From a global perspective, give examples where your accepted/familiar way of motivation may work in one culture but not in another?
latnia2
Week7_IsCross-CulturalManagementtheKeytoSuccessinGlobalHealthcareCompetition.pdf
70 Is Cross-Cultural Management the Key to Success
In Global Healthcare Competition?
International Journal of Business and Information
Is Cross-Cultural Management the Key to Success
in Global Healthcare Competition?
William Philip Wall
Graduate School of Management
Shinawatra International University
Bangkok, Thailand 10400
ABSTRACT
Global competition adds yet another complex dimension to the success of a
healthcare organization in an industry that is already competitive in its own right.
This study focuses on a major healthcare organization in Thailand, its expansion
in Southeast Asia and into the Middle East, the role of cross-cultural
communication in its successful global healthcare management, and specifically
which areas of management are most important to the success of that
competitiveness. An inductive approach was used as a methodology for
determining competitiveness as it related to cross-cultural communication and
management. The resulting qualitative analysis of that data addresses issues of
seeking and maintaining global competitiveness and providing superior quality
care with competitive and reasonable pricing of services while working
effectively through strategic alliances. Data was collected from interviews and
questionnaires from a random mix of healthcare personnel and national and
expatriates living and working in Abu Dhabi (United Arab Emirates) and
Thailand. Subjects were varied from upper-level and middle-level management
in the healthcare organization to basic company employees outside the
organization. A qualitative analysis of data provided a grounded theory to
support the development of effective cross-cultural management in a Thai
healthcare organization to enhance global competitiveness.
Keywords: Global competition, cross-cultural management, communication,
healthcare
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1. INTRODUCTION
Today, the global community is changing the way businesses and
organizations think. It may also be changing societies’ ways of behaving and in
fact fostering new national cultural changes. With cultures colliding in this new
globalization, national, regional, and organizational cultures begin to inspire one
another as they learn from one another in an intense but valued cultural
exchange. Although many cultural values are kept in place by well-defined
political nation states and traditional values still play an important role in the
society, important roles, it is also true that multi-national corporations, global
NGOs, individuals, and numerous cultural groups that travel within and beyond
national boundaries have become increasingly visible agents of change in
reshaping new identities of existing cultures. Maybe nowhere is this phenomenon
more evident than the effect that multi-nationals such as the fast-food industry
and introduction of the Internet have had on previously undeveloped or third
world countries as they are exposed to the outside world and the rapid
development and changes associated with the 21 st century.
It is rare today that a successful business works with people from only a
single culture. At almost every level, it is rare to find even a single location-
based Western business that does not employ people from many diverse cultural
backgrounds. In an economic context, globalization’s impact has been realized
through major cost differences between regions, across borders, and between
countries, globally resulting in businesses either outsourcing goods and services
for parts of their business or outsourcing partners for other businesses [20].
For this reason, those who will lead the global community forward in the
21 st century must be very adept at managing people from different cultures. Since
culture is an important factor in shaping customer and/or employee behavior,
those leaders need to understand the essence of each culture quickly and
sensitively. In the process of understanding and shaping that culture, at least
within their own organizations, they must ensure that the outcome of that
understanding has a positive resolution and is in keeping with the final
organizational direction. If this result is not possible, it may mean that their
ability to do less than achieve understanding, productivity, and ultimately the
final goals of the organization will fail to get the best from the individuals with
whom they work. A secondary failure will be the inability to draw on the
strengths that the different cultures offer.
Culture is a complex and multi-faceted issue that operates at a number of
different levels [19]. Individuals are initially shaped by their ethnic, racial,
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religious, and national backgrounds. They may then be influenced by the
standards, ideals, values, and experience of their own teams. Finally, they may be
shaped by the culture of their own organization.
Globalization has created an interesting paradox of cultural movement. On
one hand, newly emerging global cultures transcend regional and national
boundaries and cultures. On the other hand, indigenous cultural values and local
cultures can be presented and shared with the global community easily through
the Internet and modern digital technology [15].
To better understand the need for this study, it is necessary to understand
some of the concepts involved in global expansion and to look at some of the
factors that need to be considered when a company or organization wants to
expand globally. International business management and cross-cultural
communication are primary considerations in this process.
1.1. International Business Management
International business management plays a key role in determining the
direction an organization will take in establishing itself globally [16]. To do this,
the organization must address three major type of questions: Why? What? How?
The first question an organization must ask itself is why it should go international
in the first place. Subsequent questions include: What benefits will be obtained
for the organization if it goes international? What type of strategy must be used to
capture these benefits? What value will be created? What does the organization
plan to achieve? Why evolve from a successful domestic organization serving
mostly a culturally known domestic market to an international business that
serves a diverse multi-cultural market? Also, what type of organization vehicle
will be needed to enter the chosen market? Will it be a direct investment or
strategic alliance? How can the organization be structured to achieve maximum
success and benefit when dealing with cross-cultural issues? How will the
organization be managed to make sure the plan that was put forth and the strategy
to be used are fully implemented and the organization succeeds in its goal? How
will the organization be supported in its new environment?
There are many reasons influencing an organization to go international, not
just the idea of going international [14]. Development of a global market takes
time and does not happen overnight. Moving into the global market requires
careful planning and even that does not ensure success. There are, however, some
basic steps that must be followed if success is to be even remotely achieved.
