Provide answers and feedback on these concerns

DoppioSenior

Week8-QualitativeDataAnalysis.pdf

Home >Education homework help >Provide answers and feedback on these concerns

EDU730: Research Practices and Methods

Page 1 EDU-730 Research Practices and Methods

Week 8:

Qualitative data analysis

Topic goals

 To discuss some of the theoretical models within which

qualitative data can be analysed and to select the most

appropriate model for a particular piece of research.

 To understand the stages involved in qualitative data

analysis, and gain some experience in coding and

developing categories.

 To assess how rigour can be maximised in qualitative

data analysis.

Task – Forum

 Use the excerpts from the interviews and the thematic

analysis phases as presented in this week’s materials in

order to generate ‘codes’ or ‘themes’.

EDU730: Research Practices and Methods

Page 2 EDU-730 Research Practices and Methods

QUALITATIVE DATA ANALYSIS

1.1 INTRODUCTION TO QUALITATIVE DATA ANALYSIS:

You are probably familiar with the basic differences between qualitative and

quantitative research methods based on the previous weeks and the materials

provided and the different applications those methods can have in order to deal

with the research questions posed.

Qualitative research is particularly good at answering the ‘why’, ‘what’ or ‘how’

questions, such as:

 “What are the perceptions of carers living with people with learning

disability, as regards their own health needs?”

 “Why do students choose to study for the MSc in Research Methods through

the online programme?

1.2 What do we mean by analysis?

As being explored in previous weeks, Quantitative research techniques generate a

mass of numbers that need to be summarised, described and analysed. The data

are explored by using graphs and charts, and by doing cross tabulations and

calculating means and standard deviations. Further analysis would build on these

initial findings, seeking patterns and relationships in the data by performing

multiple regression, or an analysis of variance perhaps (Lacey and Luff, 2007).

So it is with Qualitative data analysis. .

 Qualitative Data Analysis (QDA) is the range of processes and

procedures whereby we move from the qualitative data that have

been collected into some form of explanation, understanding or

interpretation of the people and situations we are investigating.

EDU730: Research Practices and Methods

Page 3 EDU-730 Research Practices and Methods

 QDA is usually based on an interpretative philosophy. The idea is to

examine the meaningful and symbolic context of qualitative data

(http://onlineqda.hud.ac.uk/Intro_QDA/what_is_qda.php)

 A generous amount of words is created by interviews or observational data

and needs to be described and summarised.

 The questions asked may require the researchers to seek relationships

between various themes that have been identified, or to relate behaviour

or ideas to biographical characteristics of respondents such as age or

gender.

 Implications for policy or practice may be derived from the data, or

interpretation sought of puzzling findings from previous studies.

 Ultimately theory could be developed and tested using advanced analytical

techniques.

1.3 Approaches in Analysis

a) Deductive approach

- Using your research questions to group the data and then look for

similarities and differences

- Used when time and resources are limited

- Used when qualitative research is a smaller component of a larger

quantitative study

b) Inductive approach

- Used when qualitative research is a major design of the inquiry

- Using emergent framework to group the data and then look for

relationships

http://onlineqda.hud.ac.uk/Intro_QDA/what_is_qda.php

EDU730: Research Practices and Methods

Page 4 EDU-730 Research Practices and Methods

 Familiarisation with the data through review, reading, listening etc

 Transcription of tape recorded material

 Organisation and indexing of data for easy retrieval and

identification

 Anonymising of sensitive data

 Coding (may be called indexing)

 Identification of themes

 Re-coding

 Development of provisional categories

 Exploration of relationships between categories

 Refinement of themes and categories

 Development of theory and incorporation of pre-existing

knowledge

 Testing of theory against the data

 Report writing, including excerpts from original data if appropriate

(e.g. quotes from interviews)

Adapted from Pacey and Luff (2009, p. 6-7)

In summary:

There are no ‘quick fix’ techniques in qualitative analysis (Lacey and Luff, 2007).

 There are probably as many different ways of analysing qualitative data as

there are qualitative researchers doing it!

 It is argued that qualitative research is an interpretive and subjective

exercise is intimately involved in the process, not aloof from it (Pope and

Mays 2006).

