Research paper the significant principles of management communications

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Learning Objectives

After reading this chapter and studying the materials, you should be able to:

1. Describe the nature of communication. 2. Appreciate the differences and similarities between business communication and management

communication. 3. Recognize the functions and activities involved in managing and management communication. 4. Use the types of communication that take place at the primary levels of management. 5. Understand how business and communication trends influence careers and career success.

The Nature of Communication in Professional Settings

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CHAPTER 1Section 1.1 Information, Communication, and Meaning

1.1 Information, Communication, and Meaning

Learning Objective # 1: What is communication?

Communication touches nearly every aspect of life. From a child’s first words to final pronouncements at a funeral, communication influences how and what we learn, how we interact with oth- ers, and how we make a living. Those who experience difficulty communicating, for whatever reason, face a major disadvan- tage. Also, those who are gifted at communication often achieve a great deal of success, in their personal lives and on the job.

One of the great truisms of business may be that innova- tive ideas lead to big profits. The Internet and e-commerce resulted from the idea that com- puters could be linked together through new technologies. The concept that people would like made-to-order sandwiches in a fast-food mode became transformed into Subway res- taurants. The notion that consumers would respond to a low-priced, no-frills-but-friendly airline brought Southwest Airlines to life. Many companies, products, product improve- ments, and improvements in production systems resulted from a great idea that one per- son was able to transmit to others, and then turn into action (Gomez-Mejia, Balkin, & Cardy, 2005).

This text focuses on communication in the world of business. Two themes run throughout all of the chapters. The first concentrates on presenting individual communication skills that you need to enjoy a successful business career. The second is to adapt those skills to the task of managing in an organization. These themes are both enhanced by an emphasis on the importance of critical thinking and decision-making skills.

This chapter opens with a very basic discussion about the nature of information, com- munication, and meaning. The concepts are then applied to business situations. Next, the chapter provides a detailed description of management communication. It also explores the differences and similarities that exist in the areas of business communication and man- agement communication. The chapter continues with a discussion of the basic manage- ment activities and functions and how they relate to the communications process. The chapter also describes the changing context of business and management communication. Finally, it discusses the role communication plays in career success.

iStockphoto/Thinkstock From a child’s first words to final pronouncements at a funeral, communication influences how and what we learn, how we interact with others, and how we make a living.

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CHAPTER 1Section 1.1 Information, Communication, and Meaning

Herb Kelleher: Managing, Communicating, Succeeding

One of the true success stories in United States commerce can be found in the birth, growth, and development of Southwest Airlines. The central figure in the story, Herb Kelleher, has been widely noted as an architect of a career model that would succeed in nearly any industry. Among Kelleher’s many talents, the ability to communicate stands out.

Southwest Airlines owns the reputation of being a place where employees are empowered and loyal. To build this type of environment, Kelleher’s management style includes the following concepts:

• Share your purpose, vision, and values. • Make people heroes. • Be honest and consistent in communication. • Make sure you can see that communication is open

and flowing through all departments. • Make sure all the staff has the information they need

to make decisions (Frieberg & Frieberg, 2010).

Among these five principles, elements of a successful man- agement communication style are apparent. The ideas sug- gest a strong set of personal principles as a guideline for interpersonal relationships, effective inter- personal communication, and the development of communication systems that help people succeed on the job.

Kelleher’s methods included staff meetings that resembled pep rallies as much as business programs. The management team he led took a light-hearted approach to the business. They encouraged flight attendants to show their personalities, if the attendants felt like it. Some would wear Hawaiian shirts as they tended to passengers. Others sang while going about their duties. Southwest’s managers did not train people to do so, but, as Kelleher noted, “I just thought most people would rather be enter- tained than bored on a flight” (Dell, 2007).

Even as Kelleher encouraged his employees to have fun and be merry while on the job, he also exhib- ited an iron will when dealing with outside forces. Kelleher and Southwest engaged in numerous legal battles to get the airline off the ground. Industry rivals did not want additional competition in the Texas area, where Southwest launched operations. The company endured lawsuits and other maneu- vers before eventually beginning flights.

Kelleher’s communications model differs somewhat from traditional management and marketing thinking. While many organizations believe the starting point will be keeping customers happy, Kelle- her instead concentrated on keeping employees happy—believing that they would in turn provide the high-quality customer service that helps an airline succeed.

At the end of his time as CEO of Southwest Airlines, Kelleher was in high demand as a speaker for other companies and organizations. His fun-loving, self-effacing, and genuine style of leadership earned him many accolades as the personification of a charismatic leader. The birth and growth of his popular airline suggests such a title is well-deserved.

Questions for Students 1. What was the primary message that Herb Kelleher communicated to the employees at South-

west Airlines? 2. How does Kelleher’s communication style link to his success story at Southwest Airlines? 3. Following Kelleher’s departure, Southwest Airlines encountered several problems with airplane

safety, incurring history’s biggest fine for safety violations. Ignoring passenger and employee safety to increase profits represents a failure of ethical reasoning. What communication failures may have contributed to this problem, and how can a management communication system help ensure that it does not happen again?

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CHAPTER 1Section 1.1 Information, Communication, and Meaning

What Is Communication?

Communication may be defined as transmitting, receiving, and processing information. Information consists of any item that evokes or has meaning. Communication there- fore involves the transfer of meaning or information from one person or group to others (Fabun, 1968). Note that “information” and “meaning” range from the most trivial tidbit (“Look at that bird on the back fence”) to the most complex ideas possible (“The meaning of life is. . .”). Information takes a variety of forms, including:

• terms or words • symbols • figures or numbers • a single concept • sets of concepts combined

For any of these to evoke meaning, a recipient must understand them. For instance, most people older than 25 years of age who grew up in the United States understand this com- bination of letters and numbers:

Y2K

A child of 10, who knows how to read, probably does not. The young person does not process the information, owing to a lack of frame of reference. Consequently, actual com- munication occurs only when all three elements of the definition: (1) transmitting, (2) receiving, and (3) processing take place, because each is necessary to transfer meaning from one person to another (Berlo, 1960).

For Review

Define communication.

Explain the three main elements of the definition of communication as they relate to the concept of meaning.

Levels of Business Communication

In the world of commerce, a great deal of information flies about. Some is processed and has meaning; some does not. One purpose of this book is to help you become a better communicator by framing information in such a way that your intended audience under- stands the meaning, as you intend it. Business organizations rely on information being correctly sent and interpreted in a variety of ways and to a variety of audiences. Beyond interpersonal communication and communication systems in organizations, other levels exist. In this text, four levels of communication receive attention: (1) individual (inter- personal), (2) within organizations, (3) across organizational boundaries, and (4) across international boundaries.

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CHAPTER 1Section 1.1 Information, Communication, and Meaning

Communications Across Domestic and International Boundaries Additional vital information flows across organizational boundaries to other individuals, groups, and organizations. Communications across domestic boundaries include mes- sages sent to suppliers, retailers, governmental organizations, special-interest groups, and individual customers. These take the forms of letters, reports, statements, interpersonal contacts, public relations statements, and marketing messages. A company cannot survive unless quality interactions take place between it and these persons and groups.

Furthermore, in today’s global marketplace, many organizations form contacts and part- nerships with businesses in other countries. Some of these contacts take the form of sup- plier–manufacturer and manufacturer–retailer relationships. Others involve interactions with foreign governments and other agencies. A complete business communication pro- gram effectively accounts for all four levels of communication (McCune, 1998).

Communication Within Organizations In business organizations, two levels of communication are present: interpersonal com- munication and communication within the organization itself. In that context, interper- sonal communication takes place between individuals or one individual with a small set of other people. Communication systems are the methods and technologies that transmit information throughout an organization. Communication systems include group dynam- ics intra (within) and inter (between) groups as well as the most complex methods of moving information throughout an organization. Table 1.1 provides examples of interper- sonal communication and communication systems in an organization (Bedeian, 1986, pp. 522–541).

Table 1.1: Forms of communication within organizations

Interpersonal Communication Communication Systems

Supervisor with employee Between members of a team or group

Employee with employee Between two or more groups

Supervisor to a team of employees Formal management channels

Informal channels (gossip, rumors)

The coming chapters highlight all of the methods that facilitate communication in these circumstances. The material also notes the many obstacles to communication, both in interpersonal settings and in communication systems. Quality communication takes place only when the proper methods are used to overcome those barriers.

For Review

What two levels of business communication are present in the business community?

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CHAPTER 1Section 1.1 Information, Communication, and Meaning

The Role of Communication in Commerce

Just as communication influences nearly every aspect of life, communication affects every element of an organization. As an entrepreneurial idea germinates into a new company, the need for quality communication becomes evident with every step of the way. In other words, each stage of the business life cycle requires quality communication. Figure 1.1 dis- plays an example of a life cycle. This concept applies to products, companies, and indus- tries (McCarthy, 1981).

Figure 1.1: A life cycle model S

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In tr o d u ct io n

G ro w th

M a tu ri ty

D e cl in e

Time

The life cycle model depicts the evolution of a company from when it is born, through its stages of greatest success, to eventual decline and death. The company starts with growth, when sales are low but increasing; moves to maturity, where sales peak; then moves into decline, where sales decrease.

As a company is born, it takes a great deal of time, money, and effort to make the firm known to potential employees, suppliers, and customers. Unless the word gets out, the company will be doomed to failure. About 15 percent of new businesses survive past the first two years (Belmont University, 2005). Firms that survive the initial shake-out do so, in part, by effectively transmitting messages to customers, retail outlets, and every other person or group that has contact with the company.

As firms grow, an increasing number of groups require attention. Most of the time, the management team adds additional specialists to respond to this increase. For example, the production department might be divided into those who purchase and store raw materi- als, those who physically assemble the product, and the group who stores inventory and ships items to customers. The marketing department will likely be divided into areas such as sales, advertising, and public relations. This specialization allows for more precise mes- saging and servicing to various groups.

Mature firms require sophisticated information systems to efficiently and effectively con- duct operations. Managers in these firms are expected to effectively transmit information to internal employees and departments as well as interact with members of other organi- zations and the general public.

Even companies in decline need to communicate. A firm that goes out of business still needs to be liquidated, with remaining inventories and structures eventually sold to final buyers.

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CHAPTER 1Section 1.2 Business and Management Communication: Similarities and Differences

1.2 Business and Management Communication: Similarities and Differences

Learning Objective # 2: What are the differences and similarities between business communication and management communication?

Every type of organization, whether it is profit-seeking, a nonprofit, or a government, engages with a series of individuals and groups that affects its operations, and it is important to understand who these groups are before exploring how they commu- nicate with one another. The names given to those that interact with an organization are publics and stakeholders. Publics include every group that has contact with a company or organization. One set of publics is essentially neutral regarding what takes place within a firm. The media, for example, may report on a company’s success or failure without being affected in any way other than having a story to write. Employees in other companies that make contact with a firm are publics as well. Stakeholders consist of the publics that have vested interests in an organization. Table 1.2 displays two sets of stakeholders that interact with the management of an organization (Phillips & Freeman, 2003).

Table 1.2: Stakeholders

Internal Stakeholders External Stakeholders

Employees Suppliers

Unions Customers (individual and other businesses)

Shareholders Government Local community Educational institutions Special-interest groups

Internal stakeholders derive their vested interests from wanting the organization to suc- ceed, in terms of profits, growth, and stability. Employees want to believe their jobs are secure, as do unions. Shareholders seek evidence that the stock will retain its value or grow in value as well as pay dividends.

The messages sent out change as a firm passes through the stages of its life cycle. The media available to send messages evolve, and the audience shifts. Company leaders suc- ceed when they are able to identify the right voice and message for each phase. Skills in the areas of business communication and management communication are vital to each operation.

For Review

What are the four parts of a life cycle?

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CHAPTER 1Section 1.2 Business and Management Communication: Similarities and Differences

External stakeholders have more diverse vested interests. Suppli- ers want ongoing customers to buy their raw materials. Retail and business-to-business cus- tomers desire quality products at favorable prices. The gov- ernment works to maintain a business environment in which companies thrive while limiting illegal activity and unfair com- petition. The local community wants an employer that treats workers in a fair and equitable manner and that maintains a safe environment. Educational institutions like to know that their graduates have places to

apply for work and jobs waiting for them. Special-interest groups pursue various agendas that at times influence a company’s operations, such as when People for the Ethical Treat- ment of Animals (PETA) protested the use of animals in circuses, rodeos, motion pictures, and in product research and testing (as cited in Freeman, 1984, pp. 3–30).

Jupiterimages/Thinkstock Suppliers are important stakeholders for many manufacturing companies.

For Review

Define publics and stakeholders.

Business Communication

Business communication consists of the total set of venues used to transmit messages to all publics and stakeholders, within the company and outside the company. The range of contacts included in business communication extends from a single person filling out a blank application and submitting a cover letter to complex internal reports on technologi- cal innovations, trade secrets, and reports to the government. Business communication consists of numerous modes, including those shown in Table 1.3.

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CHAPTER 1

Management Communication

Over the years, management communication has been compared to a variety of concepts. Some suggest it resembles electricity, or the energy that makes a company run. Another perspective argues that communication takes the form of the glue that holds a business together. A third vantage point is that communication is most like gasoline, a fuel that keeps the business engine running. No matter which perspective you believe, it is easy to conclude that management communication represents an integral part of the business.

Table 1.3: Modes of business communication

Written Verbal

Letters Face-to-face interactions

Memos Meetings

Job application forms Presentations

Business proposals Speeches

Internal Reports News conferences

Reports to shareholders

Contracts

Company manual or handbook

Company magazine or newspaper

Bulletin board

Public relations releases

Email/social media

Website

Week6/02CH_Baack_Business.pdf

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Learning Objectives

After reading this chapter and studying the materials, you should be able to:

1. Describe the essential parts of an interpersonal communications model. 2. Identify the barriers to interpersonal communication. 3. Overcome the barriers to interpersonal communication. 4. Recognize the additional challenges present in international interpersonal communication.

The Interpersonal Communication Process

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CHAPTER 2Section 2.1 Interpersonal Communication

2.1 Interpersonal Communication

Learning Objective # 1: What are the essential parts of an interpersonal communication model?

One-on-one contact continues to be the most crucial form of business and man-agement communication. Interpersonal communication interactions take place between two or more people—co-workers, with customers, suppliers, and others in the marketing channel, with members of governmental agencies, between supervisors and employees, and with a wide variety of publics on a daily basis. Each represents the potential to build trust, loyalty, and other positive elements of a relationship but also to generate disharmony, distrust, and, at times, hostility. An effective communicator tries to maintain pleasant and positive relations with others, even when points of disagreement arise. Understanding how interpersonal communication works helps form the foundation for improving your social skills on the job and in everyday life.

Bill Marriott: Maintaining a Legacy of Management Communication Success

The Marriott International chain of hotel properties has undergone a series of dramatic success peri- ods along with eras of change. Marriott International’s “spirit to serve” culture is based on a business philosophy established more than 80 years ago by founders J. Willard and Alice S. Marriott, who often said, “Take care of the associates, and they’ll take care of the guests.” By 2010, approximately 300,000 Marriott associates were serving guests in Marriott-managed and franchised properties throughout the world.

CEO Bill Marriot is responsible for much of the com- pany’s current success. An ABC News story about Marriott noted, “In the post-Enron era, when CEOs tend to generate publicity for cutting corners and questionable business practices, Marriott sets a dif- ferent standard. His attention to detail is legendary, as is his devotion to his employees. He thinks both have been the key to the company’s success” (ABC News Nightline, 2007).

Marriott has built and maintained a culture designed to enhance personal relationships with individual employees that transfers to quality service to cus- tomers. He drops in to personally inspect hundreds of hotels a year. His style is “hands on,” literally, with plenty of pats on the back and even hugs from loyal

workers. He insists on a first-name basis. Marriott is so popular that company employees treat him with nearly “rock star” status when he arrives at a property (ABC News Nightline, 2007).

Marriott learned much of his management communication style from his father. “I’d walk with him into a hotel, we’d be late for a meeting, and he’d take 20 minutes and sit down in the lobby and talk to the lobby maid. He wanted to know how her kids were, was she making enough money, does she have enough work hours, was her health care good” (ABC News Nightline, 2007). (continued)

Bill Marriott's communication style is an integral part of the success of his company.

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CHAPTER 2Section 2.1 Interpersonal Communication

Bill Marriott expects his managers to maintain high standards of quality, and he gives them a 159- page checklist to make sure they take care of every detail. An interactive blog, titled “Marriott on the Move” allows CEO Marriott to personally converse with the public and with employees. Any complaint receives a prompt response and action as needed.

Bill Marriott has received the International Association of Business Communicators (IABC, 2007) Leadership in Communication Award. The award stipulated that “Marriott International is also well known as a great place to work and for its commitment to diversity and community service. It has consistently been named to Fortune’s lists of most admired companies, best places to work and top companies for minorities.”

The J.D. Power & Associates 2007 North America Hotel Guest Satisfaction Study measured overall guest hotel satisfaction across six hotel segments. The Ritz-Carlton brand came in No. 1 in the luxury segment. The JW Marriott brand came in No. 2. Business Traveler, Executive Travel, and Condé Nast Traveler have also recognized the company (Marriott.com, 2011).

Superior customer service is built on the foundation provided by a quality management communica- tion program. The Marriott International story serves as an example of the role that excellent inter- personal communication skills play in a successful company and a person’s career.

Questions for Students

1. What does Bill Marriott’s management style communicate to employees? 2. Should a CEO insist that company employees call him/her by a first name? Would the CEO’s

gender make a difference in your answer? 3. Would Bill Marriott’s hands-on communication style succeed in every country?

Bill Marriott: Maintaining a Legacy of Management Communication Success (continued)

A Simplified Interpersonal Communication Model

Over the years, several models of interpersonal communication have been created. The models portray the movement of information from one person to another or to a set of people. Figure 2.1 provides one of the most straightforward models.

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CHAPTER 2Section 2.1 Interpersonal Communication

Figure 2.1: A simplified interpersonal communications model

Encoding

Transmission

Decoding

Feedback

Device

Sender Reciever(s)

= Noise (Barriers to Communications)

This model depicts a conversation between a manager and an employee, between co-workers, a presentation by a salesperson to a buyer or a buying committee, and numerous other interpersonal exchanges.

Source: Adapted from Guffrey, M. E., & Loewy, D. (2011). Business Communication: Process and Product. Mason, OH: South-Western Cengage Learning, pp. 13–14.

In the model, the sender is the person transmitting a message or an idea. In business set- tings, a conversation is initiated with a communication goal in mind. The goals are as simple as an office assistant reminding a supervisor about an upcoming meeting or as complex as a manager trying to convince a key employee to stay with the company instead of accept- ing a job offer from another firm. A salesperson who heads a team that is trying to win over a new client sends the message. That person may speak to a set of receivers, the pur- chasing team from the client company, and achieving the communication goal requires carefully chosen words, visual images on a PowerPoint display, inspiring music in the background, and handouts provided to each person in the client’s buying group.

Encoding is the presentation of verbal and nonverbal cues. Encoding takes four forms: (1) verbal, oral cues, (2) verbal, written cues, (3) nonverbal cues, and (4) electronic transmis- sions that employ both verbal and nonverbal elements.

Verbal cues are words. They take the form of spoken language, printed matter, a text mes- sage, or even a drawing used to represent a concept. Verbal encoding includes the abbre- viations and shortcuts that are part of tweets and text messages.

Nonverbal cues are all other forms of message-sending, including posture, eye contact, physical distance from the receiver, voice volume, gestures, and physical contact, such as touching someone on a shoulder or arm. Most messages contain both verbal and nonver- bal elements.

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CHAPTER 2Section 2.1 Interpersonal Communication

Electronic transmissions go beyond text messages and emails. Technologies such as Skype allow for interpersonal meetings via televised images. The receiver encounters both ver- bal and nonverbal cues in those conversations.

The transmission device is anything that carries a message, including sound waves, light waves, pieces of paper, mobile-phone signals and screens, the Internet, computer moni- tors, billboards, radio and television signals, and an endless number of additional carriers. Modern management communication features a variety of new transmission devices that add to speed and efficiency but also create confusion and disruption for individuals try- ing to communicate on the job.

Decoding occurs as the receiver encounters the message. Every sensory device can be part of decoding, including hearing, seeing, feeling, smelling, and tasting various cues. In a standard interpersonal interaction, sight and hearing are often used. Decoding involves interpretation of verbal and nonverbal cues, normally at the same time.

The receiver is the sender’s intended audience. It can be a single person or a small group of people. Someone who passes by and hears a conversation is not considered a receiver, unless the sender suddenly adjusts the message to make sure the intruder receives part of the message. A manager who says, “We are going to be short-handed for a while,” and just as the outsider passes by adds, “So everyone is going to have to pitch in,” has expanded the audience to the second receiver.

Feedback returns to the sender in the form of evaluation of the message. The receiver transmits verbal and nonverbal cues that suggest, “I don’t understand,” “I disagree,” “You’re absolutely right,” “This is frustrating,” and other forms of reaction to the sender, including, “I’m not really listening.” Then, most of the time, the conversation continues (Burgoon, Hunsaker, & Dawson, 2004; Shannon, 1948).

In an ideal world, the communication goal is met, the message travels without interrup- tion, the receiver understands the idea correctly, and feedback is transmitted confirming the message got through. Unfortunately, the world is often not ideal. A variety of forces and factors can prevent messages from being sent correctly or accurately received. In Fig- ure 2.1, the disruptions are shown as noise, or the barriers to communication.

Evaluation The simplified model of communication displayed in Figure 2.1 offers a method to explain how a person seeks to transmit an idea or message to someone else or to a group of peo- ple. The concepts of encoding, transmission devices, and decoding help explain the move- ment of a message from a sender to a receiver. The model does not, however, accurately depict what transpires in an actual conversation or exchange of ideas. This led to the evolution of more intricate models, discussed next.

For Review

Name and describe each part of an interpersonal communication model.

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CHAPTER 2Section 2.1 Interpersonal Communication

An Interaction Model

In the 1960s, models were expanded to indicate the interaction of two people engaged in a dialog. Figure 2.2 illustrates how models were expanded. The interaction model remains “linear” in the sense that a message first goes one way (Person A to Person B) then the other (Person B back to Person A). Clearly, most conversations are not quite that stilted, leaving room for additional ideas about how interpersonal communication transpires.

Figure 2.2: An interaction model of communication

Encode with

Language

Message in

Medium Receive

and Interpret

Encode with

Language

Message in

Medium

Receive and

Interpret

This model depicts mutual transmission, the reception of messages, and feedback. In essence, a mirror was added to show the more interactive nature of communication.

Transaction Model

More recent conceptualizations of the nature of communication propose a far more com- plex and sophisticated pattern of message generation and reception. Instead of viewing a conversation as essentially a ping-pong match, where one person sends and the other receives and then the process reverses, actual discussions take place nearly simultaneously.

In the transaction model (see Figure 2.3), a person speaking observes the intended audience as the message is being sent. The speaker may observe a “receiver” or second person with a scowl, a grin, or nodding in agreement before all of the words have been transmitted. In

For Review

Describe the interaction model of interpersonal communication.

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CHAPTER 2Section 2.1 Interpersonal Communication

essence, rather than a ping-pong match, conversa- tions more closely resemble a dance in which both parties socially construct the interaction. Such a model accounts for interruptions, persons finishing each other’s sentences, and incomplete transmis- sions, finishing with phrases such as, “You know what I’m talking about,” or “You see what I’m say- ing” as the other person nods “yes,” or “I know you think I’m wrong” as the person nods “no.”

Further, the transaction approach models the movement from misunderstanding to under- standing, from disagreement to agreement, as well as the escalation of a conversation into a conflict. In essence, not every dance goes well. At times, the partners move in perfect synch; at oth- ers, they stumble or step on each other’s toes.

Each of the three models—the simplified ver- sion, the interaction model, and the transaction model—contains key elements of encoding, trans- mission, decoding, and feedback. More important, the models also indicate that conversations can go awry and that misunderstandings occur. The pri- mary causes of these disruptions are called noise, or the barriers to interpersonal communication.

Figure 2.3: A transaction model of communication

Messages

The transaction model of communication is similar to a dance between two partners in a conversation. The messages flow in both directions as each communicator sends and receives based on responding to the other communicator.

Jupiter Images/Thinkstock The transaction model suggests that conver- sations more closely resemble a dance in which both parties socially construct the interaction.

For Review

Describe the transaction model of interpersonal communication.

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CHAPTER 2Section 2.2 Barriers to Interpersonal Communication

2.2 Barriers to Interpersonal Communication

Learning Objective # 2: What are the potential barriers to interpersonal communication?

Many times, a message will be sent but not correctly received. Three categories of barriers to individual communication explain this problem. Each of the items shown in Figure 2.4 can distort or disrupt a message at any point, as depicted in Figure 2.1. The first set of barriers—individual differences—is present simply because of the characteristics of the two people involved in the conversation. Effective communica- tors know about each of the potential barriers and find ways to overcome them.

Figure 2.4: Barriers to individual communication

Individual differences

Situational factors

Transmission problems

Numerous factors can disrupt quality communication between individuals.

Individual Differences

Any number of messages become lost because of a difference between the sender and receiver. Sometimes the barrier emerges due to natural circumstances, such as age or gen- der. Social events and the social construction of language generate others. Table 2.1 identi- fies the individual differences that can obstruct quality communication.

Table 2.1: Individual differences

Age

Gender

Exclusive language

Educational level

Organizational rank

Personalities

Age Differences in age lead to varying frames of reference. A Baby Boomer would likely be familiar with a reference to Woodstock. Someone who was born in 1990 may not. A young employee probably knows quite a bit more about a current cultural icon, such as Lady Gaga, than an older worker does. Each generation shares markers, or mutually experi- enced events. The Greatest Generation (World War II) veterans vividly recall the bomb- ing of Pearl Harbor. Almost all Baby Boomers remember the assassination of President

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CHAPTER 2Section 2.2 Barriers to Interpersonal Communication

Kennedy and the first walk on the moon. Generation Xers have a first space shuttle disas- ter in common.

Age may become a barrier to management communication when an older worker offers constructive criticism to younger employee, especially when the older worker is not a direct supervisor. The more junior employee may respond ineffectively or defensively. Also, many younger supervisors report problems managing more senior employees. Age discrimination occurs in a variety of organizations. Sometimes it can be as subtle as a younger manager making the senior worker feel unwelcome, or by telling crude, age- based jokes about an older supervisor, thereby undermining the individual’s authority and ability to communicate with younger employees.

Gender Historically, management communication writers and others, including those in the pop- ular press, have extensively explored differences in gender. One of the most noteworthy researchers, Deborah Tannen, presented many gender-based difficulties in her book You Just Don’t Understand and in other works (Tannen, 1990). Subtle contrasts between genders sometimes influence male-female interactions. Tannen has pointed out as many as 105 key differences. Note that not every man or woman is inclined to exhibit these patterns. Even though some may be true of men in general or women in general, many individual men and women do not exhibit these patterns.

In general, then, women are more likely to employ more expressive and effusive lan- guage, to use a verbal hedge, such as “umm” when thinking something over, or “so” to add power to an expression (“She was so smart”), and are more likely to frame business requests as questions. A female supervisor may say, “Would you mind making copies of this report?” Women are less likely to directly criticize an employee, especially in public.

Males tend to use more direct language. Men are more likely to interrupt conversational partners, especially when speaking to women. Males also often use sports metaphors as part of everyday language, such as “She took one for the team”; “He gave a Hail Mary answer;” “This is our goal line stand”; and “That was a back door play.” Men are more inclined to aggressively disagree with someone in public. They are also more prone to making declara- tive statements of fact (sometimes when they don’t actually know the facts). Men are more likely to ignore comments that have been offered by another person, especially when that person disagrees with them. And finally, men tend to find ways to control conversations, especially by changing the subject when they feel they are “losing” an argument.

Women and men have different experiences and operate in different social contexts, which lead to differing genres of speech and skills for accomplishing things with words. Patterns of interaction in rural areas vary from those in urban areas; differences may be found in various regions of a country, and factors such as ethnicity also affect communication styles of both men and women. This, in turn, shapes the diversity found in male/female com- munication patterns (Maltz & Borker, 2007).

Despite these prevalent tendencies and differences, recent formulations of communication and gender issues add a more complex conceptualization of the relationship. Previously, male/female communication patterns were viewed in a binary manner in which “men are

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likely to do this and women are likely to do this.” Current conceptualizations suggest a wider diversity of gender identities and communication patterns (Cameron, 2005).

Exclusive Language Exclusive language consists of terminology that is only understood by a distinct set of individuals. Those who are unfamiliar with the language are excluded from the conver- sation when it is used. In the workplace, numerous differences between individuals per- petrate exclusive language. For instance, those who graduate from a certain college can exclude others through continual conversations about campus events that took place years before or by referring to individuals known only to the group. Exclusive language accen- tuates the differences between employees and creates an eventual barrier, based largely on excluded employees feeling like they are not part of the “in-crowd” on the job. Exclu- sive language reflects racial differences, differences in status, and even differences in com- pany departments. Sports metaphors used by men in the workplace can become a form of exclusive language. In each case, its deliberate use is designed to alienate or separate one group from another (Media Task Force, 2011).

For example, a sales manager approaches a group of informa- tion technology (IT) employees with a request to update the company’s web-based purchas- ing system. The IT employees respond with their tech terminol- ogy, which excludes the salesper- son. Another example involves an informal setting where a set of employees who graduated from the same high school might exclude someone who did not, simply by constantly talking about “old times” whenever a group gathers for lunch or in other social situations.

Educational Attainment If nothing else, each year of education adds to your vocabulary. For most, studying in high school and college also improves a person’s ability to think critically and to analyze situations using a greater set of decision-making concepts and models. Problems occur when someone who possesses these skills converses with someone who does not, and the educated person is unwilling or unable to shift gears. A supervisor seeking to intimidate employees might use fancy words and literary references that demonstrate his or her level of education. This type of approach can be counterproductive and is a common barrier to interpersonal communication.

Stockbyte/Thinkstock People who rely on sports metaphors at work create communication barriers as a form of exclusive language, because not everyone understands the meaning.

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Organizational Rank Have you ever run into someone you idolize? For most, an encounter with a celebrity or idol results in a tongue-tied, stammering interaction. Any person with greater status, no matter the context, becomes accustomed to dealing with people who are somewhat awestruck or anxious. The same process takes place in organizational settings. For some employees, a chance meeting with the CEO or some high-ranking executive in the com- pany leads to an awkward exchange of pleasantries or an uncomfortable silence. Many employees struggle to speak publicly, and the presence of a high-ranking member of the firm in the audience potentially worsens the problem. Further, some research indicates that people at different levels of status may interpret words differently (Hale & Delia, 1976).

Status also affects the ability to listen effectively. When a worker feels unsettled in front of people of higher rank, the employee may focus on trying to look good in front of them at the cost of not carefully monitoring the message they are transmitting. Others seek to ingratiate themselves or “kiss up” rather than to have a genuine conversation. They wait for an opening to pass along a compliment instead of hearing what the executive has to say.

Personalities Some people just rub each other the wrong way. Various personality types do not combine for quality communication. A shy person may feel pressured, bullied, or intimidated by an outgoing or bombastic person. Those with strong egos may clash with one another, each thinking he or she is right about everything. An individual with an analytical and reserved personality may have difficulty communicating with someone who is more inclined to react instinctively to problems and circumstances.

Individual differences create a variety of circumstances under which communication does not take place as intended. As companies become more diverse, some of these problems become more complicated. Quality communication begins with awareness of these and other potential individual barriers.

For Review

What types of individual differences create barriers to interpersonal communication?

Situational Factors

At times, characteristics associated with senders and receivers are not the primary barrier to communication. Instead, situational circumstances are the cause of the problem. Table 2.2 lists three common situational factors that prevent a message from being received.

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Table 2.2: Situational factors that disrupt communication

Emotions

Anger

Sadness

Envy and jealousy

Romantic feelings

Personal attitudes and values

Settings

Distractions

Emotions It is impossible to work in any organization and remain unaffected by emotions. Some are positive and conducive to pleasant working relationships. Feelings of affection, loyalty, and trust help build and maintain quality interpersonal interactions.

Other emotions disrupt communication and interfere with a workplace process. Anger and sadness are two of the more commonly mentioned emotions that affect communication.

Simply stated, it is difficult to express yourself clearly when you are mad. Anger tends to disturb a person’s concentration. Nearly everyone would have to admit to saying some- thing, while annoyed in the heat of the moment, that they wish they could take back. The consequences of such outbursts play out both in the short term and in the long term. In the short term, the conversation quickly deteriorates and a meaningful resolution to a dispute becomes unlikely. In the long term, some people have powerful memories. These people may recall an insult or words of frustration in future interactions with the same individual.

In terms of sadness, a person’s thinking becomes muddled when he or she is down in the dumps. It does not have to be clinical depression to be a barrier to communication. Some- one sad or just in a bad mood may choose words less carefully or may be less willing to speak up.

Beyond these more obvious emotions, other factors influence managerial communication, including envy and jealousy, romantic intentions, and the emotions associated with per- sonal attitudes and values.

Envy and jealousy evolve from a series of causes. An employee can become jealous when he or she is passed over for promotion. Another may be envious of the job assignment given to a peer. Envy and jealousy may result from seeing your supervisor giving extra attention to a co-worker while basically ignoring you. These feelings may impact future conversations. More caustic comments may be made, more guarded language may be used, or someone may be treated with a cold silence and not know why.

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Romantic feelings and intentions result in one of the more complex communication problems. Many offices are aware of the possible complications that surface from office relationships. Some go so far as to prohibit employees from dating one another; others enforce clear policies that permit romantic relationships but create clear guidelines for their expression in the professional realm. When a supervisor expresses romantic inten- tions toward an employee, any overture can become grounds for sexual harassment com- plaints. Table 2.3 defines sexual harassment and identifies the two most common forms and their consequences. Still, at times, an employee is attracted to a co-worker, and, at times, the attraction becomes mutual. Before pursuing any romantic involvements at work, the employee(s) should make sure such actions do not violate company policies and practices, and consider all the possible consequences of pursuing a relationship.

Table 2.3: Sexual harassment and management communication

Definition: Sexual harassment consists of unwelcome verbal, visual, or physical conduct of a sexual nature that is severe or pervasive, and affects working conditions or creates a hostile work environment.

Forms

1. “Quid pro quo”: Sexual advances or sexual favors are exchanged for favorable treatment, including better job assignments, undeserved performance evaluation ratings, promotions, and pay raises.

What it communicates

The way to move up in this organization is by giving in to sexual demands. All of the human resource activities are tainted. If you are unwilling to play the game, you cannot get ahead.

2. Hostile environment: Sexual innuendos in language, including jokes, sexual references, and inappropriate comments about appearance and dress; unwanted touching; signage (sexually referent calendars, cartoons); and conduct toward another person that suggests a discrepancy in how people are treated.

What it communicates

The person is the object of disrespect and even contempt. This person will not receive equal treatment. If you don’t “play along,” you will be ostracized.

Source: Fitzgerald, L. F., Gelfand, M. J., & Drasgow, F. (1995). Measuring sexual harassment: Theoretical and psychometric advances. Basic and Applied Social Psychology, 17(4), 425–445. Retrieved from http://edocket.access.gpo.gov/cfr_2009/julqtr/29cfr1604.11.htm

An array of personal attitudes and values interrupt communication. Racism, sexism, and other forms of discrimination result in derisive language designed to intimidate or insult others. Meaningful, constructive, and high-quality interpersonal communication cannot take place in these circumstances (Weitzer, 2002).

Settings At times, the organizational setting itself creates communication problems. Many times these barriers result from unfortunate events. For example, when a manager announces that a popular employee has become terribly sick or has died, trying to effectively transmit

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messages after that point will be problematic. The same is true after a company declares layoffs or relocation to a foreign country. In some instances, joyous occasions hinder com- munication, such as the announcement of the retirement of a manager or office parties celebrating holidays.

Distractions Even the most chaotic workplace can be influenced by distractions. Outside weather events, including snowstorms or strong rains, tend to draw attention away from an inter- personal conversation or a presentation to a group. Any workplace that is near a construc- tion site probably suffers from some inattention due to the noise outside.

More subtle cues also disrupt interpersonal interactions, such as when one person tries to hold a conversation with someone who is dressed inappropriately. On an even smaller scale, have you ever tried to talk to someone with something stuck in his teeth?

In summary, the situational factors of emotions, settings, and distractions tend to overlap as barriers to communication.

For Review

What situational factors disrupt interpersonal communication?

Describe the two main forms of sexual harassment and the message each sends.

Transmission Problems

In any conversation or message-sending situation, the number of transmission venues varies and involves a variety of words and symbols. One key to being an effective commu- nicator is the ability to choose the right words and send them in the right manner. Table 2.4 lists a different set of barriers that prevent messages from arriving.

Table 2.4: Transmission problems as barriers to communication

Language (semantics)

Slang

Technical terminology

Disabilities

• Sender

• Receiver

Nonverbal contradictions of verbal messages

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Language and Semantics Even in circumstances in which everyone speaks the same language, barriers to com- munication still arise. Semantics problems emerge when a word or phrase has more than one meaning, and the sender and receiver are using different versions. For instance, the word “justified” can be interpreted as “acceptable” or “necessary,” which have different connotations. Many managers claim they have an “open-door policy.” What this actually means varies widely. Some are suggesting that they willingly listen to complaints and suggestions. Others are saying that you can come in and ask for help, but nothing more.

Language becomes more complicated when various dialects are present. In the United States, linguists have argued that regional dialects are beginning to disappear; however, many still exist. These dialects affect the pronunciation of words as well as how terms are used. In the Northeast, the words “park” and “yard” sound significantly different than when spoken in the South. In the South, many restaurants serve sweet tea, which means cold tea that is already sweetened with sugar, while in the North iced tea typically comes unsweetened.

Slang Nearly any language used widely around the world contains a great deal of slang. What becomes problematic, for purposes of managerial communication, is that slang evolves and changes fairly quickly. In the 1980s, the terms “rad” and “gnarly” were popular with teens. In the 1950s, the word “bitchin” was in vogue. Each generation develops its set

of slang expressions, and even those change over time. The Baby Boom generation was fond of terms such as “bummer,” “mellow,” and “cool,” in the 1960s. Two decades later, some- one still using that terminology was thought to be something of a buffoon. The 1980s and 1990s films Valley Girl and Clueless spoofed girls who included the word “like” in every sentence. Such usage is now common, even among older adults.

Slang creates barriers to mana- gerial communication in several ways. First, someone unfamiliar with a term may take offense. The concept of a woman being

“phat” in the 1990s insulted some, who thought they were being called “fat” when they were really being told they were attractive. Second, slang at work often presents the image of being less polished, or less educated. Applicants who cannot get through an interview without using heavy doses of “ya know” and “like” may find themselves more quickly

Jupiterimages/Thinkstock Social media have created an entire new generation of slang terminology.

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screened out. The same holds true for those seeking to be promoted. Third, the use of slang when dealing with clients and customers may lead the contact to think the salesper- son is either taking him or her for granted or is not acting in a professional manner.

A new form of slang has emerged in social media. Due to the 140-character limitation imposed by Twitter, many shortcuts have evolved. Table 2.5 contains some of the more frequently used abbreviations. Someone unfamiliar with tweet abbreviations encounters a major barrier to interpersonal communication, in an age where social media use has grown at a tremendous pace.

Table 2.5: Popular Twitter abbreviations and acronyms

abt = about njoy = enjoy

b/c = because OMW = on my way

chk = check PPL = people

deets = details RU? = are you?

Eml = email shld = should

FB = Facebook TIA = thanks in advance

GR8 = great Twaiting = Twittering while waiting

IC = I see U = you

j/k = just kidding V2V = voice to voice on the phone

LMK = let me know w00t!= excitement

mil = million YW = you’re welcome

In the workplace, some common abbreviations used in email and instant messages include:

• BRB—Be right back • CTRN—Can’t talk right now • IMO—In my opinion • HTH—Hope this (or that) helps • IAM—In a meeting • WFM—Works for me • BFO—Blinding flash of the obvious • DHTB—Don’t have the bandwidth • SLAP—Sounds like a plan

Technical Terminology The explosion of new technologies brings with it a vast amount of new terms. In the year 2000, the term “app” had no special meaning with regard to mobile phone devices. A “tweet” was something sung by a bird.

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In business settings, each discipline (accounting, information technology, marketing) has its own language. When someone from one area speaks to another in a different department, the use of technical terms and acronyms may create confusion. While an accountant knows what DDB means, a marketer may not. A marketer may suggest that microtargeting will work for one product but not for another; someone from information technology might not know precisely what that means. Department-specialized termi- nology can create a form of exclusive language in the workplace.

Disabilities Effective communication is difficult enough under ideal conditions. Disabilities can pres- ent additional challenges for both senders and receivers. Senders with speech impair- ments have greater difficulty framing messages. Someone who stutters or has a lisp may have trouble speaking, especially to groups of people. Part of the challenge may be the actual forming of words; the other part can emerge as the embarrassment or shyness that results. Table 2.6 identifies additional speech problems (Buzzle.com, 2011).

Table 2.6: Types of speech disabilities

Articulation Disorder Difficulty in producing a specific sound

Dysarthria Slurred speech

Cluttering Speaking too quickly or with too much repetition

Expressive Language Disorder Difficulty in verbally expressing ideas

Source: http://www.buzzle.com (2011). Types of speech disorders

Receivers can experience problems in conversations as well. Two common challenges include visual and hearing impairments. A visually impaired person misses some or all of the nonverbal cues transmitted by the sender. In essence, the person only encounters part of the message. Hearing impairments range from a partial loss to total deafness. Hearing can be affected by tinnitus, or ringing of the ears, or muddled reception. In each instance, mes- sage reception becomes more difficult.

Nonverbal Contradictions of Verbal Messages Far too often, what a person says verbally does not correspond with his or her body lan- guage and gestures. Some experts have suggested that nonverbal cues constitute the major part of a person-to-person message (Archer & Akert, 1977). Even if that is not the case, it is safe to conclude that nonverbal cues send powerful signals. Saying something is interest- ing while looking distracted or inattentive conveys two different messages. When some- one crowds you, it is hard to avoid feeling uncomfortable or believing that the person is being aggressive, no matter what words are spoken. A person who tells you to “trust me” but cannot make eye contact sends two very different signals.

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In job interviews, someone who arrives late, is dressed casu- ally or inappropriately, gives a limp handshake, fails to make eye contact, and slumps down in a chair will likely be quickly removed from consideration. Tardiness can be interpreted as irresponsibility. Casual dress and slouching portray a lack of interest. Failing to make eye con- tact indicates you have some- thing to hide. A weak handshake suggests you will not be asser- tive or that you lack confidence.

Some of the transmission prob- lems relate to the actions of the sender. Poor choice of language, excessive use of slang, overuse of technical terminology, and sending contradictory nonverbal cues may be due to the poor communication skills of the sender. Under the proper circumstances, and with the proper training, these difficulties can be improved. Remedies for disabilities are also available. Hearing aids and signers assist those who are deaf. The visually impaired have access to resources to help them communicate with those who do not have visual impairments, including low vision aids, magnifiers, talking watches, and telephone signaling devices.

2.3 Overcoming Barriers to Communication

Learning Objective # 3: How can a sender and receiver overcome the barriers to interpersonal communication?

Excellent communication results from careful preparation and situation sensitivity by the sender and receiver in any context. Following a few simple steps helps a sender avoid misunderstandings and conflict, and improve a message’s chances of being correctly understood. Both senders and receivers have a responsibility to overcome any barriers that are present. Table 2.7 summarizes these duties.

Keith Brofsky/Photodisc/Thinkstock Nonverbal gestures can interfere with the correct interpretation of a verbal message when the gestures and words spoken do not match.

For Review

What transmission problems can become barriers to interpersonal communication?

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Table 2.7: Creating quality interpersonal communication

Sender Duties Receiver Duties

Be aware of barriers Listen actively

Be empathetic Seek clarification of the message

Pay careful attention to nonverbal cues

Confirm understanding of the message

Sender Responsibilities

Senders are charged with making sure they understand the barriers that might be present. To make sure a conversation begins on the right note, acknowledge the existence of the barrier. Many public speakers use humor to point out its presence, to help place the audi- ence at ease. Table 2.8 provides advice about communicating when you are angry.

Table 2.8: What to do when you’re angry

1 Take a deep breath.

2 Consider postponing the conversation in a nonthreatening manner.

(“I’m sorry, but I really need to use the restroom right now.” Or, “I want to talk about this, but I’m expecting a phone call.”)