First, the organization must have a clear and well-developed mission that reflects
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a serious commitment to expand into global business activities. Furthermore, it
must be readily adaptable and able to quickly identify the customer’s needs. It
must also take advantage of opportunities to give its customer base a clear picture
of the organization’s competitive advantage and abilities.
Also of major importance are understanding cultural nuances that occur with
customer behavior in different cultures and being able to evaluate and deal with
those changes as they take place. The organization must be able to continually
deliver and maintain high-quality service in order to keep pace with or stay ahead
of its closest competitors both at home and abroad [4]. Last, there must be a
continual effort within the organization to create a program of business research
that is effective in identifying new global markets and their specific
requirements.
In this manner, the firm must be one of determined pro-activity as opposed
to reactivity. It must put itself forward as a leader rather than a follower and must
actively seek out opportunities rather than be satisfied with the status quo. A
proactive organization must be constantly creating new or improving existing
services (or both) to keep ahead of its competition. It must seek challenges rather
than be content with past successes and achievements, and must be more
aggressive in taking risks and investing in the future in order to better compete
against its rivals. In this respect, an organization that is more aggressive is more
likely to succeed in its quest to expand and be successful in a global business.
Globalization of a business actually shows the performance of an
organization at its best [13]. Globalization is strategic because it forces an
organization to question the way it does business on a fundamental basis. It asks
the questions constantly of how to assess successes in the organization as well as
how to maintain and grow those successes in the face of the competition both at
home and abroad. In some cases, the move to go global may be a response to
competitors doing the same thing and is shown as a defensive move to narrow the
window of opportunity for those remaining competitors looking to enter the same
market. It may also be looked at as a means to keep valuable assets away from
rivals.
In the case of the Thai healthcare organization in this study, competitive
edge in the globalized marketplace clearly comes from services that have a
distinct advantage in the marketplace over its competitors both domestically and
internationally. Its competitive advantage is found in the skills of its workforce,
distinctive talents found in the management and marketing teams, and perhaps
most important, the ability to do things in a better or more efficient manner than
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the competition. These advantages must be present for an organization on the
domestic front before consideration can be given to entry into the international
business arena. It is often the case that success in the domestic market is the
impetus for an organization to look to international markets.
Once the step is taken to go international, the organization must fully use its
reputation and services to retain perceived value [17] if it is to recover its
development and research costs and earn adequate profit to satisfy shareholders
and attract future investment [1]. In this case, profit is the most compelling
reason for a proactive organization. In the case of the healthcare organization in
this study, domestic market saturation was also a compelling reason to expand
internationally rather than wait until the market was saturated or in decline;
therefore, opportunities were explored and researched and acted upon
accordingly [personal communication]. There are a number of motives for an
organization going international and seeking out global markets.
To go international is to create new opportunities for the organization.
Taking advantage of changes in worldwide economic events or the development
of new technologies not currently available to certain markets can have a positive
impact on marketing, partnerships, or acquisitions. Based on these various
motives, an organization must carefully consider its entry into an international
market. No one motive can determine that entry. All motives must be considered
as interrelated factors that determine the outcome of the decision to move the
organization into an international market [7].
For an organization to consider internationalization, it must look at a
number of environmental factors, both internally and externally. In this scenario,
a PEST (political, economic, social, and technological) analysis to determine
business and strategic planning, marketing planning, and business and product
development, along with reports on research and the classic SWOT (strengths,
weaknesses, opportunities, and threats) analysis, can be used to determine the
internal environment (strengths and weaknesses) and the external environment
(opportunities and threats) and help answer questions and formulate specific
plans for entering the international market [26]. The PEST analysis gives an
assessment of the market conditions (competition included) from the standpoint
of a particular business or proposition. The SWOT analysis assesses the business
or a proposition itself.
Once an organization has reviewed its environmental factors, a final
decision must be made on which market to enter and how to enter the desired
market. Value and timing are major considerations for entering a new market.
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There are no right decisions, or wrong decisions, for entering a new market – just
decisions that have different levels of risk and reward.
A study by Bartlett et al. [2] pointed out that businesses based in developing
countries have to enter foreign markets and become global players. The authors
stated that developing nation-based companies should learn from these larger
global competitors by benchmarking their own performance and operation
against them. The local company may also be able to differentiate from the
global competitor by finding niche markets that the multi-national might ignore
or is unable to effectively serve. In this way, an organization from a developing
country may be able to build a strong international business presence.
In the case of the Thai healthcare organization in the current study,
networking advantage was the goal. It reflected which market the potential client
wanted it to be in because the client also had an interest in this market. To best
manage and challenge its business system, it entered a leading market in the
delivery of healthcare services. Especially in the Middle East, the customer was
demanding and competitors were pushing for market share and creation of
customer value, and the government was backing the organization’s entry to
innovate as much as it could. Therefore, choice of the target market should
depend on the specific objectives and benefits of the strategy to internationalize
and be put in that context.
Once a specific market has been targeted, the organization must determine
its entry mode. There are many different entry modes, such as export, licensing
or franchising, foreign direct investment, mergers and acquisitions, or joint
ventures or alliances. For the Thai healthcare organization in this study, it was
determined that the most effective mode was through joint ventures and alliances
because this mode took advantage of learning opportunities to create and manage
knowledge of the client, as well as the market and its distinctive culture.
