the area – assist in hospitals, relief centers, communication centers (located in proximate zone)
Remote Zone
Learn about event through the media
Initially offers of assistance through channels
Primarily informal communication convergence
Send money and material goods into the area (24 hours to several weeks after the event)
Volunteers
What issues were introduced in the article with regards to…
Protective Health Measures
Risk Behaviors
Community Interactions
How might these issues impact the response effort?
The Curious
Curiosity is a normal human tendency, instigates a need to investigate
Represented by persons or groups somewhat detached from immediate personal danger, rarely people who were victimized by the event
May override concerns for own safety and welfare of other people
Have minimal personal concerns or identification with disaster victims
Later, survivors and formerly anxious may become part of the curious
The Curious
White County, Arkansas – Tornado
1/3 of impacted population stood around and watched during the first 6 hours after the event
They were later joined by curious from contiguous and proximate zones
All convergers are not “sightseers”, “curiosity seekers”, “spectators”
It is difficult to understand who are the curious - each of the categories may exhibit curiosity at some point
Generally, does not expand past the proximate zone – remote zone tends to fulfill their curiosity through media reports
The Curious
Not necessarily due to “ghoulish glee” – need to understand what happened because they are outside the general frame of reference, experience, may affect future safety
If this is true… how can we channel the activities of the curious instead of constraining them?
Disaster Tourism
Traveling to the site of a disaster due to curiosity
Popular sites of disaster tourism:
9/11 memorial
Disaster Tourism
Mount St. Helens National Volcanic Monument
New Orleans
Oklahoma City National Memorial
Disaster Tourism
Boston Marathon Bombing Memorial
Hiroshima Memorial
Chernobyl/Pripyat
Pompeii
Gray Line Hurricane Katrina Tour
Questions…
Is disaster tourism bad? What are the positive aspects that can happen with disaster tourism? What are the negative aspects? Does it serve a function in the affected community?
Can the anxious and helpers engage in disaster tourism? How?
The Exploiters
Those seeking to gain from public misfortune
Extent of this type of convergence is hugely over-exaggerated
Fits within “Disaster myths”
The logic behind this idea:
“Disasters destroy and scatter private property leaving it exposed and easier to steal; hence, the rate of theft with increase.”
“Disasters produce a scarcity of consumer goods; hence, they increase the motivation to steal or gain profit from hoarded supplies.”
The Exploiters
Disasters increase opportunities for exploitation but reduce the motivation for the behavior
Class lines tend to be blurred if the disaster has hit across those boundaries
Fritz & Mathewson state that one needs a “de-personalized” perspective in viewing actual or potential victims
Minimal identification with disaster struck community
Can be for political gain, status/prestige, financial reward
The Exploiters
1. Looters
2. Souvenir Hunters
3. Relief Stealers
4. Profiteers
Looters
Rare occurrence
More likely to occur when there is civil unrest
Largely expected by survivors
Can impact whether individuals evacuate the disaster
Souvenir Hunters
“Attempt to find some physical object which will encapsulate or symbolize the experience of viewing the disaster and which will offer ’proof’ that the person ’was there’
General evidence supports fact that this is more common than looting
Tends to be small items
Is this exploitation?
Souvenir Hunters
Examples:
Stories that pieces of the World Trade Center were taken by first responders
Relief Stealers
Individuals who claim disaster victim status in an effort to receive relief supplies
Ranges from occasionally trying to get free meals to touring relief centers and taking goods for re-sale purposes
Encouraged by information of “mountains” of clothing and supplies
Profiteers
Those who exploit disaster victims’ losses and psychological anxieties for financial gain
Difficult to define, can be a very broad category
Is it profiteering or is it a normal economic adjustment to a scarcity market?
Would include salesmen, merchants, craftsmen, professional men who play upon the fears and anxieties of the victims to achieve sales of their products/services
May increase price of goods to take advantage or shortages
Profiteers
During peacetime disasters this behavior is not common
Especially in immediate post disaster time frame
Generally, there is a free distribution of items/supplies needed
Informational Convergence
Convergence on communication centers, in the form of inquiries, offers of assistance
“Jamming”, “Swamping”, “Overloading” of existing communication facilities
If communication systems are down then the problem becomes more acute
Competition emerges between public and relief agencies for access to the channels which are still functioning
Can be detrimental to organizations and agencies, informal inquiries may overwhelm the channels
Informational Convergence
Is the answer to deny the general public access to these channels?