3 Consider the other person’s perspective.

(Did the person deliberately try to make you mad, or was it inadvertent?)

4 Be forthright, but try to diffuse at the same time.

(“I’m a little frustrated right now. Can we talk about this later?”)

5 Bite your tongue.

(Make sure you don’t say something you will regret later.)

6 Avoid direct challenges, making generalities, and placing blame.

(“What’s your problem?” “You always do this!” “This is all your fault.”)

7 Use humor to release tension and diffuse the situation.

8 Try to identify solutions rather than focusing on the problem.

Source: Adapted from Mayo Clinic (2011). Anger management tips: 10 ways to tame your temper. Retrieved from http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/anger-management/MH00102

Empathy begins with understanding yourself and how you interact with others. Employ- ers, companies, or individual employees can use the Myers-Briggs personality inventory to assess how someone deals with others, along dimensions including extraversion/ introversion, sensing or intuition, thinking or feeling, and judging or perceiving (Myers and Briggs Foundation, 2011). Next, being empathetic means attempting to understand the background and point of view of others. The adage of “walking a mile in the other

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person’s shoes” applies to com- munication. In sales, the clas- sic approach to dealing with an unhappy customer is to first acknowledge that you under- stand the person is upset, and to add something along the lines of, “I can relate to how you feel.” The same approach has value in managerial communi- cation when conversing with a disgruntled employee or mem- ber of the public. Many com- panies offer sensitivity training programs and ethnic awareness forums to help employees from different backgrounds under- stand and better communicate with one another.

Paying attention to nonverbal cues often takes practice. Doing so may make you feel awk- ward as you become aware of your gestures. It may help to have a close friend point out some of your tendencies, such as looking down while you talk or slouching. Some dis- cover that their body language constantly signals aggression, making them less able to conduct a friendly discussion. Others portray a lack of confidence simply by their posture. The elements of nonverbal communication that can become communication skills include the items displayed in Table 2.9.

Table 2.9: Nonverbal communication skills

Nonverbal Cues Communication Tactic

Body movements Hold still, don’t shift weight, stillness exudes confidence

Gestures Stay calm, no nervous movements, gestures for emphasis

Eye contact Know when to look and when to look away so as to avoid appearing overly aggressive

Touch Firm handshake; know when a pat on the back is acceptable

Facial expression Smile

Physical distance Avoid crowding a person, though do not move too far away, which appears as if you lack trust in the person

Tone of voice Not too loud, not too soft, not too much inflection which makes you appear overly emotional

Source: Adapted from Helpguide.org (2011) Nonverbal communication: The power of nonverbal communication and body language. Retrieved from http://www.helpguide.org/mental/eq6_nonverbal_communication.htm

Jupiterimages/Thinkstock Creating quality communication requires the efforts of the sender and the receiver.

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The question, “Do you understand?” summarizes confirmation of the message. Pay extra attention to make sure the message was received as intended. It’s not unusual for a man- ager to ask an employee to restate a directive, only for the purposes of making sure the message was clearly understood.

Receiver Responsibilities

Receiver duties include listen- ing carefully, known as active listening, and not allowing dis- tractions to interfere with a con- versation or presentation. The mind works far faster than the pace of a conversation. You can give partial attention, seeking to get the gist of what is being said, without focusing on the interac- tion. Doing so signals disinterest and can create a new communi- cation barrier. Multitasking dur- ing phone calls is a bad idea. Listening carefully means clear- ing away distractions and not adding to them. Table 2.10 pro- vides hints for effective active listening.

Table 2.10: Effective active listening

Express support through attention, eye contact, and a reassuring posture.

Interpret both the words and the expressions.

Note gestures, tone of voice, and the speaker’s posture.

Ask exploratory questions that confirm accurate reception of the message.

Don’t put words into the speaker’s mouth.

Avoid passing immediate judgment.

Do not give false reassurance.

Source: Adapted from Cohen, A. R., & Fink, S. L. (1988). Effective behavior in organizations. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill Book Company.

To be an effective communicator, you must employ both sender and receiver tactics and behaviors at every point of the conversation. Remember that the transaction model of interpersonal communication suggests that a conversation simulates a dance between two persons. When a message is at all misunderstood the sender or the receiver must attempt to further clarify the message in the conversation. Getting clarification of a message means saying, for example, “I don’t understand” at the appropriate times. Do not underestimate

Jupiterimages/Thinkstock Active listening involves ignoring distractions that interfere with conversations.

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the importance of active listening. A substantial amount of attention is devoted to the abil- ity to listen effectively later in this text.

For Review

Explain the duties of the sender and receiver in overcoming the barriers to interpersonal communication.

2.4 International and Intercultural Interpersonal Communication

Learning Objective # 4: What additional challenges are present in international and intercultural interpersonal communication?

Conducting business in today’s modern business environment presents exciting opportunities for businesses and individuals. Markets and sales expand as new social contacts are made and undiscovered cultures are explored, both within a nation’s boundaries and with potential customers in other countries.

Many U.S. companies recognize the existence of two distinct potential advantages present due to cultural differences within the nation’s borders. First, a rich pool of new employ- ees with diverse perspectives and interests infuses energy into a company’s operations. Second, many cultural groups, including Hispanics and Asian Americans, offer valuable target market segments that may be reached.

International business programs often begin with expansion into countries with many of the same cultural conditions, such as a Canadian firm selling products in the United States. Soon, however, an international program can move into countries with different languages and cultures. In both circumstances, effective business communication involves understanding of—and adaptation to—cultural nuances and differences.

Cultural Dimensions

To understand individual communication while accounting for cultural differences, take note of the primary types of cultural differences. For years, the most widely-cited dimen- sions of culture have been those proposed by Geert Hofstede, as displayed in Table 2.11. (More detail can be found at: http://www.geert-hofstede.com.)

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Table 2.11: Hofstede’s value dimensions of culture

Power Distance Distance between leaders and followers; authoritarian versus collaborative relationships

Individualism or Collectivism Value of personal status versus loyalty to the group

Masculinity-Femininity Male-dominated society versus more equal status between genders

Uncertainty Avoidance Risk-taking versus risk-avoidance societies

Short- or Long-Term Orientation Immediate versus long-term, strategic outcomes

Power distance affects communication patterns between individuals and in group set- tings. A culture exhibiting high power distance is one in which managers are far less approachable by low-ranking employees. In such a culture, rank affects patterns of col- laboration. Use of formal language becomes more likely in higher power distance cultural settings. Conversely, in low power distance cultures, leaders are seen more as peers and patterns of collaboration are more affable and informal.

Individualism/collectivism affects communication in terms of how language is used as well as how it is transmitted. In individualistic cultures, personal pronouns (I, my) are more likely; collective cultures exhibit greater reference to “we,” “us,” and “our group/ organization.” Individualistic cultures favor one-on-one interactions; collective cultures more likely feature groups, teams, and meetings.

Masculine cultures hold much in common with higher power distance circumstances. Males dominate family matters, business discussions, and other aspects of society. Women in those settings play submissive roles. Femininity associates with more caring, interper- sonal connections among all members of society, which in turn is reflected in the ways people and employees communicate with one another.

Uncertainty avoidance affects word choice. Cultures with high levels of uncertainty avoid- ance exhibit words that indicate confidence in judgments regarding various outcomes. More disparaging language focuses on risky situations.

Short-/long-term orientation affects the types of communication messages sent as well as the content of those messages. A company in a longer-term orientation culture is most inclined to develop strategic plans with a farther-reaching time horizon. Inspirational lan- guage reflects the desire to build the long-term future of the organization. Short-term orientation results in more immediate planning processes, greater levels of contingency thinking and planning, and language focused on the here and now.

Hofstede’s dimensions remain widely used in a number of contexts, including business communication, although increasing criticisms have emerged. Hofstede collected the data in the late 1960s and, while culture is normally slow to change, the numbers predate the

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introduction of the personal computer, the Internet, the fall of communism, and many other significant global events (Rapp, Bernardi, & Bosco, 2011). At the same time, the dimensions do provide important considerations when examining the challenges associ- ated with communicating with people from other cultures.

For Review

Name and define Hofstede’s five main dimensions of culture.

Cultural Differences and Nuances That Affect Communication

Several key areas require consideration and adaptation when communicating in inter- national settings as well as for interactions between people from different cultures in the same country (de Mooji, 2010). Hofstede’s dimensions do not clearly spell out all of these. For example, older persons may be highly respected in one culture and disrespected in another. Even asking questions about a person’s age can make the receiver uncomfortable in Western cultures.

Further, cultural gender equality and inequality strongly affects patterns of communi- cation between males and females internationally. Percentages of a population that are well-educated vary widely across countries, thereby affecting status levels. Personalities are influenced by cultural surroundings as well. The most common areas in which com- munication in international and intercultural settings requires examination include:

• language and slang • greetings • directness of address • speaking versus silence • eye contact • ethnocentrism • stereotyping • differences in the meanings of nonverbal cues • personal space issues • use of symbols and cultural icons • cultural context

For Review

What communication issues are present in international and intercultural settings?

Language and Slang Language and slang differ among cultures. In the United States, the most prominent lan- guage is, of course, English; however, residents speak a variety of additional languages. In

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CHAPTER 2Section 2.4 International and Intercultural Interpersonal Communication

terms of business communication, many employers now list job openings in both English and Spanish, and training programs have been adapted to accommodate those whose pri- mary language is Spanish. Company advertisements and other communication messages have been similarly modified.

The same holds true for international communication. An individual who only speaks Spanish is likely to experience difficulties when a business partner speaks only Russian, even when a translator is present. Some languages, such as Mandarin, are written using characters rather than letters, which add additional complications. Also, some printed lan- guages are read from right to left; whereas English and others are read from left to right.

Slang within both languages can further complicate communication. The phrase “our busi- ness is red hot” serves as an example. Although it may seem strange, international buyers could misunderstand the meaning of this phrase and think that it literally means that the business is on fire. Always choose words carefully. In the Philippines, referring to a woman as a “hostess” translates into calling her a prostitute. A Filipino immigrant would likely feel insulted in a similar manner when engaged in a conversation in his or her new country.

In many business conversations, the person speaking has only partial knowledge of a language. This can lead to misspoken ideas or words or poor grammar, espe- cially in areas such as singular/ plural or noun-verb agreement. The person may appreciate a friendly correction, although normally at least some familiar- ity with the person is advisable before doing so.

The attempt to speak in a foreign language, even if only for the purposes of greeting a potential business partner, often builds rapport with that person.

Greetings Knowing how to greet someone can be a valuable business asset. Cultures such as the United States often exhibit informal methods of greeting, including phrases such as “Hey,” “Hi,” or “Howdy.” Many immigrants within U.S. borders quickly adapt to such differ- ences; however, others may not. In business communication, a wise course of action is to be aware of potential differences in greetings when dealing with someone from a differ- ent culture but the same country. For example, many Muslim groups forbid handshakes between a man and a woman.

More dramatic differences appear in international business communication. For exam- ple, while it is common knowledge that, in Asia people bow and in Western cultures

Jupiterimages/Thinkstock Greetings, gestures, and other methods of communication vary by culture.

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CHAPTER 2Section 2.4 International and Intercultural Interpersonal Communication

individuals shake hands as a form of greeting, other key differences remain. In Korea, a person touches his elbow while shaking hands as a sign of respect. In Japan, a 90-degree bow often accompanies a handshake for the same reason. Women do not shake hands with each other in Pakistan. Greeting a business contact with a kiss on the cheek is a com- mon gesture in certain European countries.

Care must be given to an initial contact. For example, in Germany if someone greets you as, “Good morning, Mr. Jones,” it will probably be a bad idea to say, “Oh please, call me Jack.” Germans prefer more formal relationships with business partners.

Further, following an initial introduction, in some countries, the partners immediately move on to the purpose of the meeting. In Finland, for example, a popular saying is suor- aan liiketoimintaa, which means “straight to business.” In other countries, doing so is con- sidered rude. First, take time to establish a relationship with the new business partner. Businesspeople in China greatly value the concept of trust, and any Western business- person seeking to conduct business in China must first work to establish relationships, not only between companies, but also between people. Company representatives must understand that the relationships begin before business deals are made and continue well after any specific transaction takes place (Baack, Harris, & Baack, 2012).

Even so, asking a personal question may be considered impolite. Asking about someone’s family or children may be inappropriate in certain, more reserved cultures with higher levels of power distance.

Directness of Address Directness of address is culturally based. Language and conversation can vary drastically from culture to culture. Such differences appear in the United States. Language and con- versations are often more direct in the East and more conversational in the Deep South.

In Asia, someone’s persona likely includes the concept of “face,” which essentially refers to one’s sense of honor, self-respect, respect from others, and standing in a social setting. In that context, language that avoids directly challenging a person or making that individ- ual look bad, or seem disrespected (e.g., lose face) is common. Disagreement is expressed in the most modest terms possible. Instead of saying, “We can’t meet your price,” the vendor uses terminology such as “I am afraid that trying to meet your price will be very difficult for our company.”

In nations such as Holland, the opposite is true. Unless the person uses strong, direct lan- guage, he or she may be viewed as weak or not reliable.

Speaking Versus Silence In the United States, most view silence as uncomfortable. At the same time, some U.S. sub- cultures embrace greater degrees of silence. When asked a question, an employee might encourage a degree of silence when told, “Take your time,” before answering.

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Similar differences take place internationally. In Japan, executives take time to consider a proposal, believing it signals sincerity. Buyers in Sweden tend to be comfortable with pauses and silence during negotiations. Impatience at this time potentially displays a lack of respect or impoliteness. Many cultures have varying perspectives on the meaning of silence during a conversation or negotiation. At the opposite extreme, a noisy house in Taiwan indicates a happy, healthy environment.

Eye Contact Eye contact may be closely related to directness of address. In some cultures, such as in the United States and Canada, the failure to make eye contact makes a person seem suspi- cious and untrustworthy. These patterns tend to run nationwide. In other countries, such as Japan, looking away displays deference and respect.

Gender plays a significant role in eye contact as well. In many Middle Eastern cultures, a male does not make eye contact with or comment on the color of a woman’s eyes, unless she is a family member. This holds true whether the individual lives in Saudi Arabia or immigrates to San Francisco. While men make direct eye-to-eye contact, a man does not do so when conversing with a woman.

Ethnocentrism Ethnocentrism, the belief that one’s culture is inherently superior, may cause either the sender or receiver to convey a sense of feeling superior. It would not be surprising that misunderstandings, conflicts, and confrontations may emerge when someone expresses such a view.

Ethnocentrism often affects management communication. When a multinational company has a home-base country, it is not unusual for managers to believe their country’s style of leadership is “best.” Transmitting such an attitude to persons in other nations frequently meets with some resistance or resentment.

A variation of ethnocentrism takes place when a person from a culture within a country implies that his or her culture is superior to other cultural backgrounds from the same country. Some of the racial tension between African Americans and Caucasians in the United States indicates this type of belief in a culture’s superiority (e.g., “acting white” as an insult or racially charged references by Caucasians), even though these ideas are not tied to international business.

For Review

Define ethnocentrism and explain how it creates a barrier to interpersonal communication.

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CHAPTER 2Section 2.4 International and Intercultural Interpersonal Communication

Stereotyping Stereotyping exists when a person assumes things about another based on that person’s race, gender, or national heritage. Stereotyping occurs within national boundaries based on many cultural values and elements. In the United States, stereotyping of religions, polit- ical affiliations, and regional heritage affects communication as well. For example, assum- ing someone who looks Hispanic actually speaks Spanish is stereotyping, as is assuming all members of a religion, such as Islam, have common (and negative) characteristics.

In international settings, cultural stereotyping takes place between countries. Believing all Germans are rigid, structured, rational thinkers lumps them into a group that undoubt- edly does not truly exist. Corresponding methods of speaking are affected by such an assumption. Many times women are the victims of stereotyping, even though the nature of the stereotyping differs in various cultures. Typically femininity has been associated with nurturing and support, where masculinity reflects aggression and dominance by males, even though these characteristics are not true of many men and women.

For Review

Define stereotyping and explain how it creates a barrier to interpersonal communication.

Nonverbal Cues Nonverbal cues vary widely by culture. Nodding “yes” in one country means “no” in others. In many Middle Eastern nations, the act of crossing one’s legs is a sign of disrespect and males holding hands as part of a busi- ness relationship indicates trust. Gestures also vary widely. What may have a benign meaning in one country may be an obscene gesture in another. Examples include the “V for victory” with two fingers sign and use of the middle finger to point. In Indo- nesia, pounding your fist into the palm of your hand may be considered an obscene gesture.

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CHAPTER 2Section 2.4 International and Intercultural Interpersonal Communication

Personal Space Personal space is the distance between two persons in a conversation. Standing two to three feet away from another person may be the norm in one culture such as France, Spain, or the United States where greater personal space exists. That same distance may indicate shiftiness or distrust in Central Africa and the Middle East. As an extension of personal distance, in the culture of Japan a business partner might find a pat on the back to be disconcerting, as the Japanese tend to not make physical contact in business relation- ships, other than a handshake with a Western partner.

Symbols and Cultural Icons Not long ago, Pepsi began to lose market share to Coke in Southeast Asia. The manage- ment team discovered that changing the outside color of vending machines from a dark regal blue to light blue was the problem. In that region, light blue is associated with death and mourning (Henderson, 2011).

Cultural symbols include religious items, superstitions, colors, objects, animals, and an endless variety of items. A white horse symbolizes death in some cultures; a black horse in others. Various flowers have different meanings, depending on the culture involved. Knowledge of the beliefs and associations of a culture help you avoid doing something that would make a person uncomfortable or that has a different meaning to the other per- son than it does to you.

The left hand has meaning in many cultures. Malaysians consider the left hand unclean. In India, the left hand is considered less important, and dignitaries perform actions with the right hand for ceremonies such as a ribbon-cutting, even if the person is left-handed.

Higher- and Lower-Context Cultures

Different cultures place varying levels of emphasis on the actual words involved in com- munication. The terms higher- and lower-context are applied to these cultural differences in language usage.

Lower-context cultures are characterized by explicit verbal messages where members value and have positive attitudes about words. The meaning of a message is mainly con- tained in the words themselves. Much of the Western world is historically rich with rheto- ric. This, in turn, continues to emphasize the importance of verbal messages. Germany, Switzerland, and the United States are examples of lower-context cultures.

Higher-context cultures rely more on symbols and language with less explicit or spelled- out codes. The meanings of these messages are mainly contained in the nonverbal com- ponents of the message. This includes facial expressions, body language, the person presenting the message, and the context in which the message is transmitted. Higher- context communication moves quickly and efficiently. Unfortunately, often the verbal messages are less complete, and for those not familiar with the symbols in a given area,

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CHAPTER 2Section 2.4 International and Intercultural Interpersonal Communication

the information becomes difficult to accurately decipher. Higher-context societies are less accessible to outsiders. Many Asian cultures are higher-context.

Cultural context may be viewed as a continuum. The highest-context cultures exhibit the greatest reliance on symbols and visual elements. Others lean toward a high context, yet words are more frequently used and valued. The same holds true for lower-context cul- tures; degrees of word valuation may be found. Misunderstanding these differing ele- ments may lead to problematic conversations (Hall, 1994).

Time and Cultural Context

Beyond the role nonverbal com- munication plays in higher-con- text regions, business partners in these countries tend to be more lenient with issues such as the timeliness of meetings. In India or China, for example, it may not appear to be rude to be a few minutes late to a sales meeting.

In the United States or England, tardiness is frowned upon. A salesperson might lose a sale due to being late for a meet- ing in a lower-context region, although within some sub-cul- tures in the United States tardi- ness is more accepted.

Being unaware of time presents an obvious problem for someone who is not well accustomed to these differences. When a sales lead is late for a meeting, the salesperson might wonder if it means that the lead does not care about the meeting, or whether it is a matter of the home culture. The salesperson needs to know this prior to the meeting (Baack, Harris, & Baack, 2012).

Comstock/Thinkstock Time, timeliness, and tardiness have different meanings in various cultures.

For Review

Explain the difference between lower- and higher-context cultures.

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Responding to Intercultural Differences

Effective communicators operate effectively in domestic and international settings, adapt- ing to cultural differences. Within the United States, many firms offer cultural sensitivity training to assist in developing employees and managers with heightened communica- tion skills. Cultural sensitivity programs normally focus on:

• awareness of one’s own cultural world view • knowledge about cultural practices • analysis of one’s reaction to cultural differences • refining and building cross-cultural skills

Many of the same skill sets are useful in international business as well.

When conducting international business, translators and cultural assimilators are key individuals who help you overcome intercultural communication barriers. Translators must speak the native language of the host country. Many times the best choice for a trans- lator is someone who lives in the host country, and uses its language as a first language.

Cultural assimilators are employees who examine messages and prepare individuals for interactions with members of other countries. They can help a person avoid any uncom- fortable lapses in manners as well as explain how to show friendliness and respect in a host country.

Selection processes should be designed to identify those who are most adaptable to new situations. Those who exhibit ethnocentrism or stereotyping should quickly be screened out. Employees will often identify themselves as being excited about taking on interna- tional assignments. Any international assignment requires cultural training. Company leaders should prepare workers for the possibility of culture shock when entering a new nation. Expatriate employees, or those sent to work in other countries, need time to assimilate to new circumstances.

Interpersonal communication skills are valuable when dealing with diversity issues within a country as well as with business people in other countries. Operating effectively with those from other cultures requires several communication skills. Employees can effectively adapt to cultural nuances through an understanding of the various differences explored in this section.

In domestic settings, cultural awareness and sensitivity help you become a more effective communicator on behalf of a company. Many U.S. companies have discovered the value of a diverse work force and the lucrative nature of reaching market segments based on cultural differences.

In international settings, cultural differences should be carefully understood. Even the simple act of giving a business card can generate an uncomfortable moment when they are not. Someone who takes the card and stuffs it in his pocket insults his Korean host, because the action treats that individual as being insignificant. Eye contact, directness of address, gestures, and other nonverbal cues require attention prior to any business meeting.

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CHAPTER 2Section 2.5 Chapter Review

Would you know what to do if someone gave you a gift at the beginning of a business meeting in Taiwan? The answer would be to thank the giver and then set the gift aside without opening it. You will embarrass and insult the giver if you take a look and are disappointed by what you find. A cultural assimilator helps employees and managers discover these and other customs. If one is not available, effective business communica- tors take the time to learn these nuances and differences independently prior to traveling to another country.

For Review

What are the duties of a cultural assimilator?

2.5 Chapter Review

Interpersonal communication interactions take place between two or more people— co-workers, with customers, suppliers, and others in the marketing channel, with members of governmental agencies, between supervisors and employees, and with a wide variety of publics on a daily basis. A simplified interpersonal communications model includes a sender, encoding, a transmission device, decoding, a receiver, and feedback.

An interaction model of communication depicts the mutual transmission, the reception of messages, and feedback. In essence, a mirror was added to show the more interactive nature of communication.

In the transaction model of communication, a person speaking observes the intended audience as the message is being sent. The speaker may observe reactions before all of the words have been transmitted. Conversations resemble a dance in which both parties socially construct the interaction. Such a model accounts for interruptions, persons finish- ing each other’s sentences as well as incomplete transmissions. Further, the transaction model tracks the movement from misunderstanding to understanding, from disagree- ment to agreement, as well as the escalation of a conversation into a conflict.

Three categories of barriers to communication include individual differences, situational factors, and transmission problems. Individual differences such as age, gender, exclusive language, educational level, organizational rank, and personalities can inhibit conversa- tions. Situational factors consist of the emotions of anger, sadness, envy, jealousy, romantic feelings, and personal attitudes and values. Also settings and distractions create disrup- tive situational factors. Transmission problems that inhibit communication include lan- guage (semantics), slang, technical terminology, disabilities in the sender or receiver, and nonverbal contradictions of verbal messages.

Two sets of responsibilities are associated with successful interpersonal communications. First, senders should be aware of potential barriers, be empathetic, pay careful attention to nonverbal cues, and confirm understanding of the message. Second, receiver responsibili- ties are to engage in active listening and seek clarification of unclear messages.

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CHAPTER 2Section 2.5 Chapter Review

For Review With Possible Responses

1. Name and describe each part of an interpersonal communication model. The sender is the person transmitting a message or an idea. Encoding is the presentation

of verbal and nonverbal cues. The transmission device is anything that carries a mes- sage. Decoding occurs as the receiver encounters the message. The receiver is the sender’s intended audience. Feedback returns to the sender in the form of evaluation of the message.

International and intercultural barriers to communication magnify problems. They include differences in language and slang, greetings, directness of address, speaking ver- sus silence, use of eye contact, and other factors such as ethnocentrism, stereotyping, dif- ferences in the meanings of nonverbal cues, personal space issues, the use of symbols and cultural icons, and other elements of cultural context.

In domestic settings, many organizations offer cultural sensitivity training sessions. In international settings, translators and cultural assimilators are key individuals who help you overcome intercultural communication barriers. Translators should speak the native language of the host country. Cultural assimilators are employees who examine messages and prepare individuals for interactions with members of other countries.

In any interpersonal interaction, two roles are played: sender and receiver. A successful career in business requires skills in playing both roles.

Key Terms

cultural assimilators Employees who examine messages and prepare individuals for interac- tions with members of other countries.

decoding What occurs as the receiver encoun- ters a message.

encoding The presentation of verbal and non- verbal cues.

ethnocentrism The belief that one’s culture is inherently superior.

exclusive language Terminology that is only understood by a distinct set of individuals.

expatriate employees Employees sent to work in other countries.

feedback What returns to the sender in the form of evaluation of the message.

higher-context cultures Cultures that rely more on symbols and language with less explicit or spelled-out codes.

lower-context cultures Cultures that strongly value and have positive attitudes regarding words.

noise The barriers to communication that distort or disrupt messages.

receiver A sender’s intended audience.

sender The person transmitting a message or idea.

stereotyping What happens when a person assumes things about another based on that person’s race, gender, national heritage, or more.

transmission device Anything that carries a message.

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CHAPTER 2Section 2.5 Chapter Review

2. Describe the interaction model of interpersonal communication. The interaction model applies to two people engaged in a dialog. The interaction model

remains “linear” in the sense that a message first goes one way (Person A to Person B) then the other (Person B back to Person A).

3. Describe the transaction model of interpersonal communication. In the transaction model, instead of viewing a conversation as essentially a ping-pong

match, where one person sends and the other receives and then the process reverses, actual discussions take place nearly simultaneously.

4. What types of individual differences create barriers to interpersonal communication?

Age, gender, exclusive language, educational level, organizational rank, and personalities.

5. What situational factors disrupt interpersonal communication? The emotions of anger, sadness, envy, jealousy, romantic feelings, personal attitudes and

values, as well as settings and distractions. 6. Describe the two main forms of sexual harassment and the message each sends

to employees. Quid pro quo, or something for something, suggests that the way to get ahead is by giv-

ing in to sexual demands and that the system is not fair. Hostile environment commu- nicates that people are the objects of disrespect and even contempt and that employees do not receive equal treatment.

7. What transmission problems can become barriers to interpersonal communication?

Language (semantics), slang, technical terminology, disabilities in the sender or receiver, and nonverbal contradiction of the verbal message.

8. Explain the duties of the sender and receiver in overcoming the barriers to inter- personal communication.

Senders should be aware of potential barriers, exhibit empathy, pay careful attention to nonverbal cues, and seek confirmation of the message. Receivers should engage in active listening and seek clarification of unclear messages.

9. What communication issues are present in international and intercultural settings?

Issues include language and slang, greetings, directness of address, speaking versus silence, eye contact, ethnocentrism, stereotyping, differences in the meanings of nonver- bal cues, personal space issues, use of symbols and cultural icons, and cultural context.

10. Name and define Hofstede’s five main dimension of culture. Power distance is the distance between leaders and followers and authoritarian versus

collaborative relationships. Individualism or collectivism is the value of personal status versus loyalty to the group. Masculinity/femininity reflects whether a male-dominated society exists or if there is more equal status between genders. Uncertainty avoidance explains risk-taking versus risk-avoidance societies. Short- or long-term orientation identifies differences in immediate versus long-term, strategic outcomes.

11. Define ethnocentrism and explain how it creates a barrier to interpersonal communication.

Ethnocentrism, the belief that one’s culture is inherently superior, may cause either the sender or receiver to convey a sense of feeling superior. The misunderstanding that results and the conflict or confrontation that might emerge would not be surprising.

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CHAPTER 2Section 2.5 Chapter Review

12. Define stereotyping and explain how it creates a barrier to interpersonal communication.

Stereotyping exists when a person assumes things about another based on that person’s race, gender, or national heritage. It can disrupt conversations between people of differ- ent cultures within a country or with those from another country.

13. Explain the difference between lower- and higher-context cultures. Lower-context cultures are characterized by explicit verbal messages and members value

and have positive attitudes about words. The meaning of a message is mainly contained in the words themselves. Higher-context cultures rely more on symbols and language with less explicit or spelled-out codes. The meanings of these messages are mainly con- tained in the nonverbal components of the message.

14. What are the duties of a cultural assimilator? Cultural assimilators are employees who examine messages and prepare individuals for

interactions with members of other countries.

Analytical Exercises

1. Describe the gesture that would best accompany the following verbal messages: a. “I trust you.” b. “I disagree with you.” c. “You have just insulted me.” d. “I’m sorry.”

2. Ask five people about their feelings regarding office romances. What issues do they raise? Do their answers vary by gender? What potential communication problems result from office romances?

3. Watch an episode of “Glee” or some other television program aimed at teenagers. Compare that slang to the terms that were used in your teenage years. Could you overcome the use of slang if managing people younger than yourself? If so, what specific tactics would you use?

4. Impression management is one key tactic some employees use to gain power. It means creating the impression that the person is in charge and holds authority, even when he or she does not. Identify the communication tactics a person could use to accomplish this, both in terms of verbal and nonverbal cues.

5. Using the Internet, examine some of the cultural characteristics of the following countries and explain how you would adapt to them if assigned a visit. a. United Kingdom b. India c. South Africa d. Brazil e. Sweden

6. Find out what is wrong with the following actions by examining the cultural nuances of each situation. a. In France, you put your hands in your lap during a meal, having seen it done

in England the night before. b. In Russia, you see two colleagues greet by hugging and assume you should

do the same. c. In Thailand, you begin discussions of a business proposal before lunch is

served. d. In India, you curl your finger to signal “come here” to a local associate.

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CHAPTER 2Section 2.6 Case Studies

7. Explain how you would set up a sales pitch for a financial service to company leaders in a higher-context country. How would you change the same pitch to work well in a lower-context country? Explain how you would set up a sales pitch for a line of refrigerators to be sold by a retail chain in a higher-context country. How would you change the same pitch to work well in a lower-context country?

2.6 Case Studies

Case Study 1: The Chemist

Suzette Holmes attended college with the intention of completing a degree in chemistry. She gradu- ated with honors and began seeking work. Her journey quickly took some complicated turns. A major pharmaceutical company hired her to oversee the distribution and sale of a series of drugs, the most prominent of which was a sexual dysfunction pill for men. The company’s leaders wanted someone who could explain the chemical properties of the medications and also make a case that the firm’s version of the product was the best treatment.

While she was able to easily handle other medications, including those for acne and stomach prob- lems, Holmes noticed that the sexual dysfunction product seemed to create odd behaviors in both male and female members of the sales force. She was uncertain how to handle all of the joking and ironic names for male erectile dysfunction and all of the proposed nicknames for the product. On the one hand, she didn’t want to appear as if she couldn’t take a joke. On the other, it was clear that some of her salespeople wanted the product to be handled in the same professional manner as all of the other drugs. Still, she also heard jokes and comments about acne and a few of the other ailments her list of medicines addressed.

Her most interesting challenge came on a trip to Japan. Holmes had been assigned to the task of selling the sexual dysfunction product to a major distributor. She spent several hours going over the cultural nuances of Japan, including the appropriate bow, gift, presentation of a business card, man- ner of negotiation, eye contact, and even dining manners.

Holmes summoned her best assistant, Jeff, to accompany her on the trip to take care of any details and correspondence. Upon arriving, she was quickly taken by surprise. Her Japanese hosts immedi- ately assumed that Jeff was the senior salesperson and that Suzette was his assistant. They spoke directly to him and did not seem particularly interested in having her engaged in the conversation.

Seeing an advantage, she waited for several minutes before correcting their misperception. It became clear that her hosts were mortified by their mistake. They apologized profusely and often during the remainder of the initial meeting. Holmes was convinced she would be able to turn their faux pas into a major sale with very favorable terms.

Review Questions

1. Which individual interpersonal communication issues described in this chapter apply to Suzette Holmes’ situation?

2. Should Holmes play along with all the joking about the sexual dysfunction product or discourage it? Should she react differently if the person telling the jokes was female? Male?

3. Could Holmes have done anything to prevent the misperception of the Japanese hosts? If so, what?

4. Was Holmes acting fairly to take advantage of her hosts’ loss of face in negotiations?

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CHAPTER 2Section 2.6 Case Studies

Case Study 2: The Law Office

Doug Dickenson knew it was time to pick up the pieces, and it was a mess he had made due to his quick temper. After opening a law practice six months ago, he had finally begun to develop a decent client list, with a few strong cases. His one employee Angela Romano was a legal secretary who was vice president of the local professional legal secretary’s association.

Angela was 24 years old, a single mother, and a recent graduate of the nearby junior college. She believed her training would make it possible to stay steadily employed. Her grades had been nearly perfect through the entire two-year process.

Angela was somewhat intimidated by Doug, who was a top graduate in his law school class. Doug had worked in a corporate law office for 10 years before launching his own practice. He had won several major cases that provided the funding for the new venture. Doug was tall and had a powerful voice that served him well in the courtroom, but could inadvertently frighten someone who was a little shy, such as Angela.

The incident started on a Friday afternoon. Angela had been suffering with a toothache that had gone from being only somewhat annoying to terribly painful. She was afraid to ask for the afternoon off, because she had only been on the job for six months. So she suffered through the day, doing her best to complete her assignments. Unfortunately, the pain distracted her to the point where she simply forgot to file some key legal documents with the court, and Friday was the final deadline. Angela man- aged to find a sympathetic dentist to resolve her problem right after she got off work.

The following Monday she returned to the office. It was at that point she discovered her oversight. She timidly approached Doug and told him about the situation.

Doug quickly became worried about word getting around that his office was unreliable, as this was a major client and a big case. He was prone to being somewhat bombastic, and this time he clearly crossed over a line.

“What are you, retarded?” he bellowed. “You just cost these guys a whole bunch of money! I just can’t afford mistakes like this. Go on, get out of here,” he finished.

Angela left the room crying. She wasn’t sure if she had been fired or was simply supposed to leave him alone. To make matters worse, her sister was mentally challenged, and Angela was particularly sensi- tive to insulting language about her condition. She was angry and hurt at the same time.

Doug stewed in his office for about 10 minutes. When he calmed down, he figured out a way to call in a favor with the local court clerk. She would make it appear as if the document had arrived but was left in the incoming mailbox. Although this was unethical, he figured it would never happen again.

Doug approached Angela and apologized for his remarks. She meekly told him about the toothache, but not about her sister. Both knew that it would take time to get past his tirade.

Review Questions

1. Describe the barriers to communication present in this story. 2. Should Angela tell Doug about her sister’s condition? If so, how should she approach the

subject? 3. What would you recommend to Doug to help mend the relationship that he had damaged,

especially since he valued Angela’s skills and thought she was an excellent employee? 4. What communication training should Doug receive? 5. What communication training should Angela receive?

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Week6/03CH_Baack_Business.pdf

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Learning Objectives

After reading the chapter and studying the materials, you should be able to:

1. Apply the essential elements of a management communication system to an organization. 2. Identify the role formal communication plays in managerial processes and describe the range of

formal communication channels available to managers. 3. Employ the keys to successful face-to-face meetings with other employees. 4. Effectively manage informal communication. 5. Understand the role nonverbal communication plays in presenting and receiving messages.

Management Communication: Verbal and Nonverbal Channels

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CHAPTER 3Section 3.1 Communication Systems and Processes

3.1 Communication Systems and Processes

Learning Objective # 1: What are the essential elements of a management communications system?

Every organization, regardless of its age or size, depends on its communication sys-tem to conduct operations. Messages must reach the appropriate audiences in order for a company to survive. A key part of the well-being of a business continues to be the ability to make sure the right people receive the right information at the right time.

Chapter 1 defined management communication as all efforts to systematically plan, implement, monitor, and upgrade the channels of communication within the organization and with outside organizations that affect a company’s internal operations. Management communication includes elements of planning, organizing, directing, and controlling at the strategic, tactical, and operational levels.

This chapter explores the process of creating managerial messages through verbal and nonverbal channels. We will examine various types of messages and the goals of these mes- sages. Also, the patterns that emerge when managers communicate with their employees receive attention. Formal and informal verbal communication channels serve to deliver many of these messages. Formal and informal verbal communication channels are pre- sented next and the means by which informal communication can be used to complement and supplement formal communication are noted. The final part of this chapter reviews the role and forms of nonverbal communication.

The Starbucks Turnaround: Strategic Management and Formal Communication

The Starbucks chain of retail stores has experienced dramatic periods of success, turbulence, and turn- around. In the 1980s, founder and CEO Howard Schultz took the concept of modeling coffee venues from Italian coffee bars and turned his organiza- tion into an espresso empire. The original concept included hiring employees as baristas, or bar per- sons, with strong interests in coffee products and in providing high-quality, pleasant services to patrons. Extensive training and a diverse work force became hallmarks of the organization. Over a span of 15 years, Starbucks grew dramatically (Lewis, 1997).

Schultz eventually stepped down as CEO in 2000, with the company operating 5,000 retail stores and strong sales. Under the new CEO, Jim Donald, expansion led to the addition of nearly 10,000 more stores. The rapid growth created a saturation of the market, accompanied by a decline in the quality of the Star- bucks experience. In 2007, the stock value of Starbucks dropped by 42 percent, just as the U.S. econ- omy entered a profound recession. (continued)

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CHAPTER 3Section 3.1 Communication Systems and Processes

On January 6, 2008, Schultz returned as CEO. Within two days the stock’s value had rebounded by 8 percent. Over the next three years, Starbucks eventually returned to a solid, profitable enter- prise. Schultz has been widely praised for his efforts the turn the company around. His work indi- cates the important relationships between strategic management and managerial communication processes.

Many of the decisions made to restore the company involved strategic marketing and management efforts. Each was communicated throughout the company. Among these, Starbucks reduced the num- ber of retail units, including 600 closures in 2009, reducing operating costs by $850 million. Many stores were remodeled, and Starbucks replaced all of its espresso machines with the Mastrena, a sophisticated Swiss-made machine. The company replaced all of its outdated cash registers and com- puters, and Schultz made the executive decision to remove heated breakfast sandwiches from the menu. Schultz also completely reorganized supply chain operations with the goal of getting products to stores more efficiently and improving inventory. In 2008, only three out of every 10 orders were delivered perfectly to stores. The statistic improved to nine out of 10 orders. Starbucks created a cus- tomer rewards card to try to retain patrons in the declining economy.

Beyond these strategic activities were much more direct managerial communications efforts. To shake things up, Starbucks closed all of its U.S. stores for three-and-a-half hours in February 2008 to retrain its baristas on how to make the perfect espresso. The message was clear to all employees—things were about to change. Schultz invited employees and others to email him directly and received over 5,000 responses in the first year.

The top management team was altered with the addition of a chief technology officer, Chris Bru- zzo, from Amazon.com. Schultz also shook up the senior management team by adding members of tech companies, including Google COO Sheryl Sandberg, to the company’s board of directors. Out- side consultants were retained to instruct Schultz and the top management team about corporate turnarounds.

Clear messages were sent to employees in many forms, beginning with retraining. Schultz explained, “We wanted to go back to our roots, to show people what we stand for, which is the perfect cup of coffee” (CNBC, 2011). Schultz decided to continue offering health insurance to his employees in order to stay aligned with the company’s guiding principles. Starbucks was the first U.S. company to offer comprehensive health care coverage and equity in the form of stock to part-time employees. In June 2009, Schultz announced that he would increase partners’ salaries according to merit.

Schultz summarized the three-year turnaround this way: “We enjoyed a 15-year magical carpet ride. Everything we touch turned to gold. We had convinced ourselves that success was an entitlement. Success was not an entitlement; it is something that has to be earned every day. We were going to pursue the excellence that was the very foundation of the company” (CNBC, 2011).

Questions for Students

1. What formal communications message did Schultz send during the initial parts of the turnaround?

2. Which formal communications channels best matched Schultz’s approach to strategic manage- ment and employee relations?

3. What types of informal messages and gossip were likely to be circulating among employees dur- ing the turnaround period? What could Schultz have done to cope with them?

The Starbucks Turnaround: Strategic Management and Formal Communication (continued)

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CHAPTER 3Section 3.1 Communication Systems and Processes

The Management Communication Process

Effective management communication requires deliberation and planning. Even though a great deal of communication occurs in the spur of the moment, many pronouncements can be constructed and delivered with greater attention to detail. The management com- munication process consists of four activities:

• Assess the communication environment • Establish a message format • Develop the message • Authenticate the approach

Each of these activities presents the opportunity to carefully analyze the nature of the message, the medium that will be used to transmit the message product, the audience, and the intended outcome.

Assess the Communication Environment Managerial communications fall into two general categories. Proactive messages announce a change, initiative, innovation, or some other new course or direction. They proclaim that the company will move into a new territory or use a new method. Reactive messages respond to circumstances, such as a crisis, problem, or event.

As a manager begins to formulate a message, the first step (analysis of the situation) depends largely on the type of message to be prepared. Proactive messages are often more unsettling to recipients, because change itself can make people uncomfortable or defen- sive (Patti, 1974). Some proactive messages broadcast positive intentions, such as com- pany expansion, the addition of a new job title, or the company’s intention to hire more employees. Others, however, create fear and concern among employees, such as when a firm declares the development of an outsourcing or offshoring program that might elimi- nate local jobs.

Reactive messages range from small pronouncements such as, “Fred Jones plans to retire and we are beginning a search for his replacement,” to reactions to major crises. Managers should take the time to carefully prepare organizational responses to situations. Assessing the communication environment consists of the evaluation of all Ws and Hs associated with the message, as follows.

Who is the audience? A manager’s internal message can target an individual, a group, a department, or the entire company. The nature of the audience determines the other steps in the communication process.

What is the intention of the message? Proactive messages may take different forms than reactive messages. Some messages inform; others persuade. The manager should know the desired outcome in advance.

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CHAPTER 3Section 3.1 Communication Systems and Processes

When will the message be sent? Delivering messages early in the business day allows time for responses and reactions. Messages presented at the end of the day give the audience time to deliberate overnight. A message transmitted on Monday has a different context than one sent on Friday afternoon.

Where will the communication take place? A formal companywide meeting exudes a dif- ferent meaning from a bulk email sent to all members. Context, such as an outside presen- tation in front of the home office building, provides a powerful element of the message to be sent.

How will the message be sent? Managerial communications are offered in numerous ways. Each best fits individual circumstances and the message itself.

As an example, in the early 2000s, the Arthur Andersen accounting firm contained several major divisions, one of which was Andersen Consulting. A legal decree, based on a series of usual circumstances, dictated that the larger corporation must spin off the consulting division into a separate company.

The top management team at the former Andersen Consulting knew that the first step would be to create a new name or brand for the independent company. After careful con- sideration, the CEO announced an organization-wide contest for members to suggest the new name. In that case, the protocol was:

Who: CEO and top management to all members of the newly formed company.

What: proactively inform employees that a contest to develop a new brand name would begin.

When: the contest commenced immediately and ended after 60 days.

Where: worldwide.

How: a companywide memo indicating all of the details of the contest.

The number of innovative names that were suggested amazed the operators of the con- test. Entries were pared down to a small set of possibilities, and then to three finalists. After careful deliberation, a winner was chosen. The proclamation of the new company name took place in this way:

Who: CEO to all members of the company.

What: reactively announce (inform) the winner and new company name.

When: immediately, with implementation beginning the same day.

Where: worldwide.

How: a teleconference connected every outlet of the company.

The name Accenture was selected. Within hours, signage changed, new letterhead was designed, advertisements were created announcing the new name, and every other facet of the company affected by the name change was addressed. The successful beginning to this drastic alteration was the analysis of the situation (Accenture, 2000).