In direct relation to the management of an international business is control
of the people in that organization [10]. In the case of the healthcare organization
in the current study, the task of setting up an international business abroad
focused heavily on cross-cultural communication. Since the target market is
predominantly Muslim, speaks little or no Thai, and has specific cultural
requirements (diet, gender issues, and religious requirements), it is of major
importance that the people in the healthcare organization be well trained to
provide culturally sensitive delivery of services above and beyond those of the
traditional medical services currently provided by this well-recognized
organization. One advantage to this sensitivity is that the population in the newly
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established market of the Middle East has been using the services of this
healthcare provider for a number of years. Management and staff are acutely
aware of the need to respect and to attend to the care of Middle East patients in a
culturally sensitive way [personal communication].
To understand this concept, it is necessary to explain some of the issues
involved in cross-cultural communication. However, before a proper explanation
of cross-cultural communication is presented, it is necessary to understand the
complexity of communication itself. The first question is this: Exactly what is
communication? There are many ways to describe the process of communication.
It can be said that it is on-going, always changing, continuous, and adaptive. In
one way or another, communication affects everyone. When taken in a context,
communication can give the perception of a situation. Communication can be
verbal (written and/or spoken) or it can be non-verbal (determined by time,
space, action, physical characteristics, and expressions) [25]. Listening plays a
major role in communication, and can involve more than simply hearing. What
is being said verbally can be greatly affected by the manner in which the words
are presented through body language and intonation [6].
Communication can also lead to conflict and the need to deal effectively
with negation if those conflicts are to be resolved. In this respect, society has
generated ethics of behavior that vary from society to society, but are effective
within the structure of the culture to be acceptable or not. It can vary from
censorship and suppression of freedom of speech to letting people express
themselves in a free and open fashion. It is through the ability to effectively
communicate that we form friendships, establish ties to family friends,
acquaintances, and associates, and forge business relationships [3].
With cross-cultural communication, the issue is not how to get rid of
cultural differences, but rather how these differences can be used to increase
productivity and new ways of solving problems. Cross-cultural communication
occurs when there is an understanding of the internal culture of other people.
This understanding of their values, beliefs, and thought patterns allows
explanation of their behavior and, more important, allows anticipation of how
they will respond to what is said or done [27]. So, there must be an awareness of
the process, a given perception (verbal or non-verbal), listening, ability to resolve
conflict and negotiate, have a sense of ethics, and be aware of the relationships
involved.
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2. OBJECTIVE OF STUDY
The main objective of the current study was to determine whether cross-
cultural management has any effect on enhancing the global competitiveness of a
particular healthcare organization in Thailand, and, if so, whether there is a
specific area of cross-cultural management that stands out as the most important
issue in enhancing its global competitiveness.
This particular healthcare organization was established in 1972 by a group
of physicians and pharmacists. It began with five specialists and 30 full-time
nurses, and has since become the largest hospital in Thailand, with more than 400
full-time consultant physicians and 600 nurses. The one original hospital has
grown to include a network of 19 hospitals, 16 specialty centers, and 15 clinics in
Thailand and eight other facilities in Cambodia, Vietnam, Burma, and
Bangladesh. A recent acquisition was completed in 2011, adding eight healthcare
facilities to the organization’s existing network of hospitals, bringing the total
number of facilities in the network to 27. With the latest acquisition, the network
has an outpatient capacity of 20,000 per day.
Patients’ requirements for different cultural and personal needs are attended
to through specially designed outpatient clinics. Each clinic has special facilities
such as international, Japanese, and Arabic services. The clinics are divided into
four groups: (1) internal medicine for acute and chronic patients who have
hypertension, diabetes, ulcers, and common infectious diseases; (2) surgery that
provides outpatient and minor procedures for appendicitis, thyroid diseases,
wounds, varicose veins, and various related ailments; (2) obstetric and
gynecology, which offers full medical consulting and treatment for such
problems as high-risk pregnancy, infertility, congenital abnormalities, and
gynecological-related cancer; and, (4) a special clinic to deal with psychiatric
disorders such as insomnia, depression, and behavioral problems of children.
This healthcare organization is dedicated to maintaining the highest
international standards of medical practice by delivering quality patient care to
every patient. Its vision statement says it all: “Our patients’ complete
satisfaction.” For this organization, quality care is determined based on American
standard practices of medicine as well as accreditation by the Joint Commission
International (JCI) whose mission is “to continuously improve healthcare for the
public, in collaboration with other stakeholders, by evaluating healthcare
organizations and inspiring them to excel in providing safe and effective care the
safety and quality of care of the highest quality and value” [11].
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3. METHODOLOGY
Qualitative research is a particular approach to inquiry, based on a particular
set of assumptions about how knowledge is produced and about the nature of
reality itself. In this way, it is more than a method. It is different from
quantitative research, which uses scientific methods of the natural sciences and
assumes that reality is measured and verified objectively based on a set of
standardized methods to test understandings that are hypothetical. By using the
qualitative approach in the current study, it was less important to discover what is
"real" (in other words, some objectively verifiable truth) than it was to
comprehend the subjective understanding of the subjects. For this reason, the
qualitative approach used in this study aimed to develop an understanding of the
subjects’ actual experience or reality, how those subjects interpreted the world
around them, and how this influenced their actions and the subsequent effect that
it had on their responses.
The qualitative approach is particularly well suited to this research in that it
sought to explain and find meaning in the relationship that cross-cultural
management skills play in enhancing the global competitiveness of the
organization. The research builds on data gathered from this particular context
until repetitive relation patterns start to emerge and a theoretical understanding of
why people believe cross-cultural management skills can or cannot contribute to
enhancing the organization’s global competitiveness.