Informational Convergence
Is the answer to deny the general public access to these channels?
Evidence shows that this forces public to improvise informal, unofficial channels of communication
Resulting in officials having little understanding of the significant needs of the population
Informational Convergence
Challenges in measuring impact (1957):
1. Difficult to establish a “normal” capacity for systems which have been partially destroyed or which have lost some of their operating personnel
2. Personnel located at telephone switchboards, radio stations, etc. normally keep some form of tally or record of incoming messages – under stress of disaster those records might be neglected
Informational Convergence
Challenges in measuring impact (1957):
3. While there might be a record of total number of messages or calls, there is no way of knowing the number of attempted communications that were rejected due to disruptions in channels
4. When tallies are kept of incoming and outgoing messages, they might not describe if those messages were disaster related or not
5. Large volume exists outside official or formally established channels (word of mouth communications)
Informational Convergence
Can we control it?
Not limited to the persons located in the zones near the disaster zone
External informational convergence originates simultaneously in many parts of the nation and world
In comparison – Initial external personal convergence originates from contiguous and proximate zones
When the event is reported, persons in remote zones attempt communication with persons or agencies in disaster area – compounding the problem with limited channels
Questions…
How does informational convergence differ today from how it did in 1957? Specifically, is it possible to overload channels?
Do you think it is easier to cause confusion in informational convergence today than it used to be? Why or why not?
Informational Convergence
Convergence on communication centers, in the form of inquiries, offers of assistance
“Jamming”, “Swamping”, “Overloading” of existing communication facilities
If communication systems are down then the problem becomes more acute
Competition emerges between public and relief agencies for access to the channels which are still functioning
Can be detrimental to organizations and agencies, informal inquiries may overwhelm the channels
Informational Convergence
Is the answer to deny the general public access to these channels?
Informational Convergence
Is the answer to deny the general public access to these channels?
Evidence shows that this forces public to improvise informal, unofficial channels of communication
Resulting in officials having little understanding of the significant needs of the population
Informational Convergence
Challenges in measuring impact (1957):
1. Difficult to establish a “normal” capacity for systems which have been partially destroyed or which have lost some of their operating personnel
2. Personnel located at telephone switchboards, radio stations, etc. normally keep some form of tally or record of incoming messages – under stress of disaster those records might be neglected
3. While there might be a record of total number of messages or calls, there is no way of knowing the number of attempted communications that were rejected due to disruptions in channels
4. When tallies are kept of incoming and outgoing messages, they might not describe if those messages were disaster related or not
5. Large volume exists outside official or formally established channels (word of mouth communications)
Informational Convergence
Can we control it?
Not limited to the persons located in the zones near the disaster zone
External informational convergence originates simultaneously in many parts of the nation and world
In comparison – Initial external personal convergence originates from contiguous and proximate zones
When the event is reported, persons in remote zones attempt communication with persons or agencies in disaster area – compounding the problem with limited channels
Beyond Immediate Needs
Damage Assessment
Debris Removal
Damage Assessment
Identifying the extent of destruction including individual impact as well as overall economic losses in the community
Direct response activities
Helps identify immediate needs of disaster victims
Influences what material and financial resources will be sent to the disaster area
Damage Assessment
Necessary before federal relief is to be given to disaster-stricken communities
Determines if structure is sound
May assist in designation of hazardous area
Types of Damage Assessment
Rapid (or initial) Assessment
During Response
Initial survey of the disaster damages
Immediate
Quick comprehension of deaths, injuries, victim needs, general scope of disaster
What is the importance?