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CHAPTER 3Section 3.1 Communication Systems and Processes

Establish a Message Format A communication message format consists of the text of the message along with any visu- als. Four elements of design include attracting attention, preparing the information to be transmitted, finding ways to reach the audience, and developing methods to ensure understanding and compliance.

Many aspects of a communication attract attention. The headline or message announce- ment can draw notice. A headline may take the form of the message line in an email, the banner at the top of a memo, or through attractive and exciting visuals. In the case of Accenture, the announcement of the contest in written form could have contained a cover with art and an exciting title, such as “Win this contest!” When the contest winner was announced, attention was gained by holding a worldwide teleconference to make the announcement. The event was set up by first informing all employees via email that the winner had been chosen, which gave employees time to gather together to watch the announcement on television screens.

Information may be formulated in several ways. The primary consideration normally will be the type of message to be presented. Informative messages often use a standard pre- sentation format, or:

• Introduction and forecast of the message parts • Body that presents the message in distinct units • Conclusion that reviews the units and message

In essence, the standard presentation format consists of “tell them what you’re going to tell them, tell them, then tell them what you told them.” It focuses on recall and retention. Visuals take the forms of bullet points in PowerPoint slides, charts, graphs, and summary statements. A photo or illustration can reinforce the message. Messages usually are fac- tual, to the point, and not dramatic (Wiig & Wilson, 2000).

In contrast, an unfolding presentation format often accompanies a persuasive message. The approach involves building a logical sequence of arguments leading to a dramatic, persuasive conclusion. In essence, A leads to B, B leads to C, and C leads to D. A may be, “We need to cut costs in order to remain competitive,” and B is, “to cut costs, we need to lower our employee expenses.” Then C is, “our largest employee expense is benefit pack- ages,” leading to D, “if we want to stay in business, employees are going to have to agree to fewer benefits.”

The leaders of General Motors made such an argument with regard to health care expenses in the late 1990s. Company executives pointed out that health care costs contributed to the overall cost of producing each car, leading to a competitive disadvantage when compared to foreign car manufacturers that did not provide health care coverage for employees (Connolly, 2005). Naturally, the argument met with a great deal of resistance from employ- ees and unions.

Unfolding presentations may be accompanied by emotional visuals and often by dra- matic or inspiring music that build to a crescendo as the major conclusion is drawn. The

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CHAPTER 3Section 3.1 Communication Systems and Processes

Develop the Message A single individual or a team can carry out the next step in the process, developing the message. Effective writers and speakers may not require the assistance of others. Those with fewer talents in these areas, or those who prefer collaboration, pull together sets of people with unique abilities. A high-quality verbal or written message prod- uct combines the words, images, and sounds that present the message product as intended.

Verbal message products include interpersonal communications, meetings, presentations, and speeches. Written message products include letters, memos, emails, proposals, and special reports. Much of this text is devoted to helping you create high-quality messages.

Authenticate the Approach Authenticating the approach involves making sure the message will be communicated as intended. A thorough verification process includes a review of the goals, audience, media, message develop- ment, and timing of the message product release. An effective communicator knows that, more often than not, the secret to presenting an effective message involves not just writing the words, but several rounds of rewriting and revising the message, and then knowing exactly when to release it.

language used in unfolding presentations will often be more emotive, relying as much on emotions and logic to make key points, such as, “We don’t want to see the company fail, do we?”

Written unfolding presentations include extensive use of oversized print, boldface, italics, underlines, and exclamation points. As an example:

You don’t want foreign companies to take away our customers, do you?

Many of you have probably received unfolding presentations using persuasion techniques from political parties in email or standard mail flyers.

For Review

When designing formal communication messages, what two presentation formats may be used?

Digital Vision/Thinkstock Many management communication messages are developed and refined through collaborative efforts.

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CHAPTER 3Section 3.1 Communication Systems and Processes

During the process of authenticating the approach, all information provided in the text and in visuals should be rechecked for accuracy, in both oral and written presentations. The same is true of the message itself. Remember that an emotional or persuasive presen- tation may run a greater risk of leading the audience to misinterpret words. This suggests that a major part of the process involves understanding how the message will be received.

For Review

What are the four steps in the management communication process and what do they involve?

Explain proactive and reactive managerial communications.

Types of Messages and Communication Goals

Company leaders guide organizations through dull periods and dramatic challenges. Mes- sages vary from straightforward concepts to complex presentations designed to change attitudes, opinions, or values. Table 3.1 indicates a series of messages and their goals and the corresponding degree of complexity associated with each goal.

Table 3.1: Messages and goals

Type of Message or Goal Degree of Message Complexity

Remind Schedule/coordinate

Lowest

Inform Solicit input Report findings

Moderate

Persuade Highest

A message designed to remind can target individuals, groups, or the entire organization. Reminders of meetings, deadlines, and other time-related issues are commonplace. Mes- sages that schedule or coordinate activities are sent to sets of individuals working on a common project or task. Planning processes dictate schedules. Informational messages vary more widely. At times, the information can be relatively mundane; at others, key organizational events, outcomes, or decisions are transmitted. Soliciting input ranges from collecting opinions to gathering full sets of data in order to make the most informed deci- sion possible. Reporting the findings requires complete descriptions of an analysis and may invite further discussion and evaluation. The greatest message complexity occurs in attempts to persuade, because either a logical or emotional presentation designed to change an attitude must be constructed. Faulty reasoning or lack of a compelling argu- ment may cause the persuasion attempt to fail (Burnes, 2004).

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CHAPTER 3Section 3.1 Communication Systems and Processes

Patterns of Communication

Each organization is unique. Company leaders design organization structures suited to the organization’s unique needs. The same is true of communication systems. At the same time, in the case of both organizational structure and communication systems, certain identifiable patterns emerge. Four of the more common in business settings are the chain, wheel, circle, and all-channel communication patterns, as displayed in Figure 3.1 (Guetz- kow & Simon, 1955).

Figure 3.1: Patterns of managerial communication

Chain

CEO

Division Manager

Region Manager

Area Manager

Circle

Team Member

Wheel

Employee

EmployeeManager

All-Channel

Entry Level Employee

Middle Manager

Supervisor Supervisor

The four most common patterns of managerial communication include the chain, wheel, circle, and all- channel forms.

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CHAPTER 3Section 3.1 Communication Systems and Processes

Chain The chain approach to management communication parallels the term “chain of com- mand” or “hierarchy of authority.” Messages flow primarily in two directions, upward and downward. Top managers issue orders and relay decisions to middle managers. Middle managers transfer the information to first-line supervisors. First-line supervisors inform entry-level workers. Questions, inquiries, and requests for clarification follow the reverse order.

Directives sent through the chain approach to management communication indicate centralization: a form of organizational structure in which a low degree of delegation of decision-making, authority, and power takes place. Lower-level employees become “order takers” and “order followers” in such a system. Managers and employees who violate the chain of command by communicating directly with other departments “walk the gangplank,” by disrupting the communication system, in the words of noted manage- ment scholar Henri Fayol (1949). The chain design can be characterized as a mechanistic approach to organizational communication, largely driven by rules, procedures, titles that indicate organizational status, and formal relationships between employees (Woodward, 1958).

Figure 3.2: An organizational chart

Division Manager Division Manager Division Manager

Dept Head

First Line Employee

CEO

Supervisor Supervisor SupervisorSupervisor

The chain model often accompanies a centralized form of organizational structure.

The chain design offers benefits to certain types of organizations. Figure 3.2 provides an example of a basic organizational chart. The chart fits a chain design in which precision in carrying out tasks or assignments holds high priority. Military and police organizations serve as prime examples; however, the chain only works well within the organization rather than when one unit (police) must coordinate with other units (fire, storm cleanup

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departments, etc.). The chain model can also be found in companies that produce stan- dardized products, with few needs for innovation or change.

Wheel In a wheel arrangement, a manager or supervisor becomes the center of the wheel, with individual spokes, or communication channels, connecting the manager to subordinates. In such a system, the manager retains information and dispenses it to employees as needed, serving as a control center. Individual employees communicate only with the manager and not with one another.

The wheel approach may be used in task forces or project teams, especially when mem- bers are disbursed geographically. For example, should a team be formed to identify and purchase a new manufacturing site, members of the group may be sent to a variety of locations where they collect information about the costs of land, the availability of con- tractors and laborers, access to transportation systems, the nature of the local government, prevailing wages, and other factors. Each reports to the head of the task force, who then can relay the information to decision-makers. A similar situation arises when teams are disbursed to various countries to identify those that would be targets for international expansion.

Normally, a wheel approach would not fit an ongoing managerial circumstance. Over time, employees are not usually isolated from each other on a continuing basis. Excep- tions are possible, such as when a series of park rangers reports to a central office regard- ing fire threats and other activities in the park system.

Circle A circle resembles the wheel approach, only without the central hub. In a circle system, members communicate freely with other members, even when one member of the circle is the formally designated leader. The flow of communication, however, goes around the wheel, clockwise or counterclockwise. This method matches work that takes place sequen- tially. One member’s end product becomes the beginning point for the next member.

The circle approach may be found in task force operations as well as in laboratory settings in which experiments take place in a carefully constructed format. It might also fit certain creative endeavors, such as preparing advertisements or market research projects.

All-Channel In an all-channel communication arrangement, messages move freely across organiza- tional ranks and members of a team, group, or department. Members determine the per- sons that should receive messages, regardless of title or status.

The all-channel approach creates decentralization, or an organizational operation char- acterized by substantial delegation of authority (Goodman & Pennings, 1979). The sys- tem represents an organic approach to communication structure, with few rules, little attention paid to titles and ranks, and a strong emphasis on organizational flexibility and adaptability (Woodward, 1965).

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CHAPTER 3Section 3.2 Formal Communication and Channels

The all-channel approach to communication design matches an increasing number of departments and companies. Many Internet firms, such as Google, maintain open work spaces in which doors and walls are not used. Employees move about freely and are encouraged to develop and propose new, innovative ideas. Managers work side-by-side with other organizational members.

The all-channel method empowers employees and encourages innovation. Consequently, it has often become the method of choice for research and development departments as well as other units that emphasize creativity.

Table 3.2: Managerial messages and communication systems

Pattern Common Messages

Chain Memo/directive, bulk email, formal presentation by manager, little or no feedback expected

Wheel Interpersonal conversations, email exchanges, calls, meetings directed by a supervisor, feedback needed

Circle Checklist with notation when task is completed, interpersonal conversations between members, emails, calls, less-structured meetings with feedback expected

All-Channel Interpersonal conversations, unstructured meetings, emails, calls, constant feedback in all directions

In summary, you probably would not be able to go into a company and quickly identify the communication pattern. Some clues may be obtained from the information provided in Table 3.2. Most organizations, however, contain elements of least two of the systems. Some projects are directed using a wheel, others with a circle (Lim & Benbasat, 1991). Other companies may maintain an all-channel approach organization-wide, but use a wheel or circle in certain circumstances. The least-flexible chain approach, while less com- mon, may be the most visible to an outsider.

3.2 Formal Communication and Channels

Learning Objective # 2: What roles do formal communication and the use of various formal communication channels play in managerial processes?

The messages and channels described in the previous section apply to formal com-munication systems. Formal communication consists of information that travels through organizationally designated channels. Formal communication takes the form of verbal transmissions and written media. The channel selected by a manager depends on the type of message to be sent.

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Types of Formal Messages

Formal communication systems move information throughout the organization. The information can travel upward, downward, laterally, or in all directions at once. The most common types of messages transmitted via formal channels include:

• Job instructions • Job rationale • Standardized information • Team and group coordination • Questions and answers • Decisions and plans • Ideological indoctrination

Job instructions appear in many forms. A direct address by a supervisor instructs an employee how to carry out a task or set of tasks. Employee training programs provide information to new hires. Performance appraisal systems correct ineffective performance. Mentoring programs render additional insights and information about how to success- fully perform a task or job.

A job rationale answers the “why” questions. In other words, managers explain why a job should be completed in a certain way and the reasons the job is important. A manager provides the rationale for the job when he or she tells the employee, “We do the job this way, because it saves time” or, “We ask you to compile sales statistics by store so that we know which products do well in each unit, and which do not.”

Standardized information consists of items that apply equally to everyone in the firm, or to every person in a given department. Examples are the company’s list of rules, protocols for evacuation in case of an emergency, plus any procedures that apply to specific units in the company. Standardized information in a retail store consists of how inventory will be managed (move the oldest merchandise to the front of the shelf), how cash will be han- dled (leave $100 in bills and coins in the register each day), plus protocols for accepting two-party checks and other forms of payment. Standardized information in the produc- tion department includes safety procedures and rules, and methods for completing each task. Standardized information in accounting contains messages about which procedures are used, such as methods of depreciation and methods of valuing inventory.

Team and group coordination messages set meeting times, dates, and deadlines, plus help to establish relationships between members. Members of the workplace safety committee know that the group meets the third Monday of each month, that a deadline for complet- ing a report about a recent series of accidents looms, and that the committee always con- sists of six members, two from production, one from human resources, one from quality

For Review

What four primary patterns do formal managerial communications exhibit?

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CHAPTER 3Section 3.2 Formal Communication and Channels

control, and two other individuals. Systems for electing a committee chair may also be part of the coordination effort.

Questions and answers move upward, downward, and laterally in business organiza- tions. Questions may be posed by employees to managers, by managers to employees, or by members at the same rank, such as supervisors to one another.

Decisions and plans shape the direction of the company. Managers convey them verbally and in writing. Effective organizations chart planned courses that every employee can understand and follow.

Ideological indoctrination statements tell employees, “This is a great place to work.” At times, the message begins with a company’s statement of mission. Support for ethical behaviors, social responsibility, and the conservation of resources accompanies ideas about the company’s internal environment as welcoming and helpful.

For Review

What types of messages are delivered through formal communication systems?

Information Richness

One of the methods used to describe business and manage- ment communication employs the concept of information richness, or the potential infor- mation carrying capacity of a communication channel. At one extreme, rich communication means the channel provides opportunities for feedback, a full range of visual and audio communication, and it presents the opportunity to personalize a message. At the other extreme, a lean channel offers no venue for feedback, is impersonal, and only a limited amount of infor- mation can be transmitted (Len-

gel & Daft, 1988). Figure 3.3 summarizes the continuum from the leanest channel to the richest channel.

Digital Vision/Thinkstock Ideological indoctrination seeks to convince employees that they are working for a great company.

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CHAPTER 3Section 3.2 Formal Communication and Channels

Figure 3.3: Channel richness

Leanest Channel Moderate Richness Richest Channel

Impersonal static channel Personal static channel Interactive channel Face-to-face

Routine, clear, general; simple messages

Personal message, prompt response

needed; slightly complex messages

Some interaction is valuable;

moderately difficult messages

Non-routine, ambiguous; difficult

messages

Source: Adapted from Lengel, R. H., & Daft, R. L. (1988). The selection of communication media as an executive skill. Academy of Management Executive, (2) August, 225–232.

The richest channels suit the most complex messages and circumstances that require dis- cussion and interaction. Interactions take place face-to-face. As a result, the channel pro- vides for both verbal and nonverbal transmissions. Intonation and other cues accompany the person’s words. As noted in the previous chapter, these interactions resemble a dance featuring an exchange of information, ideas, and opinions. In presentations and other more formal settings (discussed in greater detail in Chapter 10), additional cues can be added through the use of visual aids, such as those created with PowerPoint, Keynote, InDesign, or printed handout materials.

Interactive channels house many of the benefits of face-to-face meetings. Videoconferenc- ing and conference calls retain the ability to move beyond words to inflection and other cues. In the case of videoconferencing, visual cues are available. While not at the same level as the immediate feedback of an actual face-to-face meeting, interactive channels allow participants to visit concurrently.

Personal static channels, such as telephone calls, text messages, and instant messages, become leaner because visual elements and nonverbal cues are absent. Quick response systems such as instant messaging create what are nearly “conversations” in which ques- tions and answers can be posed along with proposals and counterproposals. Personal static channels facilitate a great deal of today’s business operations, as employees and customers communicate via these channels.

The leanest channels are those in which verbal intonation and nonverbal cues cannot be transmitted. Lean formats include most printed documents, such as letters, reports, and proposals. Standardized information with less complexity can be sent through leaner channels. In-depth explanations of complicated issues are possible; however, they are transmitted without the benefits of other channels.

Channel richness provides an effective tool that assists in selecting the best way to send a message. Using the analysis, a manager can select the best channel for any communication effort.

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CHAPTER 3Section 3.2 Formal Communication and Channels

Formal Verbal Communication Channels

Business and management communication, like every other aspect of commerce, has been drastically influenced by technology over the past half century. The rate of change in com- munication technology appears to be increasing. The result is a growing list of methods to transmit business communications and management information verbally. Beyond face- to-face interactions, the other formal verbal communication channels currently utilized on a daily basis by managers and employees are:

• Telephone/mobile phone • Videoconferencing • Social media such as LinkedIn and Google Plus • Conference calls • Meetings • Presentations

Additional information about presentations appears in Chapter 10. Presentations include speeches made to in-house audiences and the general public, and in public relations set- tings. Presentations differ from other formats because the speaker takes time in advance to shape a message and any accompanying materials, such as a PowerPoint, Keynote, InDe- sign, or other visual aid. Team and group dynamics are discussed further in Chapter 9.

Telephone/Mobile Phones The telephone continues to be widely used, even though it is a less information-rich verbal communication channel. Three types of telephone calls can be made. Land lines normally offer the highest-quality signal, with less static and fading of reception. Internet-based phones such as Vonage and Skype, or similar technologies, vary in terms of the quality of transmission and reception. Mobile phones can be unreliable and often vulnerable to distortions of sound.

Currently, employers rely on all three modes of telephone for communications with employees, customers, and others. In a business context, the keys to quality phone com- munication can be summarized as expediency, attitude, courtesy, listening, and focus.

Expediency means that the caller and the recipient both realize that business transac- tions and interactions cannot routinely involve lengthy phone conversations. Successful telephone attitudes are businesslike, professional, and cordial. Courtesy includes highly restrained use of the “on hold” feature of a phone. Listening employs all of the techniques described in Chapter 2. Focus means not multitasking during calls and instead working deliberately to achieve the call’s intentions.

For Review

Explain the concept of information richness in terms of both rich and lean channels.

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It may be helpful to jot down a few notes, or talking points, prior to making or receiving a call. If necessary, some messages may be almost “rehearsed” before dialing. Rambling, incoherent calls often alienate the recipient. Table 3.3 summarizes other keys to effective telephone conversations.

Table 3.3: Keys to effective telephone conversations

Call Initiation

Caller:

Identify yourself, your company, and the reason for the call.

Receiver:

Ask how you can help.

Both:

Use a friendly helpful tone.

During the Message

Caller:

Directly state the issue to be resolved.

Receiver:

Clarify any request or transmission of a message.

Both:

Take notes of what transpires. Repeat key points.

Call Resolution

Caller:

Summarize the call’s purpose and desired response or action.

Receiver:

Indicate what action will be taken, such as referral to others, will call back with an answer, etc.

Both:

Collect follow-up names and numbers if other parties will be involved in the resolution.

Ending the Call

Both:

Make sure caller and receiver are both satisfied. Thank the other person for his or her time.

Source: Cornett, J. E. (2011). Techniques for effective telephone communication. eHow, Money. Retrieved from http://www.ehow.com/ way_5749408_techniques-effective-telephone-communication.html

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CHAPTER 3Section 3.2 Formal Communication and Channels

Additional advice includes re- turning calls promptly. Never implicate a secretary or some other employee as an excuse for failing to return a call. Try to answer the phone before it rings four times.

When leaving a message on voice mail, clearly identify your- self, your company and a return number, and make a short state- ment about the purpose of the call. Also, note times you can be reached with return calls. Remember to take into account time zone differences when the call is to another part of the country or world.

Videoconferencing A videoconference involves many of the same issues as an in-person meeting. People must find time in their schedules to be in the right place, an agenda should be prepared in advance, time frames are established, and managers must be certain to guide the confer- ence so that all items are covered in a timely fashion. Guidelines for attending and manag- ing videoconferences are provided in Table 3.4.

Table 3.4: Videoconferencing protocols

Manager or Leader Participants

Schedule the meeting in advance

Confirm the time with all participants

Arrive early to make sure the system works

Ask each participant to identify him/herself

Don’t read prepared statements

Stop people from rambling

Summarize, reinforce key ideas

Finish on time

Distribute minutes of the videoconference

Confirm your availability

Confirm your commitment

Prepare for participation with notes, papers

Identify yourself when you speak

Keep your language and ideas precise

Don’t ramble

Compliment good ideas (continued)

Jupiterimages/Thinkstock When leaving a message on voice mail, clearly identify yourself your company, and a return number, and make a short statement about the purpose of the call.

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CHAPTER 3Section 3.2 Formal Communication and Channels

Table 3.4: Videoconferencing protocols (continued)

Both

Wear clothing that plays well on a screen

Write down the names and locations of all participants

Try to make eye contact with the camera

Don’t become frustrated by delays

Speak a little more slowly than your normal rate

Don’t engage in side conversations with others at your site

As a communication medium, videoconferencing generates visual contact in the sense that you can see people in other locations. At the same time, eye-to-eye contact cannot be made. Discerning other nonverbal cues also becomes more difficult. Distracting techno- logical problems can occur. Time differences should be accounted for. A meeting sched- uled for 1 p.m. on the East Coast will be noon (lunch time) in the Midwest. A 4 p.m. meet- ing on the West Coast means someone in New York would have to stay until 7 p.m. to take the call. Calls from the United States to other countries must also be carefully scheduled to take into account differing time zones.

Videoconferencing as a management communication medium is likely to increase in the coming years. Improved picture quality, declining costs of operation, convenience, and increasing costs for physical travel make videoconferences an attractive option. Many managers have concluded that this slightly less information-rich venue provides a high- quality alternative to flying and staying in hotel rooms across the country and around the world.

Conference Calls Conference calls continue to experience wide usage. Conference calls provide a low-cost option to gather a limited number of people to verbally communicate in real time. The protocols that apply to meetings and videoconferencing events are the same for confer- ence calls. Participants receive advance notice, a small agenda, and should also be given follow-up descriptions of the conversations.

Conference calls are leaner information channels than videoconferencing, because of the lack of visual contact of any kind. Vocal messages and inflections are transmitted; how- ever, nonverbal cues and other methods of transmitting information are absent.

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CHAPTER 3Section 3.3 Verbal Face-to-Face Interactions

In addition to the advice given for videoconferencing, extra care should be given to the phone device. Make sure you are close enough to be heard on a speaker phone. Remem- ber that your voice stops the signal coming from the other end of the line. Allow time for responses and pauses. Also be aware of distractions you can cause by shuffling papers, tapping on a table, chewing gum or candy, or in other ways.

3.3 Verbal Face-to-Face Interactions

Learning Objective # 3: What are the keys to successful face-to-face meetings with other employees?

Even in today’s fast-paced, highly technologically dominated world, a considerable amount of business and management communication still take place in person. Many times, only a face-to-face meeting fulfills the purpose. Members at every level of the organization experience in-person verbal communication on a daily basis.

Verbal communication in person offers the richest communication channel, because information transfers in the forms of verbal cues, facial expressions, bodily movements, appearance, the use of space, the use of time, physical contact, and the potential to supple- ment messages with other media, such as written notes, symbolic items, and electronic media. Face-to-face communication processes take place in formal conversations and casual meetings.

Formal, In-Person Face-to-Face Conversations

Formal, in-person interactions often take place as important subjects or issues arise. Exam- ples of times when formal interpersonal meetings are in order include job interviews, direct orders by a supervisor for key job assignments, disciplinary notices, performance appraisals, and to resolve conflicts. A formal meeting or “being called into the bosses’ office” often creates a degree of anxiety in the employee’s mind. Consequently, from a manager’s perspective, a well-planned formal meeting includes the following elements:

• advance notification, including at least some idea about the purpose of the meeting

• choice of the proper setting • attention to the meeting opening • consideration about how the message will be presented • the manner in which to close the meeting

No one likes being blindsided. Advance notice allows both parties time to prepare for what will transpire. The nature and seriousness of the meeting determine the setting. Options range from the manager’s office, to a conference room, to a break room, or even a walk outside. Someone about to receive a disciplinary action will probably not want to hear the news in a break room. The opening may include a handshake, an informal

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CHAPTER 3Section 3.3 Verbal Face-to-Face Interactions

greeting coupled with an invitation to sit down, and often an expression of thanks for coming to the meeting.

The message presentation constitutes the most important element of a formal face-to-face meeting. The manager decides whether the meeting will take the form of a presentation or a conversation. Four methods of conducting a one-on-one meeting are: tell, sell, consult, and the joining style. A telling style largely entails presenting information and seeking com- prehension. The selling style incorporates persuasion into the presentation of ideas. A consult- ing style encourages interac- tion and an exchange of ideas. The joining style represents a complete collaboration with the employee.

From the employee’s perspec- tive, preparation for a formal meeting includes thoughts about how to respond to the message. Accepting compliments with the appropriate degree of defer- ence communicates your inten- tions to be a team player. Also, remember that the employee’s body language communicates as the manager is speaking. The employee should antici- pate the meeting’s closing. A manager who rises and makes concluding remarks is final- izing the interaction.

Informal, In-Person Casual-Setting Conversations

Casual meetings occur at office parties, company-sponsored events, break rooms, and in other venues where employees gather with no formal agenda. Face-to-face meetings with managers are often spontaneous. Preparation for such events includes trying to remember something about each person you will encounter. It can be a family event, such as a new baby or the marriage of a son or daughter, a personal event such as a recent promotion or having won a contest, or a person’s favorite hobby. The ability to interact in casual settings such as these helps make the workplace experience more pleasant and often can lead to friendships or other social encounters.

Chance meetings in the hallway or parking lot can open the door to important conversa- tions. They serve as times to remind someone about an important task, or to pass along a key piece of information, or to engage in relationship-building that enhances professional

iStockphoto/Thinkstock A formal meeting or “being called into the bosses’ office” often creates a degree of anxiety in the employee’s mind.

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CHAPTER 3Section 3.4 Informal Verbal Communication Within Organizations

structures. Following informal greetings, it is possible to mention business-related sub- jects in a low-pressure context.

For Review

What steps should be followed when setting up formal face-to-face conversations?

In addition to face-to-face conversations, managers use what other formal verbal communication channels?

3.4 Informal Verbal Communication Within Organizations

Learning Objective # 4: How can managers effectively manage informal verbal communication?

A substantial portion of messages transmitted in a company either does not flow through an authorized channel or is dedicated to a topic that does not serve the organization’s interests. Informal communication emerges in everyday life in organizations. Other names for informal communication include gossip, rumors, and the grapevine. The military uses the term “scuttlebutt” to describe informal communication.

As a manager, you should not ignore the rumors that swirl about an organization. More important, the channel transmits a great deal of information that may have value. It will be your job to try to manage the informal communication channel. Doing so involves four activities:

1. understand how it works 2. tap in 3. transmit messages 4. deal with false rumors

Managers who tend to the informal channel appear to be in the know. Those who do not may be considered outsiders to those in the company.

Understanding Informal Communication

Four key elements should be considered when thinking about gossip. First, it travels quickly. In this electronic age, an indiscretion or rumor quickly will be posted on social media, and from there it becomes impossible to stop. Even prior to the emergence of Twit- ter, Facebook, and other sites, rumors have always “spread like wildfire” (Davis, 1969).

Second, managers should understand that both information and misinformation travel through informal channels. Estimates are that nearly one-third of all rumors have faulty

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CHAPTER 3Section 3.4 Informal Verbal Communication Within Organizations

information or mistruths contained in them (Davis, 1975). Any rumor deserves a consider- able amount of skepticism.

Third, rumors are tuned to employee needs. In essence, people gossip about the things they think are interesting. Table 3.5 provides common gossip topics.

Table 3.5: Rumor subjects

Employee pay (especially in closed pay systems in which salaries are not disclosed to employees)

Personnel decisions

• Who will be promoted? • Who is about to be terminated? • Who will be transferred? • Who will be laid off?

Company strategic direction

• Outsourcing • Layoffs • Acquisitions and Mergers

Office romances

Sexual identities/orientations of co-workers

Conflicts between organizational members

Source: Adapted from Baack, D. (1995). Organizational behavior. Houston: Dame Publications, p. 326.

Fourth, gossip creates social power. Informal communication includes elements of social- ization in which those who have access to rumors feel socially included (Kurland & Pella, 2000). Four aspects of social power created by gossip are reward power, coercive power, expert power, and referent power.

Positive gossip, or saying favorable things about other people, generates reward power. When a co-worker shares positive news about a colleague, people often attribute positive characteristics to the person sending the message. The transference results from reward- ing others (French & Raven, 1959).

Negative gossip creates coercive power, based on the ability to punish. Someone passing along a negative message about a co-worker may create the perception that he or she has additional negative information about other organizational members. Holding this type of information generates the potential to damage careers and can be used to threaten oth- ers (Emler, 1994).

Gossip influences referent power, or power based on social status and likability. Some- one who gossips draws recipients into a social circle (Dunbar, 1996). Recipients may believe the gossiper has social influence and is an insider in a social network, especially

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CHAPTER 3Section 3.4 Informal Verbal Communication Within Organizations

when the gossip is positive. On the other hand, a nega- tive gossiper may lose refer- ent power, because recipients believe that providing the infor- mation is improper or even immoral, leading them to look unfavorably on the gossiper (Levin & Arluke, 1987).

Gossip may increase a person’s expert power, or influence gained by having knowledge and expertise. The gossiper gains power based on percep- tions that the person has access to relevant information about the work environment. Over time, the gossiper becomes viewed as a person who helps others adapt to the workplace (Kurland & Pelled, 2000, p. 430).

In general, spreading gossip can increase or diminish a person’s power. Oftentimes, gos- siping becomes the equivalent of playing with fire. Some negative consequences of work- place gossip may include:

• Lost productivity and wasted time • Erosion of trust and morale • Increased anxiety among employees as rumors circulate without any clear infor-

mation as to what is fact and what is not • Growing divisiveness among employees as people “take sides” • Hurt feelings and reputations • Jeopardized chances for the gossipers’ advancement, as they are perceived as

unprofessional • Attrition as good employees leave the company because of the unhealthy work

atmosphere

Tap In

In the past, managers would seek to find ways to hear what was being passed along informally. The phrase “having a pipeline” describes this activity. With the emergence of instant messaging and social media, discovering what employees are talking about has become increasingly simple. The manager can then determine which rumors demand a response and which do not.

Sending Messages

As the previous section suggests, most of the time, rumors should be avoided. The best messages to be sent informally are positive news. Managers can pass along compliments

Stockbyte/Thinkstock Oftentimes, gossiping becomes the equivalent of playing with fire.

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CHAPTER 3Section 3.4 Informal Verbal Communication Within Organizations

Meshing Formal and Informal Communication

Formal communication channels provide key information to key personnel so that tasks can be successfully completed on schedule. Managers spend time crafting verbal mes- sages to be presented in the proper setting and in the proper tone. Employees who pay attention to formal messages succeed. Those skilled at formal communication enjoy a major career advantage.

informally, with positive results for the person being complimented as well as for the manager, who will be seen as being generous with praise.

Some managers also will engage in “trial balloons,” whereby ideas are tested informally. A manager in a break room asks how salespeople would feel if the company moved from a commission-only pay system to a salary-plus-commission program, in order to reduce pay volatility and levels of stress. Clearly, the sales team will talk about the idea, and the manager will receive feedback. Kicking around ideas can be a useful managerial tool, especially when employees trust the manager.

Dealing With False Rumors

The presence of continuing false rumors means managers should be continually aware of what happens in the channel. Many times an untrue piece of gossip lingers simply because telling it is more fun than revealing the truth. At times, persistent rumors have been called urban legends in the workplace. Action should be taken when a negative rumor continues to damage the standing of an employee or of the company.

Two primary strategies exist for dealing with false rumors. The first option involves for- mally refuting the rumor. Managers can send messages in either verbal or written form contradicting the derogatory information. Such messages must be carefully crafted or they run the risk of making a rumor more credible. The best approach includes presenting tangible evidence that a rumor is inaccurate.

The second strategy relies on dealing with the rumor in the channel. A manager can sim- ply pull aside key employees and talk about why the story is not true and point out the damage the rumor has caused. The manager can also suggest that if the gossiper is discov- ered, consequences will follow (Davis, 1975).

For Review

How should a manager deal with information communication?

What should a manager understand about rumors?

What are the four kinds of social power that can be generated by gossip?

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CHAPTER 3Section 3.5 The Role of Nonverbal Communication

Verbal informal communication continues to be a natural part of the workplace. Knowing that rumors will persist and the kinds of subjects that are fertile grounds for gossip, and that they can be a source of social power, all imply that man- agers should become involved in the channel. A continuing debate revolves around the question of whether managing constitutes an art or a sci- ence. In truth, both elements contribute to a suc- cessful managerial style. Coping with falsehoods represents both an art and a science.

Ethical Implications of Informal Channels

Beyond formal verbal channels, informal chan- nels make work life more interesting. People gossip because it’s fun. As an ethical employee, avoid passing along harmful messages, whether they contain truth or not. You should be espe- cially unreceptive to statements that demean oth- ers based on gender, race, religion, sexual orien- tation, or other personal characteristics, such as

being overweight. A substantial amount of popular press suggests completely avoiding gossip, simply because it makes you look “small.”

From a larger vantage point, however, recognizing that informal channels do present truthful, favorable messages represents an opportunity. You can become known as the employee who always puts in a good word about others. In that way, informal commu- nication can complement and supplement formal messages in a pleasant and positive fashion.

3.5 The Role of Nonverbal Communication

Learning Objective # 5: What role does nonverbal communication play in presenting and receiving messages?

In interpersonal communication, the tone, the actual words, and the nonverbal cues complement and complete every message, which means nonverbal cues deserve care-ful attention. Nonverbal communication plays a major role in one-on-one interactions. Nonverbal communication takes place in a context in which the same words may have different meanings. It consists of several cues being transmitted simultaneously (raised eyebrows when passing along a rumor). Social norms dictate whether various nonverbal cues are acceptable or should be discouraged, for example, using obscene gestures will likely be frowned upon on the job. Nonverbal cues provide information about the verbal message and are considered in that context (deVito, 2009).

Ryan McVay Coping with falsehoods sent through informal communication channels represents both an art and a science.

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CHAPTER 3Section 3.5 The Role of Nonverbal Communication

The concept that nonverbal com- munication takes place in a con- text suggests that folding your arms and leaning back, in one context, may mean you’re relaxed and are taking everything in; in another, the same body language suggests frustration or boredom. Packages or clusters of nonver- bal cues are normally transmit- ted, which means that not only do words matter, but also eye contact, hand gestures, posture, pacing, facial expression, leg movements, and breathing will be considered simultaneously with the words. Social norms strongly influence the interpreta- tion of nonverbal cues. The “V” signal made with two fingers meant “victory” to Englanders during World War II, “peace” to Americans in the United States during the Vietnam War, and is an obscene gesture in some cultures. A wink signals flirtation in one context and that “you’re an insider” in another.

Nonverbal communication may transmit a message or meaning that contradicts what is being said verbally. Someone who disagrees with you may verbally signal concurrence but will send other signals, such as looking away or looking down, that contradict the message. The combination of verbal and nonverbal cues can send a strong message. A person expressing adamant support for an idea may pound a fist or shake one in the air.

Nonverbal cues communicate even when you are trying to avoid sending a message. When you are sad or frustrated, body language may send that message even when the words are “I’m okay” or “I’m fine.”

Forms of Nonverbal Communication

Many forms of nonverbal communication take place. People make judgments about the words you speak, but many other factors come into play as they interpret the message. Among the more notable forms of nonverbal communication are:

• kinesic cues • appearance • dress • artifacts • touch • space • paralanguage • time • manners

Medioimages/Photodisc The “V” signal made with two fingers meant "victory" during World War II in England, “peace” during the Vietnam war in the United States, and is an obscene gesture in some cultures.

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CHAPTER 3Section 3.5 The Role of Nonverbal Communication

Kinesic Cues Kinesic cues are messages communicated by nonlinguistic body language or movements. These include messages conveyed by various parts of the body (Birdwhistell, 1970). Exam- ples of kinesic cues are provided in Table 3.6.

Table 3.6: Selected kinesic cues and interpretations

Body Element Movement Interpretation

Head Nodding Agreement, listening

Tilting Interest

Downward movement Defensiveness

Eyes Gazing Attentive, honesty

Shifting, darting Uncertain, lying

Staring Intimidation

Mouth Smile Enjoyment, pleasure

Shoulders Learning forward Interest, rapport

Leaning away Lack of interest, skepticism

Slouching Low self-esteem

Hands Touching others Powerful

Touching self Nervous, anxious

Hand over mouth Wishing to escape

Hands on hips Challenging

Arms Crossed Closed to ideas, bored

Sources: Adapted from Pentland, A. (2008). Honest signals: How they shape our world. Boston: M.I.T. Press, 10–40, 105, and Malandro, L. A., & Barker, L. (1983). Nonverbal communication. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley Publishing, 226–230.

Appearance Appearance contains elements that you can control and some that are less controllable. The less controllable element is physical appearance in terms of what others consider to be attractive. Several studies indicate that people who are physically attractive enjoy a kind of halo effect, in which others assume they are more intelligent, witty, charming, and even more honest (Harper, 1993; Schoenberger, 1997).

The other component of appearance can be controlled. Hairstyles, dress, and the use of make-up also convey nonverbal images and messages. Think, for example, of how you react to someone wearing sunglasses indoors in a dark room or at night. Gaudy make- up or ostentatious hairstyles attract a certain type of attention, which may convey the

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CHAPTER 3Section 3.5 The Role of Nonverbal Communication

image of being unprofessional or of someone who need not be taken seriously. Tattoos also send messages, especially vis- ible, extreme versions. Women wearing low-cut, provocative, and revealing clothing send dif- ferent nonverbal messages than those with conservative outfits. Men who insist on unbuttoning one more button to reveal more chest also send messages.

Artifacts Artifacts include additional items, such as jewelry, eye- glasses, and even the car you drive. Piercings, while more common, still connote an element of rebellion to many peo- ple. Both men and women notice expensive rings, necklaces, and other forms of jewelry. And, some may judge a person who drives an old, beat-up car as less successful and tal- ented than an individual in the same profession who drives an upscale vehicle.

Touch Physical touch has undergone a metamorphosis, in terms of what may be considered acceptable or unacceptable. An incident involving President George W. Bush placing his hands on the shoulders and neck of German chancellor Angela Merkel created a great deal of consternation. Hugging, back-slapping, and other forms of touch have largely been removed from the workplace, unless express permission has been granted.

One element of touch, the handshake, continues to convey important messages. A firm handshake accompanied by eye contact expresses confidence. A weak handshake with eyes averted signals shyness and other less desirable traits (Brown, 2000). For both men and women, a firm handshake can create a favorable first impression. At the same time, always be aware of the potential that the other person has arthritis or another condition which would make a firm grip painful.

Space Space, or physical distance, sends powerful signals. Substantial evidence suggests that the concepts of personal space vary widely by culture. In the United States, maintaining physical distance creates a certain level of comfort. Someone who feels that his or her personal space has been invaded quickly becomes defensive. Table 3.7 indicates the five levels of personal space.

Creatas Images/Thinkstock Appearance contains elements that you can control and some that are less controllable.

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CHAPTER 3Section 3.5 The Role of Nonverbal Communication

Table 3.7: Levels of personal space

Level Distance Communication

Public 12–15 feet To feel protected

Eye contact may or may not take place

Able to move freely past the person

Social 3–12 feet Making eye contact, shaking hands

Casual conversations

Formal Business 7–12 feet Greater distance implies social power

Distance from visitor chair to CEO chair in an office

Personal 18 inches–4 feet People are able to touch each other

Expresses closeness “at an arm’s length”

For friends and family members

Not appropriate for business

Intimate 18 inches or less Expresses closeness and affection

Uncomfortable when forced upon a person

(Elevators, subway cars, airline seats)

Source: Hall, E. T. (1982). The Hidden Dimension. New York: Doubleday.

Violating personal space, or “getting in someone’s face,” indicates aggression and often accompanies an argument or more violent interaction. Effective communicators are always aware of the proper distance.

Paralanguage Paralanguage refers to how something is said rather than what is said in a message. Key elements include tone, phrasing, pacing, pitch, and intensity (Knapp & Hall, 1992). Paralanguage changes messages from surprised to sarcastic, such as, “Oh really?” Pac- ing indicates when a person wishes to speak or to stop speaking. Paralanguage conveys urgency, especially through pitch. As a speaker in a conversation, awareness of how you are delivering a message plays an important role. The wrong paralanguage disputes the words that you say.

Time Time contains two elements: punctuality and promptness, and the pace of life, includ- ing business transactions. In terms of punctuality, in North America, a strong emphasis on being early or on time exists. Failure to arrive on time signals either irresponsibility

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CHAPTER 3Section 3.5 The Role of Nonverbal Communication

or disrespect of the person you have inconve- nienced by being late. In many other cultures, being late may be fashionable or is at least to be expected. Knowing the arrival habits of business partners constitutes an adjustment for many per- sons engaged in international commerce.

The pace of life determines the use of time. In cultures where time takes on the characteristics of a commodity, such as in the phrase, “time is money,” it is not to be wasted. Saving time con- stitutes a virtue. Other cultures view time in dif- ferent ways, seeing it as polychromic, with many types of time and many uses of time (Hall, 1989).

To be on the safe side, your best bet in the United States is to develop a reputation for being punc- tual. In the event of an accident or unavoidable delay, contact the person you were to meet and explain in advance why you will be late. Fail- ure to do so may harm the business relationship. Chronic tardiness will likely inhibit your career. Being known as someone who is punctual creates a major career asset.

Manners Finally, manners represent an under-appreciated aspect of both verbal and nonverbal communication. Cultural norms have shifted over time, and what was considered com- mon courtesy in the past has changed today. At the same time, you can gain a career advantage by demonstrating good manners. Some examples include:

• Opening the door for others, regardless of gender, with a pleasant greeting. • Avoiding the use of profanity in formal business relationships, even when those

around you curse. • Keeping your mouth closed while chewing food; not talking with food in your

mouth. • Letting others finish their sentences without interrupting. • Generous use of “please” and “thank you.” • Generous use of compliments for work, effort, and cooperation rather than

remarks about appearance.

In summary, nonverbal cues dictate a great deal of what we communicate and how we communicate. Taking the time to understand the effective use of nonverbal communica- tion, including appearance, dress, artifacts, touch, space, paralanguage, time, and man- ners, helps you become a more effective businessperson.

iStockphoto/Thinkstock Factors including time, distance, kinesic cues, and paralanguage affect individual conversations.

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CHAPTER 3Section 3.6 Chapter Review

For Review

What are kinesic cues?

In addition to kinesic cues, what are other forms of nonverbal communication?

What is paralanguage?

3.6 Chapter Review

This chapter explores the process of creating managerial messages through verbal and nonverbal channels. The management communication process consists of four activities, which are to assess the communication environment, establish a message format, develop the message, and authenticate the approach.

Proactive messages announce a change, initiative, innovation, or some other new course or direction. They proclaim the company will move into a new territory or use a new method. Reactive messages are responses to circumstances, such as a crisis, problem, or event. Analyzing the situation consists of the evaluation of all Ws and Hs associated with the message.

In the case of both organizational structure and communication systems, certain identifi- able patterns emerge. Four of the more common in business settings include the chain, wheel, circle, and all-channel patterns. The chain approach to management communi- cation parallels the term “chain of command” or “hierarchy of authority.” In a wheel arrangement, a manager or supervisor becomes the center of the wheel, with individual spokes, or communication channels, connecting the manager to subordinates. A circle resembles the wheel approach, only without the central hub. In an all-channel communi- cation arrangement, messages move freely across organizational ranks and members of a team, group, or department.

Formal communication consists of information that travels through organizationally des- ignated channels. The most common types of messages transmitted via formal channels include: job instructions, job rationale, standardized information, team and group coordi- nation, questions and answers, decisions and plans, and ideological indoctrination.

Information richness is the potential information carrying capacity of a communication channel. Rich communication means the channel provides opportunities for feedback, a full range of visual and audio communication, and it presents the opportunity to person- alize a message. A lean channel offers no venue for feedback, is impersonal, and only a limited amount of information can be transmitted.

Beyond face-to-face interactions, the other formal verbal communication channels cur- rently utilized on a daily basis by managers and employees are telephone/mobile phone, videoconferencing, social media, conference calls, meetings, and presentations. Verbal, nonvirtual face-to-face interactions include formal, in-person conversations and informal, casual conversations.