The emphasis in the current research was on how people perceive and
interpret their world and the many other influences that are integrated into their
lives. It must be stated here that the conclusions drawn from this research can be
assumed to be true only for the particular subjects and their responses in this
study. It is possible that a more broad-based study could be done by testing a
wider population by means of a quantitative study.
In using a qualitative analytical approach in this research, theory and
investigation were interwoven in a process of induction. From the data collected,
explanation and meaning were derived, instead of confirming or disconfirming a
theoretical position from the data put forward as a hypothesis to be tested. Data
was collected and presented as evidence for theory construction, not as evidence
of a theoretical position.
Theory development began with the data. In qualitative research, grounded
theory methodology is the most commonly used for developing a theory. In this
case, as the data was coded and categorized, patterns began to emerge.
Throughout the research process, data was collected, interpretation took place,
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and comparison of that interpretation was made as new data was collected. This
process would continuously ensure that an evolving theory could be supported by
evidence in the collected data, whenever additional data was collected. Other
existing theories and the theoretical perspective of a researcher may also
influence theory development, but the important principle of grounded theory is
that it tries to develop a theory by constantly comparing data gathered during the
research process.
In all case studies presented in this research, data was organized and
categorized, making sure that it was complete. Copies were made of all data and
stored in different locations (one copy at home; one copy in the office) to prevent
loss because of fire or theft, since the data could not be replicated. As previously
stated, because of major shifts in global economics during the time of data
collection in this research, there is no guarantee that the same data could be
reassembled if the fieldwork had to be repeated.
Copies of the data were also organized into two types of files. One set of
data was kept in a chronological file, enabling easy review in the order in which
it was collected. A second set of data was kept in an analytical file. This was a
journal that contained all the notes, thoughts, and ideas that occurred during
fieldwork or data analysis. This file enabled some preliminary notes about
different categories and meanings to be made during the course of the research.
All the data files were then carefully read. After a number of readings, a
category system was constructed, allowing the data to be categorized in a
systematic manner. In this way, a labeling system was devised ensuring that each
category was homogeneous within itself while at the same time remaining
heterogeneous to the total data collected. This process gave specific meaning to
each category while at the same time giving clear delineation to the differences
of those categories. This allowed all data to be specifically labeled into
categories. By using this classification system, each segment of data fit into a
category, occasionally with certain data fitting into more than one category. All
data, therefore, fit somewhere, and, with the placement in a category, the data
had significance, meaning, and relevance.
Each category was assembled and reviewed according to the category
system. This data was then organized by coding of repetitive words or phrases
before being analyzed using a manual system that seemed to work best for the
author. A format was developed where an ink marker was used to separate each
study; then, a colored pencil was used to delineate data into categories. Finally,
the paper containing the data was cut up using scissors, and each slip of paper
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was preliminarily coded and then numbered for relevance. Each piece of
relevant data was placed into different files for each category.
Data is presented both descriptively as collected, and subjectively from the
author’s interpretation. Reference to notes made in the field and other data
sources enabled presentation of descriptive data in a way that allowed the author
to gain an interpretive analysis of the data collected.
Finding linkages, determining inferences, assigning meanings, and
sometimes encountering data that was contradictory were all part of the
interpretive analysis, all requiring diligent and rigorous analytical work. This was
probably the most challenging part of doing a qualitative research. It should be
noted that the area of interpretation is many times where the validity of
qualitative research is subject to the deepest scrutiny, an area where computer
software is least able to help. Although software can be beneficial, its
effectiveness depends on the volume of data involved and the type of analysis
needed.
Inductive analysis was used through interpretation to build understanding
and meaning from the data. For example, what was the main reason a person
selected a particular healthcare organization when seeking medical treatment?
From data interpretation, a pattern emerged of particular reasons associated with
the selection process. Location, for instance, may not be the most compelling
reason to select a healthcare organization. Eventually, during the course of
inductive analysis, a theory may begin to formulate as to how influences of
service, quality, and reputation begin to relate and strengthen certain selections.
Quality of treatment may, for example, play a stronger role in influencing a
person’s choice of a healthcare organization than technology or service.
Inductive analysis was used as a means to work up from the data. This
involved building new understandings from descriptions, reading and rereading
data records, and discovering patterns in the data collected. All of these led to the
gradual emergence and construction of a theory.
A simple table was used to compile interview data and consolidate
questionnaire information so that patterns among different types of responses
could be determined. These examples presented the descriptive data, showing
what the data said. Interpretive diagrams networking data were also constructed
to help clarify how certain selections of healthcare organizations are influenced
by personal or external relationships that appear in the data. For example, a
network was constructed to illustrate the relationship between importance of
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quality and the reputation of a healthcare organization. The interpretive diagram
is shown in Figure 1. It is discussed further in Section 4 (Analysis of Data).
Figure 1. Example of Interpretive Diagram
3.1. Subjects
This study involved 50 subjects, comprising a diverse population of
hospital and non-hospital personnel from the Gulf States (mainly centered in Abu
Dhabi) in the immediate area of a new hospital under construction by the Thai
healthcare organization in this research, and from Bangkok, Thailand. The
population was composed of Gulf State nationals and Thai nationals, as well as
expatriates living and working in the Gulf States and in Bangkok. A series of
eight questions were presented in the questionnaire (see Appendix). Interviews
were also conducted in a relaxed, informal manner so as to allow the subjects to
freely express their feelings and opinions. This round of questioning focused on
cross-cultural management issues as they relate to global competitiveness of
healthcare in general.
