Weekly Reflection
Political�Geography Part�1:�Political�Independence�
&�Making�Nations
Map�of� Independence� Movements
Becoming�States � PostͲindependence�Latin�American�states�
suffered�from�social�polarization�– a�legacy�of� landownership�and�economic�practices� established�during�the�colonial�period
� Independence�struggles�were�not�class� struggles�but�antiͲcolonial�struggles�– began�life� with�internal�contradictions�and�destabilizing� internal�politics � Oppressed,�illiterate�masses�illͲprepared�for�
civic�responsibility;�elites�opposed�to�any� form�of�power�sharing
� Independence�did�not�mark�a�break�with�the� exploitative�colonial�attitudes�and�structures�– emergence�of�new�elites � Contradictory�political�environment�–
constitutions�with�eloquent�guarantees�of� personal�civil�liberties�that�have�been� widely�violated�since�independence
Caudillismo � After�independence,�the�economic�elite�became�
somewhat�autonomous�and�left�politics�to�the�military� figures�from�the�revolutions
� Caudillismo�– arbitrary�rule�by�a�military�or�political� strongman�or�chief;�rule�enforced�by�violent�means� (early):�political�assassination�or�an�army�revolt,�and� nonͲviolent�means�later:�election�rigging,�intimidation� – one�candidate,�continuismo�(rewriting�constitution,� or�rigging�election�for�handpicked�successor)
� Caudillos�had�regional�power�bases�and�exerted�power� over�localized�areas�– a�symptom�of�the�disunity�within� large�states � Some�caudillos�were�able�to�take�over�the�whole�
state�– Juan�Manuel�de�Rosas�(Argentina),�Antonio� Lopez�de�Santa�Anna�(Mexico)�– but�most�ruled� their�regional�enclaves
� Caudillismo�and�the�support�bases�established�around� them�gave�rise�to�the�cult�of�the�individual�that�we�see� later�in�populism�– associated�influences�of� paternalism,�clientelism�and�authoritarianism
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Elites�in�Power � PostͲindependence�caudillo�period�dissipated�around�1850s�as�
elites�reemerged�from�seclusion � States�became�more�unified�– facilitated�by�rail�and�road�
infrastructure�development�– as�foreign�investment�capital� flowed�into�the�region
� During�this�period,�politics�was�the�territory�of�the�rich�– either� directly�or�through�dictators�– Porfirio�Diaz�in�Mexico
� Key�political�issues�were�between�two�factions�– liberals�and� conservatives � Conservatives�– proͲChurch,�centralized�government�
favoring�big�cities � Liberals�– separation�of�church�and�state,�federalist�(power�
base�in�outlying�regions),�egalitarian�political�philosophies � In�19th century�Colombia,�there�were�8�national�civil�wars,�14�
regional�civil�wars,�and�many�other�local�disputes�between�the� two�parties
� Found�ways�to�ensure�elite�rule�was�maintained�– ballotͲbox� stuffing,�voteͲbuying,�literacy�laws�– illiterate�people�could�not� vote�in�Peru�until�1979
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Case�Study:�The�Mexican�Revolution and�Developing�Nationalism
Why�Revolution? � Mexico�under�Porfirio�Diaz
� He�encouraged�foreign�and�national�investment�in�oil,�railroads,�and�land� development�– trackage�increased�from�723�miles�in�1881�to�9029�miles� in�1900
� Expanded�haciendas�– peasants�lost�their�last�remnants�land�and�became� like�property�of�the�hacienda � By�1910,�98%�of�arable�land�was�owned�by�haciendas;�90%�of� peasants�were�landless
� Terrazas�hacienda�larger�than�Belgium�&�the�Netherlands�combined� � Vast�amounts�of�property�were�under�foreign�control�– by�1910,�US�held�
100M�acres�(22%�of�Mexico’s�land�surface) � Thousands�were�transformed�into�agrarian�and�industrial�workers�–
indebted�to�company�store,�substandard�living�conditions,�rigidly� controlled,�violently�suppressed�if�they�tried�to�unionize