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CHAPTER 3Section 3.6 Chapter Review

Informal communication emerges in everyday life in organizations. Other names for informal communication include gossip, rumors, the grapevine, and scuttlebutt. Four key elements should be considered when thinking about gossip: it travels quickly, it contains information and misinformation, it is tuned to employee needs, and it creates social power. Managers should understand the channel, tap in, use it to transmit messages, and deal with false rumors. Many times there are negative consequences to informal rumors. Success- ful managers effectively merge formal and informal communication. Effective employees understand and avoid the negative potential effects of informal communication.

In interpersonal communication, nonverbal cues complement and complete every mes- sage. Among the more notable forms of nonverbal communication are kinesic cues, appearance, dress, artifacts, touch, space, paralanguage, time, and manners. Kinesic cues are messages communicated by nonlinguistic body language or movements. Paralan- guage refers to how something is said rather than what is said in a message, including tone, phrasing, pacing, pitch, and intensity. Effective interpersonal and formal communi- cators are aware of the messages they transmit through nonverbal cues.

Key Terms

centralization A form of organizational structure in which a low degree of delegation of decision- making, authority, and power takes place.

decentralization An organizational opera- tion characterized by substantial delegation of authority.

formal communication Consists of informa- tion that travels through organizationally designated channels.

informal communication Information that does not flow through authorized organiza- tional communication channels and is dedi- cated to topics that do not serve the organiza- tion’s interests.

information richness The potential information carrying capacity of a communica- tion channel.

kinesic cues Messages communicated by non- linguistic body language or movements.

mechanistic An approach to organizational structure largely driven by rules, procedures, titles that indicate organizational status, and formal relationships between employees.

organic An approach to communication structure, with few rules, little attention paid to titles and ranks, and a strong emphasis on organizational flexibility and adaptability.

paralanguage Refers to how something is said rather than what is said in a message, using the elements of tone, phrasing, pacing, pitch, and intensity.

proactive messages Messages that announce a change, initiative, innovation, or some other new course or direction.

reactive messages Responses to circum- stances, such as a crisis, problem, or event.

standard presentation format A message pre- sentation method consisting of introduction and forecast, a body, and a conclusion.

unfolding presentation format A message presentation method in which one argument leads to the next and finally to a conclusion, often used in persuasion.

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CHAPTER 3Section 3.6 Chapter Review

For Review With Possible Responses

1. What are the four steps involved in the management communication process? The steps are assess the communication environment, establish a message format,

develop the message, and authenticate the approach. 2. Explain the natures of proactive and reactive managerial communications. Proactive messages announce a change, initiative, innovation, or some other new course

or direction. They proclaim the company will move into a new territory or use a new method. Reactive messages respond to circumstances, such as a crisis, problem, or event.

3. When designing formal communication messages, what two presentation for- mats may be used?

The standard presentation format and the unfolding presentation format. 4. What four primary patterns do formal managerial communications exhibit? The chain, wheel, circle, and all-channel patterns. 5. What types of messages are delivered through formal communication systems? Among the most common types of messages transmitted via formal channels are job

instructions, job rationale, standardized information, team and group coordination, questions and answers, decisions and plans, and ideological indoctrination.

6. Explain the concept of information richness in terms of rich and lean channels. Information richness is the potential information carrying capacity of a communication

channel. Rich communication means the channel provides opportunities for feedback, a full range of visual and audio communication, and it presents the opportunity to per- sonalize a message. A lean channel offers no venue for feedback, is impersonal, and only a limited amount of information can be transmitted.

7. What steps should managers follow when setting up formal face-to-face conversations?

From a manager’s perspective a well-planned formal meeting includes the elements of advance notification, including a least some idea about the purpose of the meeting; find- ing the proper setting; attention to the meeting opening; consideration about how the message will be presented, and the manner to close the meeting.

8. In addition to face-to-face conversations, managers and employees use what other formal verbal communication channels?

The other formal verbal communication channels currently utilized on a daily basis by managers and employees are telephone/mobile phone, videoconferencing, social media such as LinkedIn and Google Plus, conference calls, meetings, and presentations.

9. What should a manager do with regard to informal communication? It will be your job to try to manage the informal communication channel. Doing so

involves four activities: understand how it works, tap in, use it to transmit messages, and deal with false rumors.

10. What should a manager understand about informal communication or rumors? Rumors travel quickly, contain both information and misinformation, they are tuned to

employee needs, and they create social power. 11. What four kinds of social power can be generated by gossip? Positive gossip, or saying favorable things about other people, generates reward power.

Negative gossip creates coercive power, based on the ability to punish. Gossip influences referent power, or power based on social status and likability. Gossip may increase a person’s expert power, or influence gained by having knowledge and expertise.

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CHAPTER 3Section 3.6 Chapter Review

12. What are kinesic cues? Kinesic cues are messages communicated by nonlinguistic body language or movements. 13. In addition to kinesic cues, what other forms of nonverbal communication occur? Among the more notable forms of nonverbal communication that are beyond kinesic

cues are appearance, dress, artifacts, touch, space, paralanguage, time, and manners. 14. What is paralanguage? Paralanguage refers to how something is said rather than what is said in a message. Key

elements include tone, phrasing, pacing, pitch, and intensity.

Analytical Exercises

1. Conduct a Who, What, When, Where, Why, and How analysis for the following announcements and indicate whether the message will use a proactive or reac- tive format. a. a new CEO for the company b. termination of a key employee c. the acquisition of another company d. entry into a foreign market

2. Explain why each of these organizations or departments would best be served by a chain, wheel, circle, or all-channel communication pattern. a. manufacturers of tin cans for food companies b. television news room anchor/editor and reporters c. insurance company claims office and field claims adjusters d. accounting department preparing sales reports for three product divisions

3. Four methods of conveying messages to individual employees include tell, sell, consult, and joining. Explain which would be most useful in a performance appraisal meeting with an individual worker? Would your answer be different for a poor performer as opposed to a high performer? Defend your answer.

4. Explain appropriate and dysfunctional uses of the nonverbal forms of communi- cation in the following settings. a. Teamsters unloading trucks b. Bank tellers serving customers c. College seniors or recent MBA graduates attending job fairs and on-site

interviews d. An executive meeting with a new Japanese business partner for the first time

5. Explain the level of information richness in the following formal verbal commu- nication channels. Provide specific examples of what makes the channel richer or leaner. a. face-to-face b. telephone c. videoconference d. meeting e. presentation

6. As a manager, explain how you would cope with the following false rumors. a. Everyone assumes your pay is $10,000 per year higher than it really is, but

the company insists on a closed pay system. b. The company plans to lay off 10 percent of the work force. c. Susan and Lisa have become lovers. d. The new CEO will be Juan Salas.

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CHAPTER 3Section 3.7 Case Studies

3.7 Case Studies

Case Study 1: “I have good news . . . and bad news.”

Richard Oglethorpe faced one of the most difficult days in his working life. While he had saved his grandfather’s company from bankruptcy, the rescue came at a high price. Richard’s next task would be to inform the members of the firm about the action he had taken.

Melton Oglethorpe founded Dixieland Metal Castings during the buildup to World War II. The nation was emerging from the Great Depression, and orders for fabricated metals had begun to rise. The onset of the war brought several major contracts to the company.

In the postwar era, Dixieland continued to thrive due to the many connections Melton Oglethorpe had made with industrialists. He also forged powerful connections with employees. Although the plant was in a heavily unionized part of Alabama, his workers resisted efforts to organize. They were being paid comparable wages to union factories, enjoyed generous benefit packages, and were treated with respect by members of the management team.

When Melton stepped down in the late 1960s, his son Hugh took the reigns as CEO. The company continued its many positive human resource practices and developed new relationships with newly formed manufacturing companies. Hugh suffered a major heart attack in 1985, and Richard stepped in.

The next two decades became increasingly difficult because of the pressures from foreign competi- tors. Losing business and faced with higher labor costs, Dixieland began to struggle. By mid-2010, the handwriting was on the wall: The company could not compete without outsourcing at least some of its operations, and an infusion of cash was needed. Richard finalized a deal with a well-respected firm from India to keep the company afloat.

The terms of the agreement were that about one-third of the work force was to be let go, replaced by international suppliers with much lower costs. The remaining workers would all retain their jobs, pay, and most of their benefits. The one concession on benefits was that each would now contrib- ute a great portion of the cost of health insurance. In exchange, Richard developed a guarantee that each employee would be able to stay with the company until quitting or retiring. At that point, however, there was no assurance that a replacement from the Alabama plant or the United States would be hired.

Richard knew it was the best he could negotiate. He worried that the layoffs would lead to intense new efforts to unionize the plant. Worst of all, he recognized that many workers, whose parents had been with the company, would not see their sons or daughters have the chance to work for his grand- father’s dream: Dixieland Metal Castings.

Review Questions

1. What channel of formal communication should Richard Oglethorpe use to inform the employ- ees of this deal?

2. When Richard makes the announcement, should it be an informative or a persuasive presenta- tion? Why?

3. Should Richard have face-to-face meetings with individual employees who are to be let go? With employees who will remain? How should he prepare for those meetings?

4. What types of informal communication do you expect will circulate through Dixieland Metal Castings? What should managers do about these rumors?

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CHAPTER 3Section 3.7 Case Studies

Case Study 2: Where the Truth Ends, Rumors Begin

Alicia Reed was stunned. At the end of what she thought was going to be a career-enhancing presen- tation to the CEO and top management team, a question from one of the members stopped her in her tracks. Alicia was one of three buyers for Simply Gorgeous, a high-end fashion store that catered to clients with extreme wealth. The retailer operated locations in Dallas, Texas; Miami, Florida; and Minneapolis, Minnesota.

A shopping experience at Simply Gorgeous involves being pampered by a team of sales personnel focused on taking care of every detail. Small treats are served with special teas and other drinks, as customers examine formal and cocktail dresses, and other fashions for major social events. Sales- people are expected to model outfits when asked.

Alicia’s role included attending fashion shows in the world’s design capitals, among them Paris, New York, and occasionally Los Angeles. She loved the travel and the excitement associated with the work. As a younger, African American woman, she was exploring territory that once seemed impossible to reach.

Alicia’s second passion was reading. She could often be found after work at a local bookstore, examin- ing new books and fashion magazines. In the bookstore, she had a brainstorm about her increasing frustration with the mainstream fashion design industry. She and others in the company believed the dresses were too outlandish and had become too expensive, even for wealthy patrons. The number of complaints about choices available at Simply Gorgeous had risen to an alarming rate.

After considerable investigation, Alicia concluded that there were a sufficient number of “secondary” fashion shows, with talented designers representing a broad range of ethnic backgrounds, where new and exciting formalwear was available that would appeal to both the “old rich” and first-generation wealthy customers. She spent hours developing a presentation for a meeting with the top manage- ment team, complete with high-definition visuals, models wearing fashions, numbers, prices, statis- tics, and a pleasant musical background. Her goal was to expand the company’s customer base while creating new purchasing options for ongoing clientele.

The critical moment occurred just 10 days prior to the presentation. While visiting her favorite book- store, Alicia was greeted by a college friend, who also worked in the fashion design and purchase industry. The friend was accompanied by a third person, Marjorie Watson, who introduced herself as the chief merchandising officer for a major retail clothing chain. The three enjoyed an amicable con- versation lasting about 45 minutes. At the end of the visit, Watson handed Alicia her business card, with the comment, “I know you have a great future ahead of you. If you’re ever interested in moving to a larger company, please contact me.” Alicia couldn’t remember her exact response, but knew she responded by saying she was very happy with her current position. What she did not know was that two salespeople from Simply Gorgeous had witnessed the entire event from a distance of about 40 feet, close enough to see but not enough to hear clearly.

After carefully practicing her presentation for hours, the time arrived. It went flawlessly, with all musi- cal and visual cues arriving at the precise moments they were scheduled. At the end, Alicia asked the management team if they had any questions.

“I understand that you have been talking to another company about maybe moving on,” said a stern manager. “Who would champion this idea if you are working for a competitor?”

“I don’t understand. What are you talking about?” Alicia responded.

“It’s all over the company,” the manager replied.

Clearly, this was not the type of question she expected. (continued)

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CHAPTER 3Section 3.7 Case Studies

Review Questions

1. Were the actions of the two salespeople that saw the encounter between Alicia and Marjorie Watson ethical? What could they have done differently?

2. If Alicia’s manager had heard this rumor, what should that manager have done in response? 3. How should Alicia respond to the management team? 4. Do you think her career has been harmed? If so, how, and what could she do to repair the

damage?

Case Study 2: Where the Truth Ends, Rumors Begin (continued)

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Learning Objectives

After reading this chapter and studying the materials, you should be able to:

1. Successfully communicate brief formal messages. 2. Recall the essential elements of effective proposals. 3. Prepare effective formal reports. 4. Overcome the barriers to formal communication.

Management Communication: Written Channels

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CHAPTER 4Section 4.1 Brief Messages

4.1 Brief Messages

Learning Objective # 1: How can managers successfully communicate brief formal messages?

The written word remains a powerful component of everyday business. In the past few decades, the media used to transmit formal written messages have evolved rapidly. The basic principles of effective writing, however, continue to be the same. Written messages offer several advantages. First, a manager can carefully choose the words prior to transmitting the message, which allows for editing and rewriting, ensur- ing the highest level of precision in the language. Second, media such as email and instant messaging allow receivers to view the messages when it is convenient, which can save time, especially when compared to telephone “tag.” Third, a written message provides an official record. A manager can save a copy of what he or she wrote for future purposes, including remembering exactly what was written and in what context.

In the previous chapter, four steps to effective formal communication were proposed. These principles apply to both verbal and written messages.

1. Assess the Communication Environment 2. Establish a Message Format 3. Develop the Message 4. Authenticate the Approach

In this chapter, three levels of messages are examined: brief, moderate, and full-length formal reports. Table 4.1 provides the formats for each of these messages.

Table 4.1: Types of messages and media

Brief Moderate-Length Full-Length

Memo

Instant message

Letters

Proposals Reports

For Review

What media are available for transmitting brief, formal written messages to employees?

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CHAPTER 4Section 4.1 Brief Messages

Trouble in the Gulf

The 2010 oil spill in the Gulf of Mexico produced one of the greatest environmental disasters in his- tory. Eleven people were killed in the initial explosion of the Deepwater Horizon drilling rig, and oil then flowed for the next 87 days. Birds, sea turtles, dolphins, and countless other forms of wildlife suffered. Although British Petroleum (BP) had run television advertisements claiming the end of the impact of the spill, new dead dolphins and sea turtles were found in 2011.

The economic effects included lost revenues from the fishing industry, reduced tourism rates along the Gulf Coast, and the loss of nearly 4,000 jobs in early 2010. Real estate values declined by more than 10 percent, leading to losses estimated between $648 million and $3 billion for the fol- lowing five years after the disaster (oceana.org, 2011).

Among the causes of the disaster were failures in formal communication systems (Rascoe, 2011). The primary targets of lawsuits related to the spill, BP, Transocean, Cameron International Cor- poration, and Halliburton Energy Services, failed to communicate internally and with other orga- nizations. The resulting problems with cement- ing procedures on the rig, the blowout preventer that failed to engage, and the failsafe “dead man’s switch” that had a dead battery and could not operate properly, were all identified by various paper trails. One employee told the BBC television network that a leak was spotted on a crucial piece of equipment in the rig’s blowout preventer weeks before the explosion, and that Transocean and BP had both been notified about the problem by email (Andersson, 2010).

BP reported that rig managers misread pressure data and gave their approval for rig workers to replace drilling fluid in the well with seawater. The water was not heavy enough to prevent gas that had been leaking into the well from firing up the pipe to the rig, causing the explosion. Another investigation questioned why an engineer and supervisor with BP ignored warnings about weaknesses in cement outside the well which could have prevented the gas from escaping. The conclusion was that BP was partly to blame, as was Transocean, which owned the Deepwater Horizon rig (Bates, 2010).

These and other failures to transmit and process important safety information have vilified BP and left long-standing problems for those in the region. Health concerns of recovery workers have begun to surface. Many decades will pass before the full impact of this disaster will be known.

Questions for Students

1. When an employee spots a major safety problem, what form of written communication should be used?

2. When a manager identifies potentially life-threatening safety flaws, what should the manager do in response?

3. Do you believe the companies involved were merely incompetent, or actually unethical in how each contributed to the disaster? Why?

iStockphoto/Thinkstock Poor communication processes may have contributed to the oil spill in the Gulf of Mexico.

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CHAPTER 4Section 4.1 Brief Messages

Memos

In today’s increasingly paperless society, fewer printed memos are composed and distrib- uted. In their place, as will be noted in the next section, emails transmit the same informa- tion. At times, however, a paper memo serves the purpose of creating a more permanent record of an internal correspondence. A memo opens with four elements: To, From, Sub- ject, and Date. A subject line that attracts attention and presents a distinct idea or topic adds value to the memo and will most likely capture the receiver’s interest.

Memos begin with an overview paragraph that spells out the nature of the memo. An overview should be clear, easy to understand, and brief, but it should also encapsulate the entire nature of the memo. Examples of overview paragraphs are displayed in Table 4.2.

Table 4.2: Memo overview paragraphs

1 Following an in-house survey of employee needs, human resources strongly recommends the establishment of an on-site day care facility. More than 30% of our employees have children between the ages of 2 and 5. An on-site day care playroom should reduce employee absenteeism and tardiness rates due to problems with finding babysitters or other caretakers. The unused stock room on the second floor can be renovated to provide such a facility in 90 days at a cost of $40,000. We would like your opinions about this recommendation.

2 The marketing department recommends extending the current rebate program for the Sony Bravia line of televisions. Sales increased by 12% over the previous year’s first quarter totals with the program in place. We would like management’s permission to authorize the rebates and supporting advertising materials.

3 You have now received the company’s revised policy regarding Conflicts of Interest. Instructions for completing the form and answers to the most often asked questions are contained in this memo.

Memos serve two major purposes: to provide information and to call for action. Informational memos should be limited to one subject, provide sufficient detail, explain any ambiguities, and offer facts rather than opinions (Bell, 2004). Informative memos serve three purposes:

• confirm an agreement • provide facts and information about an event or process • summarize the results of a meeting or conversation

Calls for action include the reason for the action, the plan of attack, and deadlines or goals. Sufficient detail should be provided so that the recipient knows what to do, and when. Calls for action can be categorized as:

• requesting assistance • providing direction • requesting approval to pursue an activity

A well-written memo is concise, complete, accurate, easy to read, and carefully edited (Northern Kentucky University, 2007). The number of memos transmitted in organiza- tions will likely decline. Managers increasingly ask themselves whether the issue involved contains sufficient magnitude to merit a paper presentation. If not, an email might suffice.

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CHAPTER 4Section 4.1 Brief Messages

Effective Email Usage As with any other formal communication channel, email can be misused or can serve as an effective means of connecting employees. Managing email as a communication system requires two key elements: managing the system and composing effective messages (see Table 4.3).

Table 4.3: Managing email

System Issues Message Issues

Create logical files Delete or archive unnecessary messages

Protect sensitive documents Don't forward funny or superfluous emails that waste time

Keep the system clean Assume messages will be available to everyone Carefully construct messages

Email presents several major advantages for brief formal communication messages. Employees can communicate from different locations without making calls (Weeks, 1995). Although this may seem strange, some evidence suggests that voice mail messages and regular phone calls can make workers apprehensive, partly because phone calls do not allow for a sense of closeness due to the inability to observe nonverbal signals (Reinsch et al., 1990; Reinsch & Beswick, 1990).

Email allows virtual teams to coordinate projects and schedule activities. Collaborations are possible on projects, even when the individuals involved reside or work in distant locations. In some organizations, email creates a channel of upward communication, as many top managers invite employees to contact them through the channel. Email provides a venue to send out information downward or laterally to sets of employees through bulk messaging, taking the place of what used to be paper memos.

Email systems can also contain disadvantages. The most notable, being bombarded with messages, results from the relative ease with which messages can be composed and sent. Even with the most sophisticated sorting programs, email systems often allow unwanted messages or spam to reach employee inboxes, creating distractions and wasting time deleting unwanted communications. Employees should also understand that the com- pany owns the email and the Internet on the job, giving management the right to inspect their use. This means they are not private—a paper memo can be thrown away, but an email message will be backed up on a company’s servers and can often never be perma- nently deleted.

For Review

What are two main purposes of memos and emails?

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CHAPTER 4Section 4.1 Brief Messages

Users should create a logical system of files that match their jobs. Files can be set up by user groups, by projects, or in any way that allows you to quickly recall where to look for an old message and to place new messages. The idea is to have a system that facilitates work.

Protection of sensitive documents entails the assistance of information technology experts to develop encryption systems. It may be impossible to completely eliminate the possibil- ity of a system being hacked; this means it may be wise to take the most-sensitive items offline and print hard copies to be stored elsewhere.

Keeping the system clean includes consistent emptying of the trash file and systemati- cally placing all unwanted and unnecessary messages into trash files. An updated system allows for less scrolling through unneeded old emails.

While managing messages, delete items that have no relevance to the job without reading them. Far too much time can be wasted examining spam. Resist the temptation to forward that funny little play on words or images that made you laugh. These items fritter away company time in unproductive ways. Ask email partners to refrain from forwarding such emails to you. Management can inspect all messages; you should assume that anything you send or receive could be more widely available (Conlin, 2002). With regard to con- structing messages, follow the various rules shown in Table 4.4. Remember that email messages contain the same elements as memos: To, From, Subject, and Date.

Table 4.4: Rules for writing effective emails

Organize your thoughts prior to writing

Use good rules of grammar

Use bullet points, underline, and bold to clarify messages

Re-read the message before sending it

Carefully word the subject line to attract attention

Send the message to only those who require the information

Avoid mass broadcasts

Make sure email is the right channel

Avoid sending messages in all capitals, which is the equivalent of screaming

Sources: Baude, Dawn-Michelle (2007). The executive guide to e-mail correspondence. Franklin Lakes, NJ: The Career Press. Clow, K. E., & Baack, D. (2010). Marketing management: A customer-oriented approach. Los Angeles, CA: Sage Publications, p. 277. Gomez-Mejia, L. R., Balkin, D. B., & Cardy, R. L. (2005). Management: People, performance, change (2nd ed.). Boston: McGraw-Hill Irwin, p. 632.

When used improperly, email wastes time, distracts people from work, and reduces pro- ductivity. When managed properly, email represents an efficient method of maintaining contact when face-to-face interactions are not possible, offering the ability to create precise messages and responses as well as facilitating the efforts of employees (Baude, 2007).

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CHAPTER 4Section 4.1 Brief Messages

Instant Messages/Texts and Social Media

Email, instant messaging, and social media are not the same. Instant messaging systems, such as MSN Messenger, combined with mobile phone technolo- gies, make it possible to send messages to employees nearly instantly. A new set of oppor- tunities and problems emerges from these venues.

In terms of opportunities, text messages offer the advantage of real-time, on-the-ground report- ing during sales presentations or observations of other activities while not filling up employee and manager email inboxes. In terms of internal formal com- munications, setting up group texts specifically for the purpose of communicating with staff members can help any business owner in a number of situations. One example is when an employee cannot attend work. The company can send out a text message to all employees, asking someone to come in and cover the shift. Sending a text message can be more effective than sending an email that people might not read in time. It also saves the effort of calling people to come in (Zorawski, 2010).

Harmon (2003) notes that email became part of the working environment after companies began to train employees in its use. In contrast, instant messaging infiltrated the work- place from the bottom up, through entry- and lower-level employees. In response, for example, IBM offers a service IMing for businesses to use for internal communications.

In terms of problems, many of today’s younger employees respond more quickly to texts than to any other medium, stopping what they are doing (including having a face-to-face conversation with someone) to read and answer a text. This is generally seen as rude, and treats the in-person contact as less important than whomever sent the text.

The relatively recent emergence of instant messaging means that company leaders have established fewer firm guidelines for its use. In part, the uniqueness of the technology has opened lines of communication between top management officials and rank-and-file employees (Internal Communication Evolution, 2009). Lines of what would be considered formal communication and informal gossip are increasingly blurred, as employees use the same technology for both activities, sometimes within the same message. The use of acronyms and other abbreviations further complicates what will be considered effective and ineffective messages sent by text or tweet.

For now, the basic guidelines for instant messaging follow some of the suggestions for email. Specifically, recognize that management can monitor the messages, that the

Jupiterimages/Thinkstock A new set of opportunities and problems has emerged from instant messaging and social media technologies.

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CHAPTER 4Section 4.1 Brief Messages

recipients can store anything you send, that careful wording is important, and that over- use of the technology for “play” constitutes unethical time theft in the same way as surf- ing the web for pleasure on company time.

The use of social media on the job has also increased. Programs such as Twitter can be used effectively to communicate with customers by sending out daily offers and deals or by allowing customer service representatives to interact with people who are shopping in a store. Many advertisers are just beginning to discover the potential of social media as a marketing tool.

At the same time, employees should be careful not to become overly dependent on social media outlets, because this can lead to wasted time and lower productivity. Too often, banal and unnecessary messages travel across such channels, and employees spend valu- able work time reading and responding to them.

For Review

What is the main difference between emails and texts/instant messages?

Letters

The use of formal letters has become less common; however, it remains an important formal management communication tool. A letter will be perceived as more official, hav- ing more weight, and inferring a sense of authority. Letters accompany crucial company information and activities, such as financial reports, legal issues, or project strategies where greater message complexity is common. Letters offer the advantage of remaining private, as opposed to email or text messages. Letters can also create the context of greater sensitivity, expressing concern or appreciation. Letters establish a permanent record of the correspondence (Bell, 2004, pp. 79–92).

The disadvantages of letters include greater time involved in preparation. Letters sent in mass mailings are costly. A letter takes a greater amount of time to arrive, often days. Managers should make sure time-sensitive information in a letter arrives when needed. Also, a letter should not be sent when a personal contact, or one with greater information richness, is required.

Letters are sent to internal publics for formal messages of greater importance, such as a letter of appointment, a formal request of a department or manager, or a letter of resigna- tion. Letters are composed for external audiences for a greater number of purposes. The standard elements of a letter are displayed in Table 4.5.

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CHAPTER 4Section 4.1 Brief Messages

Table 4.5: Elements of a letter

Letterhead Created by the company or by an individual, often incorporating a logo and the company’s address and contact information.

Heading Their address and the date underneath the organization's letterhead.

Inside Address Name and address of recipient.

Subject Line Topic of the letter. May include a project name or account number.

Salutation Greeting, typically "Dear" or "To the Employee Benefits Committee" or an attention line, such as "Attention: Customer Service."

Body The main message, generally single-spaced with double-spacing between paragraphs. Use one space between each sentence (not two).

Closing For more formal letters, usually, "Sincerely," "Sincerely yours," or, "Respectfully." For more personal letters, "Best wishes," or "Warm regards."

Signature First a signed version then a typed version.

Notations Initials of the typist or keyboard operator, names of the people sent copies.

Some of the more common reasons for sending letters include: (1) making a request, (2) agreeing to a request, (3) delivering news, (4) as a cover for additional documents, (5) as a formal apology, and (6) to make a persuasive argument. Of these, persuasive letter- writing appears to be on the decline, with other media being used instead. The logic is simple: A letter takes time to read and to frame a response. Many of the more immediate technologies allow for more of a dialog or conversation. Companies do now incorporate letterhead templates in emails, making a more formal presentation, to match the nature of a letter written on a printed page.

Effective letter-writing requires a balance of writing skills and visual presentation effects. Readability guidelines for letters are provided in Table 4.6. Many of these principles apply to other writing venues as well.

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CHAPTER 4Section 4.1 Brief Messages

Table 4.6: Readability tools

Consistency A well-written letter is consistent in the use of margins, typeface, and other visual elements. Stay consistent with these within one letter, and from letter to letter.

Balance Make sure the letter balances on the page, from top to bottom and left to right.

Restraint Keep the design simple. Do not overuse color or special print.

White Space Allow white space in the margins and between elements of the letter. Double-space between paragraphs. Make sure the letter does not appear "busy" or cluttered.

Margins and Justification Typically letters are left-justified with either a ragged-right margin or right- and left-justified. Rarely will a letter use centered justification, although a key statement may be set aside separately and set in center justification within the body of the letter.

Typeface Match the typeface to the nature of the industry. The entertainment industry tends to prefer New Courier, and publishing houses use Times Roman. Other popular fonts include Calibri, Verdana, Arial, Book Old Style and Rockwell.

Type Style For emphasis, italics and boldface are popular devices. At times a writer may prefer underlining, or the use of color.

Source: PlainLanguage.gov (2011). Writing effective letters. http://www.plainlanguage.gov/howto/guidelines/letters.cfm, retrieved July 15, 2011.

The most important component of a business letter will be its actual content. Manag- ers take the time to carefully choose the exactly appropriate words and phrases. Letters that “run on” or that contain numerous grammatical or spelling errors are often quickly dismissed. Careful rewriting and copy-editing should be employed before finalizing the version that will be placed into the mail system. Examples of standard business letters appear in Figure 4.1.

For Review

What elements should appear in both internally and externally directed letters?

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CHAPTER 4Section 4.1 Brief Messages

Figure 4.1: An internal and an external letter

Examples of internal and external letters are shown. (continued)

Letterhead

July 7, 2012

Robert Johnson, COO, Adhesives Division 3 Q Adhesives and Magnetic Tape Company 3311 Main Street Albuquerque, New Mexico 55555

Re: Internal prices of packing tape sent to Magnetic Division

Dear Robert,

Greetings from Minneapolis. We in the magnetic division hope your division is doing well. Several members of our team wish for the great weather you have been enjoying this spring, as we endure continuing snowstorms. Who says location isn't everything?

The purpose of my correspondence is to ask for a meeting to discuss transfer prices for packing tape and other materials that your division ships to us. In the past, the method used for setting these prices was based solely on production costs, with the standard internal companywide mark-up to allow for the necessary profit margin.

As you know, the industry trends, coupled with the recent economic downturn, have affected our unit. At the same time, we have come to understand that the internal prices charged by your division to ours now reflect production costs plus a contribution to overhead fee per shipped pallet, along with the mark-up, which now reflects the standard percentage but is based on the total costs of both items. This change has made it increasingly difficult for our division to remain profitable without raising our wholesale prices, at a time when demand has declined.

Two concerns arise from this situation. First, we were not notified about the internal pricing change or about the process for making the change. We are disturbed by not being included in the decision. Second, we have not changed the internal price our division charges to yours for items sent in your direction. It is our position that this is inequitable.

I would be willing to meet with you individually, or with members of the top management group. It is not my intention to start a "turf war" or any other dispute, but rather to find a solution that we both agree is in the company's best interest, in addition to the interests of our own divisions.

Please respond at your convenience. I look forward to visiting with you and finding an agreeable resolution to this issue. Give my best to the others in your office.

With warm regards,

Steve Johnson, COO Magnetics Division

sas

cc: Barry Roberts, CEO

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CHAPTER 4Section 4.1 Brief Messages

Figure 4.1: An internal and an external letter (continued)

Letterhead

January 10, 2012

Suzanne Lockwood, President Lockwood Designs 2430 North Central Expressway Dallas, Texas 55555

Re: Unauthorized use of Rebecca's Diet Center parking spaces

Dear Ms. Lockwood:

It has come to our attention that, for several months, our parking spaces have been filled with vehicles of customers who are shopping in your store. As you know, our tenant agreement allows for eight designated spaces in the front of our business, and they are to be used only by our clients.

We believe that your customers park in our spaces because of the afernoon shade provided by the building. They choose to park in our spots, even though the spaces are clearly designated for our purposes. This forces our clients to park away from our shop and closer to yours. Many times, these clients need to carry boxes of prepackaged food to their cars.

Our company likes to think that we are good neighbors with all of the other businesses in this location. When we discover that clients have done something that might disturb other firms, we quickly ask them to stop. We are hoping that you will extend this same courtesy to our company.

When convenient, please respond to our request. Our goal is to resolve this problem without the need for further action.

Please contact me personally if you have questions. Thank you for taking the time to consider our request.

Sincerely,

Rebecca Jones, Owner, Rebecca's Diet Center

Information Richness and Brief Messages

In the previous chapter, the concept of information richness was introduced. By their natures, written channels are leaner. They offer fewer opportunities for visuals, save for charts, figures, and photographs. At the same time, selection of the written channel pro- vides some measure of the gravity of a message. A formal letter normally will produce a greater impact than a quick text.

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CHAPTER 4Section 4.2 Medium-Length Messages: Proposals and Short Reports

Instant messaging offers the advantage of quick transmis- sion and often a rapid response. Emotions are conveyed using the various acronyms available (OMG!). Email contains some of the same elements, along with its own special codes ; - ) .

The fast pace of today’s business world dictates the use of elec- tronic media in many circum- stances. Memos and letters will typically be reserved for serious matters. Four criteria used in selecting the appropriate tech- nology include sensitivity, nega- tivity, complexity, and persua- siveness. A sensitive message

evokes an emotional response. The more sensitive the message, the richer should be the information channel. More negative messages, such as turning someone down for a pro- motion or telling an employee someone else will lead a project, also merit richer channels. Complex messages that take time to digest may be better served by leaner channels, in which information can be read and re-read, such as the proposals and reports described in the upcoming sections. Persuasive messages require greater information richness.

4.2 Medium-Length Messages: Proposals and Short Reports

Learning Objective # 2: What are the essential elements of effective proposals?

Numerous messages contain more information than can be sent in a brief format but less than would be required for a full-length report. These types of formal communications describe something that has happened; coordinate something that is happening; or suggest something that should happen. Medium-length messages include proposals and short reports.

Proposals indicate what might happen or could happen, should the initiative be accepted. Internal proposals are documents that recommend changes to a company’s operations to solve a problem or in regard to purchases to be made. External proposals are offers made to other companies to provide products or services in exchange for a price or fee. Exter- nal proposals may be solicited by other companies, which means a request for proposal (RFP) has been sent. These can also be called an RFI (request for information). Unsolic- ited proposals are sent at the vendor’s initiative to potential customers.

Proposals can be submitted on paper, in a word file, or in electronic formats that include a pdf (portable document file, invented by Adobe), an Adobe InDesign file, an Apple Keynote file, or a Microsoft PowerPoint file. Elaborate proposals can be supported with

iStockphoto/Thinkstock Typically, a letter will be perceived as more official, having more weight, and inferring a sense of authority.

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CHAPTER 4Section 4.2 Medium-Length Messages: Proposals and Short Reports

multimedia presentations including video clips, animation, software slices, and screen- casts. In some industries, these proposals are referred to as “decks.” Table 4.7 indicates the common elements in proposals.

Table 4.7: Components of a proposal

Proposed Idea and Purpose The project description

Scope What will and will not be done

Visuals Pie charts, graphs, tables, etc., throughout or at end

Methods and Procedures Includes steps to be taken

Materials and Equipment Needed Based on the type of project

Qualifications of Personnel Those who will be working on the project

Follow-up or Evaluation How project completion and success will be judged

Budget or Costs Financial implications

Summary of Proposal Brief restatement of purpose

Appendices, If Appropriate Sources, visuals, glossaries, etc.

For Review

Briefly describe internal proposals, external proposals, and request for proposal (RFP).

External Proposals

When a company receives an RFP, the message indicates that the buyer or company that has made contact has sufficient confidence in a firm’s ability to invite a bid. In this circum- stance, the proposal becomes mostly a mechanism designed to explain why the company offers the best solutions and is most qualified to solve a problem, with merchandise or expertise (Murray, 2008). A company sending out unsolicited proposals must first explain why the recipient has a problem and needs outside assistance. Then the company can provide details regarding the reasons why it offers the best alternative for solving the problem.

Both solicited and unsolicited proposals are more than mere sales tools; they should be designed to build relationships. Even when a company fails to win a contract, the pos- sibility remains that the two organizations will become involved in the future. Carefully prepared external proposals create a sense of competence and professionalism that car- ries over from one transaction to the next. An external proposal format is provided in Table 4.8.

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Table 4.8: Format for an external proposal

I. Introduction

Background or statement of the problem

Solution

Scope

Proposal organization

II. Body

Facts and evidence

Approach (scope and methods)

Work plan (methods, procedures, steps, resources needed)

Qualifications

Costs

III. Close

Review of argument—brief summary

Review of reader benefits—how this helps the recipient

Review of merits of the approach—why sender is more effective than others

Restatement of qualifications

Request—ask for a decision

IV. Additional Materials (these can be woven throughout as well)

Graphs

Tables

Pie charts

Monetary information

When preparing an external proposal, several key concepts guide the writing. First, the proposal should submit one core idea, which may be repeated throughout the document. A proposal from a company offering a pension management plan should reinforce the key message, such as that the system will reduce costs or will offer financial stability.

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CHAPTER 4Section 4.2 Medium-Length Messages: Proposals and Short Reports

Second, the proposal focuses on the recipient’s needs rather than the sender’s needs. The essence of the proposal is to solve a problem or assist the recipient in some way. Also, the terminology should match the recipient’s business and industry (Pugh & Bacon, 2005).

Third, a proposal explains the recipient’s problems or issues in the present tense, such as, “Your current health insurance plan fails to provide for many employees. We can do better without raising premiums or reducing services.” Then the future will be addressed after the proposal has been accepted, using sentences such as “The work to be done would take place. . .”

Fourth, language in the proposal should be positive. Explaining a company’s superior materi- als and personnel concentrates on the organization sending the proposal. Denigrating the com- petition turns the tenor of the proposal toward the negative. In essence, focus on why your company is great rather than why other firms are bad.

Finally, a concise and succinct proposal has a better chance of being accepted. Wordy, ram- bling proposals waste the recipi- ent’s time and are harder to fol- low. Careful evaluation of the message includes making sure

the proposal gets to the point, stays on point, and is easily recalled (Sant, 2004). Figure 4.2 provides an example of an external proposal.

For Review

What are the four major sections of an external proposal format?

George Doyle A concise and succinct proposal has the best chance of being accepted.

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CHAPTER 4Section 4.2 Medium-Length Messages: Proposals and Short Reports

Figure 4.2: Example of an external proposal

External proposals are more-elaborate attempts to communicate with outside organizations or individuals. (continued)

Letterhead March 1, 2012

To: Midland Office Supply

From: All-American Energy Solutions

Subject: Addition of solar panels and other energy efficiencies

In response to your request for information regarding the installation of new, energy-efficient building properties, All-American Energy Solutions stands ready to design and install a complete program for your company.

Energy costs continue to rise. These costs affect your company's ability to keep prices low and to compete with other providers in the area. Our system reduces building energy consumption by an average of 40 percent per year. When combined with our payment plan, Midland will realize monthly costs savings immediately, and the system will pay for itself in about 15 years.

All-American Energy Solutions offers solar panels, energy-efficient heating and cooling systems, and window replacements to achieve these cost savings. For your building, total installation time for an energy-saving system would be one month. Midland Office Supply would be able to remain open while these improvements were being made.

This proposal explains how solar efficiencies save money and how we would install your system. The credentials of our service technicians are provided. Cost estimates and payment plans are also included.

Energy Facts

• The energy system currently used by Midland Office Supply is more than 20 years old. • The energy system operates at 80 percent of efficiency. • Our estimate, based on information provided, is that your system costs $2,000 per month to

operate electrical, heating, and cooling systems. • All-American's solar panel system reduces the need for outside electrical sources by 40 percent. • All-American's ground-source heat pumps reduce the cost of heating and cooling by 20 percent.

Heat pumps also reduce energy costs associated with hot water, by preheating water before it reaches your water-heating system.

• All-American's window systems reduce heat loss in the winter and heat from sunlight in the summer.

• We project that, by installing our system, on-average, per-month energy costs will be reduced to $1,000 per month.

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CHAPTER 4Section 4.2 Medium-Length Messages: Proposals and Short Reports

All-American Energy Solutions will provide the following work:

Step 1: Install 20 solar panels, focused to achieve the highest level of solar energy on the roof. Estimated work time: 4 days.

Step 2: Remove old heating and cooling system. Estimated work time: 2 days.

Install 4 ground-source heat pumps. Estimated work time: 2 days.

Step 3: Replace 30 windows with energy-efficient design models. Estimated work time: 14 days.

These steps can commence two weeks after a completed contract. This gives us time to order panels from our supplier in California.

Our Personnel and Materials

All-American installs only Premier Solar Panels. The design has received Solar Energy magazine's "Best Choice" award for the past five years.

Each of our installers has completed the Midwest Solar Institute's training program, which lasts six months. Each has certification for designing and installing solar panel systems. Our installers have each been employed by All-American for a minimum of five years.

Cost Estimates

Solar Panels and Installation $7,000 per panel, installed price = $140,000 Ground Source Heat Pumps $12,000 per unit installed = $ 48,000 Windows $200 per window, installed = $ 60,000

Total Proposed Price $248,000

Federal Energy Tax Rebate at 30 percent = $ 81,840

Your final cost = $166,160

All-American provides energy efficiency at a reasonable cost. We would like to include you in our list of successes.

Your solar panels would be visible to the local community, indicating your support for cleaner air and energy conservation. This intangible benefit would be in addition to your lower utility bills and eventual free energy. Our estimates do not account for increases in electricity rates imposed by city utilities.

All-American provides highly skilled service without disruption to your business. The savings begin the day the units are installed.

Please contact Fred Miller with questions and inquiries. We would like to begin saving you money on your energy bills as soon as possible.

Attachments

1. Monthly estimates of energy savings 2. Brochure for Premier Solar Panels 3. Information regarding ground-source heat pump manufacturers 4. Information regarding window providers

Figure 4.2: Example of an external proposal (continued)

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CHAPTER 4Section 4.2 Medium-Length Messages: Proposals and Short Reports

Internal Proposals

Internal proposals recommend changes to a company’s operations to solve a problem or purchases to be made. The number and types of changes constitute a sweeping set of ideas, from changes to simple operating procedures and protocols and suggestions for purchases of new building, equipment, and technologies. Proposals can suggest the addition of company policies, such as changing company rules, procedures, or human resource management guidelines. Other internal proposals offer ideas about new prod- ucts and product improvements as well as marketing methods used to sell the items.

Most of the time, a proposal sent to others within the same company consists of less struc- ture and detail. The degree of formality will largely be determined by the nature of the proposal and the intended audience. A message targeted at the CEO or top management team from someone of lower rank will take on a more formal tone and often a more formal structure, such as what would be prepared for an external audience. The same holds true for a proposal sent from the CEO to a company’s board of directors. Peer-to-peer or top management to lower-ranking employees often use a less-formal approach.

Proposals can also be presented in an electronic format, with linked and embedded docu- ments, and multimedia documents such as video clips and animation. These create greater information richness in a somewhat lean channel. Factors to consider when preparing an internal proposal include the elements displayed in Table 4. 9.

Table 4.9: Internal proposal elements

Audience Who will receive this proposal?

Significance What level of impact does the problem present?

Nature of the Assignment Was the writer assigned the task of solving the problem or merely identifying it?

Precedent Does the company use a specific proposal format?

Format Should this be a complete proposal or rather a letter or memo?

The final issue determines whether to go forward with the formal proposal document. Table 4.10 provides an example of a format for a less-formal proposal. Figure 4.3 offers a version of an internal proposal for a retail chain.

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CHAPTER 4Section 4.2 Medium-Length Messages: Proposals and Short Reports

Figure 4.3: Example of an internal proposal

Internal proposals target specific individuals in the organization. (continued)

Table 4.10: Less-formal internal proposal format

Introduction

Problem statement

Proposed solution

Analysis

Explanation of the problem

Analysis of causes

Scope, significance, and implications of the problem

Detailed Solution

Work to be done

Potential obstacles

Benefits

Call to Action

Letterhead

To: Frank Robinson

From: Ashley Sorenson

Date: July 15, 2012

Re: Test Market of Tweet Response Team

The Problem Tech-driven customers want immediate responses while shopping

Our line of products and our retail shopping experience has served us well for several decades. Now, a new breed of consumer visits our stores. These individuals carry various hand-held devices that offer Internet access. They are accustomed to immediate responses to text messages and tweets. Many become frustrated while waiting to ask a salesperson a simple question.

Proposed Solution In-store instant messaging system

With the addition of two employees per store, we can develop a system similar to the Twelpforce Twitter account at Best Buy. These individuals would be assigned to immediately respond to customer questions, using an instant messaging system. The program would make our stores unique in this market, attracting customers who are ready to buy, as well as some who might come into the store to check out the system and end up making purchases as a result.