Although the approach of using qualitative analysis is thought by some to be
too subjective and vague, the author believes that it allows for a more in-depth
look at cross-cultural approaches to management, especially in the area of
healthcare today and the consequences of that management in the global arena of
competition. It is the aim of this research to apply a more humanistic approach in
the analysis of data and to give feeling and meaning to the development of a
theory as opposed to the stark quantification of numbers. In this research,
qualitative analysis was used to develop a systematic generation of theory from
data (grounded theory) that contains both inductive and deductive thinking. In
this research, a grounded theory was based on Glaser’s [9] emphasis on induction
or emergence, and the researcher's creativity within an inductive framework of
stages.
To manage the vast amount of data collected, three basic steps were used in
the qualitative analysis process: data reduction, data display, and conclusion. An
inductive approach [24] was used in the qualitative analysis [8] in this study to
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discover patterns, aspects, and the importance of cross-cultural management, as
well as the interrelationship of those factors on global competitiveness from the
data collected in an attempt to establish a grounded theory [21].
As stated before and used in prior research for this study, grounded theory is
a popular methodology in qualitative research and is based on an iterative
inductive and deductive cycle where theory is allowed to emerge directly from
data and is ultimately tested (grounded) against “the real world.” It is a
“rationale of theory that was grounded, generated, and developed through
interplay with data,” as Strauss and Corbin stated [23]. Strauss and Corbin took
the view that grounded theory should be verificational and legitimately
influenced by the researcher’s existing ideas. In this study, each round of data
collection is conditioned by what has been learned in the preceding round of data
analysis. This “data dance” proceeds iteratively so that theory is progressively
refined, until a point of theory saturation is reached [22]; [12].
3.2. Instruments
In order to focus on why and how subjects choose their healthcare
organization and in order to determine their perception of why and how a
healthcare organization addresses and implements their cross-cultural
management, questionnaires were administered to numerous high-level
administrators, medical personnel, and staff, as well as potential patients in this
study. In addition, interviews were conducted.
3.1.1. Questionnaire
The questionnaire used in this study included eight “open” questions that
resembled interview scripts. As shown in the Appendix, the eight questions dealt
with cross-cultural management and the subjects’ opinions on choice,
organization, and operation of a healthcare organization. The most obvious
differences between responses given to particular questions in face-to-face
interviews, and responses given in the questionnaires returned, were that written
responses were more likely to be of conscious effort and not repetitive, whereas,
in an interview, interesting responses could be explored interactively in great
depth. An initial questionnaire was used as a trawling device for identifying
common themes that could be focused on during formal interviews. Categories
derived from the questionnaire responses were combined with categories derived
from interviews in grounded theory analysis, since they provided responses to the
same kinds of questions. In the collection of this data, subjects in this study were
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approached in a natural, unobtrusive, and non-threatening manner. In this study,
it was necessary to capture precise words or descriptions within a specific
context, enabling data to be analyzed subjectively through a series of processes.
3.1.2. Interviews
In the interviews, questions were not necessarily asked in the order
presented here, nor were all of them always asked, as one or two were often
enough to elicit all the information required. During the interviews, the
discussion also addressed other important issues, as noted in the responses given.
The author led the questioning and simultaneously took notes and occasionally
interjected to clarify a point or followed up a line of questioning that seemed to
be relevant.
3.2. Data Collection
In the collection of data, it was necessary to capture precise words or
descriptions within a specific context, thus making it possible to analyze the data
subjectively through a series of processes.
3.2.1. Administering the Questionnaire
In administering the questionnaire, the author first asked participants to
discuss their feeling on cross-cultural management and its relationship to global
competitiveness. The author wanted to understand the context in which the
decision to expand globally and be competitive on that scale was made, how the
markets were selected for expansion, which other options were investigated, and
how the final global expansion plan was formed and activated. The questionnaire
shown in the Appendix was then given to each subject to complete. The
completed questionnaires were then collected by the author.
3.2.2. Conducting the Interviews
During the interviews, the author led the questioning and simultaneously
took notes, occasionally interjecting to clarify a point or follow up on a point that
seemed relevant. As stated earlier, questions during the interviews were not
necessarily asked in the order presented the questionnaire, nor were all of them
always asked, since one or two questions were often enough to elicit all the
information required. During the interviews, the discussion also addressed other
important issues as noted in the responses given.
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3.2.3. Validity and Reliability of the Questionnaire
To improve the validity of the data, interview results were discussed with
participants before the summary was written. The summary was then sent back to
the participants to allow for additional material and corrections to the author’s
interpretation, and to satisfy the promised requirements of confidentiality. This
process resulted in a more accurate summary since the participants added to the
summary and corrected any misinterpretations that had been made.
4. ANALYSIS OF DATA
An inductive approach [24] for analysis of data was initially used to
consolidate and refine the data, followed by a more concise qualitative process to
specifically determine conclusions of this study. Inductive steps included:
1. Summary of raw data
2. Use of the raw data to establish links between the research objectives and
the summary of data
3. Development of a basic framework to structure processes that became
evident in the raw data
The inductive approach was easy to use and produced reliable and
valid
findings. In the context of evaluating focused questions, it provided a
straightforward, less complicated approach to qualitative data analysis. The
conceptual framework used in the analysis of data is shown in Figure 2.