� Results � Strong�land�owning�class,�weak�middle�class,�exploited�peasants�and�
workers � The�disaffected�coalesced�into�revolutionary�force
Two�Revolutions � MiddleͲclass�professionals,�intellectuals,�ranchers�
and�merchants�who�wanted�a�modern,� democratic,�progressive�state�with�a�strong� centralized�national�government � 1908�– Madero�publishes�The�Presidential�
Succession�in�1910�that�called�for�free� elections
� Madero�was�imprisoned�– Diaz�reͲelected� himself
� Peasants�who�wanted�land�reform�and�social� justice�based�on�local�selfͲrule � Two�fronts�– North�led�by�Pancho�Villa,�and�
the�South�led�by�Emiliano�Zapata� � Villa�and�Zapata’s�peasant�armies�defeated�the�
Federal�Army�in�1911�and�Madero�became� president
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Revolution�– Part�1 � Madero’s�Rule
� Established�free�press,�independent�Congress�with� power�over�executive,�enable�formation�of�political� parties
� But…old�bureaucracy�remained,�haciendas�were� untouched,�peasants�did�not�recover�their�land
� Battles�between�police�and�unions�&�peasant� invasions�in�rural�areas
� Results � Denounced�as�a�traitor�by�Zapata � Conspiracy�instigated�by�US�ambassador�led�to�
murder�of�Madero�by�General�Victoriano�Huerta � Huerta�was�an�incompetent�tyrant�– rebel�factions�
united�under�Venustiano�Carranza�(representing� middle�and�upper�classes�– businessmen,� professionals,�small�landowners);�Villa�and�Zapata� also�attacked�Huerta’s�forces�
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Revolution�– Part�2
� Huerta�was�defeated�in�1914�– then�the� revolution�turned�in�on�itself�– goals�of�Villa�and� Zapata�were�at�odds�with�Carranza�and� Obregon
� Carranza�was�briefly�pushed�out�of�Mexico�City� by�Villa�and�Zapata�– but�they�did�not�seize� power�– they�went�back�to�the�countryside
� Zapata�redistributed�land�according�to�each� village�and�the�villages�ruled�themselves� according�to�their�customs�(1914Ͳ1915)
� Local�autonomy�was�at�odds�with�the�vision�of�a� national�Mexican�state�by�Carranza�and� Obregon
� Alvaro�Obregon�defeats�Villa�in�1915 � Carranza�set�up�Zapata�to�be�assassinated�in�
1919�– many�of�Zapata’s�followers�still�don’t� believe�he�died
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Revolution�– Part�3
� Obregon�became�the�leader�in�1920�after� Carranza�was�mysteriously�assassinated
� He�implemented�the�revolutionary�Constitution�of� 1917,�which�included�land�reform�(to�win�over�the� Zapatismo�forces)�and�radical�laws�on�land� ownership�and�exploitation�of�subsoil�resources
� He�also�established�a�comprehensive�national� education�plan�– led�by�Jose�Vasconcelos � In�1910,�rural�masses�equaled�80%�of�the�
population�and�all�but�10%�of�them�were� illiterate�
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Creating�Nations � Nation:�A�group�of�people�who�share�particular�historicalͲ
cultural�characteristics�or�imagine�themselves�to�do�so � Nationalism:�Strong�identification�with�the�nation�to�which�a�
person�feels�they�belong;�encapsulates�a�set�of�beliefs�and� practices�which�people�come�to�accept�as�‘natural’
� ‘imagined�communities’—provide�feeling�of�belonging,� solidarity�and�commonality�among�people�who�have�never�met� and,�in�most�cases,�never�will�(Benedict�Anderson�1991)
Creating�Mexico�&�Mexicans � Vasconcelos�helped�to�created�a�new�nation�– that�represented�all�its�
parts�and�history�– Indian,�Spanish,�Mestizo�– through… � Education�Reform�&�the�Cultural�Revolution�– Mexican�muralists�
helped�to�“write”�the�history�of�Mexico�– to�bring�everyone�into�the� story
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