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CHAPTER 4Section 4.2 Medium-Length Messages: Proposals and Short Reports

Analysis How the system solves a growing problem

Our in-store research indicates that a growing number of individuals walk out without making a purchase or talking to a salesperson. Many of these are younger customers carrying mobile phones or similar devices.

We developed an interview system that intercepted 50 of these "walk-outs" as they were leaving the store. A survey with 10 "yes" or "no" questions sought to identify their primary reasons for leaving. More than 80 percent reported that they were "tired of waiting."

The significance of this finding is obvious: These individuals represent some of our future customers, if we can find ways to engage them and meet their needs. An in-store instant messaging system can increase sales and develop store loyalty.

Solution Details A test-market program

We propose to develop the system in our four stores in Omaha, Nebraska, as a test market. Omaha contains two large universities, Creighton and the University of Nebraska at Omaha. The population is representative of our customer base in terms of income and educational diversity.

The test market would include development of a name brand and logo for the system, in-store signage, training of the employees, and an advertising program, including a public relations blitz. The test market would run for one year, allowing monthly, seasonal, and annual comparisons with the previous year's sales figures across all four stores.

We believe the test-market program would be of sufficient duration to overcome many potential influences on the data, such as unusual weather patterns. It would not overcome the effects of any major economic changes. The program would gain first-mover advantage in the market and allow us to see whether any competitors follow.

The cost of the program would be $900,000. The following are the details:

12 employees at $60,000 $720,000 Instant messaging system 20,000 In-store signage 10,000 Advertising and promotions 150,000 ________

Total Cost $900,000

The cost would be less than $80,000 per month, or $20,000 per store.

Why Now?

Our forecasting team believes the recent recession is ending. More customers are shopping, disposable income has risen, and demand for our products continues to increase. The opportunity exists to capture some of this new consumer enthusiasm, attract attention to our stores, and grow our customer base.

Figure 4.3: Example of an internal proposal (continued)

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CHAPTER 4Section 4.2 Medium-Length Messages: Proposals and Short Reports

In summary, a quality proposal results from following the four steps of designing formal messages: assess the communication environment, establish a message format, develop the message, and authenticate the approach. When assessing the communication environ- ment, note that proposals are proactive messages designed to inspire a change, initiative, innovation, or some other new course or direction.

The four elements of establishing a message format include attracting attention, prepar- ing the information to be transmitted, finding ways to reach the audience, and develop- ing methods to ensure understanding and compliance. A proposal requires an effective problem statement to attract attention. Attention to detail allows for clear transmission of information. The audience will be reached with a concise yet complete proposal docu- ment. These activities take place when the objective of the proposal has been clearly enun- ciated and the methods to be used are precisely spelled out.

For Review

Name the primary elements of an internal proposal and a less-formal proposal format.

Short Reports

Many times, short internal reports using a less-complex structure serve the company’s needs. In such a report, the language should be balanced between being too informal, which leads the reader to think the document does not contain important content, and too formal, which can create distance and alienate the reader. The most common components of short internal reports are provided in Table 4.11.

Table 4.11: Components of short internal reports

Front Matter

Introduction

Methods

Results and Discussion

Conclusion and Recommendations

The front matter for an internal report contains a title page, a brief table of contents, a list of illustrations, and an executive summary. The title page identifies the author of the report, the topic, and the intended audience. The table of contents outlines how the report was conducted and prepared. Illustrations include any figures or tables, listed in the order they appear in the report. The executive summary should be an easy-to-follow, one-page summary of the nature of the report.

The introduction briefly outlines the issues in the report. First, it indicates who commis- sioned the report and why. The introduction then outlines the nature of the research and

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CHAPTER 4Section 4.3 Full-Length Messages: Business Reports and Research

forecasts the outcome. Result- ing recommendations are then offered.

The methods section explains how the inquiry was conducted. It specifies any special limita- tions or constraints. The sam- ple or subjects will be noted as well. If a statistical analysis has been performed, it should be reported in sufficient detail for the audience to understand.

Results often contain tables and other visual aids that summa- rize findings. The results should be clearly presented and dis- cussed to provide the greatest possible insight into what the results imply. The audience will then be more amenable to recommendations.

Conclusions begin with a restatement of what has transpired in the report. The conclu- sions portion does not introduce new material. Recommendations can be calls for action, calls to delay or not take action, or calls for additional inquiry. The recommendations sec- tion provides protocols for implementation, if action will be taken.

iStockphoto/Thinkstock Internal reports cover a variety of subjects, including projected costs of repairing a building.

For Review

What are the components of a short internal report?

4.3 Full-Length Messages: Business Reports and Research

Learning Objective # 3: How can employees and managers prepare effective formal reports?

A business report provides an in-depth analysis of an issue facing a company. Two primary forms of business reports are regularly scheduled reports and special reports. Regularly scheduled reports generated by managers include those placed in annual reports to shareholders and boards of directors. Special reports examine specific topics, such as a response to an opportunity, a threat, or an ongoing problem. Reports investigate industry trends and changes in industry standards and technology. Reports are sent to internal and external audiences. The purpose of the report sets the tone for the language, depth of explanation, and other elements of the report.

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CHAPTER 4Section 4.3 Full-Length Messages: Business Reports and Research

External reports serve a variety of purposes. Annual reports are sent to shareholders to describe company activities and levels of success. Reports are prepared as part of investi- gations of incidents or events that affect the company. The results are sent to other orga- nizations, such as governmental agencies or insurance carriers. Reports are provided to professional agencies, such as those prepared following major ethical violations in the financial industry in the United States.

Full-Length Reports

When an individual or group has been commissioned to fully investigate a topic or prob- lem the resulting document will be a full-length business report. It should be designed to incorporate sufficient detail to satisfy any question the audience might have. Full-length reports can be prepared for both internal and external audiences. The components are displayed in Table 4.12.

Table 4.12: Components of full-length business reports

Opening Materials Report Content Back Materials

Title page

Transmittal Document

Table of Contents

List of Illustrations

Executive Summary

Introduction

Rationale

Body

Methods

Results

Discussions & Recommendations

References

Bibliography

Appendices

Because of the length of a fully developed external report, an example is provided in the Appendices portion of this book.

Opening Materials In the opening materials, the title page would be the same as an internal report—the recip- ient, author, and subject along with the date. The transmittal document, or cover letter, adds a formal element for the audience to consider. It normally includes a more detailed description of the report’s subject, the importance of the report, and a brief section about recommendations. The table of contents, list of illustrations, and executive summary are the same as for internal reports.

Introduction and Rationale The report format should be divided into sections. The introduction spells out the purpose of the report, an overview, and any background information needed. Key questions that are answered in the introduction include:

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CHAPTER 4Section 4.3 Full-Length Messages: Business Reports and Research

• Who asked for this report? • Was a specific individual asked to investigate, or a team of employees? • What triggered the need for a report, a problem or an opportunity? • What priority does this hold, in terms of company operations?

The introduction should also provide the report’s rationale, which answers these questions.

The body of the report describes the methods used in the study, including the sample, research methods, limitations or challenges, and statistical analysis protocols. The meth- ods used include primary data and secondary data. The methods section should explain any limitations to how the study was conducted, including time, funding, or changing circumstances. The complete details regarding what was studied and how it was studied should appear, leaving room for few questions or challenges to the methods used.

Methods: Primary Research and Data Primary research involves the collection of data that does not already exist. Two major forms of primary research include quantitative and qualitative methods. Quantitative meth- ods generate data from questionnaires, counts of activities (sales figures, production num- bers), and experiments. Normally, some type of statistical analysis then will be applied to questionnaire responses and data retrieved from experiments, ranging from descriptive statistics such as percentages, percentiles, and mean scores in the data to highly advanced quantitative techniques (Keppel, 1982). Often quantitative methods are used to test a pos- tulate or hypothesis, such as, “Companies that provide health insurance free of charge

to employees experience signifi- cantly lower levels of turnover and higher levels of reported employee satisfaction with the employer.” Such a question can be tested empirically.

Qualitative research methods include focus groups, inter- views, and observations of behaviors. Observations of behaviors report what individu- als did under various circum- stances (Van Maanen, Dabbs, & Faulkner, 1982). Qualita- tive research tends to be more exploratory in nature, seeking to identify basic patterns of human behavior in various cir-

cumstances. For example, grocery store designs are based on qualitative observations of how people shop for food. Impulse items are strategically placed in areas where people are most likely to see the products and quickly decide to buy them.

iStockphoto/Thinkstock Qualitative research methods include focus groups, interviews, and observations of behaviors.

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CHAPTER 4Section 4.3 Full-Length Messages: Business Reports and Research

Methods: Secondary Research and Data Secondary research does not use subjects, experiments, or the collection of new data. Instead, secondary research consists of evaluation of data and materials that already exist. Many databases provide secondary data for purposes of organizational research. The United States government provides data regarding economic conditions and trends. Organizations such as CompuStat and Forbes offer data regarding industry statistics, including market share, financial ratios, and stock prices and values. Secondary data can be accessed to explain the characteristics of an area, such as the number of mobile phones owned by persons in the United States as compared to Mexico.

Secondary research also includes the analysis of various opinions of experts. A second- ary research report can summarize a series of magazine or journal articles on a topic. For example, a secondary research project might summarize the impact of a recession on the sale of a particular sundry item, such as big-screen television sets.

The results section carefully explains what the study revealed. It spells out what was determined by the research. Statements regarding confidence in the findings appear, such as statistical significance. The results section does not draw conclusions. It merely reports the outcomes.

Discussion and recommendations include the author’s perspective on how best to solve the problem as well as how to implement the solution. The discussion section contains any notations about the limitations of the research methods. It highlights important find- ings and hypotheses or ideas that were not supported. Recommendations or statements regarding how the company should proceed based on the investigation are also offered.

For Review

Describe primary and secondary research methods.

Back Materials Back materials make a report appear more professional and add credibility. Sources should be carefully cited, including any books, journal articles, or experts that helped create and carry out the study. Additional helpful reading materials are presented in the bibliogra- phy. Appendices can include any tables or figures used to augment the report.

Use of Visuals in Preparing Proposals and Reports

Visual aids add richness to what are otherwise lean information channels. Proposals and reports can be augmented with various forms of visuals. The most important thing to remember about visual aids is that they should add value to the document by providing

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CHAPTER 4Section 4.3 Full-Length Messages: Business Reports and Research

information, making a written point clearer, or by displaying and summarizing data. The standard visual aids attached to or woven throughout proposals and reports include:

• pie charts • bar graphs • line graphs • tables • photographs • illustrations

Pie charts illustrate proportional amounts of a larger unit. A pie chart can indicate percent- ages of expenditures for each element of a budget. Pie charts often depict market share of a product or brand for the marketing department. An example of a pie chart is displayed in Figure 4.4.

Figure 4.4: A pie chart

All Other Expenses

39%

Pensions 12%

Benefits 13%

Salaries and Overtime

36%

Pie charts illustrate proportional amounts of a larger unit.

Bar graphs compare totals or components of totals. Bar graphs can be vertical or horizon- tal in nature. Bar graphs are used to indicate changes over time. Bar graphs involve the selection of information placed on two axes (see Figure 4.5 for an example).

Figure 4.5: A bar graph

50,000

100,000

150,000 200,000

250,000

300,000 350,000

400,000

1998/99 1999/00 2000/01 2001/02 2002/03 2003/04 2004/05

Repair and Maint

Office Supplies

Services

Administration Charges

Central Charges

Total Expenditure

Income

Net Supplies

Bar graphs compare totals or components of totals.

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CHAPTER 4Section 4.3 Full-Length Messages: Business Reports and Research

Line graphs indicate trends over time. Again, two axes are chosen, such as sales over a series of years or the number of employees a company retains over time. Line graphs can compare one organization’s trends to another. A line graph may also be used to indicate the results of an activity, such as a change in production methods or a test market for a product. Figure 4.6 shows the use of a line graph format.

Figure 4.6: A line graph

0 0

8 12 16 20 244

100

120

140

160

180

200

U n

it S

a le

Months

Product A

Product B

Product C

Line graphs indicate trends over time.

Tables provide information in the form of numbers. Tables are less visually compelling, but often represent the best choice for providing statistics and raw numbers. Figure 4.7 illustrates a typical table.

Figure 4.7: Example of a table

In-Store Sales by Book Category, 2010–2012

2010 2011 2012 Fiction Romance 10,434 14,731 18,311 Western 720 811 655 Non-Fiction Self-Help 1,737 2,223 975 Biography 3,121 2,411 4,556 Political 4,175 2,033 5,781 Hobbies 3,327 3,022 3,789

Tables provide information in the form of numbers.

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CHAPTER 4Section 4.3 Full-Length Messages: Business Reports and Research

Rules for Using Visuals Effective visuals add value and power to a formal, written document. Poorly designed visuals distract or confuse the audience. To make sure a visual aid works, it should be:

• easily understood, easy to read, and simple • appropriate • memorable • credible • professional • referenced and carefully placed • numbered and labeled

The most important rule to follow will be the first, that the visual aid can be easily fol- lowed. Trying to incorporate too many elements violates this rule. Using distracting bright colors may also make a visual less easy to understand.

Credibility results from carefully researched visual materials. If the audience suspects that information has been altered or doctored, the entire document forfeits believability. Citing sources on the visual aid adds credibility. Sketchy drawings distract the audience and undermine the integrity of the report or proposal. Using today’s computer software makes it easy to prepare professional-grade visual aids. Visual aids that augment a writ- ten document should be referenced within the document. When possible, the visual can be placed within the text or at the end of the report.

Numbering systems for visuals vary. One method suggests anything with numbers will be referenced as a Table and any other type will appear as a Figure. The key is to label the visual within the text of the document and with the item as it is placed in the document. The format should remain consistent and easy to follow.

Photographs can dramatically enrich a document visually. Any type of natural disaster or “act of God” that changes a company’s operations may be enhanced by one or more photos of the event. A color photograph adds visual impact to words.

Illustrations take many forms, from cartoons to models and designs. They can simplify a process and make it easier to understand. Illustrations of how a system operates dem- onstrate how products flow through a series of stages, such as a production process or marketing channel. Flow charts are often used to present stages or components of a sys- tem. Illustrations can be designed to depict problems and disruptions as well. Today’s computer software programs make it possible to create visually compelling illustrations of various company operations.

Visual aids can also be applied to verbal presentations, using methods such as PowerPoint slides, Google documents, Keynote storytelling elements and other technologies.

For Review

Name the types of visuals that can be added to proposals and reports.

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CHAPTER 4Section 4.4 Effective Message Transmission

4.4 Effective Message Transmission

Learning Objective # 4: What are the best ways to ensure effective message transmission?

Four important approaches help transmit important messages effectively (Mehdi, 1984; Samaras, 1980). First, transmit important messages through more than one channel. Second, match the medium to the message. Third, maintain an effective management information system. Fourth, complete regular communication audits to identify and address any problems within the system. In addition to these, be sure you are overcoming the main communication barriers:

• Interpersonal barriers: differences in rank, gender, or personality • System overload: too many communication channels addressed toward a single

employee • Physical barriers: differences in time zones, or poor phone reception • Selective filtering: how messages can be intentionally and unintentionally altered

as they pass from one to another • Mismatch of message and medium: the unclear use of social media in employee

relationship communication or delivering a verbal message when a written one would have been more appropriate

• Informal contradiction of the formal message: a rumor that impacts the formal message sent by a manager about terminations or layoffs

To ensure a message arrives on time and will be received involves using more than one medium. A meeting can be followed with an email or an agenda memo. A personal con- versation can receive similar follow-up reinforcement. Letters followed by phone calls make the message appear to be important and double the odds that the recipient will hear or see the content of the message. In today’s world of management communication, repetition becomes more important than ever when seeking to ensure a message arrives.

Second, match the message and the medium (Lengel & Daft, 1988). Again, consider the audience, the content of the message, the degree of information richness required, and the need for a paper record of the message. As additional new transmission devices become available, managers may need to spend more time explaining the proper channel for a suggestion, complaint, or request for clarification of a directive to employees.

For Review

In what ways can formal messages be used to help overcome barriers to communication?

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CHAPTER 4Section 4.4 Effective Message Transmission

Management Information Systems (MIS)

To make sure messages and information travel efficiently and effectively through an orga- nization, the company should establish and maintain a high-quality management informa- tion system (MIS). A well-designed management information system consists of the team of people and technologies used to collect and process organizational information.

An effective MIS begins with effective people who know how to collect important orga- nizational information. These individuals are found in many areas, including accounting,

forecasting, production, qual- ity control, human resources and at executive levels in the organization.

An effective MIS maintains the best technologies. Company phone systems should be easy to use; the website should be easy to negotiate, and systems should be in place to make sure that key decisions and announcements reach every person that should hear a message.

An effective MIS carries high- quality information. Critical company information will be timely, accurate, important, and summarized. A manager should be able to quickly access impor-

tant statistics and information for decision-making processes. Individual employees should be able to find the types of data to help them perform their jobs most effectively. For example, in order to best serve the client’s needs, a customer-service representative should be able to access information about previous contacts a person or business has made with the company.

iStockphoto/Thinkstock A well-designed management information system consists of the team of people and technologies used to collect and process organizational information.

For Review

Define management information system.

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CHAPTER 4Section 4.4 Effective Message Transmission

Communication Audits

To ensure that a company’s formal communication system serves the needs of the organi- zation, a communication audit may be undertaken. A communication audit is a system- atic assessment of an organization’s capacity for, or performance of, essential communica- tions practices. It determines what works, what does not, and what might work better if adjustments were made (Coffman, 2004). Table 4.13 identifies the steps in designing and completing a communication audit. When assessing organiza- tional communication systems, four issues should be assessed (Hargie & Tourish, 2009).

First, the audit must accurately diagnose current communication practices. This means that more than one individual’s perspective will be needed. One model sug- gests communication should be evaluated from the perspectives of the person or group sending messages, the recipient(s), and an independent outside observer. Removing biases in evaluation constitutes a key objective in a communications audit.

Second, when tactics have been used to improve communication, such as issuing laptops for employees to carry to work assignments or smart phones for increased communica- tion from remote locations, the efforts should be tracked to see if they accomplished their intended objectives. In the case of new technologies, those at distant locations should be asked whether their needs have been met, and they should be asked to provide specific examples of how the system improved, or did not improve, the communication process.

Third, the company should assess whether its communication system is associated with overall success. In other words, does the communication system improve profits, and build loyalty and morale within the organization, or in some way serve other important organizational needs?

Fourth, understand how communication systems and methods may vary by organiza- tional rank. These differences result, in part, from varying needs of members. Front-line employees may have the most powerful needs for immediate lean information to effec- tively carry out their jobs. Others may require more in-depth communication to succeed. The communication audit should account for variances by rank in the organization.

Jupiterimages/Thinkstock Communication audits can be used in a variety of organizations.

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CHAPTER 4Section 4.5 Chapter Review

4.5 Chapter Review

Written messages offer the advantage of allowing a manager to carefully choose the words prior to transmitting the message. Written email and instant messages are viewed when it is convenient, which can save time. A written message provides an official record that a manager can save for future purposes. Brief messages include memos, emails, instant messages, and letters.

A paper memo serves the purpose of creating a more permanent record of an internal cor- respondence. Memos serve two major purposes: provide information and call for action.

Using email, employees can communicate from different locations without the use of a telephone. Email and instant messaging allow virtual teams to coordinate and schedule activities, create a channel of upward communication, and provide a venue to send out information downward or laterally. Employees should also understand that the company owns email, giving management the right to inspect messages.

Letters will be perceived as more official, and are used for messages with greater com- plexity. Letters offer the advantage of remaining private, as opposed to email or text mes- sages, and also create the appearance of being sensitive while expressing greater concern or appreciation. Letters establish a permanent record of the correspondence.

Table 4.13: Steps of a communication audit

1 Complete a plan for the entire audit program.

2 Identify methods for studying internal communication networks.

3 Choose important areas to assess.

4 Select the method (surveys, interviews, questionnaires, focus groups).

5 Pick the participants (entry-level, middle manager, top management, external publics).

6 Indicate how the information will be evaluated.

7 Write and circulate the final report to all relevant parties, including participants.

Source: Downs, C. W., & Adrian, A. D. (2004). Assessing organizational communication: Strategic communication audits. New York, NY: The Guilford Press.

An effective audit provides an assessment of current practice (diagnosis) and then deter- mines what steps are needed to make improvements (prescription). The audit is not com- plete until both activities have taken place and been implemented. An audit only succeeds when the communication needs are clearly spelled out by management.

For Review

Define a communication audit and name the steps involved in conducting one.

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CHAPTER 4Section 4.5 Chapter Review

Moderate-length written communication includes internal and external proposals. Inter- nal proposals are documents that recommend changes to a company’s operations to solve a problem or in regard to purchases to be made. External proposals are offers made to other companies to provide products or services in exchange for a price or fee. Exter- nal proposals may be solicited by other companies, which mean a request for proposal (RFP) has been sent. Unsolicited proposals are sent at the vendor’s initiative to potential customers.

A proposal should submit one core idea, which may be repeated throughout the docu- ment. It should focus on the recipient’s needs rather than the sender’s needs. The termi- nology should match the recipient’s business and industry. The proposal should explain the recipient’s problems or issues in the present tense. The language in the proposal should be positive. A concise and succinct proposal has a better chance of being accepted.

A business report provides an in-depth analysis of an issue facing a company. Some are regularly scheduled and others cover special topics or events. Internal reports are less complex and the language will be adapted to the audience and situation. Full-length reports are prepared when an individual or group has been commissioned to fully inves- tigate a topic or problem. Full reports include opening materials, the report’s content, and back materials. Visual aids complement materials presented in writing.

Formal communication barriers include interpersonal problems, system overload, physi- cal barriers, selective filtering, a mismatch of message and medium, and informal contra- diction of formal messages. Methods used to overcome formal barriers include carefully matching the message to the medium and audience and transmitting important messages through more than one channel. A management information system can be built to ensure the best people and technologies process organizational information. A communication audit assesses the organization’s system looking for what works well, what does not, and what can be adjusted.

Key Terms

communication audit A systematic assessment of an organization’s capacity for, or perfor- mance of, essential communication practices.

external proposals Offers made to other companies to provide products or services in exchange for a price or fee.

internal proposals Documents that recommend changes to a company’s operations to solve a problem or recommend purchases to be made.

management information system The people and technologies used to collect and process organizational information.

request for proposal (RFP) External proposals solicited by other companies.

unsolicited proposals External proposals sent at the vendor’s initiative to potential customers.

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CHAPTER 4Section 4.5 Chapter Review

For Review With Possible Responses

1. What media are available for transmitting brief, formal, written messages to employees?

Memos, email, letters, and instant messages. 2. What are two main purposes of memos and emails? Provide information and call for action. 3. What is the main difference between emails and text or instant messages? The speed at which messages are received. 4. What elements should appear in both internally and externally directed letters? Letterhead, heading, inside address, subject line, salutation, body, closing, signature,

and notations. 5. Briefly describe internal proposals, external proposals, and request for proposal

(RFP) documents. Internal proposals are documents that recommend changes to a company’s operations to

solve a problem or in regard to purchases to be made. External proposals are offers made to other companies to provide products or services in exchange for a price or fee. Other companies may solicit external proposals, which means a request for proposal (RFP) has been sent.

6. What are the four major sections of an external proposal format? Introduction, body, close, additional materials. 7. Name the primary elements of an internal proposal and a less-formal proposal

format. For an internal proposal, the audience, significance, nature of the assignment, prec-

edent, and format are key elements. The proposal format will be introduction, analysis, detailed solution, and call to action.

8. What are the components of a short internal report? Front matter, introduction, methods, results and discussion, conclusions and

recommendation. 9. Describe primary and secondary research methods. Primary research involves the collection of data that does not already exist. Two major

forms of primary research include quantitative and qualitative methods. Secondary research does not use subjects, experiments, or the collection of new data. Instead, sec- ondary research consists of evaluation of data and materials that already exist.

10. Name types of visuals that can be added to proposals and reports. Pie charts, bar graphs, line graphs, tables, photographs, and illustrations. 12. In what two ways can formal messages be used to help overcome the barriers to

communication? Use more than one medium to transmit key messages and match the message to the

medium. 13. Define management information system. A management information system consists of the team of people and technologies used

to collect and process organizational information. 14. Define a communication audit and name the steps involved in conducting one. A communication audit is a systematic assessment of an organization’s capacity for, or

performance of, essential communications practices. The steps are completing an audit

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CHAPTER 4Section 4.5 Chapter Review

plan, identifying methods for studying internal communication networks, choosing important areas to assess, selecting the method to use, picking participants, indicating how the information will be evaluated, and writing and circulating the final report.

Analytical Exercises

1. Which form of formal written communication should be used for each of the fol- lowing circumstances? Defend your choice. a. announcement of a visit by the governor of the state to a manufacturing plant b. announcement that the eventual successor for the CEO has been chosen c. notification that the company has been sued by a special interest group and

that some employees may be expected to testify d. announcement that a shift will be canceled due to excessive snowfall e. offer to reappoint a contracted employee for another year with an increase in

pay f. employee suggestion about methods to improve the company’s shipping and

order fulfillment system 2. Prepare a memo for the following circumstances. Explain whether it should be an

email or paper memo and your reasons for the choice. a. notify employees that this year’s holiday party will be a pot luck dinner b. solicit employee requests for offices in a new wing of the company’s building c. announce the results of last month’s sales contest d. announce a job opening in which only internal candidates will be considered

3. Compose a letter for the following issues: a. cover letter for a report by the employee benefits committee regarding the

company’s pension plan b. letter of sympathy to the spouse of a long-time company employee who died

suddenly c. request by a member of the marketing department sent to the manager of the

production department to create a wider range of colors for a company’s line of appliances, to meet customer requests and match competitor products

d. letter of resignation due to a personal scandal, sent from a CEO to a board of directors

e. letter of apology for a company’s release of defective products, taking full responsibility

4. What kinds of visual aids would you suggest for the following? Explain your reasoning. a. proposal to increase plant capacity due to rising sales over the past three

years b. report on the number of lost employee days due to stress-related issues fol-

lowing an accident in a plant c. proposal by a manufacturer of hardware to supply items such as rivets,

screws, and bolts to a company that sent a request for proposals d. report on the relationship between a company’s sales and economic condi-

tions in four regions of the country

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CHAPTER 4Section 4.6 Case Studies

5. Explain the roles that text messaging, e-mail, and social media play in the follow- ing circumstances: a. An employee needing to inform the company she has been in a car accident

while traveling on behalf of the organization b. A company’s marketing team looking for new ways to steer customers to a

company’s website c. A customer wanting to complain to friends about poor treatment by a retail

sales clerk d. A customer wanting to complain to a store manager about poor treatment by

a sales clerk e. A company manager seeking to quickly inform employees about the winner

of a recent sales contest

4.6 Case Studies

Case Study 1: A New Game Plan

Casey Murphy loved sports. He spent much of his free time enjoying sports as a spectator and partici- pant, and fancied himself as someone with extensive knowledge of several games. When he wasn’t at the gym or watching an event on television, Casey worked as a merchandise buyer for the Iowa Furniture Warehouse, a chain of twelve stores located throughout the Hawkeye State.

The Iowa Furniture Warehouse chain had achieved modest success through a series of strategic, tacti- cal, and operational innovations. At the strategic level, the stores were all located in carefully chosen trade districts that were modern, close to restaurants such as Applebee’s and T.G.I. Fridays, and easy to access by major roads. The stores were all the same in exterior appearance and interiors were brightly lit and not cluttered. The goal was a relaxed and pleasant shopping experience. At the tactical level, products were sold in the midrange of quality, prices were maintained to match competitors in the furniture industry, and an innovative, humor-based advertising campaign featuring “Lance and Laura” had been well received for years. At the operational level, customers were assured that any purchase would be delivered to their homes on the same day, no matter how late in the day the trans- action took place. The company offered same-day financing for major purchases.

Casey’s concerns about Iowa Furniture Warehouse were in three areas. First, although sales and prof- its were solid, he believed the company was underperforming. Second, recently collected customer satisfaction research statistics were discouraging. Many customers, even ones who made purchases, reported low satisfaction with the purchasing process. Casey had assembled a focus group where members complained that they often felt “pressured” and that salespeople wouldn’t “give them any space.” Third, turnover rates among salespeople were much higher than in other companies in the area. Casey also noticed several incidents where salespeople engaged in conflicts with one another, with the common theme that someone “stole my sale” or “stole my customer.”

Casey harkened back to his basketball and football days. In both sports, defense could be played man-to-man or in a zone. He felt the analogy fit Iowa Furniture Warehouse. The company was play- ing man-to-man when it should have been using a zone. Instead of a commission-only method of pay in which a salesperson would hound a customer throughout the store, Casey believed that a team- based commission system would reduce conflicts between salespeople. He also wanted (continued)

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CHAPTER 4Section 4.6 Case Studies

to specialize salespeople for specific types of furniture, such as one individual for sofas and chairs, another for dining room furniture, and another for office furniture. Then, even when the customer moved to a different part of the store, the salesperson would remain, handing the customer off to the next area. Using the zone approach with group commissions, a salesperson could provide expertise about a product or simply watch a customer’s child as the person sat in a chair or tried out a bed. He concluded that his zone approach would reinforce the relaxed and pleasant atmosphere created by the store’s interior.

Casey had always enjoyed pleasant relationships with members of the top management team in the chain. At the same time, most of his interactions were conversations about sports rather than busi- ness. This would be the first time he would present an actual business idea to them.

Review Questions

1. Prepare an internal memo requesting a face-to-face meeting with management to present Casey’s idea.

2. Prepare a letter written by Casey to the CEO presenting his idea. 3. Outline an internal proposal presenting Casey’s idea. 4. Which method should Casey use? Defend your answer.

Case Study 1: A New Game Plan (continued)

Case Study 2: Examining Changes in Auto Insurance Providers

Technology impacts business in many ways. Innovations and technology improvements alter the marketplace by introducing new products, improving products, advancing production methods, and changing the ways in which jobs are performed. Technological change affects the delivery of services as well.

Traditional insurance companies such as State Farm and Allstate sell a range of policies, including life, health, auto, property, and renters’ insurance. These organizations service policies through claims offices and other support activities. The basic business model has remained largely the same for decades.

The introduction of the Internet has led to new competitors, especially in the automobile insurance category. Companies such as Geico, Progressive, and Esurance provide policies featuring two differ- ences. First, policies are sold online and over the phone. Second, price discounting has become the primary selling feature.

The marketing approaches for the two types of auto insurance are remarkably different as well. Geico features the Gecko as a spokesanimal and uses other humorous approaches to create interest in the tagline, “A 15-minute call could save you 15 percent on car insurance.” Esurance also features humor in its advertisements with a focus on lower prices. Progressive utilizes the talents of Stephanie Court- ney, who portrays Flo in company commercials, to emphasize price savings. (continued)

State Farm and Allstate maintain more traditional approaches. Allstate’s spokesperson, Dennis Hays- bert, maintains the “Good Hands” theme, and an informative/emotional approach to selling insur- ance. State Farm continues with the tag line, “Like a good neighbor, State Farm is there,” but has incor- porated humor into recent commercials. The themes have stayed away from direct price comparisons with Internet companies for the most part.

The future of car insurance, along with all other forms of insurance, has become clouded. Life insur- ance policies are sold online and through direct-response television commercials. The primary

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CHAPTER 4Section 4.6 Case Studies

question facing industry leaders will be in regard to the role played by insurance agents. Will they con- tinue to operate from offices where walk-ins and clients can physically meet with them? Will house calls remain part of the selling program? Will a hybrid of online-insurance office model emerge? The answers to these and questions regarding the role of technology in the insurance industry will largely dictate the future of this form of commerce.

Assume you have been asked to prepare a full-length report when answering the following questions.

Review Questions

1. To investigate the role of the Internet in car insurance, what forms of primary data should be collected? Would the study focus on older customers, younger customers, or a mix?

2. To investigate the role of the Internet in car insurance, what forms of secondary data should be collected?

3. Would a report regarding the role of the Internet in car insurance be an internal or an external report? Who would receive copies?

4. What types of conclusions could be drawn from the research and report?

Case Study 2: Examining Changes in Auto Insurance Providers (continued)

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Week6/05CH_Baack_Business.pdf

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Learning Objectives

After reading this chapter and studying the materials, you should be able to:

1. Use communication in the decision-making process. 2. Take advantage of the six steps of the decision-making process. 3. Create the primary objectives, desired outcomes, and approaches to the persuasion processes. 4. Apply the steps and methods involved in an effective persuasion process.

Decision-Making Processes and Persuasion

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CHAPTER 5Section 5.1 The Role of Communication in Decision-Making

5.1 The Role of Communication in Decision-Making

Learning Objective # 1: How do managers use communication in the decision-making process?

In today’s dynamic business environment, managers are expected to respond to events and trends as efficiently and effectively as possible. Doing so involves making quality decisions. A decision is a choice between two or more potential courses of action (Hoch & Kunreuther, 2001; Bedeian, 1986). Top managers respond to company circumstances with strategies and policies designed to guide the organization through turbulent situa- tions. Middle managers employ tactics to support company strategies. First-line supervi- sors make sure company procedures and rules are followed.

Decision-making in business organizations involves communication in all directions. Ideas, suggestions, and complaints flow from lower-ranking to higher-level managers. Top managers inform all ranks about events in the environment that affect the company, internal company issues, and decisions that they make in response. Middle manag- ers coordinate with all levels to make sure information reaches the proper destination (Simon, 1976). For example, production, marketing, and those who operate the company’s warehouse work together when a bonus pack that is larger than a product’s normal size package will be sold. Production adjusts to the larger package, marketing creates a label emphasizing the bonus, and the warehouse needs added space to store inventory.

Several key business and management communication skills affect the quality of the deci- sion-making process. Listening plays a critical role. An effective decision-maker collects information before developing alternatives or choosing a solution. Reasoned discussion can benefit the organization in terms of the quality of ideas generated to solve company problems and the eventual solutions chosen. Such discussions can take the form of board meetings, focus groups, brainstorming sessions, and task-force status meetings. Creative companies inspire members to participate and share innovative ideas. The outcome of the process, the actual decision, requires precise and clearly understood communication to be effectively implemented. Consequently, the connection between quality communication and successful decision-making is evident.

Tiger Woods and Tough Decisions

Professional golfer Tiger Woods burst onto the scene in the 1990s, winning numerous tournaments while establishing a reputation as a fierce competitor on the course, but a pleasant and affable fam- ily man everywhere else. His popularity led to a variety of lucrative endorsement deals. Woods’ near iconic status in the United States and around the world seemed impenetrable.

In 2009, a car accident involving Woods near his home changed the trajectory of his life and career. It was soon revealed that he engaged in extramarital relationships with several women over many years. When these scandals made national headlines, the leaders at his sponsoring companies were faced with a difficult decision: Should the company continue to retain the popular and charismatic golfer as a spokesperson? (continued)

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CHAPTER 5Section 5.1 The Role of Communication in Decision-Making

Scandals tied to a company’s spokesperson are not new. In 2011, comic Gilbert Gottfried was immedi- ately released as the voice of the Aflac Duck after telling an inappropriate joke about the tsunami in Japan. Substantial company revenues were generated in Japan, which meant the decision was not surpris- ing. Many advertisers quickly dropped football player Michael Vick following his imprisonment for running a dog-fighting ring.

In the case of Woods, however, company reactions varied. Accenture, an accounting and consulting firm, quickly dropped him. A company official stated, “[We have] determined that he is no longer the right rep- resentative for [our] advertising" (EPSN.com, 2009; Adlandtv.com, 2009). The energy drink Gatorade, a division of PepsiCo, quickly followed suit. AT&T can- celled its contract with Woods as well. Over time other companies that discontinued relationships with him included American Express, Buick (General Motors), Titleist, and General Mills.

Gillette took a different approach, stating the company would limit his role in advertising. The com- pany continued running ads featuring Woods and the Gillette Fusion razor. The firm also noted it would not film any new commercials with him. The company, which is owned by Proctor & Gamble, later severed ties as well. Tag Heuer took down posters featuring Woods, but did not officially cut rela- tions for several months (Kelley, 2011).

At the other extreme, four companies, including EA Sports and Nike, stood by the golfer. EA Sports had recently released the Tiger Woods PGA Tour and the Tiger Woods Online games, which may have boxed in company decision-makers. The sports-collectible company Upper Deck continued its association with Woods, making few public comments about the scandal. Japanese company Kowa, a pharmaceutical developer, also continued featuring Woods in commercials.

The most visible company connected to Woods, Nike, stood by him. Woods released the famous “What have you learned?” commercials, featuring the voice of his deceased father in the background. Some found the ad to be courageous; others commented that it was “creepy” (Gomstyn & Arnall, 2010).

Decision-makers in these organizations face different sets of publics. Internal stakeholders, especially employees, may have wished to influence the decision. External publics, including the press, custom- ers, and other companies, may have also tried to weigh in about what to do. The result was that each company’s decision, and implementation of that decision, was unique to its situation.

Questions for Students

1. What reasons could be given for maintaining a relationship with Tiger Woods and what reasons could be given for removing Woods as an advertising spokesperson?

2. What roles would publicity, pressures from the public, and internal morale play in the decision? 3. What were the ethical choices involved in making this business judgment?

Tiger Woods and Tough Decisions (continued)

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CHAPTER 5Section 5.1 The Role of Communication in Decision-Making

Decision-Making Perspectives

Each individual manager uses a unique combination of attributes, skills, and experiences to make decisions in the workplace. The individual’s level of intelligence, tolerance for ambiguity, acceptance of different cultures and religious beliefs, willingness to listen to the viewpoints of others, and even degree of confidence, affect the decisions a manager makes and the processes she or he uses. The perspectives used to analyze the nature of decision-making include rational/analytical thinking, intuitive decision-making, and the garbage can model.

Rational/Analytical Thinking Brain researchers have observed that the human brain contains both rational and emotional elements (Cokins, 2010). Theories of mental development suggest that rational decision- making involves looking for sensible or logical actions; avoids emotion and bias in judg- ment; and maximizes or makes the most out of something, such as personal utility or com- pany sales (Wasserman, 2007). When making decisions for business, a rational approach requires four preconditions. First, the problem must be relatively clear cut. Second, manag- ers must be aware of the most viable options and alternatives. Third, criteria used to evalu- ate potential solutions are well known and understood. Fourth, the decision-maker seeks to maximize or choose the best option when selecting solutions (March, 1994). While four standards rarely can be completely met, rational approaches are often deemed advisable. Various cultures are evaluated on the degree of rationality and uncertainty avoidance uti- lized in everyday living and decision-making (Rapp, Bernardi, & Bosco, 2011).

Intuitive Decision-Making For many years, management experts dismissed the use of intuition in decision-making as irrational or ineffective. More recently, however, this assertion has been challenged. Intui- tive decision-making may be interpreted to be an unconscious process that relies on dis- tilled experience (Behling & Eckel, 1991). The more recent perspective suggests that intui- tive decision-making can be of great value, when certain conditions exist, as displayed in Table 5.1 (Agor, 1989). Even so, managers who make such decisions often disguise or hide the fact that they used the method (Myers, 2002).

Table 5.1: Situations that favor intuitive decision-making

Facts are limited

Facts do not clearly point the way

Analytical data have low value

Time is limited

High level of uncertainty exists

No precedent can be used

Variables are not scientifically predictable

Several plausible alternatives exist with good reasons to choose each

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CHAPTER 5Section 5.2 The Decision-Making Process

5.2 The Decision-Making Process

Learning Objective # 2: How can managers take advantage of the six steps of the decision-making process?

Managerial decision-makers can use a well-established format for examining com-pany problems and reaching the best solutions. One common approach seeks to take advantage of the rational/analytical approach to decision-making (Bazer- man, 2006). In that model, the six steps of decision-making are:

Managers do not rely solely on rationality or intuition. In most circumstances, one approach will be favored over the other. At the same time, reason often affects intuition, and intuition/ emotion often influences reason- ing processes. The Tiger Woods controversy represents both elements—emotions related to his conduct as a married father and reasoning regarding what would be the best business prac- tice. Remember that these two methods of making decisions are coupled with individual traits, skills, and preferences.

Garbage Can Model Another view on the evaluation process in decision-making proposes that decisions are often made in a sloppy, haphazard manner. Four elements that interact and contribute to the process are the problem, solutions, participants, and choice opportunities. Decision- making does not occur in an orderly fashion, but rather randomly by the problems that emerge, the time people have to solve them, and the options available, as part of what will be tossed into the organization’s “garbage can” of problems to be addressed. Opportuni- ties lead to decisions as readily as problems, and organizational politics can disturb the evaluation process. The garbage can model suggests that decision-making contexts will be complex and at times border on being chaotic. Each leads to a differing evaluation system. Not surprisingly, then, the degree of disorder plays an important role in how decisions are made (March & Weisinger-Baylon, 1986; Bower & Gilbert, 2007).

Jupiterimages/Thinkstock The garbage can model suggests that decision-making contexts will be complex and at times border on being chaotic.

For Review

Name and briefly define three decision-making perspectives.

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CHAPTER 5Section 5.2 The Decision-Making Process

1. State the problem 2. Name limitations 3. Generate alternatives 4. Evaluate alternatives 5. Choose a solution 6. Prepare a plan of implementation

Those who carefully follow through on each step and avoid the pitfalls that can disrupt quality decisions have the best chance of discovering and implementing high-quality solutions. Effective management communication plays a critical role in each step.

For Review

What are the six steps of the decision-making process?

State the Problem

When identifying the problem or opportunity, managers consider two issues. First, they make sure the correct cause of the problem has been identified. Many times managers confuse the problem with symptoms of the problem. For example, sales may decline when competitors lower prices or because of negative publicity about the company. Lower sales represent the symptom; the manager seeks to identify the cause. Some indicators of gen- eral employee dissatisfaction are absenteeism, tardiness, turn- over, and grievances. Several causes of rises in these rates are possible, including the threat of layoffs, the lack of pay raises, or a bad supervisor. The man- ager strives to discover the true cause. Effective decision-making results from careful investiga- tion of the nature of the issue.

Second, when specifying a prob- lem or opportunity, state the issue in a positive fashion. For example, instead of saying, “We have too many accidents,” the alternative would be to state, “We need to find a way to increase injury-free days by 20 percent next year.” In essence, the problem should be framed as the desired solution (Sanders, 1999). The problem will not truly be solved until an observable desired outcome takes place.

Hemera/Thinkstock A positive problem statement would be, “We need to find a way to increase injury-free days by 20 percent next year.”

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CHAPTER 5Section 5.2 The Decision-Making Process

In terms of managerial communication, the decision-maker includes the necessary parties to help discover the problem and its symptoms. The communication skills needed include clearly articulating the reasons for examining the issue. Listening skills allow the final decision-maker to incorporate information and make the best judgment as to the nature of the problem. When a group assists in the decision, the leader seeks consensus that the true problem has been identified.

For Review

What two issues should managers consider when stating the problem in the decision-making process?

Identify Limitations

Every company’s situation contains unique elements. Despite a sputtering economy, LinkedIn, a social network for professionals, experienced explosive revenue growth and visits to the site in 2010. In the same year, most other companies endured low sales. In essence, some companies experienced the limitations of a weak economy when LinkedIn did not. When seeking to solve a problem or to seize an opportunity, a prudent course of action involves identifying company limitations. The most common areas in which limita- tions influence decision-making include time, money, technology, skilled personnel, and organizational inertia.

Time limits decision-making in three ways. First, many decisions must be made quickly. This leaves managers with little time to develop and analyze options. Second, the length of time each alternative will last should be a consideration. The decision to finance and construct a new building or enter a new market may require long-term financing, which limits company options to pursue other projects in the future, meaning the alternative has a long shelf life. Third, the amount of time between when a decision is made and when it is fully implemented deserves deliberation. Implementing a decision may take weeks, months, or even years. Managers must be sure the alternative will still be viable at that point.

Money nearly always affects decision-making. Firms simply cannot generate funding to solve every problem. Technology can limit decision-making when other firms acquire more-advanced technology, such as when one company that manufactures televisions develops a superior 3-D system. Also, a technological breakthrough that would answer a problem may be coming soon, but is not yet available. Skilled personnel become a limita- tion when other firms employ workers with superior talents or knowledge, placing other companies at a disadvantage. Organizational inertia, or systematic resistance to change, often prevents quality solutions from being chosen (Ackland, 2005). Managers know that subordinates or top management can prevent the implementation of a quality idea.

The role of management communication in identifying company limitations will be largely the same as for identifying the problem. The decision-maker or leader listens, coordinates, and carefully spells out the natures of the limitations discovered by the group or team. This list guides the process of generating and evaluating alternatives.