Secure mutual aid agreements
Request additional damage evaluators
Can lead to evacuations and sheltering
Types of Damage Assessment
Preliminary
During Recovery
Within weeks or months
Detailed assessment that is required if seeking federal disaster assistance
Determine extent of disaster and needs for outside assistance
Requirement before disaster declaration
Is possible before declaration, but still must be carried out to comply with laws
Types of Damage Assessment
Technical
Days, weeks, or months after event
Used to determine the cost of damages and method for rebuilding structures or the infrastructure
Conducted by engineers, insurance agents, FEMA employees and contractors
Conducting Damage Assessment
Windshield or drive-through assessments
Immediate after the event
Stay in vehicle
Assess damage on the ground from a distance
Assess initial stages of disaster
Assess priorities and needs
Conducting Damage Assessment
Aerial Assessments
From helicopters or planes
Useful when roads are impassable
Media uses this type of footage
Popular among politicians and key decision makers
Conducting Damage Assessment
Walkthrough/site visits
Tour damaged areas by foot
Determines amount and type of disaster assistance needed
May require knowledge of demolition and construction
Debris Management
Collection, sorting, storage, transportation, and disposal or recycling of rubble, destroyed materials, and other wastes associate with a disaster
Debris can be approx. 8x as much trash as is usual to be picked up
Examples:
Hurricane Floyd
18,000 mobile homes destroyed in North Carolina
1,500 tons of animal carcasses
500,000 cubic yards of debris after tornadoes in Oklahoma
Northridge Earthquake – 95,100 tons of debris
Types of Debris
Broken tree limbs
Mud and sediment
Hazardous waste
Broken plywood
Twisted metal
Shattered glass
Dead animal carcasses
Etc.
Challenges
Driving into the area
Mental well-being
Safety
Public health
Environment
Cost
Hurricane Georges in 1995
Exceeded $310,000,000 in 4 states combined
FEMA covers 100% of debris removal for first 72 hours after the event
After that, they cover 75% of costs borne by local government (when there is a disaster declaration)
Debris
What types of debris are there?
What challenges are caused by these types of debris?
Questions…
How does informational convergence differ today from how it did in 1957? Specifically, is it possible to overload channels?
Do you think it is easier to cause confusion in informational convergence today than it used to be? Why or why not?
Defining Recovery
Basic definition: Returning a community to pre-disaster levels or better
Recovery is more than just reconstruction
Defining Recovery
Definition has evolved
First academic paper on recovery was Haas, Kates, Bowden – 1977
They focused on the predictability of recovery
Recovery Defined - Haas, Kates, Bowden – 1977
Haas, Kates, Bowden (1977) – Reconstruction Following Disaster
Key Insights
Reconstruction process is ordered, knowable, and predictable
Generally, cities are rebuilt on the same site
The time needed for reconstruction can be approximated by the time required for earlier tasks in recovery
The existence of prior plans, detailed planning material, community consensus, and wide dissemination of information increase speed
Haas, Kates, Bowden (1977) – Reconstruction Following Disaster
Key Insights
Reconstruction process is ordered, knowable, and predictable
Ordered sequence of return (in both time and space) that mirrors the hierarchy of function, person, and power
Best locations and places with highest rents return fastest
Haas, Kates, Bowden (1977) – Reconstruction Following Disaster
Key Insights
Leveling of inequalities during the emergency period – does not continue into recovery
Research tells us that events can impact both rich and poor, there is an increase in prosocial behavior, people look beyond differences to help everyone
Restoration and reconstruction do not follow this path
People who had more access to resources prior to the event continue to do so
Haas, Kates, Bowden (1977) – Reconstruction Following Disaster
Key Insights
Reconstruction issues and decisions are value choices
Common goals in reconstruction: familiar, safer, efficient, attractive, equity
Each of these goals adds to:
Speed of recovery
Required resources (material, financial, technical, administrative)
Uncertainty and social disruption
Haas, Kates, Bowden (1977) – Reconstruction Following Disaster
Key Insights:
Ambitious planning is counterproductive – “The Impossible Seems Possible”
Disaster provide opportunities to improve communities
Funding is available, old plans for the community are resurrected
The cost becomes too high and it takes too much time
Haas, Kates, Bowden (1977) – Reconstruction Following Disaster
Three Phases:
1. Restoration – attempt to “patch up” the damaged physical and social systems
Temporary measures taken in the first days or weeks after the disaster event
Trying to make the community as functional as possible
Haas, Kates, Bowden (1977) – Reconstruction Following Disaster
Three Phases:
2. Reconstruction I - Replacement Reconstruction – returning the appearance of the community back to normal
Last from several months to several years after the event
3. Reconstruction II - Commemorative, Betterment, and Developmental Reconstruction – promoting future economic growth within the community
Now referred to as mitigation
Expected to continue until the next disaster event
Questions
Their definition is based on predictability in the recovery stage. Is it accurate to believe that most disasters follow a predictable trajectory in recovery?
What could happen that could impact that?
Is recovery based solely on the reconstruction of the build structure? If no, what other aspects play into recovery?