 However there are some theoretical approaches to choose from and in this

week we will explore a basic one. In addition there are some common

processes, no matter which approach you take. Analysis of qualitative data

usually goes through some or all of the following stages (though the order

may vary):

EDU730: Research Practices and Methods

Page 5 EDU-730 Research Practices and Methods

1.2 What do you want to get out of your data?

It is not always necessary to go through all the stages above, but it is suggested

that some of them are necessary in order to go in-depth in your analysis!

Let’s take an example based on the research question provided above about the

health needs of the carers:

Research question:

“What are the perceptions of carers living with people with learning disability, as

regards their own health needs?”

 You may be interested in finding out the community services that needs to

be provided in order the perceived needs of the carers to be met.

 You might also be interested to know what kind of services are needed or

are valued by most of the carers.

 Maybe several respondents mention that they struggle with depression and

loneliness

In order to explore this, three broad levels of analysis that could be pursued are

as follows:

 One approach is to simply count the number of times a particular word or

concept occurs (e.g. loneliness) in a narrative. Such approach is called

content analysis. It is not purely qualitative since the qualitative data can

then be categorised quantitatively and will be subjected to statistical

analysis

 Another approach is the thematic analysis from which we would want to go

deeper than this. All units of data (eg sentences or paragraphs) referring to

loneliness could be given a particular code, extracted and examined in

more detail. Do participants talk of being lonely even when others are

present? Are there particular times of day or week when they experience

loneliness? In what terms do they express loneliness? Are those who speak

EDU730: Research Practices and Methods

Page 6 EDU-730 Research Practices and Methods

of loneliness are also those who experience depress? Such questions can

lead to themes which could eventually be developed such as ‘lonely but

never alone’.

 Finally, for theoretical analysis such as ground theory we go further in

depth. For example, you may have developed theories when you have been

analysing the data with regard to depression as being associated with

perceived loss of a ‘normal’ child/spouse. The disability may be attributed

to an accident, or to some failure of medical care, without which the person

cared for would still be ‘normal’. You may be able to test this emerging

theory against existing theories of loss in the literature, or against further

analysis of the data. You may even search for ‘deviant cases’ that is data

which seems to contradict your theory, and seek to modify your theory to

take account of this new finding. This process is sometimes known as

‘analytic induction’, and is use to build and test emerging theory.

(Lacey and Luff, 2009, p.8)

In the following sections we will explore two approaches for qualitative data

analysis: a) grounded theory approach and b) thematic analysis.

1.4 Grounded Theory

 Developed out of research by sociologists Glaser and Strauss (1967). Glaser

and Strauss were concerned to outline an inductive method of qualitative

research which would allow social theory to be generated systematically

from data. As such theories should be ‘grounded’ in rigorous empirical

research, rather than to be produced based in the abstract.

 Grounded theory is a methodology; it is a way of thinking about and

conceptualising data. It is an approach to research as a whole and as such

can use a range of different methods.

 Grounded Theory analysis is inductive, in that the resulting theory

‘emerges’ from the data through a process of rigorous and structured

analysis.

EDU730: Research Practices and Methods

Page 7 EDU-730 Research Practices and Methods

1.5 Procedure and the Rules of Grounded Theory approach

1) Data Collection and Analysis are Interrelated Processes. In grounded theory,

the analysis begins as soon as the first bit of data is collected.

2) Concepts Are the Basic Units of Analysis. A theorist works with

conceptualizations of data, not the actual data per se. Theories can't be built with

actual incidents or activities as observed or reported; that is, from "raw data." The

incidents, events, and happenings are taken as, or analyzed as, potential

indicators of phenomena, which are thereby given conceptual labels. If a

respondent says to the researcher, "Each day I spread my activities over the

morning, resting between shaving and bathing," then the researcher might label

this phenomenon as "pacing." As the researcher encounters other incidents, and

when after comparison to the first, they appear to resemble the same

phenomena, then these, too, can be labeled as "pacing." Only by comparing

incidents and naming like phenomena with the same term can a theorist

accumulate the basic units for theory. In the grounded theory approach such

concepts become more numerous and more abstract as the analysis continues

3. Categories Must Be Developed and Related. Concepts that pertain to the

same phenomenon may be grouped to form categories. Not all concepts become

categories. Categories are higher in level and more abstract than the concepts

they represent. They are generated through the same analytic process of making

comparisons to highlight similarities and differences that is used to produce lower

level concepts. Categories are the "cornerstones" of a developing theory. They

provide the means by which a theory can be integrated.