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CHAPTER 5Section 5.2 The Decision-Making Process

Generate Alternatives

Creativity often represents the driving force behind finding quality alternatives (Amabile, 1997). The development of Facebook and Twitter serves as an example of creative new methods of generating success. Innovative products, services, and marketing methods often lead to major profits and rapid growth. Company leaders look for ways to inspire creativity (Woodman, Sawyer, & Griffin, 1993). Five of the more common methods are displayed in Table 5.2.

Table 5.2: Creativity techniques

Brainstorming

Nominal groups

Analogies

Finding the lowest common denominator

Seeking an outside perspective

Brainstorming begins by assembling a group of employees to generate new, different ideas about how to solve a problem (Osborne, 1963). A recorder collects all of the sugges- tions made during a brainstorming session. In that short time period (3 to 5 minutes is common), the group will be given the problem and then asked to quickly come up with as many ideas as possible about how to resolve the issue. Respondents make responses aloud. For the session to succeed, four rules must be followed:

1. The more ideas, the better 2. Wilder, more offbeat ideas are best 3. Combine ideas with other participants 4. Do not pass judgments on other ideas during the session

Departments and organizations that require creativity often take advantage of brain- storming. Advertising agencies, entertainment companies, and research-and-develop- ment departments all regularly schedule brainstorming sessions.

Nominal groups may be used when participants are more reserved. In the nominal group session, instead of shouting out ideas, members write them down. Then, potential solu- tions are suggested in a round-robin fashion, with each person taking a turn. Potential alternatives are then discussed and voted upon by ranking them from best to worst.

The analogy method involves comparing the problem to something else by using a simile or metaphor. Low sales are like “the well running dry.” Developing a new method of

For Review

Name the most common limitations to decision-making.

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CHAPTER 5Section 5.2 The Decision-Making Process

solving a customer’s problem can be compared to “finding a needle in a haystack.” The idea is that by making such compari- sons, new methods of solving the problems will emerge (Gor- don, 1961).

Finding the lowest common denominator involves trying to think of the problem in the sim- plest of terms. Instead of trying to find a way to increase sales, for example, it may be easier to come up with methods to gen- erate store traffic. The premise is that if people visit the store, they will be more inclined to buy something.

Seeking an outside perspective means visiting with someone from another discipline or area. A marketer might ask a human resource manager’s or consultant’s opinion. A quality-control manager could visit with someone from the public relations office about a continuing problem with defects. The goal is to incorporate a new point of view into the analysis and come up with new and unusual ways to solve a problem.

Online collaborations have become the norm for generating alternatives for many com- panies. These interactions allow individuals at dispersed locations, even some who are not employees, to share ideas with one another about how to solve company problems. Managers in the future can expect extensive use of this type of technology when seeking to identify and implement high-quality ideas.

In terms of management communication, an effective decision-maker takes advantage of the technique best suited to the problem at hand. The manager facilitates the process, and documents the best ideas. Then, the manager gives credit to the individual or group that generates exciting new alternatives. Doing so encourages participation and creativity in future decisions.

Company statements affect the context in which creative endeavors take place. Organi- zational values, such as those toward risk-taking, influence the alternatives that emerge from decision-making processes. A risk-aversive company likely will not generate those types of options, especially when that preference has been transmitted to employees. In the Tiger Woods case, alternative generation may have been affected partly by gender, as women tended to react more strongly to the allegations of misconduct (ESPN.com, 2010), making consensus more difficult to achieve. Diversity of opinions can influence the cre- ativity process. Less-diverse organizations may be limited in terms of discovering alterna- tives from perspectives in other cultures, subcultures, and ways of problem-solving.

iStockphoto/Thinkstock The analogy method involves comparing the problem to something else by using a simile or metaphor. For example, low sales are like “the well running dry.”

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CHAPTER 5Section 5.2 The Decision-Making Process

Evaluate Alternatives

When managers proceed to the evaluation stage, the pros and cons of each alternative should be listed. Many decisions are reached by choosing the alternative with the best advantage-to-disadvantage ratio. Two factors influence the evaluation of alternatives: uncertainty and risk.

Uncertainty means that incomplete information will be available to make a decision. Greater uncertainty means managers have less information and do not know with con- fidence how the implementation of an alternative will turn out. Risk represents circum- stances under which uncertainty is high. Managers must know if they are operating in a risk-taking company or one that avoids risks. Entire national cultures are evaluated on the basis of acceptance or avoidance of risk, or of tolerance for ambiguity. Guatemala, Japan, Greece, Portugal, and Uruguay are among the most risk-aversive trading nations. Cultures with high uncertainty avoidance often have governments that seek to minimize uncertainty through strict laws and rules as well as safety and security measures (Work- man, 2008).

Figure 5.1: The risk/uncertainty relationship

R is k

Uncertainty

The greater the degree of uncertainty in a decision, the greater the degree of risk.

In management communication, evaluating alternatives requires exemplary listening skills. An effective decision-maker does not dominate discussions of alternatives, recog- nizing that all involved have a stake in the outcome. Ignoring or disparaging the view- points of others is counterproductive. Encouraging and praising rich, active participation improves the evaluation process.

Transparency in decision-making means that internal and external stakeholders and groups should be aware of what transpires, and that company leaders communicate this

For Review

What methods are used to creatively generate decision alternatives?

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CHAPTER 5Section 5.2 The Decision-Making Process

Choose a Solution

When choosing a solution, three items merit consideration. First, managers recognize that solutions are combinations of alternatives rather than selecting a single option. Finding sets of ideas that work together should be the objective.

Second, compare any chosen solution to the “Do nothing” criterion. In other words, the manager makes sure the alter- native offers an advantage over taking no action. Medical doc- tors follow the maxim “First, do no harm.” At times, it is simply best to let the patient heal with- out intervention. Sports execu- tives follow the premise, “Some- times the best trade is the one you don’t make.”

Third, managers should state their reasoning as the alt- ernative(s) are chosen. This way, the manager can defend his or her choice at some later point.

With regard to management communication, many executives maintain decision logs or journals that spell out why a course of action was chosen, should they be asked by others to explain their reasoning. The process provides an additional layer of transparency to the decision-making process.

State a Plan of Implementation

A successful plan demands more than simply deciding which alternative to pursue. Managers then follow through, making sure it is logically and efficiently put into action. Implementing plans involves the use of “Ws” and “Hs,” as displayed in Table 5.3.

information in an honest, clear, and complete manner without violating the organization’s desire for confidentiality and minimizing disclosure risks (Miami University, 2011). Trans- parency influences internal and external perceptions of the organization and helps make the evaluation of alternatives honest and realistic by those involved.

For Review

Explain the relationship between uncertainty and risk when evaluating decision alternatives.

Stockbyte/Thinkstock Compare any solution chosen to the “Do nothing” criterion, such as when medical doctors follow the maxim “First, do no harm.”

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CHAPTER 5Section 5.2 The Decision-Making Process

Table 5.3: Ws and Hs of implementation

Who is in charge?

What is to be done?

When should each step of implementation take place (timing issues)?

Where will the solution be implemented?

How should we proceed (sequence of events)?

Why are we doing this (explanation to all parties involved in the implementation process)?

Management communication skills constitute critical elements in implementing deci- sions. Without a clear course of action, a viable solution may lose its potential to succeed. Written and verbal communications are needed to make sure all involved know how to proceed with the solution that has been chosen.

For Review

What are the Ws and Hs of decision implementation?

Pitfalls to Avoid

Although the six steps listed earlier provide a clear-cut format for the evaluation of prob- lems and the development of solutions, effective managerial decision-makers know that five factors can disrupt the process. Expectations, emotions, employee attitudes, company politics, and a mismatch between the decision-maker and the decision comprise the pri- mary threats to high-quality decisions.

Expectations can interfere with the reasoning process when making decisions. An employee may feel compelled to make the decision that a supervisor would prefer, even though it is not the best alternative. Expectations of peers, or peer pressure, often lead to poor decisions, especially in the areas of ethical questions. At times, a supervisor may bend to the wishes of subordinates in order to remain in good standing with them.

Two emotions constitute threats to decision-making: Anger clouds thinking and can lead to impulsive, poor choices. Melancholy also threatens the process as the decision-maker fails to carefully consider alternatives.

Employee attitudes can predispose individuals to reject viable alternatives. Attitudes affect thoughts about gender equality, racial equality, sexual orientation, political parties, and many other issues. At times these may influence decisions. For instance, a person who has lost a loved one in an automobile accident with a drunken driver may have strong attitudes about alcohol consumption at company events.

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CHAPTER 5Section 5.3 Critical Thinking and Decision-Making

5.3 Critical Thinking and Decision-Making

Effective decision-making results from analytical, critical thinking. One skill that can improve your ability to make sound decisions on the job is the ability to correctly apply critical thinking methods to situations that you encounter. The two types of critical thinking or reasoning processes that assist in decision-making are inductive rea- soning and deductive reasoning.

Inductive Reasoning/Induction

Inductive reasoning moves from specific to general. A phrase associated with inductive reasoning would be, “Based on what I have observed, I am led to believe. . .” In the busi- ness community, a manager may observe a salesperson first ignoring a customer, then gruffly greeting the individual, and finally making a sale in an impersonal, distant man- ner. Should the pattern repeat, the manager might be led to believe the salesperson should be either retrained or terminated. Many times, decision-makers use induction to identify problems that need to be solved. When three or four symptoms can logically be connected with a root cause of the problem, induction has been used. For example, a website that has been hacked, then later crashes, and continually frustrates those attempting to use the system, may result in the notion that a new computer system or web master is needed.

Company politics often interfere with decisions related to power and money. Decision- makers may be tempted to reach conclusions that benefit themselves or their departments rather than the larger organization.

A mismatch between the decision-maker and the decision means that the wrong person was placed in charge of making the choice. As an illustration, someone who enjoys taking risks may not be the ideal person to manage a company’s financial portfolio. An indi- vidual who avoids risks will not be the best person to decide on a bold strategy such as exporting or developing a new line of products.

The role of management communication in these issues consists of discovering potential problems in the decision-making process. When it becomes clear that expectations are leading to poor choices, managers need to communicate this and address the problem. Managers should be aware of employee emotions during the decision-making process as well as their own emotions. Effective communicators unveil employee attitudes that are, or have become, counterproductive. Managers recognize the ways in which company politics can lead to poor decisions in their specific organizations. Decision-makers should be carefully selected. A person should excuse himself when he is not the ideal candidate to make a given decision.

For Review

What factors can disrupt quality decision-making?

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CHAPTER 5Section 5.4 Persuasion

Deductive Reasoning/Deduction

Deductive reasoning moves from general to specific, by pro- cess of elimination. Arguments based on laws, rules, or other widely accepted principles are best expressed deductively. For example, Fred was observed taking office supplies home on two occasions. Company poli- cies specifically prohibit taking office supplies out of the build- ing. Two other employees have been terminated for violating company policies. Therefore, Fred should also be terminated.

Deductive reasoning in deci- sion-making often takes place as alternatives are being evaluated. Gradually, the least viable alternatives are first eliminated using some type of principle (cost, time, difficulty, odds of success). Eventually, the best alternative remains and will be chosen. The term cost-benefit analysis reflects deductive reasoning as alternatives are examined. The choice with the highest ratio of benefits to costs will be considered the most viable, when all other factors are equal. Cost-benefit analysis is often useful when making budget allocation decisions, for example.

The six steps of decision-making, when coupled with inductive and deductive reasoning processes, can lead to the best problem statement, novel alternatives, and quality criteria for making choices. Management communications skills facilitate the use of the rational approach and reasoning processes by all involved in the decision.

Fuse/Thinkstock Deductive reasoning moves from general to specific, by process of elimination.

For Review

What two forms of critical thinking or reasoning can be used in decision-making?

5.4 Persuasion

Learning Objective # 3: What are the primary objectives, desired outcomes, and approaches to the persuasion processes?

Persuasion may be considered both an art and a science. Some individuals instinc-tively know how to influence others. At the same time, persuasion techniques can be learned and applied. When matters arise within a company about which course of action to take, logically there will be instances of disagreement. Members of teams and groups designated to make decisions, as well as single individuals assigned

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CHAPTER 5Section 5.4 Persuasion

the responsibility of making decisions, must at times persuade others that the action or resolution they prefer will lead to better outcomes. In essence, some decisions include ele- ments of persuasion as part of the process. Further, a team or group of leaders may agree on a solution to the problem, yet other groups, such as lower-ranking employees or the general public, may not. Once again, persuasion becomes an element of decision-making and management communications.

Persuasion often accompanies a change in a company. As noted, organizational inertia constitutes systematic resistance to change. Also, conflict over change can result from a genuine disagreement over a company policy or action, turf-building or political turf wars, or often from personality differences. Effective persuasion involves two major ele- ments: determining desirable objectives and outcomes, and choosing the best methods to achieve those goals.

The Objectives of Persuasion

Prior to the development of any communication intended to persuade an audience, the manager should specify the objectives and intended outcomes of the message. To do so, the manager first analyzes the audience that will receive the message. A persuasive com- munication piece can target:

• people in favor of a position or action • individuals opposed to the position or action • persons who know of the issue but have not formed an opinion • individuals who do not know about the issue

The persuasion objective for each group will be different. Also, members of each group will be reached with a different type of message. Three common persuasion objectives are to reinforce positive opinion, crystallize latent opinion, and neutralize hostile opinion.

Reinforce Positive Opinion One goal of persuasion can be to maintain the status quo in the face of calls for change. A com- pany that has employed a new strategic or tactical approach may encounter turbulence at first. For example, Priceline. com developed an entirely new method for selling hotel rooms and airline tickets, based on a “reverse auction” approach, in which customers are encour- aged to “Name your own price.” Even with the public presence of actor William Shatner mak- ing the company highly visible,

iStockphoto/Thinkstock Reinforcing positive opinion in a shareholder meeting or some other forum means speaking to the most enthusiastic segment of the audience.

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CHAPTER 5Section 5.4 Persuasion

profitability was difficult to achieve and maintain. Reinforcing positive opinion, in that circumstance, involves identifying those most committed to the new business model.

Reinforcing positive opinion in a shareholder meeting or some other forum means speak- ing to the most enthusiastic segment of the audience. When exposed to the views of this segment, other individuals who have not yet formed an opinion may become more will- ing to listen with an open mind. Reinforcing positive opinion helps create a “firewall” to help fend off ill-advised calls for change.

Crystallize Latent Opinion In the same manner as many political elections, those who are “undecided” often receive considerable attention. The undecided segment often represents the bloc that will eventu- ally determine whether a persuasive argument will succeed. To crystallize latent opinion, managers try to present cogent, accurate information that serves the needs of that group. When one side of an argument reaches the undecided set first, that side gains an advan- tage both in terms of persuading them and the entire audience.

Consider, for example, a debate over whether a company should move toward becoming employee-owned. Some will strongly oppose the idea; others will strongly favor it. The side that tends to win will be the one, using whatever key information is available, that persuades those who are not sure what to think.

Neutralize Hostile Opinion In many circumstances, a group evolves that remains completely opposed to an idea or activity. Nothing will change their minds. The goal for this group will be containment. Persons with diametrically opposed ideas about how to solve a problem or deal with an issue often seek to persuade those who are neutral or undecided. The more passionate this group becomes, the stronger must be the response, in order to stop a shift to the oppos- ing point of view. Strategies for containing the opposition are careful explanation of the facts, enlisting support from segments that agree with your perspective, dissecting the language of the other side, pointing out inflammatory remarks not based in fact, pointing out the biases and false assumptions made by the opposition, and providing additional information and discussion of why your perspective is the most logical.

At times, refuting hostile opinion may degenerate into loud arguments. Tactics for coping with these moments include these approaches:

• Find and express common ground. • Never personally attack an individual in the audience. • Avoid clichés and examples that can turn against you. • Make sure your facts are accurate and your arguments are logical; in other

words, know what you are talking about. • Don’t make quick judgments about what the audience believes; research and

analyze the audience carefully. • Be clear and concise. • Don’t let the audience guess what you believe or what your arguments are in

advance

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CHAPTER 5Section 5.4 Persuasion

The Desired Outcomes of Persuasion

Three desired outcomes associated with persuasion objectives are creating new attitudes, modifying or altering existing attitudes, and reinforcing existing attitudes. An attitude summarizes an individual’s predisposition toward an object, person, or idea.

Attitudes contain three components: cognitive, affective, and conative. The cognitive component of an attitude results from reasoning processes and exposures to facts. One can intellectually understand that scientific research demonstrates the linkage between second-hand smoke and lung disease. The affective component of an attitude is the emotional element. Experiencing the suffering of a loved one enduring emphysema may lead a person to exhibit a much more visceral response to being exposed to second-hand smoke. The conative component of an attitude results in action or behavior. Petitioning a company to ban smoking anywhere on company grounds provides tangible evidence of the attitude through the conative component (Brief, 1998).

Creating new attitudes constitutes the most difficult persuasion outcome to achieve. Normally, attempts to create new attitudes focus on the cognitive and affective compo-

nents. In some business deci- sions, managers use reasoning and facts to convince others that changes are needed. For example, over time, attitudes about the reality of global cli- mate change have shifted for an increasing majority of the population. With this in mind, managers can use reasoning and facts to convince employees that more energy-efficient produc- tion techniques—while more expensive—are still a good idea.

Creating new attitudes through affective reasoning involves con- necting a new attitude with a

To achieve these ends, remove yourself from the angry part of the conversation and con- centrate on the disagreement itself while trying to stay calm. It may help to rephrase the point before answering in order to reduce hostility (Walker, 2011). Carefully listen to the other’s point of view in a respectful manner and then try to diffuse the point carefully. It may help to enlist the audience in dealing with an overly aggressive response.

For Review

Briefly describe the three primary persuasion objectives.

Medioimages/Photodisc The affective component of an attitude is the emotional element.

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CHAPTER 5Section 5.4 Persuasion

powerful emotion. Managers may use appeals to personal loyalty, patriotism, duty to fam- ily, love, friendship, and other emotions to make arguments supporting changes in attitudes.

Modifying or altering existing attitudes will normally be less challenging. For example, over time, business attitudes toward dress and personal adornment (tattoos, piercings) have relaxed. The United States military has shifted attitudes toward personal adornment over time and, more recently, toward sexual orientation. Modifying existing attitudes can be achieved through the use of all three attitudinal components. Facts and reasoning may be used; emo- tional appeals can be developed; or behavior can simply be changed or altered over time.

Reinforcing existing attitudes means confirming viewpoints that already exist. Preventing “backsliding” or shifting away from current positions becomes the goal. Reinforcement can take the form of role modeling of behaviors as well as praise for those who continue to hold a current attitude. Again, the three components of attitudes may all be targets of reinforcing messages.

Persuasion objectives and outcomes have a considerable amount in common. Both seek to reinforce or strengthen existing support for a position, capture the attention and sup- port of those who have not formed an opinion or are undecided, and fend off persuasion attempts by those with differing opinions. Effective verbal and written communication skills help someone achieve these results. The choice of method constitutes the next key ingredient in persuasion.

For Review

Define attitude and briefly describe the three main components of attitudes.

Approaches to Persuasion

When attempting to persuade a group of people to change a point of view, two basic approaches may be used: behaviorism and cognitivism. The two approaches suggest dif- ferent methods by which individuals may be induced to respond in new ways to various ideas.

The behaviorism approach to persuasion focuses on actual behaviors, assuming the notion that thought processes cannot be observed. The mind represents a “black box” that cannot be penetrated. Behaviors can be seen and shaped. Therefore, working only with the observable offers the quickest path to achieving results. The use of reinforcements or behavioral consequence is the key. Individuals who exhibit desired behaviors receive pos- itive reinforcements or rewards. Individuals who continue to perform undesirable behav- iors receive no rewards or merit punishment. As time passes, desired behaviors become more common (Skinner, 1953, 1974).

The essence of persuasion, in behaviorist terminology, is “change the behavior and the attitude will follow.” For example, a longstanding argument in management literature concerns the relationship between worker satisfaction and worker performance. Early management research argued that satisfaction drives performance. Therefore, to increase

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performance, workers must first be satisfied with their jobs, or “change the attitude and the behavior will follow.”

Unfortunately, satisfaction cannot be observed. It is a construct, or “convenient fiction” according to Skinner and other behaviorists. Increases in performance are observable. Therefore, the logical approach would be to find methods to improve worker perfor- mance, reward those efforts in tangible ways, and eventually workers will report greater levels of satisfaction, or, “change the behavior and the attitude will follow.”

In contrast to behaviorism, cognitivism suggests that behaviors serve only as indicators of what has first transpired mentally. One cognitive approach to persuasion, the Monroe sequence, suggests a five-step process to persuade an audience. The first step, attention, involves capturing the attention of the audience in some manner, such as with an interest- ing anecdote, the presentation of a difficult situation, or an interesting rhetorical question. Second, building a want or need requires the speaker to instill the desire in the audience by pointing out the need, illustrating how the audience might experience the need, and showing the impact or ramification of the need. The third step, satisfaction, involves an explanation of how the need can be met and countering any opposing arguments. Fourth, visualization occurs when the speaker helps the audience see how the proposed remedy will satisfy the need and the negative ramifications if the remedy is not undertaken. Fifth and finally, a call to action seeks to drive the audience beyond a change in attitude to an actual change in behavior (Berry, 2011; ChangingMinds.org, 2011). The Monroe-motivated sequence has been compared to the AIDA model presented in the next section. Figure 5.2 portrays a framework of mental reasoning related to concepts of persuasion.

Figure 5.2: Layers of personality

Understanding

Opinions

Attributes

Values

Attributes

Opinions, attitudes, and values represent the components of a belief system with varying degrees of difficulty associated with trying to change them.

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CHAPTER 5Section 5.4 Persuasion

As shown in Figure 5.2, opinions are at the fringe of a belief system. They are the least stable and the most susceptible to persuasive efforts. Through various persuasion tech- niques, such as logical reasoning or emotional appeals, an opinion can be changed. For instance, many consumers first worried that online purchases were risky, because personal information could easily be stolen, much in the same way that members of the previous generation were reluctant to make telephone purchases using credit cards. Over time, opinions that ecommerce is unsafe have been replaced, through advertising messages, the experiences of friends that successfully made online purchases, and finally through personal experience.

Attitudes are more centrally held concepts. They are more difficult to change because they represent more stable elements of a person’s reasoning process and view of the world. As noted, someone who has lost a loved one to lung cancer may hold the attitude that smok- ing should be banned from the entire work site, including the outdoors surrounding the building. Workplace attitudes can become sources of conflict. Views about politics, reli- gion, global climate change and environmentalism, the roles of women in society, support or opposition to unions, and other topics fall under the realm of attitudes. Changing them requires more persistent reasoning and often time.

Beliefs, or strong convictions regarding the truths of state- ments or phenomena, are at the inner core of an individual’s personality. Beliefs are acquired from highly trusted sources such as parents, teachers, and religious leaders. More pro- found subjects frame beliefs, such as religious values, family, patriotism, and even political positions. Persuasion attempts normally will not change a per- son’s beliefs.

The three layers, opinions, atti- tudes, and beliefs, are connected to each other as well as to a per- son’s self-concept. Influencing one with persuasion attempts will also affect the other layers. Should a person’s belief set actually change, you can expect a profound influence on all of the other layers (Bem, 1970).

In summary, the two approaches to persuasion differ in that one focuses on behaviors and the other focuses on thoughts. Methods employed to persuade audiences will con- centrate more on one aspect or the other. At the same time, the most effective approaches include both aspects of the individual’s make-up. Behaviorist approaches concentrate on the conative or behavioral aspects of attitudes. Cognitivism examines the cognitive/ratio- nal and affective/emotional attitudinal elements.

Purestock/Thinkstock Beliefs, or strong convictions regarding the truths of statements or phenomena, are at the inner core of an individual’s personality.

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CHAPTER 5Section 5.5 The Steps and Methods of Persuasion

Preparation: Gaining Attention and Providing Motivation Successful managers recognize the power of preparation. When seeking to make persua- sive arguments, preparation involves correctly combining the ingredients required. Four elements are combined during the preparation process: the audience, the message, the medium, and the persuasion objective. Managers can use the AIDA model, which was first developed by E. St. Elmo Lewis, to develop a persuasive message (as cited in Bennett, Cunningham, & Dees, 2006). AIDA stands for the sequence Attention—Interest—Desire— Action. The model has often been used to create persuasive advertisements as well as in other settings.

Attention must be gained before a persuasive argument can begin. The audience must want to hear what you have to say about a problem, idea, or proposal, or else the persua- sion attempt will fail.

Interest draws the audience in by attaching the subject to things they value. Creating inter- est includes adding details that more fully engage the audience in your presentation.

5.5 The Steps and Methods of Persuasion

Learning Objective # 4: What are the steps and methods involved in an effective persuasion process?

Persuasion or argumentation consists of two ingredients: a claim that is made and evidence that supports the claim. Combining the two into a coherent presentation becomes the key challenge. In both verbal and written persuasion attempts, the key will be to follow two elements in the process, following the steps involved and incorporat- ing the best persuasion methods.

Steps of Persuasion

Management communication efforts, including persuasion, are more likely to succeed when careful planning and execution take place. The steps of persuasion are preparation, unfreezing attitudes, moving attitudes, and refreezing attitudes. Each element must be coordinated with the others to achieve optimal results.

For Review

What are the two primary approaches to persuasion?

For Review

Name the steps involved in the persuasion process.

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CHAPTER 5Section 5.5 The Steps and Methods of Persuasion

Desire results from exposing the audience to claims and evidence supporting a specific position. Strong desire results when audience members begin to believe that your pro- posed course of action is in some way favorable to them.

Action takes place when the audience clearly understands what to do and the activity will be easy enough to pursue. An effective “call to action” will be based on the motivation created in the desire phase and will direct the audience to a specific task or behavior. Pro- posing a deadline assists in inspiring greater motivation.

Unfreeze Attitudes Kurt Lewin’s (1943; 1997) model of attitudinal change begins with unfreezing existing attitudes. A successful persuasive argument begins by convincing the audience that their previously held perspective has flaws or may create problems in some way. Unfreezing attitudes begins with capturing attention. As noted in Chapter 3, attracting attention can take the form of a personal anecdote, shocking statement, rhetorical question, suggestion of a company crisis, famous quotation, or reference to an historical event.

The second element in unfreezing attitudes, force field analysis, involves identifying and spelling out the forces that call for change and those that push back against those forces. The audience must become motivated to believe that forces for change are stronger than any resistance. At that point it becomes possible to move attitudes.

Move Attitudes Moving persons toward revised or new attitudes may be accomplished using one or more of the three types of persuasive appeals. Aristotle (384–322 BCE) suggested that persua- sive messages contain logos, ethos, and pathos. Two of these three methods link with the components of attitudes.

Logos refers to the use of logical appeals to move attitudes. The target will be the cog- nitive component of the attitude. Logic introduced inductively or deductively seeks to move the audience toward a new point of view. Supported by facts and evidence that are correct and carefully chosen, logos derives its power from convincing the audience through dispassionate reasoning.

Ethos refers to an ethical appeal based on expertise or credible information. Citing aca- demic research and scientific studies represents this approach. Lewin notes that ethos will be stronger when the audience knows the expert source. For example, an audience that is familiar with marketing notable Philip Kottler will be more persuaded by quotes from him or his books. President Barack Obama, during the 2011 budget/debt ceiling crisis debate, framed part of his key televised speech by citing President Ronald Reagan in an attempt to make a point and move the attitudes of those on the Republican side of the deliberations.

Pathos involves more than simply being emotional. The speaker or presenter must find a story, picture, or episode that demonstrates the superiority of his or her position while at the same time evokes emotions. Images such as someone in pain due to a physical injury may be tied to statements about the impact of a company’s decisions to strengthen

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CHAPTER 5Section 5.5 The Steps and Methods of Persuasion

Refreeze Attitudes Refreezing attitudes takes place at the conclusion of a persuasive presentation. In addition to a call to action, give the audience reassurance that they are about to engage in a posi- tive activity. As the name “refreezing” suggests, this stage is about establishing stability once the changes have been made. The changes have been accepted and become the new norm. People form new relationships and become comfortable with new routines, which can take time. It should be noted that the refreezing stage of Lewin’s model has been criticized. Solidifying a new perspective may not be possible, especially in today’s more dynamic business environment. At the same time, without a call to action, the other ele- ments of attitudinal change become far less valuable.

workplace safety procedures. The pathos appeal reaches the affective component of atti- tudes. Sometimes just connecting the numbers to an impact on people can provide the pathos element of a persuasive strategy.

A foreman making the case to workers to follow safety guide- lines at all times could employ the three aspects together. In this instance, logos takes the form of citing statistics about work- place injuries when procedures are not followed. Ethos explains how the guidelines were devel- oped and how they keep work- ers safe. Pathos involves telling the story about someone who was hurt and could not return to work.

The final element of moving attitudes involves anticipating objections. Many times these will be raised during or after a presentation has been made. Methods used to fight off coun- ter-persuasion include stating

the opposing point of view and refuting it, encouraging audience commitment to your perspective, and warning the audience that others will try to dissuade them (Vasallo, 2002; Booher, 1994).

Purestock/Thinkstock With pathos, the speaker must find a way to demonstrate the superiority of a position while at the same time evoking emotions, such as showing an image of someone in pain while making statements about a company’s workplace safety procedures.

For Review

Define logos, ethos, and pathos.

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CHAPTER 5Section 5.5 The Steps and Methods of Persuasion

Persuasion Methods and Media

A variety of media are available to managers seeking to persuade audiences. The key will be to match the medium to the target audience. At times, a single individual will need to be persuaded. In others, it will be a department or some other subgroup of the company. In others still, the entire organization may require persuasive attempts. The media avail- able for persuasive messages are displayed in Table 5.4.

Table 5.4: Persuasion media

Written Channels Verbal Channels Supplemental Channel

Letters/memos/emails

Proposals

Formal face-to-face

Phone call

Videoconferencing/conference call

Meetings (virtual and in-person)

Presentations (virtual and in-person)

Informal communication

Written Channels Written channels are more viable for less-emotional issues as well as circumstances in which facts and reasoning are the core element of the presentation. Letters, memos, and emails often follow the format displayed in Table 5.5. Key ingredients to effective written persuasive messages include simplicity and clarity (Caldini, 2007).

Table 5.5: Persuasive letters

Opening Capture interest Align with audience's goals

Body Proposed solution Overcome possible objections Match solution to the reader's needs

Close Channel proposal into a specific action Encourage prompt response

Sources: Hilton, C. B., Motes, W. H., & Fielden, J. S. (1989). An experimental study of the effects of style and organization on reader perceptions of text. Journal of Business Communication, 19(3), Summer, 35–50. Gilsdorf, J. (1991). Write me your best case for. . . . Bulletin of the Association for Business Communication, LIV, March, 7–12.

Proposals often are attempts to convince others to take action. Internal reports seek to persuade those in the company to respond to an issue or problem or to take advantage of an opportunity. Normally, internal proposals utilize a less-complex form of presentation structure, as was noted in Chapter 4.

Proposals made to other companies normally include elements designed to make a sale or to create some form of collaboration. The presentation format will be more sophisticated. At the same time, simplicity and clarity remain guiding principles. To assist in creating the most persuasive type of proposal, the use of visuals adds richness to the written channel and can help the target audience better understand a claim and its supporting evidence.

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CHAPTER 5Section 5.5 The Steps and Methods of Persuasion

Figure 5.3: A persuasive letter

A persuasive letter contains an opening that captures interest, a body that provides a solution, and a close that encourages action or a quick response.

Letterhead August 2, 2012

Melissa Jones, Human Resources Art Supply, Incorporated 2000 North 41st Avenue Suite 211 Los Angeles, CA 55555

Re: In-house day care proposal

Dear Ms. Jones,

Greetings from our Kansas City office. Although you and I have never met, I have heard wonderful descriptions of the ways in which you have improved our company’s entire human resources operation. I look forward to the day when we can visit in person.

In today’s employment marketplace, as I’m certain you know, the reputation of being a “family friendly” company can be a significant corporate asset. The purpose of my correspondence is to make a case for in- house day care in the Kansas City facility, with the ultimate goal of improving our family friendly status.

The Kansas City facility employs approximately 200 individuals who pack and fill art-supply orders to our educational, institutional, and retail customers. Of those 200 employees, over 35 percent are parents of children who are in preschool or elementary education. We recently surveyed these workers and discovered that the primary reason for absenteeism, tardiness, and turnover in this group was related to delivering children to day care or after-school care, or not being able to afford the cost of day care.

Our corporate mission statement includes this objective: “We want to be known as a company where employees and their families are a top priority.” We can help achieve this goal in a tangible, meaningful, responsible way by assisting in child-care efforts.

I believe that, at a modest cost, we can increase productivity levels among these employees while improving morale. The fourth floor of our facility houses excess inventory and other materials that could be easily moved elsewhere. The cost of renovating that floor to turn it into an in-house day care for preschool and an after-school room for those in elementary school would be approximately $150,000. This would include adding a kitchen and “sick” room.

Staffing requirements for such a program would be one child-care specialist per 12 children. In Kansas City, that would mean hiring five people.

You might ask, “Can we afford this?” My response would be, “Can we afford not to do this?” Our retention of quality employees would rise, if our company could solve this one simple challenge for them. Our reputation for being a great employer in the KC Metro area also would be strengthened.

For these reasons, I urge you to visit us here and then return the home office with a detailed proposal to add this facility. I will make time to introduce you to the wonderful people we employ and to conduct a full analysis of our situation.

Thank you for your time. I hope to hear from you soon.

With warm regards,

Margaret Johnson, Facility Manager

maj

cc: Olivia Rodriguez, CEO

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CHAPTER 5Section 5.5 The Steps and Methods of Persuasion

Verbal Channels Many times, persuasion takes place through the use of conversations, speeches, sales pitches, and other prepared remarks. Remember that verbal channels enjoy the benefit of richness, because visual elements combine with verbal cues. Paralanguage and gestures can make an argument more compelling.

In face-to-face persuasive attempts, three elements make it possible to influence the audi- ence (see Table 5.6). First, likability grants the opportunity to engage in a less-confronta- tional manner. Managers who develop quality relationships with employees may have an easier time convincing them in regard to an issue or change. Second, believability and credibility come from expertise and experience. Successful employees and managers gain an advantage in making convincing arguments to peers and subordinates. Third, bonds grow as you spend more time with the same person. The role of trust in persuasion should not be underestimated.

Table 5.6: Audience persuasion techniques

Persuaded by someone you like

Persuaded by someone you believe

Persuaded by the one who is close

Source: Cialdini, R. B. (1984). Influence: The New Psychology of Modern Permission. New York, NY: Quill.

When persuasion targets a group or department, the speaker should first remember that he or she might initially be in the minority. In other words, the audience may be composed of neutral and hostile members. Therefore, for more contentious issues, one strategy is to approach the group not alone, but rather with one other manager who will support your position.

Table 5.7 lists tactics oriented toward groups that focus on social conformity as the motive for change or persuasion. When possible, reliance on an admired individual creates an ally for a persuasive argument. If part of the audience agrees with your vantage point, then peer pressure may serve as a valuable tool to gain acceptance of a point of view. Societal norms assist arguments that involve the company as a citizen in the community.

Table 5.7: Sources of group persuasion through social conformity

Source Motivational Force

Admired Individuals Audience impressed by persons of higher rank, high performers, industry leaders, likable individuals

Peer Pressure Desire to fit in; common interests; pressure for conformity; group norms

Societal Norms Desire to be a good citizen; societal acceptance

Source: Larson, C. U. (1992). Persuasion: Reception and Responsibility (6th ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Press.

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CHAPTER 5Section 5.5 The Steps and Methods of Persuasion

When making verbal presentations to groups, recall that an effective persuasive speech or verbal proposal involves careful use of several factors:

• pitch, volume, and rate of delivery • vocal variety • articulation • pauses and silence • fluency

Pitch, volume, and rate of delivery must be maintained within a range from low to high vocal tones and rates of speech that do not imply feeling intimidated or angry, or convey a sense of panic. Vocal variety relies on varying rates of pitch, volume, and rate of speech. In a manner similar to musical presentation, building to a crescendo involves starting low and slow, and building to a peak or key point. Then a decrescendo slowly lowers rate, pitch, and volume. A persuasive speaker uses these tools to emphasize emotions and key points.

Articulation means speaking clearly and avoiding confusion. Someone who mumbles and stumbles quickly loses credibility with the audience. Articulation, for many speakers, involves rate of delivery. By slowing down, it becomes easier to clearly state words and succinctly make an overall argument.

Pauses and silence allow the audience time to process assertions, claims, and supporting evidence. Effective and persuasive presenters rely on silence to punctuate verbal mes- sages. For example, after reaching a crescendo, the speaker can pause for effect, making eye contact with audience members to reinforce the importance of the point he or she just made, and then return to a more conversational tone.

Fluency represents the opposite of distractions and verbal hedges. A presenter who con- tinually says “um,” or “uh,” or repeats words over and over, such as “like,” and “ya know,” sounds disorganized and lacking in confidence. These distractions take away from the power and influence of a presentation designed to change people’s minds. With so many potential approaches, a manager should consider which one best aligns with his or her personal style as he or she employs persuasive strategies and techniques.

Verbal presentations can be based on three methods of presentation (see Table 5.8). The speaker should choose the approach that best suits the audience and the objective of the presentation.

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CHAPTER 5Section 5.5 The Steps and Methods of Persuasion

Table 5.8: Persuasive verbal presentations

Format Method

Problem-Solving (Inductive) Educate audience about the nature of the problem Provide the remedy or solution

State the Case and Prove It (Deductive) Develop a central thesis with supporting arguments Provide substantiation and facts

Psychological Progressive Pattern Arouse and capture attention Dissatisfy to display the problem Gratify with a recommendation and endorsement Visualize by showing how the recommendation will work Provide an action to take

Source: Howell, W. S., & Bormann, E. G. (1971). Presentational Speaking for Business and the Professions. New York, NY: Harper & Row.

Nonverbal elements are relevant as well. A speaker seeking to make a point can use defin- itive gestures, make solid eye contact with audience members, step closer to the audience at key points, and make certain his or her vocal pitch and intensity matches the body’s posture or other movements.

For Review

Identify the three primary media used in persuasive messages.

Interpersonal Considerations

Many academic disciplines study attitudinal change with various objectives in mind. Psy- chology, social psychology, sociology, and business experts have all examined persuasion methods. From these studies, several factors have emerged as interpersonal forces that can aid in making a point and changing a personal or group mindset. The interpersonal considerations identified include:

• liking • reciprocity • social proof • consistency • authority • scarcity

As has been noted, when you like someone, it becomes easier for that person to convince you to change your mind. Reciprocity involves an exchange. Persuasion in business set- tings often involves leading the audience to believe there is “something in it for them.” Social proof is much the same as social conformity—we are more likely to be influenced by peers in many communal settings. Consistency reflects reasoning processes that do not

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CHAPTER 5Section 5.6 Chapter Review

deviate from previous assertions. A person who makes arguments that are “all over the place” loses credibility due to inconsistent statements. Authority has been noted as one element in persuasion related to ethos. Scarcity can be connected to time constraints. Set- ting deadlines and outlining specific courses of action take advantage of scarcity tactics.

Keys to Persuasion

The final element in any persuasion attempt is to review your approach prior to mak- ing any attempt at convincing others. All types of persuasion contain common elements. Table 5.9 identifies six keys to persuasion.

Table 5.9: Keys to persuasion

1. Know the audience

2. Identify your objectives and the objectives of the audience

3. Present persuasive evidence

4. Keep the argument simple

5. Listen carefully to objections and responses

6. Keep your emotions under control

By following these principles, the odds increase that you will influence the views of others through persuasive arguments, while remembering that ultimately the listener persuades him or herself and that your power is limited to your influence.

5.6 Chapter Review

A decision is a choice between alternative courses of action. Numerous business and management communication skills affect the quality of the decision-making pro-cess, including listening, effective discussions, creativity, and verbal and written skills for the purposes of implementation. Two primary decision-making models are the rational/analytical thinking approach and intuitive decision-making.

When making decisions, following six well-known steps provides a rational approach. Decision-makers should state the problem, name limitations, generate alternatives, evalu- ate those alternatives, choose a solution, and prepare a plan of implementation. Creativ- ity represents a key aspect of generating alternatives. Managers should be aware of the pitfalls facing effective decision-making, which include expectations, emotions, employee attitudes, company politics, and a mismatch between the decision-maker and the deci- sion. Critical thinking becomes a part of the decision-making process when inductive or deductive reasoning is used.

When matters arise within a company about which course of action to take, persuasion enters into managerial communication processes. A persuasive communication message

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CHAPTER 5Section 5.6 Chapter Review

can target people in favor of a position, those opposed, individuals who have not formed an opinion, and employees who do not know about the issue. Three common persua- sion objectives are to reinforce positive opinion, crystallize latent opinion, and neutral- ize hostile opinion. Desired outcomes include creating new attitudes, modifying existing attitudes, and reinforcing existing attitudes. An attitude summarizes an individual’s posi- tion toward an objective, person, or idea and consists of cognitive, affective, and conative components. Two approaches to persuasion are behaviorism and cognitivism.

The steps of persuasion include preparation, unfreezing attitudes, moving attitudes, and refreezing attitudes. When seeking to move attitudes, logos, pathos, and ethos approaches may be employed. Persuasion media include written channels, verbal channels, and a supplemental channel. Written channels consist of letters, memos, emails, and proposals. Verbal channels include formal face-to-face, phone calls, video or teleconferencing, and meetings. Informal communication offers a method to supplement formal messages.

Key Terms

affective component The part of an attitude that is the emotional element.

attitude Summarizes an individual’s predispo- sition toward an object, person, or idea.

behaviorism An approach to persuasion that focuses on actual behaviors.

cognitive component The part of an attitude that results from reasoning processes and exposures to facts.

cognitivism An approach to persuasion in which behaviors only serve as indicators of what transpired mentally.

conative component The part of an attitude that results in action or behavior.

decision A choice between two or more potential courses of action.

deductive reasoning Reasoning that moves from general to specific, by process of elimination.

ethos An ethical appeal based on expertise or credible information.

inductive reasoning Reasoning that moves from specific to general, as one is “led to believe” or conclude that something exists.

logos The use of logical appeals to move attitudes.

organizational inertia Systematic resistance to change in an organization.

pathos An appeal in which the speaker or presenter finds a story, picture, or episode that demonstrates the superiority of his or her position while at the same time evoking emotions.

risk Circumstances under which uncertainty is high.

uncertainty Situation in which incomplete information is available to the decision-maker.

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CHAPTER 5Section 5.6 Chapter Review

For Review With Possible Responses

1. Name and briefly describe three decision-making perspectives. The rational-analytic perspective assumes rational decision-making involves looking

for sensible or logical actions, avoids emotion and bias in judgment, and maximizes or makes the most out of something. Intuitive decision-making may be interpreted to be an unconscious process that relies on distilled experience. The garbage can model suggests that decision-making contexts will be complex and at times border on being chaotic. Each leads to a differing evaluation system. Consequently, the degree of disorder plays an important role in how decisions are made.

2. What are the six steps of the decision-making process? The six steps of decision-making are state the problem, name limitations, generate alter-

natives, evaluate alternatives, choose a solution, and prepare a plan of implementation. 3. What two issues should managers consider when stating the problem in the

decision-making process? First, they should make sure the correct cause of the problem has been identified. Second,

when specifying a problem or opportunity, state the issue in a positive fashion or as the desired solution.

4. Name the most common limitations to decision-making. The most common areas in which limitations influence decision-making include time,

money, technology, skilled personnel, and organizational inertia. 5. What methods can be used to creatively generate decision alternatives? Methods include brainstorming, nominal groups, analogies, finding the lowest common

denominator, and seeking an outside perspective. 6. Explain the relationship between uncertainty and risk when evaluating decision

alternatives. Uncertainty means that incomplete information will be available to make a decision.

Greater uncertainty means managers have less information and do not know with con- fidence how the implementation of an alternative will turn out. Risk represents circum- stances under which uncertainty is high.

7. What are the Ws and Hs of decision implementation? Who is in charge? What is to be done? When should each step of implementation take

place (timing issues)? Where will the solution be implemented? How should we proceed (sequence of events)? Why are we doing this (explanation to all parties involved in the implementation process)?

8. What factors can disrupt quality decision-making? Expectations, emotions, employee attitudes, company politics, and a mismatch between

the decision-maker and the decision comprise the primary threats to high-quality decisions.