Figure 2. Conceptual Framework for Analysis of Data
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The following process was used:
1. Sorting Data. Data was generated and recorded according to the question
asked.
2. Inquisitive Reading. Data was read and mental notes were kept on
expectations and surprises to expectations in responses. Questions were
mentally noted on who, what, where, why, and how before going deeper
into the analysis.
3. Determining Patterned Finding. A linear approach with emerging factors
was used to discover recurring themes, subjects, and values, which led to
the next process of interpretation.
4. Interpretation. Relationships and connections began to appear in the
gathered information and data, and a direction became evident.
5. Preliminary Feedback. Feedback of interpretation and findings and the
final conclusion were a result of the author’s own solutions and a result
of the subjects’ own experience. Interim feedback from subjects resulted
in better quality and higher accuracy solutions to data.
6. Refinement. Results of the interpretation and feedback were used to
reorganize the data and draw conclusions. Overriding themes were
repeated and noted in several areas linking concepts and data to reveal
practical opportunities and needs. Information was generalized in line
with the original intent of the study.
7. Conclusions. Information was organized to present an accurate picture
of the data collected in an effort to promote understanding and continue
to motivate subjects to further action. In this study, it was agreed with the
subjects questioned that maintenance of confidentiality was both
necessary and appropriate. Additional information offered at a later time
will be included in a separate document [5].
Further study was conducted on how cross-cultural management affects the
strategy, operations, and organization of the company in additional research. That
data was ultimately combined with this study to strengthen the conclusion of this
research.
4.1. Limitations
It should be noted that, at the time this study was conducted (prior to last
quarter of 2008), the economics and strategy of the corporate organization in
general had a different focus. Stock markets were generating profits, banks were
86 Is Cross-Cultural Management the Key to Success
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lending, and expansions in building both in scope and geography were taking
place at an unprecedented rate. A reversal of those trends occurred in late 2008
with the collapse of the financial system in the United States and eventually the
collapse of numerous other economies throughout the world. Therefore, although
the methodology used here may be relevant to the research as it is currently
presented, these radical changes in economic factors would not allow the same
results as presented here.
4.2. Findings
As stated previously, 50 subjects who were a random mix of healthcare
organization personnel and general population as well as nationals and
expatriates living and working in Abu Dhabi (United Arab Emirates) and
Thailand were given a questionnaire with eight questions related to cross-cultural
management relative to the Thai healthcare organization in this study. From the
eight questions, data was consolidated and set into five categories:
Choosing a Hospital
Consideration of Cross-Cultural Management
Cross-Cultural Management and Its Effect on Strategy, Operations,
and Organization
Cross-Cultural Management and Its Effect on Global
Competitiveness
Cross-Cultural Management Contributing to Being Globally
Competitive
Using these categories, data from the questionnaire responses was then
preliminarily sorted and coded by word or phrase frequency.
Choosing a Hospital. The data coded for this category revealed that the
majority of subjects selected a healthcare organization on the basis of service,
with the expectation that it would be provided in a comfortable environment with
stability and consistency of treatment. The coding process revealed that the
second area of determination was quality of treatment; namely, the reputation of
the physicians and staff in the chosen hospital and their cross-cultural sensitivity.
Consideration of Cross-Cultural Management. The vast majority of
subjects acknowledged that, when choosing a healthcare facility, cross-cultural
management was a consideration. With regard to this category, the coding
process also revealed that quality service and cross-cultural sensitivity were
important factors in choosing a facility. Except for four subjects who were
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neutral in this category, the remaining subjects felt no need to consider cross-
cultural management.
Cross-Cultural Management and Its Effect on Strategy, Operations,
and Organization. In this category, the coding showed unanimously that subjects
felt cross-cultural management does have an effect on a healthcare organization.
A minority of subjects coded an unqualified “yes,” but the majority of subjects
coded “yes” with qualifications, indicating that cross-cultural management does
have an effect on a healthcare organization with the qualification that patient
comfort, confidence, sensitivity, accuracy of diagnosis and treatment, respect,
and awareness are positive aspects.
Cross-Cultural Management and Its Effect on Global Competitiveness.
Coding for this category produced results similar to that for the preceding
category. The majority of subjects coded “yes” to this category, indicating that
cross-cultural management does have an effect on global competitiveness. The
coding revealed the importance of the patient’s needs, comfort, confidence, and
trust in the promotion and reputation of the healthcare organization and how that
organization’s cross-cultural management would affect global competitiveness.
Four subjects responded “no,” citing understanding and research as more
important.
Cross-Cultural Management Contributing to Being Globally
Competitive. Coding for this category produced results similar to that for the
preceding category, in that quality, service, patient’s confidence, and ability to
communicate effectively with an organization do affect that organization’s global
competitiveness. Two subjects responded as neutral to this category.