Defining Recovery
Issues with Haas, Kates, and Bowden definition
Assumes that all members of society recover uniformly
Is too simple
Recovery does not always follow a clear and predictable path
Defining Recovery
“Recovery is messy and uncertain. Factors such as power, race, class, gender, past disaster experience, and access to resources, including information, can all play a role in shaping the process for social units ranging from households to societies.” (Smith and Wenger, 2007)
Defining Recovery
Is recovery simply the reconstruction of the built environment?
Recovery is not the same as reconstruction – it is a social process
“Recovery is not merely an outcome, but a social process that begins prior to disaster impact and encompasses decision-making concerning restoration and reconstruction activities.”
Defining Recovery
Rooted in the Social Structure and Fabric of Society
“... how recovery proceeds is rooted in the social structure and fabric of the impacted society. Put another way, reconstruction is less a technical issue than it is a social matter. Reconstruction only partly involves bricks and land use codes, it mostly concerns social values and group interests. “ – Dynes and Quarantelli 1989
Defining Recovery
Less a technical issue than a social matter
“... how recovery proceeds is rooted in the social structure and fabric of the impacted society. Put another way, reconstruction is less a technical issue than it is a social matter. Reconstruction only partly involves bricks and land use codes, it mostly concerns social values and group interests. “ – Dynes and Quarantelli 1989
Defining Recovery
Concerns social values and group interests
“... how recovery proceeds is rooted in the social structure and fabric of the impacted society. Put another way, reconstruction is less a technical issue than it is a social matter. Reconstruction only partly involves bricks and land use codes, it mostly concerns social values and group interests. “ – Dynes and Quarantelli 1989
Recovery as a social process
Importance of Family recovery
Effects of low socioeconomic status
Effects of race and ethnicity
Urban-Rural Differences
Family Recovery
Relationships with family networks become stronger
Increase in strength following the disaster event, continue into the recovery stage]
Kinship networks provide assistance
Emergency and temporary housing for socially vulnerable populations
Family Recovery – Trainer & Bolin 1976
Five general constraints:
1. Physical Constraint
Destruction of community facilities and other amenities available to pre-disaster community
Loss of these physical and structural resources constraint the functions that the family used to fulfill
Daily routines are altered
Visiting with friends/family
Leisure activities
Shopping
Family Recovery – Trainer & Bolin 1976
Three general constraints:
2. Economic Constraint
Dependent on community/government aid available
Impact their housing situation
May have lost their job as a result of the event
Family Recovery – Trainer & Bolin 1976
Five general constraints:
3. Temporal Constraint
Carrying out daily routines take much more time and effort
Time is taken up by the rebuilding, increased travel time if roads and public transportation are impacted
Family Recovery – Trainer & Bolin 1976
Three general constraints:
4. Social Constraints
Not being able to adhere to social norms could cause people to avoid their social networks
Social norms such as appropriate clothing, home, reciprocity in entertaining)
5. Subjective Constraints
“How a family defines their current situation and how it is constrained by that.”
Perceive their situation as the reason that they are not happy
Effects of Low Socioeconomic Status
Low-income families are both more vulnerable to disaster impacted losses, but also have a harder time recovering
Generally:
Housed in hazard-prone areas/substandard structures
Have greatest need following an event but have most difficulty accessing resources
Recovery is not uniform across the area
Effects of Race and Ethnicity
Least likely to have insurance to cover losses (Bolin and Bolton, 1986)
Extended kin networks have fewer resources to provide
Rely more extensively on government aid for relief and recovery
Defining Recovery
Based on Smith and Wenger:
“The differential process of restoring, rebuilding, and reshaping the physical, social, economic, and natural environment through pre-event planning and post-event actions.”
Explains the outcomes expected in recovery
“restoring, rebuilding, and reshaping the physical”
Recognizes the social aspects with people, groups, and institutions involved
“social, economic”
The recovery process is not necessarily linear, not only driven by technical but also social parameters
Defining Recovery
How are decisions made?
Who is involved in the decision-making?
What are the consequences that those decisions have on social groups in the affected communities?
Who benefits from these decisions? Who does not?
Defining Recovery
Short-term
Extension of the response phase in which basic services and functions are restored
Immediate and overlaps with response
It includes:
providing essential public health and safety services
restoring interrupted utility and other essential services
reestablishing transportation routes
providing food and shelter for those displaced by the incident.