9. What two forms of critical thinking or reasoning can be used in decision-making?

The two types of critical thinking or reasoning processes assist in decision-making are inductive reasoning and deductive reasoning.

10. Briefly describe the three primary persuasion objectives. Three common persuasion objectives are to reinforce positive opinion, crystallize latent

opinion, and neutralize hostile opinion.

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CHAPTER 5Section 5.6 Chapter Review

11. Define “attitude” and briefly describe the three main components of attitudes. An attitude summarizes an individual’s predisposition toward an object, person, or idea.

Attitudes contain three components: cognitive, affective, and conative. The cognitive component of an attitude results from reasoning processes and exposures to facts. The affective component of an attitude is the emotional element. The conative component of an attitude results in action or behavior.

12. What are the two primary approaches to persuasion? The behaviorism approach to persuasion focuses on actual behaviors, assuming the

notion that thought processes cannot be observed. Cognitivism suggests that behaviors only serve as indicators of what has first transpired mentally.

13. Name the steps involved in the persuasion process. The steps of persuasion are preparation, unfreezing attitudes, moving attitudes, and

refreezing attitudes. 14. Define logos, ethos, and pathos. Logos refers to the use of logical appeals to move attitudes. Ethos refers to an ethical

appeal based on expertise or credible information. Pathos involves more than sim- ply being emotional. The speaker or presenter must find a story, picture, or episode that demonstrates the superiority of his or her position while at the same time evokes emotions.

15. Identify the three primary media used in persuasion. Written channels include letters, memos, emails, and proposals. Verbal channels are

formal face-to-face, video- or teleconferencing, virtual and in-person meetings, and vir- tual and in-person presentations. Informal communication constitutes a supplemental channel.

Analytical Exercises

1. Explain which decision-making model you believe would be best for the follow- ing situations: rational or intuitive. Defend your reasoning. a. choosing a movie script for a major Hollywood star b. starting an upscale restaurant in a declining part of a major city c. selecting a new CEO for Amazon.com d. selecting suppliers of automobile batteries, domestic or foreign, for General

Motors 2. Use the six steps of decision-making, in complete detail, to analyze one of the fol-

lowing decisions. a. major recording studio deciding whether to completely stop producing CDs

and sell only online b. Subway deciding whether to open in the morning and sell breakfast products c. InBev deciding whether to acquire Miller/Coors lines of beers d. country club deciding to close its golf course due to declining usage and

revenues 3. Identify the three potential objectives of persuasion and the three components

of attitudes associated with the following situations. Explain the connections between the elements. a. United States military leadership’s decision to endorse the repeal of Don’tb.

Ask, Don’t Tell b. Any major airline’s decision to charge overweight persons for two tickets

and seats

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CHAPTER 5Section 5.7 Case Studies

c. Local upscale restaurant’s decision to not allow children under the age of 10 to dine

d. Company policy to move from three months to six months of paid maternity leave

4. Apply the AIDA model of persuasion to the following situations. Explain how you would employ logos, ethos, or pathos in your presentation and your reason- ing in detail. a. attempt to unionize employees at Target—union perspective b. attempt to unionize employees at Target—perspective of those opposed c. convincing employees to pay more for company-sponsored health insurance

to fend off layoffs d. convincing CEOs with exorbitant salaries to take pay cuts to keep a company

healthy 5. Choose a persuasion medium for each of the following circumstances. Create a

plan of presentation for that audience. a. manager seeking to change the company cafeteria food from fast food to

heart-healthy menu items b. convincing an employee to take a promotion that involves moving, when his

spouse has a great local job c. persuading buyers of sports equipment to change suppliers of sports clothing

in a purchasing group that includes seven separate companies d. selling a combined life insurance/pension plan package to a manufacturing

company

5.7 Case Studies

Case Study 1: Standard & Poor’s Makes a Decision

In August 2011 a major financial rating company, Standard & Poor’s (S&P), downgraded the financial rating of United States treasury bills from AAA to AA+. The following week, stock values on the New York Stock Exchange and in other markets fluctuated wildly, as investors came to grips with the signifi- cant change in the world’s financial landscape.

The decision made by employees at Standard & Poor’s brought to light a variety of issues, among them the methods by which the company reaches its ratings. The same S&P organization had granted AAA ratings to several major financial institutions that failed during the U.S. 2008 financial crisis. Those poor judgments raised questions about the organization’s credibility in the eyes of some observers. Critics noted that business organizations pay fees to S&P in order to receive various ratings, while governments do not pay such fees. Can a company remain objective when its primary revenues come from the very organizations it rates?

Further, when making the calculations that were part of the downgrade, members of the United States Treasury argued that Standard & Poor’s had made a major math error. A Treasury Department spokesperson told reporters, “A judgment flawed by a $2 trillion error speaks for itself.”

The move by S&P followed decisions by two other major ratings agencies, Moody’s Investor Service and Fitch Ratings, to maintain the United States’ AAA rating, though Moody’s assigned a negative outlook. Moody’s and Fitch maintained the rating following the governmental extension of the nation’s credit limit, coupled with elements of debt reduction in a short-term budget bill. (continued)

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CHAPTER 5Section 5.7 Case Studies

In response, an S&P spokesperson said, “The downgrade reflects our opinion that the fiscal consoli- dation plan that Congress and the administration recently agreed to falls short of what, in our view, would be necessary to stabilize the government’s medium-term debt dynamics.” The answer further angered some critics, suggesting that the language of the opinion reflected political views rather than an objective analysis of the ability and willingness of the United States government to make all inter- est and principal payments to those holding treasuries.

As the days following the decision unfolded, one of the great ironies was that many investors began taking money out of the stock market. Instead of stocks, many individuals purchased U.S. treasur- ies, believing that they were a safer place to keep money. At the same time, the downgrade created another political football for both sides of the aisle to kick around, with the 2012 elections looming.

Review Questions

1. Assess the S&P decision using rational/analytical and intuitive perspectives. 2. Do you think any of the pitfalls to decision-making affected S&P’s judgment? 3. What type of reasoning, inductive or deductive, might have been used in S&P’s analysis? 4. If you were a government official, what persuasion tactics would you use to lead the company

to restore the AAA rating?

Case Study 1: Standard & Poor’s Makes a Decision (continued)

Case Study 2: A Salty Discussion

The average person requires 1,200 to 1,500 milligrams of sodium per day in order to regulate blood pressure and blood volume as well as muscle and nerve functioning. Unfortunately, in the United States most people consume far greater amounts, which can threaten long-term health. Excessive sodium leads to fluid buildup, and aggravates cirrhosis and kidney problems and can contribute to congestive heart failure.

Salt is used in food products because it produces several benefits. First, it adds to taste and flavor. Sec- ond, salt helps preserve the food. It draws away moisture so that bacteria do not grow. Consequently, many food vendors use generous amounts of salt. For example, Van Camp’s Baked Beans contain over 390 milligrams of sodium in a 15 oz can. Typical diet-food frozen dinners have over 500 milligrams per serving. The McDonald’s Big Mac contains over 1,000 milligrams of sodium and the Burger King Whopper has nearly 1,500 milligrams. In fact, a teaspoon of salt added to food as it cooks has 2,300 milligrams of sodium (Medline Plus, 2011). Consequently, a normal diet in the U.S. leads to consump- tion of over 3,000 milligrams of sodium per day.

Several companies have responded to calls for reduced sodium, with limited success. Lays introduced a line of products with the label “Pinch of Salt,” with 75 milligrams per serving, as compared with 270 in a regular bag of Lays chips. However, the product did not sell well enough to stay on the grocery store shelves.

Campbell’s has introduced a product line flavored with sea salt, including low-sodium and less-sodium items. The idea is to maintain flavor while reducing sodium content. The products complement the Healthy Request soup selections offered by the company.

The problem facing Campbell’s and other companies is demand. Some have dismissed the salt situa- tion as the current food paranoia of the month, noting other calls for more healthy food products. Concerns about fat content, saturated fats, amount of sugar, food colors, artificial flavors, and MSG have all captured the attention of consumers and the media in the past two decades, so the sodium issue may or may not continue to be a major consumer concern. (continued)

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CHAPTER 5Section 5.7 Case Studies

In any major grocery store, the number of choices of canned soup seems endless. Campbell’s com- petes with Progresso as well as private-label products. The variety of potential products includes variations of the soup itself (tomato, chicken noodle, etc.), calorie content, fat content, and, more recently, sodium content. Finding a niche in this cluttered marketplace that will support a product with sufficient sales may be difficult.

Review Questions

1. Write a persuasive proposal to continue selling low-sodium products even though sales are disappointing.

2. Prepare a persuasive verbal presentation to top management at Campbell’s to continue selling low-sodium products even though sales are disappointing.

3. Prepare a persuasive proposal to target big box retailers and major grocery chains, convincing them to give better shelf space and additional marketing efforts to low-sodium Campbell’s soup products.

4. Explain the roles of logos, ethos, and pathos in each of the three persuasive proposals.

Case Study 2: A Salty Discussion (continued)

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Learning Objectives

After reading this chapter and studying the materials, you should be able to:

1. Utilize the forms of listening that take place on the job. 2. Overcome the types of listening distractions and barriers that disturb effective communication. 3. Help managers improve their listening skills. 4. Use feedback to effectively communicate.

Listening and Feedback

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CHAPTER 6Section 6.1 Listening and Management Communication

6.1 Listening and Management Communication

Learning Objective # 1: What forms of listening take place on the job?

What kind of listener are you? It might be tempting to respond with a one-size-fits-all answer, such as, “I’m a good listener,” or, “I’m an empathetic listener.” In truth, listening varies according to the content of a message and the context in which that message is delivered. For example, if you are being “chewed out” by a boss, empathy for the audience may go right out the window. In any case, listening plays an important role in business and management communication.

In management communication, several styles of listening may be used. Content listen- ing means that the receiver seeks to understand and remember the information presented by a speaker. Questions are posed to clarify the content of a presentation without judging or creating an argument. Even the speaker’s limitations become of less interest, because the goal is simply to obtain information (Bovee & Thill, 2005).

Active listening, which should occur in most business settings, involves listening with a purpose (Barker, 1971). Doing so includes making a conscious effort to turn off internal filters and biases in the attempt to accurately perceive and understand what the other person says. In active listening, questions clarify the message and encourage the speaker with support and positive feedback (Brooks, 2003).

Empathic listening, a form of active listening, takes place when the receiver tries to understand the other person, including his or her feelings, needs, and wants. You may not share the person’s perspective or point of view, but the idea is to appreciate the person’s problems and situation. Effective supervisors master empathic listening.

A type of listening that adds judgment, critical listening, occurs when the recipient goes beyond comprehending the message to evaluating it. The analysis incorporates assess- ments of the logic of the argument, the value of the evidence, the validity of the conclu- sions, the speaker’s motives or intentions, and any attempt to mislead or combine facts with opinions (Brownell, 2002).

Applying each of these listening venues at the proper times can enhance your chances of having a successful career. No one likes being ignored or misinterpreted. Effective listen- ing connects with many other aspects of leading, including the ability to communicate verbally and in written format, by first knowing what the audience thinks or has to say.

This chapter concentrates on two aspects of managerial communication: effective listen- ing and providing feedback. The two interact in the sense that it will be impossible to provide quality feedback unless you first listen carefully. Providing quality feedback also enhances your prospects of becoming a more valuable and effective manager, one worthy of promotion to higher ranks.

For Review

What four listening styles are used in management communication settings?

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CHAPTER 6Section 6.1 Listening and Management Communication

Domino’s Pizza: We’re Listening

Recently, the Domino’s Pizza chain engaged in a two-part advertising program designed to build sales and market share in a declining economy. The key ingredient: listening to customers. The original television advertising campaign shows clips of consumers in focus groups, making such statements as, “Worst pizza I ever had; totally devoid of flavor,” “Domino’s pizza crust is to me like cardboard,” and “The sauce tastes like ketchup” (Farhi, 2010).

The point: While Domino’s had maintained its market share during the economic downturn, com- pany leaders believed that they could apologize for poor-quality pizza and promise to do better by

creating pies with improved ingredients and better recipes. New company CEO Patrick Doyle used the company’s listening program to lead the way, saying, “We think that going out there and being this honest really breaks through to people in a way that most advertising does not” (Farhi, 2010).

Some marketing experts expressed concerns that consumers would not listen carefully to the message. They would hear the part about poor quality but not the part about improving. Domino’s managers believed the risk was worthwhile.

Following the rollout of new, improved pizzas at bar- gain prices, the second phase of the listening program began. The new campaign states, “We’re only as good as our last pizza. So tell us how yours was.” The Domi-

no’s Pizza Tracker feature, which had been developed two years before the recipe upgrades, provided a new listening device to facilitate communication with individual customers.

The Pizza Tracker feature allows customers placing an online order at the Domino’s website to follow the progress of their order from the shop to their front door. Users receive an email directing them to the order-tracking page within seconds of placing an order and, without having to refresh the page, are told precisely when their pie is placed in the oven, checked for quality assurance, and dispatched to their home. The Pizza Tracker informs the customer about who was responsible for an individual pizza during preparation and delivery. Then, the customer can provide feedback directly to the store where the pizza was made, which opens lines of communication with individual stores and managers rather than with the larger corporation.

The Pizza Tracker feature suggests that store owners will listen when customers are dissatisfied. By naming the actual individual responsible for any service failure, a store’s manager can improve opera- tions on an employee-by-employee basis. Over the course of the next apology campaign and new emphasis on customer feedback, sales increased dramatically during the next two quarters (Skid, 2010). Time will tell if the novel approach will yield longer-term results.

Questions for Students

1. Do you think that starting with negative statements about your company will cause people to hear how you intend to improve or fix the problem?

2. What are the differences between listening to customers about problems and listening to inter- nal managers discussing the same issues?

3. As an employee, would you listen to a customer complaining about the pizza you just made, when the customer was simply wrong in his/her feedback or criticism?

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CHAPTER 6Section 6.1 Listening and Management Communication

Levels of Listening

In any listening context, a person may engage in various levels of attention. The good lis- tener, or a level one listener, stays involved in the conversation by considering the speaker’s interests and message. The level one listener maintains an open mind and pays attention respectfully by maintaining eye contact, sitting or standing attentively (leaning forward), and without an expression signaling disregard, boredom, or overt disapproval.

Someone who hears the words but does not fully appreciate their meaning or content is a level two listener. This individual ignores or does not process nonverbal cues. The level two listener will be less interested in the speaker’s intentions. Failure to fully engage in a conversation in this manner can lead to misunderstanding or conflict.

When an intended recipient does not acknowledge the speaker and instead thinks about other matters, the person becomes a level three listener. Such a self-centered approach creates confusion and greater misunder- standing. A level three listener misses important information and can make poor judgments.

As you have probably guessed, the ideal manager maintains level one listening. Unfortu- nately, many employees remain at level two or three far too much of the time. The net result will be breakdowns in communication, based on someone not paying proper attention (Burley-Allen, 2001). Individuals and organiza- tions benefit when the listening skills of managers are refined and enhanced.

The Importance of Listening and Feedback Skills

The ability to listen effectively and provide valid feedback has a major impact on business organizations as well as levels of personal success. In addition, excellent listeners often enjoy more positive social relationships both on and off the job. Managers and employees both benefit from effective listening techniques.

For Review

What three levels of attention are found in organizational listening?

Digital Vision/Thinkstock What level of listening do you use on the job?

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CHAPTER 6Section 6.1 Listening and Management Communication

Personal Level Listening In terms of personal activities, listening skills play vital roles in job searches, job training, performance appraisals, and interpersonal interactions. In a job search, one key step will be the job interview. An applicant will have only a brief amount of time to forge a positive impression. Poor listeners often find themselves rejected, because they were inattentive and either missed the point of a key comment or failed to respond to an idea, sugges- tion, or question. Effective listeners create positive impressions through their answers and feedback provided to the human resource officer or supervisor conducting the interview (DeCenzo & Robbins, 2007).

Job training requires careful attention. Effective listeners learn jobs more quickly, ask more informed questions, and tend to succeed (Mathis & Jackson, 2010). Trainers become frus- trated with those who fail to pay attention.

Performance appraisal processes should be interactive discussions. The employee learns about perceptions of his or her strengths and abilities, as well as personal weaknesses or deficiencies. After these perceptions have been presented, the employee can provide feedback regarding his or her assessment of the views of others and respond to challenges presented and new goals. Doing so can be accomplished only when the employee first listens carefully to what the reviewer has to say (Grote, 2011).

Good listeners make better colleagues and friends. Interpersonal interactions in and out- side the workplace are enhanced when a peer listens closely to your problems, concerns, and feelings. Effective managers, as well as good friends, provide feedback, even when it hurts a little. Rich social and professional lives and effective listening are closely related.

Effective Listening in Organizational Activities Companies benefit from effective listeners. Meetings become more productive when those involved take the time to fully hear what others have to say. The leader of a group or team, when conducting a meeting, serves the role of facilitating conversation and interaction. The leader must be an effective listener in order to play such a role.

Numerous presentations also benefit from high-quality listening. A speaker making an in-house report deserves the close attention of the audience. Salespersons calling on com- panies are better served when the client listens carefully to the sales presentation.

In general, it is safe to say that listening merits equal attention to any verbal or written communication skills. Much of the time, a manager will be a receiver or recipient of a ver- bal message from employees and others. Those who listen effectively and provide quality feedback are more likely to be considered as superior leaders. The remainder of this chap- ter focuses on methods to help you become a better listener and someone who is capable of providing the best feedback to others.

For Review

Name the personal activities and organizational activities affected by listening and feedback.

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CHAPTER 6Section 6.2 Listening Distractions and Barriers

6.2 Listening Distractions and Barriers

Learning Objective # 2: What types of listening distractions and barriers disturb effective communication?

Successful team players, managers, leaders, clients, and customers all have the abil-ity to listen effectively in common. Fortunately, even those who are poor listeners can have their skill sets improved. Table 6.1 identifies some of the characteristics of ineffective listeners that can be improved. Basic listening skills involve a set of activi- ties. The receiver first should be aware of potential distractions and barriers, seeking to reduce or eliminate their influence. Second, the listener can then work toward effective, active listening.

Table 6.1: Ineffective listening

Passively engaged

Provides no feedback, response, or encouragement

Constantly interrupts

Judges style over substance

Gets lost in details and misses the main point

Easily distracted

Allows barriers to listening to occur

Loses eye contact

Body language suggests inattention

Facial expression exhibits disagreement or boredom

Fiddles with distracting object

External and Internal Distractions

Before effective listening can even begin, a receiver should be aware of the many poten- tial barriers and distractions that disrupt communication and a conversation. The two elements that reduce the ability to listen carefully are external distractions and internal distractions.

External distractions take the form of any event or object that turns a person’s attention away from the discussion at hand. Examples of external distractions include motion, sound, intensity, contrast, and novelty/familiarity. When listening to a speaker, any nearby motion can take away from concentration. Someone passing by a room where a speech takes place can divert the attention of the audience. In an individual conversation in an office, a passer-by may have the same effect. Sound-based distractions take many forms, including trying to hold a conversation in a noisy room, next to construction, in a room with music playing, or even during a loud thunderstorm. Intensity consists of other diversions such as strong odors and smells. Trying to finish a conversation with the

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CHAPTER 6Section 6.2 Listening Distractions and Barriers

aroma of a freshly cooked meal nearby becomes problematic.

Contrast occurs when a loud room suddenly becomes muted or when a burst of noise disrupts a quiet room. Novelty means that seeing something novel in a familiar setting may redirect attention away from what is being said. Familiarity results from discovering something rec- ognizable in an unusual setting (Nylen, 1980), with the same out- come: taking the person away from the speaker’s message. In the business world, newer open office spaces often distract peo-

ple trying to engage in interactive conversations. The same holds true for an open computer screen during any speech or discussion. Cell phone rings or tones that indicate the person has received a text message interrupt other interactions (Hymowitz, 1998).

Everyone has experienced the problem of not being able to concentrate. Personal matters such as a troubled relationship, financial issues, or even a traffic ticket on the way to work, can capture a person’s attention. Other internal distractions include a headache, cold or other health issue, and being hungry or thirsty. The ability to set these matters aside and pay attention to a speech or conversation can become a major personal asset; yielding to internal distractions causes miscommunication.

For Review

What two types of distractions inhibit effective listening?

Stockbyte/Thinkstock Even the weather can become a distracting influence during a conversation.

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CHAPTER 6Section 6.2 Listening Distractions and Barriers

External distractions

Internal distractions

(receiver’s mind)

Concentration

Personal matters

Health

Effective listening

Messages

Motion

Sound

Intensity

Contrast

Novelty/familiarity

Figure 6.1: Internal and external distractions

Effective listening begins when a receiver becomes aware of the potential barriers and distractions that disrupt communication.

Barriers to Listening

In Chapter 2 on interpersonal communication, various barriers were presented. In addi- tion to those problems, several barriers to listening can emerge. Some of the more com- mon include:

• time pressures • discovery of disagreement • detouring the speaker • lack of willingness to listen • mental speed and capacity • selective listening • prejudgment

Time represents one of the most valuable and scarce resources in business. When an employee feels pressed for time, a natural reaction will be to try to close off what may be perceived as an unnecessary interaction. The receiver might abruptly cut the speaker off, either by making a dismissive remark or arriving at a quick judgment. In the receiver’s mind, the thought is, “I don’t have time for this.” The net result will be poor listening.

Discovery of a disagreement often occurs as a presentation or conversation carries on. At first, the receiver may not recognize the speaker’s intention. All of a sudden, a point of contention appears that is powerful enough to cause the receiver to fail to hear the remain- der of the message. The receiver, rather than listening, mentally forms the counterargu- ment that he or she will then present.

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CHAPTER 6Section 6.2 Listening Distractions and Barriers

Detouring the speaker takes place when the receiver becomes distracted by a concept or a phrase and then pursues that line of thought. Soon the speaker has moved to a different topic. The outcome will be that the intended message never arrives.

The lack of willingness to listen emerges from more than one source. At times, a person may not want to listen, believing he or she has the superior position. A receiver may also believe the topic is trivial and not pay atten- tion as a result. Further, some individuals would rather talk than listen. Such individuals are inclined to interrupt responses to questions and com- ments (Bostrom, 1988). Many people may avoid listening when they know a negative message or a disagreement may be forthcoming.

Mental speed and capacity refer to the mind’s ability to process information much faster than normal conversation. The 75–25 problem means that people speak about 25 percent as fast as they think (Lewis, 1987, p. 146). The differential allows a person’s mind to wan- der while visiting with someone.

Selective listening embodies one aspect of mental speed and capacity. It involves tuning out the majority of what is being said until a key word or phrase captures the person’s attention. Instead of processing what was actually spoken, the receiver guesses or thinks he or she knows what was said (Morreale & Bovee, 1998).

Prejudgment involves making up your mind before hearing the full message. In essence, the response has been prepared before the message has been transmitted. Preconceived ideas about the person engaged in the conversation based on his or her personality, appearance, or past conversations lead to prejudgments.

Messages Receiver’s

internal distractions

Effective listening

Barriers

External distractions

Figure 6.2: Distractions and barriers

Finding ways to overcome these communication complications takes a step toward becoming a more effective co-worker, employee, or manager.

David De Lossy/Thinkstock Discovery of a disagreement often occurs as a presentation or conversation takes place.

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CHAPTER 6Section 6.3 Listening Tactics and Techniques

These barriers to listening pose problems for employees and supervisors. The failure to pay attention works in both directions during a conversation. Either person can create the kinds of communication obstacles that inhibit the correct transmission and reception of a message. Finding ways to overcome these communication complications (which will be described in the next section) takes a step toward becoming a more effective manager.

6.3 Listening Tactics and Techniques

Learning Objective # 3: How can managers improve their listening skills?

Listening occurs at two levels in business settings. In active listening situations, there will be little or no opportunity to respond. Examples of active situations are hearing a speech by an organizational leader or outside presenter in a formal setting, includ- ing those that have been prerecorded on video. Empathic active situations might include a pep talk by a company manager or outside motivational speaker. Active listening may also accompany a visit to a supervisor’s office in which the employee will receive a mes- sage and give a minimal response, such as, “Okay,” or “I’ll take care of the problem.”

Interactive listening situations include times when feedback and other forms of two-way communication take place. Interactive situations on the job take place during social and business conversations, including relations with salespeople calling on the company, dur- ing meetings and conferences, and as part of negotiation processes.

Listening tactics and techniques may be applied to both active and interactive situations. Many of the key listening elements are the same for both. The listener adjusts the compo- sition depending on the situation at hand. Four phases of listening present opportunities to work toward higher-quality communication:

• during preparation • during the presentation • during the interaction • during conclusion of the interaction and follow-up

For Review

What barriers to listening affect organizational communications?

For Review

Explain active listening situations and interactive listening situations.

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CHAPTER 6Section 6.3 Listening Tactics and Techniques

Preparation

The first opportunity to become a better listener—the preparation stage—occurs before any verbal encounter. Two types of interaction are possible: planned and unplanned. And, two types of settings occur: one-on-one and as part of an audience. One-on-one communications may be planned or unplanned. Audience settings will normally be planned in advance. You can become a better conversationalist and audience member by preparing for both.

Planned One-on-One Interactions Planned interpersonal interactions begin with understanding the nature of the encounter. Individual conversations are quite different from being a member of an audience or of a team or group. As a listener in an individual conversation, such as being called into the bosses’ office, preparation involves anticipating the nature of the meeting or conversation. If the intent has not been transmitted, an employee can inquire about it in advance. Unless a distinct reason exists for not telling the person, the employee then can better prepare. Things to consider include:

• wearing appropriate attire • bringing writing or note-taking capabilities, if they will be needed • assuming the proper demeanor (formal, casual) • bringing informational or supportive materials that may be useful

Finally, the receiver should try to ascertain in advance whether the interaction will consist pri- marily of active listening or interactive listening. For an active listening situation, meth- ods such as note-taking and other forms of recall assistance may be valuable. For interactive listening circumstances, seeking out information about the pur- pose of the conversation can pro- vide valuable tools. Many times a planned interaction begins in active mode and evolves into an interactive format. Therefore, it may be advisable in many situa- tions to prepare for both.

For Review

What two types of interactions and two types of settings are present in verbal encounters?

Medioimages/Photodisc Part of preparation for a planned one-on-one interaction is wearing the proper attire.

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CHAPTER 6Section 6.3 Listening Tactics and Techniques

Planned Audience Interactions Planned interactions as part of an audience necessitate basically the same types of items as for interpersonal situations. Effective audience members go a step beyond by carefully studying any materials that have been circulated prior to the presentation. They also bring along items such as pre-printed or electronically submitted reports and agendas. In other words, they show up prepared for the presentation or meeting. As part of this process, the speaker should be aware of the type of audience to expect—hostile or friendly, informed or uninformed, of the same rank/higher rank/lower rank, and so forth.

Audience members also should try to find out whether participation will be invited or discouraged. If it will be discouraged, then active listening will be required. When it will be invited, an interactive listening environment, audience members with a solid back- ground on a topic or issue will be in the best position to participate in an effective and positive manner.

Unplanned One-on-One Interactions Many times, social and business interactions take place spontaneously. Even then, an effec- tive listener can apply basic tactics to improve communications. Among them, when a chance encounter occurs, first recall as much as you can about the speaker. This assists in understanding his or her frame of reference. Second, consider the setting. When you meet in a crowded hallway, the circumstances are much different from running into someone alone in a break room. Third, try to assess the speaker’s demeanor. Notice whether the per- son seems jovial, disturbed, in a bad mood, or rushed, or is acting in some other fashion to convey emotions and purpose. Someone who is in a hurry likely will appreciate your quick and brief response. A conversation with a person in a bad mood may be best delayed until things improve. In general, one of the gifts of an effective listener may be termed situation sensitivity, or the ability to quickly assess a conversation’s context and respond accordingly.

Effective Listening During a Presentation

When you are listening to a person in a conversation or a presenter in a larger setting, several key tactics aid the process. Each can assist in active listening, empathic listening, and critical listening. Effective listening during a presentation starts with attending skills and encouraging skills (Russell & Munter, 2011). A receiver may also take advantage of message reception techniques in order to fully process a presentation or directive by a supervisor in a one-on-one setting.

Attending Skills Attending skills display interest in the message and support for the speaker. Effective listeners remember that they have been speakers in other situations and appreciated the attention given by receivers. Attending skills include listening posture, distance, eye con- tact, and eliminating barriers (Baney, 2004).

Listening posture reflects the important role body language plays in listening. An effec- tive listener appears relaxed, yet attentive and alert. A seated receiver leans toward the

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CHAPTER 6Section 6.3 Listening Tactics and Techniques

speaker and tries to face the sender squarely. There may be times when the speaker seeks to set a more informal tone through his or her body language. By mirroring that posture toward the speaker, such as by relaxing and putting an arm around the empty chair beside the receiver, the listener has responded with an indication that he or she understands the more casual tone of the interaction.

Distance reflects the degree of intimacy in a conversation. Effective listeners do not crowd speakers and also do not move too far away. Should the speaker appear to be leaning away, the receiver should perceive that he or she might be a little too close. When the speaker keeps leaning in or shifting forward, too much distance is present. Distance norms vary a great deal internationally. Standing close to someone will be standard practice in Saudi Arabia, but not in Finland, where even greater personal space than the United States will be used.

Eye contact, in Western culture, signals interest and involvement. Typically there will be instances of direct contact accompanied by a more general view of the person’s face, look- ing for additional visual cues. Remember that, in other cultures, direct eye contact signals aggressiveness or disrespect (Marchetti, 1995). An effective listener makes sure he or she understands this element of context when engaged in a conversation or as an audience member in an international setting. In Western cultures, failure to make eye contact sug- gests a person is hiding something, lacks confidence, or is simply being rude. Someone who checks his or her watch or looks into the distance disrupts the quality of the conversation.

Eliminating barriers involves taking steps to remove distracting factors. Does a door need to be closed? Should you ask the people in the next room or the hallway if they can take their conversation elsewhere? If a team is mowing the lawn outside, should you move to a room away from the noise? Effective, active listeners are aware of things that divert atten- tion and do their best to remove them (Floyd, 1985).

Encouraging Skills As part of a conversation or audience setting, receivers can offer support to the speaker through several means. They help the speaker relax and more carefully frame his or her presentation or thoughts. Encouraging skills are silence, expressions of encouragement, and asking open-ended questions (Bolton, 1987).

Silence communicates. A listener who gives a speaker time to pause, collect his or her thoughts, and then continue provides encouragement. The effective use of silence includes knowing when it becomes so long that the time becomes awkward. Long pauses can be interpreted as a lack of interest or disapproval, or suggest that the receiver is not paying attention. Often, the combination of eye contact and silence can reassure the speaker that the listener remains engaged. Also, as noted earlier, silence in some cultures indicates that careful consideration is being given to the speaker’s words or proposal.

For Review

What attending skills facilitate effective listening?

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CHAPTER 6Section 6.3 Listening Tactics and Techniques

Expressions of encouragement start with simple phrases such as “Go on . . .” or a simple nod of agreement or understanding. Stronger expressions include statements such as, “This is very interesting. I’d like to hear more.” Encouragement empowers the speaker to continue the message with confidence.

Open-ended questions are those that cannot be answered with a “yes” or “no” response. High-quality listeners use questions that encourage the speaker to elaborate. The inquiries focus on the speaker’s intentions and vantage point. The question, “What else can you tell me about this project?” serves as an example. Inclusive language also provides support for the speaker. When a receiver says, “What should be our next step?” the speaker should feel invited to provide even more information and perceive that the receiver is on his or her side.

In general, attending skills and encouraging skills are directed at the speaker. Effective listeners know that they will receive better information when they assist and facilitate the speaker right from the start of the message. The next element will be to carefully process the information being provided.

Message Reception Techniques

As a presenter or speaker conveys a message, the receiver who utilizes active listening will obtain a greater amount of information in a more accurate format. Especially at times when no responses or questions are possible, the recipient has the ability to carefully con- sider the message as presented. Some of the most common suggestions for effective listen- ing during a presentation are:

• Identify the primary and secondary points. • Organize the message. • Summarize the message. • Personalize the message. • Take notes when advisable.

Identify the Primary and Secondary Points Most speakers intend to present one or two major ideas. These will be followed with supporting points or secondary information. By carefully watching the presentation, the

For Review

What encouraging skills facilitate effective listening?

For Review

What message reception techniques assist in effective listening?

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CHAPTER 6Section 6.3 Listening Tactics and Techniques

listener may notice a change in inflection, greater volume, or more definitive gestures suggesting the presence of a primary point. The listener then can observe the secondary points to see whether they provide effective, logical support for the primary message or messages.

Organize the Message As a speaker, you are aware of the various methods to present a message, from a parti- tioned approach (tell them what you’re going to tell them; tell them; tell them what you told them) to an unfolding stream-of-consciousness approach, to more logic-based for- mats such as pros versus cons or similarities and differences. The goal of listening will be to identify the presentation organization to more effectively assimilate the information.

Summarize the Message A summary consists of a mental review of the primary and secondary points. The listener should reach the end of a speech or presentation with a solid handle on how the message was delivered, as well as the content of the message. The summary includes evaluation of the connection between the primary and secondary points.

Personalize the Message A message takes on greater meaning when the listener relates the idea to a personal issue or experience. In essence, the listener may wonder, “How does this affect my job?” or “How will this change the overall company?” or, “Will I be involved?” as part of the personal- ization process. As noted in the previous chapter with regard to persuasion, a message might impact a person’s opinions, atti- tudes, or beliefs. Each affects the personalization process. A mes- sage targeting an opinion will differ from one aimed at chang- ing attitudes. The listener’s pro- cessing of the information will also be affected by the nature of the message. Personalizing the message allows the listener to make the presentation more interesting and relevant, and makes it easier to concentrate on what has been said.

Taking Notes When Advisable Taking notes physically involves the listener in the presentation. Note-taking involves writing down sufficient information to assist in organizing, summarizing, and personaliz- ing the primary and secondary points without putting so much effort into the process that it becomes a distraction rather than a tool. When taking notes, be sure to avoid bothering

iStockphoto/Thinkstock Taking notes physically involves the listener in the presentation.

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CHAPTER 6Section 6.3 Listening Tactics and Techniques

the speaker or audience members seated close to you. Some speakers gain confidence when they see audience members taking notes. The objective should be to make note- taking a positive part of the listening process for all concerned.

Table 6.2 summarizes skills utilized by effective listeners. As shown, the following skills enhance the elements of message reception techniques. Using all of the methods should lead to the best understanding of a speech or presentation.

Table 6.2: Following skills

Skill Used Interpretation As Part Of

Paraphrasing content Putting speaker’s words into your own language

Identifying primary/secondary points; organizing, summarizing, & especially personalizing

Paraphrasing feelings Assessing how the speaker’s words affect your emotions, opinions, and attitudes

Summarizing and personalizing

Note-taking or recording Keeping memory logs Organizing and summarizing

The Speaker’s Role

The speaker can assist in effective listening by following some simple guidelines. Four elements should be considered before a conversation or presentation. Time, place, person- alities, and objectives merit the attention of the speaker.

In terms of time, managers know that end-of-the-day communications tend to attract less attention, as do meetings, conversations, and presentations right before the lunch hour. Schedule verbal interactions during times when the listener will be least distracted and most willing to give active attention. An effective speaker chooses places where external distractions are at a minimum. The speaker can also match the formality of the space with the degree of formality and importance of the message.

Personalities are of special importance in one-on-one interactions. Knowing that a receiver is prone to interrupting, pompousness, or some other tendency should be taken into account prior to the conversation. An especially shy individual requires a different kind of preparation and presentation.

Objectives should be considered from the viewpoint of both the speaker and the receiver. When they are in synch, the interaction takes a different tone from when disagreement or conflict might be expected (Saporito, 1992).

Verbal conversations, as suggested in earlier chapters, resemble a dance between the sender and the receiver. Effective listening, then, calls for both the speaker’s and the audi- ence’s attention to detail. After an initial presentation by a speaker, the next stage in the process will be the interaction phase, in which additional tactics become useful tools to effective verbal communications.

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CHAPTER 6Section 6.3 Listening Tactics and Techniques

During the Interaction Phase

After a speaker has made his or her presentation, many times an interaction phase begins in which the listener and speaker exchange ideas about the conversation’s start or the speech made in front of an audience. As part of the interaction phase, the steps of listening may be followed (see Table 6.3). The interaction phase takes place during the evaluation and responding steps of the listening process.

Table 6.3: Steps of listening

Receiving Physical reception including sight, sound, and any other cues

Decoding Assigning meaning to the message

Remembering Mentally storing the message for future use

Evaluating Assessing the quality, intention, and perceived accuracy of the message

Responding Preparing a reply

Three key elements of the listening process are validating the speaker, asking questions, and framing the reply in positive terms.

Validate the Speaker: Affirming Statements In any interaction from a small conversation to a major strategic speech, the speaker will be vulnerable to some extent. Effective listening at the close of the speech, or at the point when interactions take place, begins with a validation of the speaker. The three ingredi- ents involved are responding with affirming statements, restating and/or paraphrasing the message, and identifying areas of agreement or common interest.

Affirming statements can be directed to the content and/or the delivery of the message. In a one-on-one conversation, a simple, “I appreciate your bringing this to my attention,” offers gratitude and validation. Table 6.4 provides other interpersonal affirming statements.

Table 6.4: Affirming statements

Interpersonal Interactions

“You have a way with words.”

“Thanks for clarifying this so well.”

“I didn’t realize this was such a big deal.”

“You have my attention.”

As an Audience Member

“Thank you for your thoughtful presentation.”

“It is clear you have given this a great deal of thought.”

“I think everyone here now has a better understanding of the issue.”

“Thank you for such a concise description of this problem.”

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CHAPTER 6Section 6.3 Listening Tactics and Techniques

An affirming statement that does not appear to be genuine will often damage the interac- tion. Any praise offered must be sincere. The purpose of affirming is to move the interac- tion forward to a meaningful discussion of the message and its intent.

Validate the Message: Restating or Paraphrasing the Message After a basic level of rapport has been established, it should be easier to identify the speaker’s intent in presenting the message. By paraphrasing or restating what was said, any remaining ambiguity can be reduced or eliminated. The secret will be to restate the message without demeaning or rejecting it. At this point, the goal will not be to reveal dif- ferences but rather to clarify the message as presented.

Validate the Rapport: Identifying Areas of Agreement or Common Interest Identifying areas of agreement or shared interests further solidifies and validates the rela- tionship between the speaker and receiver. It should be possible to find at least some areas of common ground. If nothing else, the receiver can agree with the speaker that a problem does indeed exist.

Asking Questions Quality questions indicate interest. They serve the purposes of clarifying ideas, expanding the discussion, and further revealing positions and motives of those involved. Three types

of questions posed by effective listeners are open or closed, pri- mary or secondary, and neutral or directed inquiries.

Open-ended questions can elicit a variety of responses. Rather than a perfunctory “yes” or “no,” the speaker can frame an answer as he or she sees fit. As an example, the question, “What do you think will hap- pen if we fail to act?” gives the speaker a chance to speculate on an outcome. Closed ques- tions typically are directed to facts or time commitments, and receive shorter answers. A closed question would be, “Can

For Review

What three methods can be used to validate the speaker during the interaction phase of a verbal presentation?

Comstock/Thinkstock Quality questions indicate interest, as they serve the purposes of clarifying ideas, expanding the discussion, and further revealing positions and motives of those involved.

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CHAPTER 6Section 6.3 Listening Tactics and Techniques

we implement your idea in less than twelve months?” Both types of questions can further the interaction between a sender and receiver.

A primary question opens the discussions on a topic by being the first one posed about the issue. The primary question will likely be about a more general area of concern. Secondary or follow-up questions then probe further into answers provided to primary questions. The intention should be to obtain specific information about the subject. Successful inter- actions normally include both primary and secondary questions.

Neutral questions allow the speaker to respond without feeling lead to a certain type of answer. A neutral question asks, “What do you think?” A directed question causes the speaker to respond in a certain way. Examples are phrases such as, “Doesn’t the most plau- sible approach seem to be . . . ?” or, “Wouldn’t you agree that . . . ?” Directed questions obtain clarifications about the speaker’s point of view or items in the presentation. Neutral and directed questions, when asked at the appropriate times, further interactions between a speaker and an audience.

Framing a Positive Response Even when people disagree, they can do so without being disagreeable. Framing a posi- tive response involves the rules of common courtesy. Effective listeners obey a minimum of four rules when responding to a presentation and during an interactive phase:

1. Avoid overgeneralizations, such as “you always” or “you never.” 2. Do not use labels, especially less-respectful terms, such as “bean counter” for

accounting or “nerd” for information technology employees. 3. Do not cut off or interrupt the other person. 4. Do not dominate the conversation.

Effective listeners frame responses in nonthreatening ways, such as, “I can see why you feel that way, but I see this differently.” The ability to present a counterargument in a respectful manner may be interpreted as a sign of weakness by some; however, over time being able to do so becomes a career advantage. The skill has heightened value when deal- ing with members of other cultures, especially where deferent language is normal in all business transactions.

The Conclusion of the Interaction and Follow-Up

At the end of a one-on-one meeting or a presentation in an interactive listening situation, a conclusion point will be reached. Effective listeners know that the speaker wishes to end the interaction through the various verbal and nonverbal signals transmitted. Someone who closes a notebook or picks up note cards and puts them in a pocket is trying to let the

For Review

Effective listeners pose what three types of questions?

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CHAPTER 6Section 6.4 Feedback

audience know that the session has come to a close. Verbal cues may be even more direct. The conclusion of the interaction may be open-ended, as in “We can talk more about this later,” or closed, “I think we have our answer.” As with any other verbal interaction, the sender and receiver should both express appreciation for the time given to the subject and the attention paid to the speaker.

A verbal presentation greeted by effective listening will result in high-quality organiza- tional communication. Listeners who prepare for verbal encounters, utilize attending and encouraging skills, and effectively process messages are better able to interact with the speaker. The speaker can exhibit situation sensitivity as well as the listener, taking into account time, place, personalities, and the objectives of the interaction. Interactions based on affirmation of the speaker, questions, positive responses, and attention at the close have the best chance of achieving various objectives.

6.4 Feedback

Learning Objective # 4: What role does feedback play in business communication?

Every person wants to know how well he or she is doing, in workplace settings and in other places. Feedback is the information provided about a person’s level of performance or success in various activities. In the workplace, feedback to employees plays several key roles. It plays a major role in employee training, managing ongoing tasks, and conducting the performance appraisal process. Feedback will be pro- vided in interpersonal and collective situations, including presentations and in group or team meetings.

Two forms of feedback may be provided in the workplace. Con- structive criticism focuses on methods to improve processes and outcomes. Destructive feed- back delivers criticism with no effort to stimulate improve- ment. Destructive criticism has little use in the workplace or, for that matter, in other settings. Unfortunately, it is often the type provided. To become a better com- municator, the goal should be to move toward constructive criti- cism whenever possible (Williams, 2002, pp. 706–707).

For Review

Define feedback, constructive criticism, and destructive feedback.

Creatas/Thinkstock Constructive criticism focuses on methods to improve processes and outcomes.

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CHAPTER 6Section 6.4 Feedback

Constructive Criticism Principles

The goal of offering constructive criticism can be achieved by following a series of prin- ciples. To provide effective constructive criticism, the speaker first considers the elements of the setting, timeliness, and severity of the issue. Carefully working with these factors improves the chances that the advice will receive consideration.

The best constructive feedback may be ignored or rejected if delivered in the wrong set- ting. Most people become upset when they are publicly criticized. Privacy will be impor- tant for many messages. An exception to this would be a forum in which a speaker asks for criticism of an idea or proposal with the goal of making it better.

Timeliness indicates the importance of immediate feedback. Successful managers under- stand when to deliver constructive criticism, recognizing there are times that it will be best to wait, so that the person can “cool off” following a failure or bad episode. The manager should not wait too long, however, because the advice might lose its potency (Robbins, 2005, p. 614).

Next, when considering offering constructive criticism, consider the severity of the issue. When an employee exhibits a behavior that damages his or her performance, then it should be quickly brought to the person’s attention. Other, less-important matters may wait, and the advice can be given in more casual settings.

Providing Constructive Criticism

Three elements of constructive criticism are positive reinforcement, negative feedback, and mixed feedback. Clearly, the easiest to deliver will be positive reinforcement. The goal of positive feedback should be to encourage the same behaviors and levels of effort in the future (Luthans & Kreitner, 1975). Positive reinforcement provided to a speaker or presenter takes the next step toward implementing the person’s ideas.