In summary, the preliminary coding initially yielded the following
words/phrases for each of the five categories:
Choosing a Hospital: Service (environment, stability), quality of
treatment, physicians/staff (reputation), cross-cultural sensitivity
Consideration of Cross-Cultural Management: Yes, no, quality
treatment, cross-cultural sensitivity
Cross-Cultural Management and Its Effect on Strategy, Operations, and
Organization: Yes, patient (comfort, confidence, sensitivity, accuracy,
respect, awareness)
Cross-Cultural Management and Its Effect on Global Competitiveness:
Yes, patient (comfort, needs, trust/confidence, reputation, promotion)
88 Is Cross-Cultural Management the Key to Success
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Cross-Cultural Management Contributing to Being Globally
Competitive: Yes, quality, service, patient (confidence, communication)
On the written questionnaire and during some minor interviews conducted
for clarification, the subjects in this study indicated that they place a high value
on quality and service provided by a healthcare organization; therefore, services
rendered and quality of the staff administering those services are of critical
importance. Related to that quality and service, confidence appeared to play an
important role in developing a good comfort level, clear communication, and
understanding and sensitivity to both the medical as well as the cultural needs of
these subjects. The results showed the subjects holding quality of staff and
physicians as primary importance in management of the healthcare organization.
This finding was interpreted to mean that the awareness of cross-cultural
management was a contributing factor in the quality of overall service and
sensitivity shown the customer as a patient in this healthcare organization.
5. DISCUSSION
There can be many obstacles when conducting studies in the area of cross-
cultural management. Many studies focus on variations within populations of
individuals. The study may sample a range of subjects to compare one population
with another or to test a theory as to possible variations within a range of
individual subjects. In either case, the data from the study is based on the
subjects’ experiences and responses.
In cross-cultural management, culture is a key concept. Many definitions of
culture are put forth, but none of them suggests that an individual constitutes a
culture of his or her own only. Culture is seen as something that is shared among
people. Researchers who study cross-cultural management are mostly concerned
with larger-scale groups defined by ethnicity or national identity. Cultures are
made up of individuals, each influencing the other. Although individuals grow up
and are socialized within a particular culture, individual actions over time may
cause those cultures to change. The influence of a culture on the individual will
be much stronger than the reverse.
Focusing on cross-cultural management in this study provides a broader
environmental and social context for analyzing the context within which
individuals are socialized. By studying this context, cross-cultural management
may be better able to predict the types of socialization and cultural practices that
are to be expected at a particular location. This knowledge helps researchers
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understand why particular cultural aspects of management are more pronounced
in some regions and not in others.
Using this same study in a different region may produce a different
outcome. This fact defines the challenge faced today and in the future by cross-
cultural management; that is, how to determine and deal with all cultural
sensitivities in an effort to enhance global competitiveness.
Communication worldwide has become easier, allowing organizations like
the healthcare organization in this study to collect data from samples drawn from
different nations. The data, however, cannot be simply put together and given a
cultural stamp. Data may vary in relation to numerous culture differences such
as where it was collected, accuracy of language translations, acquiescent
responses and biases, and types of surveys, to name a few factors. Data must
also be analyzed at the individual level. This research involved the perception
subjects had regarding the effectiveness of cross-cultural management in a Thai
healthcare organization. Again, interviews and development of a questionnaire
were the basis for data collection.
In this study, the subjects cited service with a pleasant environment and
stability both in management and staff as a major determinant in choosing a
hospital. The quality of treatment and the physicians and staff who built the
reputation of the healthcare organization were also major factors in the choice of
hospital facilities.
Although selection of a facility with good cross-cultural management was
seen as a consideration by the majority of subjects, the issue of quality in
treatment predominated. Some subjects indicated they had given no
consideration to the cross-cultural aspect of a healthcare facility. A more
secondary consideration was the sensitivity of cross-cultural communication.
Cross-cultural management and the effect it had on the strategy, operations,
and organization were felt to be a major influence in the way patients were
treated, thus giving patients a better level of comfort and confidence in the
treatment and quality of the treatment received. Subjects also felt that a higher
level of sensitivity and respect was given to the patient since there was a greater
awareness of cultural nuances, hence a great feeling of quality.
With regard to the effect of cross-cultural management on global
competitiveness, subjects again confirmed that they felt that cross-cultural
management was important in being able to provide patients with quality services
to effectively address their needs, while at the same time instilling confidence
and trust through effective communication and sensitivity.
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6. CONCLUSIONS
Throughout the interview process, the subject of quality and service for the
customer was the main focus of conversation. That focus was directed mainly to
marketing and human resource development as it relates to the international
market and specific needs and wants of culture and intercultural communication.
Whereas most hospitals can provide technologically advanced care, it is the way
in which the customer is treated while receiving that care that was the recurring
issue of why the Thai healthcare organization in this study was successful in
global competitiveness. To provide that quality in service, sensitivity to
customer’s cultural needs proved to be a part, but not the primary consideration
for, success.
Cross-cultural management has also been experiencing a dramatic
transformation from a situation where one organization gains at the expense of
another to one that is a mutually beneficial collaborative effort. In the
transformed situation, the joint effort creates more economic value for all parties
and cross-cultural awareness and management continue to promote a more
comfortable and trusting joint effort. This new cross-cultural management
strategy involves an organization looking forward and positioning itself in future
and possibly still undefined markets and developing markets with culturally
sensitive, collaborative efforts. In today's competitive global economy with its
intensively interconnected business environment, a major challenge faced by
healthcare organizations is not just about the value of how to study different
habits and learning how to shake hands in different cultures. This approach is not
the skill that will help develop an international business.
To communicate better with international clients, organizations need clear
cross-cultural visions and an international mind set. These tools will help the
organization to evaluate its international business potential in a foreign market.