4. Sampling in Grounded Theory Proceeds on Theoretical Grounds. Sampling

proceeds not in terms of drawing samples of specific groups of individuals, units

of time, and so on, but in terms of concepts, their properties, dimensions, and

variations.

5) Analysis Makes Use of Constant Comparisons. As an incident is noted, it

should be compared against other incidents for similarities and differences. The

EDU730: Research Practices and Methods

Page 8 EDU-730 Research Practices and Methods

resulting concepts are labeled as such, and over time, they are compared and

grouped as previously described.

6) Patterns and Variations Must Be Accounted For. The data must be examined

for regularity and for an understanding of where that regularity is not apparent.

7) Process Must Be Built Into the Theory. In grounded theory, process has several

meanings. Process analysis can mean breaking a phenomenon down into stages,

phases, or steps. Process may also denote purposeful action/interaction that is

not necessarily progressive, but changes in response to prevailing conditions

8) Writing Theoretical Memos Is an Integral Part of Doing Grounded Theory.

Since the analyst cannot readily keep track of all the categories, properties,

hypotheses, and generative questions that evolve from the analytical process,

there must be a system for doing so. The use of memos constitutes such a system.

Memos are not simply about "ideas."

(adapted from Corbin and Strauss, 1990, pp.7-10)

1.6 Thematic Analysis approach (Braun and Clarke, 2006, p.79)

Thematic analysis is a method for identifying, analysing, and reporting patterns

(themes) within data. It minimally organises and describes your data set in (rich)

detail. However, it also often goes further than this, and interprets various

aspects of the research topic (Boyatzis, 1998).

 Boyatzis (1998) defines the 'unit of coding' as the most basic segment or

element of the raw data of information that can be assessed in a

meaningful way regarding the phenomenon (pxi)

 A good thematic code 'captures the qualitative richness of the phenomenon'

(Boyatzis 1998, p31) and has 5 elements:

1. A label

2. A definition of when the theme occurs

EDU730: Research Practices and Methods

Page 9 EDU-730 Research Practices and Methods

3. A description of how to know when the theme occurs

4. A description of any qualifications or exclusions to the theme

5. Examples to eliminate possible confusion when looking at the theme

Braun and Clarke (2006 pp 94-95) identify some "potential pitfalls" to be avoided

in qualitative analysis

1. A failure to actually analyse the data

2. Using data collection questions as themes that are reported

3. A weak or unconvincing analysis

4. A mismatch between the data and the analytic claims that are made about it. 1.

1.7 Phases of thematic analysis (inductive and deductive) (Braun and Clarke, 2006)

Phase Description of the Process

1. Development of

a priori codes

Determining important

theoretical areas that can be

used as initial codes to organize

the data (Boyatzis, 1998). Use of

theory-driven coding that links

to the theoretical framework of

the study.

2. Familiarization with the

data

Transcription of data and field

notes, reading and re-reading

the data, noting down initial

ideas (Braun and Clarke, 2006)

3. Carrying out theory-driven coding Coding data in a systematic

fashion within each interview

and the field notes and across

the entire data collating data

relevant to each a priori code

(Boyatzis 1998; Braun and

EDU730: Research Practices and Methods

Page 10 EDU-730 Research Practices and Methods

Clarke, 2006).

4. Reviewing and revising codes and

Carrying out additional data-driven coding

Reviewing and revising theory-

driven codes in the context of

the data (Boyatzis, 1998).

Additional coding is done at this

stage, which is not confined by

the a priori codes and inductive

(data-driven) codes are assigned

to the data (Fereday and Muir-

Cochrane, 2006).