May last for weeks
Defining Recovery
Long-term recovery
A restoration of both the personal lives of individuals and the livelihood of the community
May involve some of the same actions but may continue for a number of months or years depending on the severity and extent of the damage sustained
Long-term recovery may include the complete redevelopment of damaged areas.
Impacts on Recovery
Pre-disaster Intergroup dynamics and relationship (political influence)
Relative size in the community
Political linkages to those in decision-making positions
Cultural history
These relationships existed before the disaster, they will exist after
Recovery takes a long time…
Recovery happens at different speeds…
Successful Local Recovery Plans (Mileti 1999)
1. Community Involvement
2. Information
3. Organization
4. Procedures
5. Damage Evaluation
6. Finances
Community Involvement
Involve stakeholders who are affected by the decision made for recovery
Stakeholders should be able to provide input
Policymakers need to get those stakeholders to buy into the their plans
Helps to make sure that their needs are met
Also avoids conflict
Information
Should include:
Hazard characteristics and areas likely to be impacted
Population size, composition, distribution
Local economic factors
Resources available post-disaster
Information
Powers, programs, and responsibilities of local, state, and federal governments
Also nonprofits, businesses, and other relevant stakeholder organizations
Current and projected land use patterns
Type and location of existing and projected building stock and infrastructure
How does it interconnect with existing and projecting development?
Organization
Identify relevant groups and organizations to provide specific or assigned types of assistance
Include governmental agencies, nonprofits, emergent organizations
By using various types of groups, can account for people who might otherwise be hard to reach
Procedures
Policymaking procedures need to be modified so that changes can be made quickly
Streamline building code review procedures, permits, or stop building until a recovery plan is made
Damage Evaluation
Recovery plan must account for operational tasks (mobilization, deployment, coordination) during damage assessment
Information must be rapidly assimilated
Information is necessary to understand local needs
Implemented in construction strategies
Finances
An understanding of where the money is coming from
Local municipal budgets
State/federal funds
What parts of the plan are feasible based on those funds?
Federal Recovery Assistance
Two types of programs:
Individual Assistance
Relief to citizens, businesses, and others affected by disaster
Public Assistance
Recovery aid for government entities
Individual Assistance
Loan Programs
Lending money
Individuals, families, businesses (who have sustained losses)
Interest rates generally lower than market average
Loan rates and repayment schedule determined by ability of recepient to repay
Grants
Gift funds that do not need to be repaod
Individual Assistance
National Processing Service Center
Online and over the phone
National Emergency Management Information System (NEMIS)
FEMA representatives can record personal information, damage, losses, needs, etc.
Along with fieldwork, determines what type of assistance they are eligible for
Disaster Recovery Centers
Physical location where individuals can access services
Public Assistance
Categories
Local governments
State government agencies
Indian tribes and related organizations
Private nonprofit organizations
Hospitals
Schools
Utility companies
Zoos
Museums
Community centers
Homeless shelters, etc.
Public Assistance
Emergency Assistance
Financial or other types of assistance to help local and state governments deal with the immediate impacts of disasters
Permanent Assistance
Financial payments or reimbursements to local and state governments for long-term rebuilding activities
Emergency Assistance
Debris removal assistance
Funding to clear disaster-related debris
Protective measures
Reimbursement that has purpose of reducing losses or eliminating threats to life, public health, and safety
Examples:
Sandbagging before a flood
Shoring up buildings after earthquake
Permanent Assistance
Road Systems assistance
Repays expenses associate with the rebuilding or repairing of bridges, lights, and culverts
Damages must be directly related to the disaster
Water control assistance
Repairs to rives, dikes, levees, dams
Must fall under U.S. Army Cops of Engineers or Natural Resource Conservation System specifications
Permanent Assistance
Public Buildings/Equipment assistance
Repair or replace buildings, supplies, and vehicles
Private or self insurances must cover all applicable payments before federal reimbursements are made
Conform to preexisting capacity and standards
Buildings/equipment must have been in use before disaster
Public Utility
Water, gas, sewage system repairs
Chapter 11
Non Governmental Organizations
International Humanitarian Relief
Important aspects:
Working cross- culturally
Inappropriate relief efforts
Appropriate relief efforts
International Standards for humanitarian relief (pg. 422)
Empowering locals