To be successful in cross-cultural management and to compete globally, an
organization needs to be able to see things from different cultural points of view,
to be increasingly adaptive to different cultures, to understand respect and
professional behavior and its underlying meaning, and to be able to adjust its own
behavior to meet these cultural differences without bringing communications and
business to a standstill.
It is not enough today to assume that a concept such as “Thai-ness” (the
hospitality and service shown by Thai people to others) is unique. The
essentialist view that Thai people offer something different in the way of
hospitality and/or service can be dispelled by simply traveling to neighboring
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countries and beyond. Hospitality is exhibited worldwide in many different ways
and styles. Much of the essentialist view of Thai hospitality has been put forth
through marketing, lending no scientific proof that this is a unique phenomenon.
This essentializing of Thai service as something pre-modern obscures issues such
as capitalism and nationalism, which are major forces shaping the contemporary
world.
Cross-cultural management also needs to be sensitive to the dichotomy
between the Thai service provider and the customer. The customer may be seen
as authoritative and autonomous with a greater freedom of mobility and
economic leverage, therefore creating a hierarchal construct. This “Thai-ness”
could also be misconstrued by foreigners as being what Said [17] referred to as
“orientalism,” or as a cultural enterprise where the Thai provider is seen as static,
eternal, and uniform in opposition to the customer, who may be seen as dynamic,
innovative, and expansive. The provider may share the same modern cross-
cultural dynamics, but, in dealing with the customer, the provider temporarily
suspends its modern rationality and engages in pre-modern irrationality.
Culture and how it relates to today’s cross-cultural management is a
complex issue, comprising an amalgam of behavioral shared values, meanings,
and interpretations. To understand this concept adequately, we need a conceptual
framework that enables us to classify how samples differ. To be successful and
purposeful, that framework must be constructed on the basis of concepts that are
not simply derived from one culture and imposed on others. Therefore, the
concept of essentialism as possibly indicated by the term “Thai-ness” is not a
valid consideration in the context of the research question posed. Valid cross-
cultural concepts must be used to interpret differences in cross-cultural
management phenomena. The differences among individuals within cultures and
how they relate and react to cross-cultural management need to draw on
measures of cultural orientation that can also be obtained from the individuals
being studied. In this way, these studies can be used to test for universal effects
that have a direct result on cross-cultural management and also explain why those
effects are sometimes reduced or even reversed in some locations.
In conclusion, in today’s global environment, if a healthcare organization
desires expansion on an international scale or hopes to compete globally, it needs
to hold the human element as a primary consideration in that success. As
previously stated, the world economy has changed since this research was
conducted. Economies of world powers have been radically affected. The end of
2008 saw radical shifts in the wealth of nations as financial institutions collapsed
92 Is Cross-Cultural Management the Key to Success
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and banking systems contracted under the weight of non-performing debt. Due
in large part to this economic downturn, it is doubtful that similar responses
would be elicited today in some areas of the questions posed to subjects.
The research presented here reports that grounded theory has been used
effectively to investigate issues relating to the development of effective cross-
cultural management to enhance global competitiveness. The theory put forth,
therefore, is that effective cross-cultural management in such areas as providing
quality staffing and service to instill customer confidence and trust through
education, practice, and administration in a Thai healthcare organization can
enhance the global competitiveness of that business.
7. FUTURE STUDIES
In future studies, it would be productive for researchers to conduct
interviews with administrative staff in the marketing and human resources (both
national and international) divisions to determine the effective needs and wants
of current and potential customers, as well as the feasibility and requirements to
support further international expansion and to enhance global competitiveness of
the healthcare organization studied in the current research.
Further studies could also be directed to ascertain specifically the types of
services that are most beneficial to enhancing global competitiveness in Thai
business. A quantitative study could also be conducted to determine which
services provide the greatest return on investment to financially benefit the
organization. A third study could also be conducted to determine future markets
for expansion based on the demographics of patients using this healthcare
organization and on the types and frequency of services rendered to those
patients.
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APPENDIX
CROSS-CULTURAL MANAGEMENT QUESTIONNAIRE
USED IN THE CURRENT STUDY
Please answer the following questions as openly and with as much detail as you feel
necessary. All responses will be kept strictly confidential. Thank you for your
participation.
________________________________________________________________________
1. What is the single most important aspect of choosing a hospital for you?
2. Do you consider cross-cultural management when choosing a hospital?
3. Do you think cross-cultural management affects the strategy, operations, and
organization of a hospital?
4. Do you think cross-cultural management is important for a hospital to be
globally competitive?
5. Does effective cross-cultural management contribute to a hospital’s being
globally competitive?
6. Are medical services from Thailand attractive to you as a patient?
7. Why are medical services from Thailand attractive to you as a patient?
8. Please add additional comments you feel are relevant.
COMMENTS:
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ABOUT THE AUTHOR
William Philip Wall is a lecturer in the Graduate School of Management, Shinawatra
International University, Thailand; manager of International Business
Development/Contract Agreement for Thai Polycons Public Company Limited; and
international advisor for Civil Tech International Co., Ltd., Bangkok, Thailand. He has
guest lectured at Columbia, Yale, and New York University in the United States;
Chulalongkorn University; University of the Thai Chamber of Commerce; and
Ramkhamhaeng University, Thailand. He has presented research at conferences in
Thailand and the United Arab Emirates; published in international journals such as the
Language Forum, India, and International Journal of Information Systems in the Service
Sector, United States. His current research interests include cross-cultural management,
global competitiveness, and strategic management.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