5. Searching for themes Collating codes into potential

themes, gathering all data

relevant to each potential theme

(Braun and Clarke, 2006;

Fereday and Muir-Cochrane,

2006)

6. Reviewing themes Checking if the themes produced

are related to the coded extracts

(Level 1) and the entire data set

(Level 2) as well as developing

the thematic ‘map’ of the

analysis (Braun and Clarke, 2006)

so as to determine credibility of

the themes (Fereday and Muir-

Cochrane, 2006).

7. Producing the report The final opportunity for the

analysis in which vivid

compelling extract examples are

selected, final analysis of

selected extracts, relating back

the analysis to the research

questions and the relevant

literature and producing a

scholarly report of the analysis

(Braun and Clarke, 2006).

EDU730: Research Practices and Methods

Page 11 EDU-730 Research Practices and Methods

1.8 Example of qualitative data analysis using thematic analysis

Question: “how do you feel about your student accommodation?”

Participants: 10 Master’s students living in student accommodation an open

question

• You have coded three data segments using the code ‘satisfactory

accommodation’. You have defined ‘satisfactory’ as instances when

students indicate that their accommodation generally meets their needs,

but they report mixed views, balancing positive opinions with critical

comments. You have decided not to include views which are almost

exclusively positive or negative. The data segments you have coded as

‘satisfactory’ are:

‘It’s okay – it’s not my home, my house at home in my country, but I have

the things I need, desk, bed, arm chair, clean and warm, not damp or

anything.’ (Student 3)

‘It could be nicer – the decoration is a bit old, and it can be a little bit noisy

at night sometimes – but overall it’s fine just for students. When I graduate

and get a job, I want to rent a more modern apartment, fashionable with

lots of technology.’ (Student 9)

‘The only thing is it’s a bit small… I can’t invite all my friends to my room to

watch television or chat, so we have to go to the coffee shop, cinema… it’s a

bit expensive always going out. That’s the main problem, but I quite like it,

it’s quite good, I feel quite safe.’ (Student 2)

Is it okay to say ‘3 students reported that their accommodation was satisfactory’?

In qualitative studies, we are interested in individual’s feelings, thoughts, beliefs

and unique contributions. It is ok to say that 3 students reported that about their

accommodation.

EDU730: Research Practices and Methods

Page 12 EDU-730 Research Practices and Methods

1.9 Producing the report of the data

Several students suggested their

accommodation, while having some

limitations, was generally satisfactory,

being ‘okay’ (student 2) or ‘fine for

students’ (student 9). Their accommodation

appeared to meet many of their needs, for instance, student 3 commented ‘I

have the things I need, a desk, bed, arm chair, clean and warm, not damp or

anything’, while student 2 reported she ‘feels quite safe’. However, they also

noted some limitations, for example, about the limited space: ‘it’s a bit small… I

can’t invite all my friends to my room’ (student 2), and the décor: ‘it could be

nicer – the decoration is a bit old’ (student 9). Nonetheless, the students seemed

to be quite accepting of these limitations – notably, student 2 still said ‘I quite

like it, it’s quite good’ even though she found it quite expensive going out to see

friends because her room was too small to invite them over.

There was also some suggestion that the students tended to think of their

accommodation as temporary; student 3 is clear ‘it is not my home, my house’,

while student 9 is already planning to rent a more modern apartment which

suits his tastes better on graduating. This might be considered to have made

them more accepting of their accommodation’s limitations, as long as their

accommodation generally meets their main needs as students.

Summary:

 The words in bold and underlined fond indicate how we suggest possible

conclusions from the data as in qualitative research we talk about

interpretations and how ‘reality’ is constructed by other people’s point of

view.

 Therefore we tend not to say that e.g. ‘students are not satisfied’ we prefer

to report ‘students seem not to be satisfied’

EDU730: Research Practices and Methods

Page 13 EDU-730 Research Practices and Methods

Task – Forum

 Using this week notes, please down and read the document below “Task

for qualitative data analysis_Excerpts interviews of trainee teachers”. Use

the excerpts from the interviews and the thematic analysis phases as

presented in this week’s materials in order to generate ‘codes’ or ‘themes’.

Create at least two (2) themes. Produce a brief report (phase 7) (maximum

word count: 500 words) to present 1 of the themes.