Negative feedback and mixed feedback require careful thought and delivery. When pos- sible, negative information should be part of a mixed feedback presentation, offering both criticism and congratulations. Constructive criticism or feedback should be offered using the following guidelines and methods (Alessandra & Hunsaker, 1993):

• focus on specific behaviors • remain objective • avoid labels • speak in plain terms • define unclear terms • keep feedback goal oriented • focus negative feedback on behaviors the individual can control

Work-related feedback should concentrate on specific behaviors. Telling an employee, “You have a bad attitude,” does not lead to desired results. Examples of specific behaviors that can be addressed as being problematic are absenteeism, tardiness, foul language, the habit of leaving messes for others, rude comments to co-workers or customers, and inattention

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CHAPTER 6Section 6.4 Feedback

or instances of ignoring people (Robbins, 2005, p. 614). Other work-related constructive criticism should concentrate on methods of improvement, such as:

• showing someone how to more effectively cope with an angry customer • explaining how to more efficiently use a computer or piece of equipment • demonstrating how to run a meeting and handle an unruly team member • helping someone write a more effective memo or report • explaining why a rule or procedure is in place

Keep in mind that “constructive” suggests a process of “building.” When ideas focus on specific, observable behaviors, it becomes possible to offer high-quality advice.

Objectivity may not be possible in every situation. Some behaviors, issues, and opinions may run counter to a person’s attitudes and values. For example, pointing out to a male supervisor who uses terminology such as “little missy,” “sweetheart,” or “honey” that

those phrases demean female employees contains an element of emotion that would make objectivity difficult. At the same time, the feedback provider can seek to remain calm and point out the negative impact of such language without aggressively personalizing the point.

Various labels can be attached to the person being criticized or to the behaviors and outcomes involved. Labels inspire defen- sive responses (Resker, 2008). Using them detracts from help- ing the person receiving the feed- back to improve. Examples of labels are provided in Table 6.5.

Table 6.5: Types of labels

Personal Judgmental of Outcomes Exaggerations

Unprofessional Bad “You always. . .”

Irresponsible Worse “You never. . .”

Immature Worst “It’s impossible”

Sexist/racist Awful Pathetic

Speaking in plain terms and defining unclear terms go together. When offering construc- tive criticism, use the most precise language possible. Make sure that any technical terms

Brand X Pictures/Thinkstock Pointing out to a male supervisor who uses terminology such as “sweetheart” or “honey” that those phrases demean female employees contains an element of emotion that would make objectivity difficult.

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CHAPTER 6Section 6.4 Feedback

or managerial ideas are clearly defined (Claiborne, 1983). Feedback sessions fail when arguments arise about the use of words and what they mean rather than paying attention to the intent of the feedback.

As with other managerial processes, the use of goals can inspire more effective perfor- mance. Offering constructive criticism with specific objectives in mind targeting specific employee behaviors provides the best chance of success (Locke, 1968; Locke et. al, 1981). When feedback suggests targeted goals, such as increasing a number of sales calls, or following up both successful and unsuccessful sales calls within 10 days with a letter or email, the respondent knows exactly how to improve performance.

Finally, constructive criticism should be oriented toward behaviors an employee can con- trol. A production manager may not be able to control the quality of the raw materials the department receives. The corresponding rise in defects will be something he or she can- not change through various behaviors. The same manager can improve his or her level of safety training and first-aid skills, because they are controllable elements in the manager’s department.

Constructive criticism serves the ultimate goal of offering caring assistance. Taking the time to carefully prepare the message and its delivery makes achieving that goal possible. Destructive criticism that tears down another person damages short-term morale and your long-term credibility. As the person who receives constructive criticism, the prin- ciples listed in Table 6.6 may help (Wilson, 2000; Morse, 2004).

Table 6.6: Principles for constructive criticism recipients

Take a deep breath to calm your nerves.

Listen carefully to fully understand the nature of the criticism.

Try to remain objective rather than defensive.

Identify the speaker’s objectives in providing the critique.

Take your time.

Acknowledge the person’s efforts and valid points.

Respond when you know you’re ready.

The ability to receive constructive criticism and put it to good use reflects emotional matu- rity. Supervisors and managers appreciate employees who are “teachable.” At the same time, unfair criticism deserves a response as well.

For Review

What guidelines and methods can be used to present constructive criticism or feedback?

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CHAPTER 6Section 6.4 Feedback

Disagreement and Feedback

Almost everyone has felt “unjustly accused” at one point or another. Feelings of defen- siveness are natural in those circumstances. Causes of dis- agreements include misunder- standing of the nature of the problem, an unfair interpreta- tion of an event or outcome, or being criticized for the misdeed or failure of someone else. The person receiving the unfair feed- back should try to respond in a professional manner. Framing disagreement involves several actions, including (MindTools. com, 2011):

• trying to remain calm • having the point repeated to make sure it was correctly presented • pointing out errors of fact • explaining why an interpretation is inaccurate or unfair • noting the reasons why something was beyond your control or was not your

responsibility

The goal at the end of the discussion will be to politely move on. It may not be possible to change the other person’s mind. In that circumstance, gently extricating yourself may be the best option.

Mentoring and Feedback

In a mentoring relationship, feedback travels in two directions. It moves from the senior mentor to the mentee in the forms of praise and constructive criticism. It also transfers from the mentee to the mentor. A mentee can enhance the relationship by following a few basic feedback principles (Ambrose & Moscinski, 2011):

• Spell out the issues on which you would like information/discussion/criticism from the mentor

• Ask permission to give feedback to the mentor before starting • Express appreciation for the things your mentor does well • Thank the mentor for his or her time

Feedback in both directions can build trust and a stronger relationship. Mentors who are truly interested in mentee success take feedback to heart.

iStockphoto/Thinkstock Almost everyone has felt “unjustly accused” at one point or another.

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CHAPTER 6Section 6.5 Chapter Review

6.5 Chapter Review

Listening represents a critical part of management communications. Content listen-ing occurs when the listener seeks to understand and remember the information provided by the speaker. Active listening involves hearing with a purpose and mak- ing a conscious effort to turn off internal filters and biases, in the attempt to accurately perceive and understand what the other person says. Empathic listening takes place when the receiver tries to understand the other person, including his or her feelings, needs and wants. Critical listening occurs when the recipient goes beyond comprehending the mes- sage to evaluating it.

A level one listener, or a good listener, stays involved in the conversation and consid- ers the speaker’s interests and message. Listening skills play vital roles in personal job searches, job training, performance appraisals, and interpersonal interactions. Companies benefit from effective listening through more-efficient and effective team meetings and through careful attention to presentations.

Two elements reduce the ability to listen carefully: external distractions and internal distractions. Barriers to listening include time pressures, disagreements, detouring the speaker, the lack of willingness to listen, mental speed and capacity, selective listening, and prejudgment.

In active listening situations, there will be little or no opportunity to respond. Interactive listening situations include times when feedback and other forms of two-way commu- nication take place. In both situations, listening involves preparation, efforts during the presentation, tactics used during the interaction, and methods to conclude an interaction and follow-up. Verbal encounters can be planned or unplanned. Verbal communication occurs in interpersonal interactions and when a person is part of an audience. Situation sensitivity is the ability to quickly assess a conversation’s context.

When listening to a presentation, attending skills that display interest are listening pos- ture, distance, eye contact, and elimination of barriers. Encouraging skills encompass silence, expressions of encouragement, and the asking of open-ended questions. Message reception techniques during the presentation include identifying the primary and sec- ondary point; organizing, summarizing, and personalizing the message; and taking notes when advisable. The speaker’s role is to assess the time, place, personalities involved, and the objectives of the listeners.

During the interaction phase, three key efforts are validating the speaker, asking questions, and framing the reply in positive terms. Validation can be transmitted through affirming statements, restating or paraphrasing the message, and identifying areas of agreement or common interest. Questions may be open or closed, primary or secondary, and neutral or directed. Framing a positive response includes avoiding overgeneralizations and labels, refraining from cutting off or interrupting the other person, and having the ability to not dominate a conversation. A polite close involves suggesting that further conversation is in order or that the matter has been settled.

Feedback is the information provided about a person’s level of performance or success in various activities. Constructive criticism focuses on methods to improve processes and

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CHAPTER 6Section 6.5 Chapter Review

outcomes. Destructive feedback delivers criticism with no effort to stimulate improve- ment. Constructive criticism begins with the assessment of the setting, timeliness, and severity of the issue. It continues through the use of positive reinforcement, negative feed- back, or mixed feedback.

Constructive criticism or feedback involves focusing on specific behaviors, remaining objective, avoiding labels, speaking in plain terms, defining unclear terms, and keeping feedback goal-oriented and focused on behaviors the individual can control. A person who can gracefully accept constructive criticism appears to be a mature employee. Dis- agreements can be handled in a professional manner by remaining calm, asking to have the point repeated, pointing out errors of fact, explaining why an interpretation was unfair or inaccurate, and noting when the issue was beyond the person’s control. Constructive criticism can help build a relationship between a mentor and a mentee.

Key Terms

For Review With Possible Responses

1. What four listening styles are used in management communication settings? Content listening means that the receiver seeks to understand and remember the infor- mation presented by a speaker. Active listening, which should occur in most business settings, involves listening with a purpose. Empathic listening, a form of active listen- ing, takes place when the receiver tries to understand the other person, including his or her feelings, needs, and wants. Critical listening occurs when the recipient goes beyond comprehending the message to evaluating it.

active listening Listening with a purpose, including making a conscious effort to turn off internal filters and biases.

active listening situations Listening situations in which there will be little or no opportunity to respond.

constructive criticism Criticism that focuses on methods to improve processes and outcomes.

content listening Listening in which the receiver seeks to understand and remember the information presented by a speaker.

critical listening Listening that occurs when the recipient goes beyond comprehending the message to evaluating it.

destructive feedback Criticism delivered with no effort to stimulate improvement, which often focuses on personal rather than behav- ioral or decision issues.

empathic listening A form of active listening in which the receiver tries to understand the other person, including his or her feelings, needs, and wants.

feedback The information provided about a person’s level of performance or success in various activities.

interactive listening situations Listening situ- ations in which feedback and other forms of two-way communication take place.

situation sensitivity The ability to quickly assess a conversation’s context.

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CHAPTER 6Section 6.5 Chapter Review

2. What three levels of attention are found in organizational listening? The good listener, or a level one listener, stays involved in the conversation by consider- ing the speaker’s interests and message. Someone who hears the words but does not fully appreciate their meaning or content is a level two listener. When an intended recipient does not acknowledge the speaker and instead thinks about other matters, the person becomes a level three listener.

3. Name the personal activities and organizational activities affected by listening and feedback. In terms of personal activities, listening skills play vital roles in job searches, job training, performance appraisals, and interpersonal interactions. Organizational meetings, presen- tations, and reports are affected by listening and feedback.

4. What two types of distractions inhibit effective listening? External and internal distractions.

5. What barriers to listening affect organizational communication? Some of the more common barriers to listening include time pressures, discovery of disagreement, detouring the speaker, the lack of willingness to listen, mental speed and capacity, selective listening, and prejudgment.

6. Explain active listening situations and interactive listening situations. In active listening situations, there will be little or no opportunity to respond. One example of an active situation is hearing a speech by an organizational leader, or outside presenter, in a formal setting, including speeches that have been prerecorded on video. Interactive listening situations include times when feedback and other forms of two-way communication take place. Interactive situations on the job take place during social and business conversations, including relations with salespeople calling on the company, dur- ing meetings and conferences, and as part of negotiation processes.

7. What two types of interactions and two types of settings are present in verbal encounters? Planned and unplanned interactions; individual and as part of an audience.

8. What attending skills facilitate effective listening? Attending skills include listening posture, distance, eye contact, and eliminating barriers.

9. What encouraging skills facilitate effective listening? Encouraging skills include silence, expressions of encouragement, and asking open-ended questions.

10. What message reception techniques assist in effective listening? Some of the most common suggestions for effective listening during a presentation include: identify the primary and secondary points, organize the message, summarize the message, personalize the message, and take notes when advisable.

11. What three methods can be used to validate the speaker during the interaction phase of a verbal presentation? The three ingredients involved are responding with affirming statements, restating and/ or paraphrasing the message, and identifying areas of agreement or common interest.

12. What three types of questions do effective listeners pose? Three types of questions posed by effective listeners include open or closed, primary or secondary, and neutral or directed inquiries.

13. Define feedback, constructive criticism, and destructive feedback. Feedback is the information provided about a person’s level of performance or success in various activities. Constructive criticism focuses on methods to improve processes and outcomes. Destructive feedback delivers criticism with no effort to stimulate improvement.

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CHAPTER 6Section 6.5 Chapter Review

14. What guidelines and methods can be used to present constructive criticism or feedback? To provide effective constructive criticism, the speaker first considers the elements of the setting, timeliness, and severity of the issue. The best constructive feedback may be ignored or rejected if delivered in the wrong setting. Timeliness indicates the importance of immediate feedback. Successful managers understand when to deliver constructive criticism, recognizing there are times that it will be best to wait, so that the person can “cool off” following a failure or bad episode. When an employee exhibits a behavior that damages his or her performance, then it should be quickly brought to the person’s atten- tion. Other, less-important matters may wait.

Analytical Exercises

1. Which form of listening, content, active, empathic, or critical, matches the follow- ing circumstances? a. employee at a performance appraisal session b. salesperson listening to a customer complaint while merchandise is being

returned c. manager hearing complaints about a supervisor by a highly valued employee d. purchasing officer hearing a sales pitch by an outside company sales

representative 2. Provide examples of external and internal distractions in the following settings.

a. members of the press (the audience) hearing a CEO’s statement about a com- pany’s safety violations

b. a team of three supervisors (the audience) who will select a new division manager interviewing three finalist candidates for the job

c. star college basketball player listening to an assistant coach give advice, when the coach never made the team in college

d. a purchasing group hearing sales pitches from three automobile companies seeking to sell the company a new fleet of cars

3. Explain how the barriers to listening might affect the following verbal situations. a. marketing team listening to a member of an advertising agency saying that

the company must respond to a competitor’s advertisement with three days or lose customers

b. a high-performing employee receiving his first poor performance evaluation, based on conflicts with co-workers and negative attitudes exhibited toward management

c. a male supervisor being told by a member of human resources that he has been charged by two female subordinates with creating a hostile environment of sexual harassment

4. Explain the relationships between planned and unplanned interpersonal inter- actions with the attending and encouraging skills needed when hearing a presentation.

5. Explain the use of message reception techniques, including differences and simi- larities for each, in the following circumstances. a. you are in total agreement with what the speaker is saying b. you are in complete disagreement with what the speaker is saying c. you agree with part of what the speaker says but disagree with other parts

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CHAPTER 6Section 6.6 Case Studies

6. What are the relationships between the three forms of validation provided to a presenter, affirming statements, restating or paraphrasing the message, and iden- tifying areas of agreement or common interest, with the three forms of questions that may be asked during the interaction phase of a verbal presentation?

7. Explain the use of constructive criticism guidelines in the following situations: employee has just revealed confidential information about a co-worker as gossip a. manager has just inadvertently offended a visitor from a foreign country by

failing to understand cultural differences b. employee has great natural talents for innovations in technology but is disor-

ganized and loses work in progress as a result c. marketing manager has fallen behind in terms of understanding the competi-

tion and how the marketplace is changing

6.6 Case Studies

Case Study 1: The Storm After the Storm

After a devastating tornado swept through the city, the employees of Marie’s Floral and Gift Shop felt fortunate in some ways, and not in others. No one from the staff lived in a house that was ruined by the storm, and none of the employees had family members who were injured. At the same time, the roof of Marie’s Floral and Gift Shop was badly damaged, which meant the business would be closed until repairs could be made.

Marie Krause, the owner, employed a day- and a weekend manager to tend to the floral shop at times when she was away. The three met with two roofers who provided estimates for the needed repairs. The first, Tucker Roofing, had the reputation of being more expensive, but the company worked quickly and used the highest-quality materials. The second, Bridgestone Roofing, was perceived by many in the city as offering the “best deal,” in terms of price and quality.

When the bids were submitted, Marie and her managers were surprised. The Tucker Roofing bid was $14,000, far below the $20,000 bid submitted by Bridgestone. Marie and her managers, Ted and Riley, sat at a table with her husband Joe, an attorney who was normally not involved in the floral shop’s operations.

In this meeting, however, Joe was the first to speak. “I just don’t understand this,” he started, “some- thing is just not right with these bids.”

Ted and Riley had both worked in construction before. Ted replied, “Oh, you’d be surprised. This sort of thing happens all the time, one bid is way less than the other, for the exact same work.”

Riley chimed in, “Yeah, I’ve seen this a bunch of times. One guy may need work really bad, so he goes really low with the bid to make sure he gets the job. Maybe Tucker needs some work.”

Marie asked, “Are you guys sure these bids are exactly the same?”

Ted replied, “Yeah, yeah. Look, it’s for the same thing. The whole roof.”

Marie concluded, “Well then, I guess we go with Tucker.”

Joe remained unconvinced. He was certain something was amiss. But he decided that it was not his business, so he kept silent. (continued)

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CHAPTER 6Section 6.6 Case Studies

The work began and Tucker Roofing completed the repairs in short order. The next day, Fred Tucker visited Marie’s Floral and Gift Shop.

Tucker, in a highly apologetic manner, began, “I’m sorry Mrs. Krause. When we bid your building, we didn’t think that back storage area was going to need to be fixed. But it took some pretty bad damage. So, while we were up there, we went ahead and made the repairs. But that raises the price to $22,000. I’m sure your insurance will pick up most of the difference.”

“Wait a minute,” Marie asked, “I thought your first bid was for the whole building.”

“No, it wasn’t. See right here?”

Fred Tucker then showed Marie the bid, and he was right. This explained why the Tucker bid was lower than the Bridgestone bid, which had been for the entire building. Her managers, Ted and Riley, had not looked carefully enough at the documents. Joe had been right, something was out of order. He calculated what the insurance company would pay, and the net result was going to be that Marie’s would pay $1,000 more for the roof repair than if the shop had accepted the original Bridgestone bid. Needless to say, he was not happy.

Review Questions

1. What type of listening had Joe used during the meeting in which they chose a roofing company to make the repairs?

2. What was his level of listening during the meeting? 3. What kinds of listening barriers led to the error in selecting the roofing company? 4. What should Marie do about the faulty advice given by Ted and Riley?

Case Study 1: The Storm after the Storm (continued)

Case Study 2: “You can lead a horse to water. . .”

Antonio Farenza was about to retire from a successful career as a restaurateur. His upscale Italian din- ing establishment, Antonio’s, had been in business for nearly 40 years. Repeat business and regular customers kept the company thriving, even when more difficult economic times took place. Antonio always believed that the keys to his success were excellent food and great service. He was about to turn the restaurant over to his son Marcus.

Marcus had recently completed an MBA degree and was at first reluctant to take over the family res- taurant. After months of coaxing, he concluded it offered the best opportunity to make a solid living. He wanted to learn more about how to keep the successful operation moving forward, incorporating new technologies into the business.

The first step Marcus wanted to incorporate was a social media presence. He believed that new, younger customers might try the establishment if he created a Facebook page and a Twitter account. He also wanted to incorporate online reservations to those made by telephone.

When Marcus presented his ideas to his father, Antonio listened thoughtfully. After a long pause, Antonio responded, “You know, you’re probably right. You need to move this place into the new cen- tury. But remember, repeat business is what this place is all about. You have to make sure our regular customers don’t get intimidated by all these new gizmos.”

Marcus agreed. “I see the social media stuff reaching a different market. Mostly up-and-coming busi- ness people who are used to using the Internet.” (continued)

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CHAPTER 6Section 6.6 Case Studies

Antonio then commented, “You will have to convince our head waiter that he can use your system. Make sure you train him. And then, listen to him.”

“Why,” Marcus asked, “What else will he have to say?”

“He’s gonna tell you what makes for a successful server. We train them all the same way. We show them how to take orders, how to bring the food out on time, not too soon and not too late, how to deal with someone who sends something back to the kitchen, and how to make each customer feel special. The ones that listen, well, they make a good living. The ones that don’t, they don’t last. You’ll see these guys that think they know better. They don’t keep their uniforms clean, or they ignore tables so the food gets delivered cold, they mess up orders because they don’t pay attention, and the next thing you know, you’re talking to an angry customer. They don’t learn. They don’t listen when you try to show them how to do a better job. You know, you can lead a horse to water, but you can’t make it drink.”

Marcus responded, “So what you’re telling me, is that our best servers are good listeners.”

“You got that right,” Antonio replied with a smile, “They listen to us when we train them, and they listen to customers when they serve them. They turn customers into friends.”

“I won’t forget, Dad,” Marcus concluded.

Review Questions

1. What kind of listening is involved in being a restaurant server? 2. What internal and external distractions might prevent a server from doing a good job on any

given night? 3. Is serving in a restaurant an active or an interactive listening situation? Explain your answer. 4. Do you think setting up a customer review section on the company’s web page will help Marcus

and his staff to listen more effectively? Why or why not?

Case Study 2: “You can lead a horse to water. . .” (continued)

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Learning Objectives

After reading this chapter and studying the materials, you should be able to:

1. Relate communication processes to negotiation situations. 2. Apply bargaining principles that lead to successful negotiation outcomes. 3. Utilize management communication techniques to facilitate the stages of negotiation. 4. Identify forms of conflict in organizations and the roles played by communications channels. 5. Employ effective methods of conflict resolution.

Negotiation and Conflict

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CHAPTER 7Section 7.1 Negotiations and Communication

7.1 Negotiations and Communication

Learning Objective # 1: How is communication intertwined with negotiation and bargaining?

Many aspects of organizational life, beginning with applying for and accepting a job, involve bargaining and negotiation. Many company activities also involve negotiations, both within the firm and with other organizations. Communica- tion processes play major roles in the successes and failures that individuals and groups experience in negotiations and bargaining processes.

The terms bargaining and negotiation have been viewed from two perspectives. One sees them as being the same (Wall, 1985; Robbins, 2005, p. 434). The other suggests that nego- tiation refers to “win-win” situations in which the ultimate objective will be finding mutu- ally acceptable solutions to complex conflicts. Bargaining, in that context, represents a competitive “win-lose” circumstance in which both parties seek to obtain the best possible outcome for their side (Lewicki, Barry, & Saunders, 2010, p. 3). This chapter uses the first approach, treating the terms interchangeably. In that context, negotiation is a give-and- take decision-making process involving interdependent parties with differing objectives or outcome preferences (Bazerman & Neale, 1992).

Two types of negotiations take place in employment settings (Walton & McKersie, 1965). When a single issue is involved, and a zero-sum game exists in which one’s side gain or advantage becomes the other side’s loss or disadvantage, it is a distributive negotiation. An automobile manufacturer negotiating the price for batteries to be placed in its cars provides an example of a distributive negotiation. Every dollar that the car manufacturer has to pay for batteries becomes a dollar of revenue to the battery supplier.

The second circumstance, in which a win-win solution can be found, is an integrative negotiation. This involves a problem-solving agenda in which two or more sides try to obtain a settlement that benefits both. Integrative negotiations occur when a company forms a partnership with a charity to stage a fund-raising event. They also take place when two firms form a joint venture to create a product. Integrative solutions succeed when the two sides can establish a mutual goal.

Table 7.1 shows forms of negotiations present in the business community. Individual negotiations, company-to-company negotiations, and company negotiations with outside agencies or organizations constitute the primary categories. Both distributive and integra- tive negotiations take place in those areas.

Table 7.1: Types of negotiations

Individual With Company Company to Company Company With Outside Group

Employment Contract Sales Unions

Wages Collaborations Special Interests

Benefits Government

Job Status

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CHAPTER 7Section 7.1 Negotiations and Communication

These negotiation situations require various forms of business and managerial communications.

For Review

Define negotiation, distributive negotiation, and integrative negotiation.

The Writers Guild: Negotiation and Conflict

Every three years, the Writers Guild of America, East and the Writers Guild of America, West meet to con- fer with the Alliance of Motion Picture and Television Producers (AMPTP) to negotiate a contract for com- pensation for various writing activities. In a previous bargaining session and contract enactment, the writers had agreed to a minimal amount of compensation for revenues earned from sales of movies and other mate- rials on VHS videotapes. As the popularity of home videos exploded, many in the guilds felt shortchanged by the amount of compensation. In 2007, the bargain- ing team for the writers was resolute about receiving payments for sales of DVD and other digital content, especially because it would soon be possible to watch programming on a cell phone and other remote receiv- ers at any time via computers and the Internet.

As contract talks continued and the deadline for expiration of the contract between the AMPTP and the guilds approached, the producers took a hard stance and removed residual payments for DVD sales from their offer. On October 20, 2007, the guilds voted to strike if an acceptable arrangement could not be reached (Finke, 2007).

After engaging in these lengthy negotiations, the guilds went on strike over compensation during the 2007–2008 television season. Estimates of revenue loss from the strike range from $300 million at the low end to $2.1 billion at the top (New York Times, 2008).

Numerous stakeholders beyond the producers and writers were involved. Late-night television pro- gramming, such as The Tonight Show with Jay Leno, The Daily Show with Jon Stewart, and the Late Show with David Letterman first broadcast re-runs of programs, hoping for a quick end to the strike. The Late Show, owned by a separate production company, was able to negotiate an “interim” contract returning its writers to work after two months. Soon after, Leno and Stewart received criticism for crossing picket lines and continuing their programs without the use of writers. Both argued that doing so helped keep other program employees from enduring greater financial hardships. Meanwhile, tele- vision production of various series on all major networks (NBC, ABC, CBS, and FOX) also came to a halt as new scripts ran out. Daytime drama programs also were affected.

In addition, the groups affected included information, leisure, and hospitality; professional and busi- ness services; trade, transportation, and utilities; financial activities; and education and health services (Milken Institute, 2008). Also, other unions, such as the Screen Actor’s Guild and Teamsters had vested interests in the negotiations.

(continued)

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CHAPTER 7Section 7.1 Negotiations and Communication

Individual Negotiations

As Table 7.1 notes, individual employees negotiate with companies for a variety of out- comes. Often individual negotiations begin with how much a person is to be paid, includ- ing a signing bonus in some circumstances. Other issues are benefit packages that contain profit-sharing plans, retirement plans, health insurance, vacation time, sick leave, and other elements. Job status is another potentially negotiable issue and defines where the person will be placed in an organizational hierarchy, including responsibilities and levels of authority. These discussions continue throughout a person’s career. Initially, factors that influence negotiations for pay and benefits are (Brophy, 2004):

• the strength of the job market • the company’s compensation policies • the company’s financial health • the applicant’s bargaining position, including offers from other companies;

personal accomplishments, including degrees and awards; and success in previ- ous jobs

Individual negotiations consist of face-to-face interactions, exchanges of letters and emails, telephone conversations, and, in some instances, a formal written contract specifying all the elements of an agreement. The two parties involved are the employee and one or more management representatives.

The majority of individual negotiations for pay and benefits take place during the final stages of the hiring process. Normally, the management representative will be the first to ask about expected salary and other conditions of employment. When the question is posed during the employment interview, before the person has been selected for the position, the candidate should answer in a way that will not hurt his or her chances of obtaining the position. Advisable responses are that you are “open” or looking for a “competitive offer.” Once the position has been offered, then more-concrete negotiations begin (Bovee & Thill, 2012). During the course of a career, additional negotiations takes place regarding pay raises, job assignments, and even when and how a person will retire (phased versus full).

In February 2008, the two sides reached an agreement. The writers quickly ratified the contract, and soon all were back to work. The economic impact continued for the remainder of the year, in the entertainment industry and also in Southern California and New York City.

Questions for Students

1. How was the writers’ strike both a negotiation and a conflict? 2. What role would public relations play in these negotiations? 3. What ethical issues did Jay Leno and Jon Stewart encounter as part of the strike?

The Writers Guild: Negotiation and Conflict (continued)

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CHAPTER 7Section 7.1 Negotiations and Communication

Company to Company

Two of the more common company-to-company negotiation issues concern a sale or a partnership. A sales transaction specifies the price, terms of delivery, procedures for han- dling defects and returns, and the manner in which any disputes will be resolved, includ- ing the state in which all legal matters, such as contract interpretation, would be resolved.

Sales negotiations occur in a variety of ways, including through conversations at trade shows, visits to a company by a sales representative, social encounters such as lunches and golfing events, and telephone conversations. Others transpire via mail, email, and through formal offers and contracts. The level of trust between the companies often dictates the man- ner in which bargaining will take place, including the communication venues to be used.

Companies form many types of partnerships. Examples are corporate sponsorships of various events and charities, cooperative advertising programs, and agreements to co- produce goods and services. Each involves a series of negotiation sessions to finalize all arrangements. Often more than two parties are included. For example, Interstate Batteries maintains a relationship with NASCAR that features cooperative advertising and expense sharing with M&M’s. Community events, such as a Fourth of July fireworks display, may involve numerous partners.

Negotiations to develop partnerships use the same communication venues as those avail- able for making sales. Informal talks can often lead to formal negotiations to establish a relationship. Effective bargaining during these sessions can create benefits for both parties without any need for adversarial tactics. Negotiations can occur at any time during these relationships.

Company With Outside Groups

Managers often negotiate with outside groups that have interests in a firm’s operations. A union is an example of an outside group. Every company that has employees represented by a union will engage in negotiations. Contract bargaining can occur annually, or firms can reach multiyear agreements with unions regarding wages, hours, and conditions of employment. Strict governmental regulations are in place to ensure that such negotiations proceed in as orderly a manner as possible.

Company representatives also may negotiate with governmental officials to obtain vari- ous contracts. These sales agreements, while highly regulated, can include bargaining sessions. Other negotiations with governmental agencies involve interpretations of regu- lations and mediation sessions when conflicts with other companies arise. Many such negotiations have occurred regarding federal pollution standards and company practices.

In certain circumstances, company leaders find it necessary to negotiate with members of special-interest groups. People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals (PETA) has engaged in sessions with members of profit-seeking companies regarding methods of killing and cooking chickens, the use of dogs and other animals in developing and testing cosmet- ics, and humane treatment of animals in film-making, and with rodeo organizers. Other organizations have challenged how companies portray ethnic groups in advertising.

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CHAPTER 7Section 7.2 Negotiation Processes

Environmental groups, as well as government agencies, engage in negotiations over the ways in which companies dispose of waste and use energy.

Communication venues are es- tablished for negotiations in each of these company-to-outsider group interactions. These bar- gaining sessions often include sets of individuals, such as the bargaining team for labor and a separate team representing man- agement in a union-management negotiation. The two sides often face each other across a bargain- ing table, creating a formal, per- haps adversarial, tone. Negotia-

tions with governmental officials and special-interest groups range from informal, personal meetings to mediated sessions and courtroom encounters.

7.2 Negotiation Processes

Learning Objective # 2: What steps and activities are involved in completing successful negotiations?

Effective bargaining begins with understanding how the process will work. Manage-rial negotiations with future and ongoing employees differ in format from those involving other companies or outside agencies. However, many of the activities are largely the same, including understanding the preconditions to negotiation, the stages involved, and the proper tactics to employ.

Preconditions to Negotiation

Before any bargaining process begins, managers should believe negotiation represents the best option. Table 7.2 identifies times when it is better to find some other approach. After considering these precautions, the preconditions to bargaining may be examined. Three preconditions are an understanding of the bargaining environment, the availability of bargaining resources, and the characteristics of the bargaining issue.

For Review

What three types of negotiations take place in the business community?

Digital Vision/Thinkstock Environmental groups, as well as government agencies, engage in negotiations over the ways in which companies dispose of waste and use energy.

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CHAPTER 7Section 7.2 Negotiation Processes

Table 7.2: When negotiation is NOT an option

The other side Acts in bad faith (does not follow legal protocols) Makes unethical demands

Your side Is not well prepared Could simply wait and improve its position Does not have time to negotiate Might lose everything Will gain little or nothing

Sources: Lewicki, R. J., Barry, B., & Saunders, D. M. (2010). Negotiation (6th ed.). New York, NY: McGraw-Hill, p. 7. Levinson, J. C., Smith, M. S. A., & Wilson, O. R. (1999). Guerrilla negotiating: Unconventional weapons and tactics to get what you want. New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons, pp. 22–23.

The Bargaining Environment Negotiation can take place only in the proper climate. When such a frame of mind does not emerge, negotiations become more likely to fail. The most important psychological elements are (Moore, 2011):

• identification of the participants • readiness to negotiate • willingness to agree on some issues • willingness to settle

Managers should be aware of the various stakeholders and participants present, prior to any bargaining process. In the case of negotiations with out- side agencies, for example, a company may seek to reach an agreement with a union, while remaining aware of governmen- tal constraints, such as those related to bargaining in good faith, equal-opportunity legisla- tion, and antitrust laws.

A stakeholder group consists of people with a vested interest in the outcome of a negotiation, as Chapter 1 describes. These individuals should tangibly demonstrate their readiness to be seated at the bargaining table. An individual or group conveys the readiness to negotiate by committing to conduct the needed investigation before any first meeting. A stakeholder should have adequate time to prepare a negotia- tion strategy. Before beginning any actual negotiation, all sides should be able to say, “We’re ready.”

Stockbyte/Thinkstock Before beginning any actual negotiation, all sides should be able to say, “We’re ready.”

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CHAPTER 7Section 7.2 Negotiation Processes

Negotiation will not be possible unless some agreement on issues and interests exists. For example, an applicant should be able to agree with company leaders that hiring him or her at a given rate of pay and benefits will benefit the applicant and the company. Two companies should be able to agree that the sale of a product benefits both organizations. The parties to a negotiation should be able to commit to a joint decision-making process based on such agreements (Kolb & Williams, 2003).

Negotiations succeed when participants want to settle. A negotiation will be doomed to failure if continuing a conflict takes on more importance than settling. In essence, for an agreement to be reached, the disadvantage created by failing to find an agreement must be more significant than keeping the conflict going.

The Availability of Bargaining Resources Participants in a negotiation should have access to sufficient time and money to fully engage in a dialog. Additional bargaining resources include bargaining skills held by key negotiators. When one side’s resources are inadequate or unequal to the other side’s resources, this may impede effective negotiations and lead to greater disparity in the final outcome of the negotiation, producing win-lose results. The resources held by a group in a negotiation include a “means of influence” form of leverage, as Table 7.3 shows (French & Raven, 1959).

Table 7.3: Sources of influence in negotiations

Legitimate Superior position based on a governmental dictate

Ownership of a patent or similar protection

Contractual advantage from a previous negotiation

Individual with a specific degree or status (e.g., CPA, JD)

Reward Access to additional business partners or customers

Establishing a basis for future agreements

Company’s ability to pay and grant benefits to individuals or companies

Coercion Loss of revenues

Loss of supplies

Damaged relations with customers

Damaged relations with governmental organizations

Individual’s ability to seek employment elsewhere

Company’s ability to terminate or not hire an individual

Expertise Presentation of factual evidence

Analysis by experts in the area or field

Individual with credentials that make him or her unique

Charisma Personal persuasiveness

Thought-provoking questions and discussion

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CHAPTER 7Section 7.2 Negotiation Processes

Characteristics of the Bargaining Issue The bargaining issue itself presents a potential roadblock to or opportunity to bargain. To become a viable bargaining issue, various characteristics of that issue must be in place. Among these are interdependence, the willingness to compromise, unpredictability of the outcome, negotiable issues, and participants holding the authority to decide.

Interdependence forms when an attachment of some kind between the parties exists. An applicant bargaining for salary has the knowledge or a skill that the organization needs, which creates the interdependence as part of the job search/employment offer process. Parties to a sale, such as a situation in which one company seeks to provide a service to another company, should in some way cause both sides to rely on each other in order to have their needs met or interests satisfied. When one party to a bargaining arrangement finds that it can satisfy its needs without the help or cooperation of the other, no real rea- son to negotiate exists.

In many negotiations, compromise may be necessary for the parties to reach an agree- ment. If one side determines that the other has “dug in” and no compromise will be pos- sible, negotiation might not be the best option.

Parties negotiate when the out- come of an issue cannot be pre- dicted. If one company knows that a lawsuit against another company only has a 50–50 chance of success, the firm’s management team may decide that its best interests are served by negotiating instead. The rea- son for the decision would be that, by negotiating, the com- pany would receive at least some of what it wants; a court order could completely favor the other side. The same holds true when an individual considers walking away from a job offer, rather than taking a lower salary or reduced benefits (Schalzki, 1981).

Negotiators must believe that acceptable settlement options can be discovered. Room for give-and-take must be present. When only win-lose settlement possibilities are apparent, the parties involved become more reluctant to enter into dialog.

In any negotiation, the participants involved must have the authority to make a decision, whether it is a hiring decision, sales agreement, or resolution with an outside agency. When they do not, or when a ratification process has not been established, negotiations will normally be limited to an information exchange between the parties (Lewicki & Hiam, 2006, pp. 40–73).

Photodisc/Thinkstock If one company knows that a lawsuit against another company only has a 50–50 chance of success, the firm’s management team may decide that its best interests are served by negotiating instead.

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CHAPTER 7Section 7.3 The Stages of Negotiation

7.3 The Stages of Negotiation

Learning Objective # 3: How can management communication techniques facilitate the stages of negotiation?

When two parties decide that negotiation represents the best option for settling an issue, the various states of negotiation can begin. Achieving results comes from careful management of the entire process. At the most general level, nego- tiation consists of three overall stages, the preliminary, bargaining, and ending phases. Each involves various activities. Table 7.4 presents elements of a three-stage model of negotiation.

Table 7.4: The stages of negotiation

Preliminary Stage Bargaining Stage Ending Stage

Prepare Framing Close

Open Discovery Follow-up

Consensus

Packaging

Preliminary Stage

In the preliminary stage, two primary activities receive attention: preparation and open- ing. When managers plan thoroughly, the chances for achieving desired bargaining goals increase. The failure to plan provides the other party with a bargaining advantage that continues through the remainder of the process.

Preparation Preparation begins at the point when management decides negotiations should go for- ward. Several principles guide preparations. Managers should identify and evaluate the receiver, sender, and purpose of the negotiation (Hynes, 2011, p. 245).

For Review

What three preconditions to negotiations should be examined to decide if bargaining should take place?

For Review

What are the three main stages of the negotiation process?

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CHAPTER 7Section 7.3 The Stages of Negotiation

The receiver analysis involves discovering the type of person (and company) who will be sitting across the table. Some will be quiet and reserved; others will be bombastic and aggressive. Cultural differences can dictate negotiation styles in various regions of the country and in international settings. These include the degree of deference, eye contact, gift-giving, and silent pauses.

Analysis of the sender involves establishing the style that your side will use. Exuding confi- dence constitutes a primary advantage in negotiation. Remember that body language com- municates a great deal during a negotiation. When a negotiator rolls up his sleeves, removes his jacket, and pours a cup of coffee, the message conveyed is that he expects a long session. Nervous finger-tapping or twirling a pencil suggests a level of nervousness and lack of confidence (Ilich, 1983). Table 7.5 lists various styles and strategies related to negotiation.

Table 7.5: Negotiation styles

Surprise Quick new request; quick concession

Bluff Withhold information; act as though you have a stronger position than you do

Fait Accompli Bluffing that an agreement has already been reached that favors your side

Stacking Combine your idea, demand, or proposal with a reference to a similar situation

Screen Use a third party to negotiate

Take No Prisoners Try to dominate the other side by suggesting and leveraging a major power differential

Take It or Leave It A final offer; should only be used once

Source: Lewicki, R. J., & Littere, J. A. (1985). Negotiation. Homewood, IL: Richard D. Irwin.

Analysis of the purpose involves looking at what each side intends to achieve during the negotiation. A new employee seeks to reach the best wage and benefit deal. Most of the time, employees are able to discover pay levels of co-workers, even when the company tries to maintain a closed pay policy. As a result, management may wish to keep the com- pensation level at a point where ongoing employees are not upset when they learn of the pay package. Bargaining during a sales call involves not only one transaction but also the potential for an ongoing relationship.

Also as part of the preparation process, two concepts take precedence. Negotiators need to know the maximum supportable outcome, which is the absolute most a side can ask for as an opening position, within reason. Second, the lowest supportable outcome con- stitutes the least amount or least favorable position a side will accept from a negotiation. Table 7.6 displays the interactions of these two concepts, which create the settlement range or bargaining zone.

Table 7.6: Maximum and lowest supportable outcome

Salesperson - Company 1 Purchasing Officer - Company 2

Maximum Supportable Outcome $1.5 million Lowest Supportable Outcome

Lowest Supportable Outcome $1.35 million Maximum Supportable Outcome

Settlement range or bargaining zone = $1.35 to $1.5 million

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CHAPTER 7Section 7.3 The Stages of Negotiation

Closely related to the lowest supportable outcome is BATNA, or the best alternative to a negotiated agreement. It identifies the lowest acceptable value to a party as a substitute to a stalemate (Bazerman & Neale, 1992, pp. 67–68). BATNA allows the person bargaining to know when an offer is higher than one that would lead to an impasse, because it is above that “floor” level.

For example, in the sales situation presented in Table 7.6, the representative of the selling company knows that $1.35 million constitutes the lowest supportable outcome, because it covers the company’s shipping costs to send the items to another country. If Company 2’s final offer is $1.3 million, the negotiator for Company 1 can walk away, knowing that a domestic firm will pay $1.28 million for the items and that the company will not incur the same shipping costs. The domestic company offers the best alternative to a negoti- ated agreement with the foreign customer (Fisher, Ury, & Patton, 1992). A negotiator will often try to discover the BATNA of the opposing side, in order to further expedite negotiations.

Preparation includes establish- ing long-term goals such as trust and confidence in the other party. Mutual principles and concerns begin with whether the relationship will be adversarial or cooperative. One of the more destructive forces in the process takes place when the urge to win overwhelms rational thinking (Malhotra & Murningham, 2008). Preparation involves selecting approaches or procedures that lead to problem-solving when- ever possible.

Opening The opening begins when parties make initial contact in person, by telephone, by mail, or online. In this stage, negotiators seek to build rapport and try to establish a cordial rela- tionship. Most negotiations begin with casual conversations about non-bargaining issues. Cultural and particular industry forces often impact and determine the length of these initial interactions.

At the beginning of a bargaining session, negotiators express the desire to reach an agreeable outcome. Announcing that your side is committed to following through the

For Review

Define maximum supportable outcome, lowest supportable outcome, and BATNA.

iStockphoto/Thinkstock A negotiator will often try to discover the BATNA of the opposing side in order to further expedite negotiations.

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CHAPTER 7Section 7.3 The Stages of Negotiation

established procedures creates a more professional tone. Both sides should fully under- stand the processes that will be used (Moore, 2011). A standard opening includes the steps in Table 7.7.

Table 7.7: Opening negotiation procedures

Introduce the parties involved.

Parties make statements demonstrating the willingness to listen, share ideas, remain open to reason, and seek to bargain in good faith.

Establish guidelines for behavior.

State mutual expectations for the negotiations.

Describe history of problem and explain why there is a need for change or agreement.

Identify interests and/or positions.

Define issues and set an agenda.

Source: R. J. Lewicki, B. Barry, & D. M. Saunders (2010). Negotiation (6th ed.). New York, NY: McGraw-Hill, 41–70.

A negotiator should also understand that “no” may be the opening position or that the first offer made by the other side will often be above expectations. The bargainer or team should be wary of a “reluctant buyer or seller” ploy that involves deliberate stalling and transmitting the unwillingness to reach a quick agreement. A negotiator should be ready to respond to such tactics and any other complications. Developing methods to handle strong emotions is part of preparation for the opening (Shell, 1999). Tactics include sug- gesting a “time out,” or cooling off period, using humor to diffuse the situation, or bring- ing in a third party to calm both sides, individually or collectively.

The Bargaining Stage

The bargaining stage includes the processes of framing, discovery, consensus, and pack- aging, as Table 7.4 notes. When negotiations are fully under way, one common approach involves starting with an issue in which there will be a strong impact on all participants, only minor disagreements are present, and a strong likelihood of agreement exists. Then, each party explains how it views the situation. At this point, the session will be more effective if someone encourages participants to express their sides in sufficient detail to ensure that all involved understand the individual’s or group’s viewpoint. Each partici- pant should have a chance to describe how he or she views the situation.

Effective negotiators engage in active listening, ask open-ended questions, and focus on collecting information, while asking questions that clarify the message and encourage the speaker with support and positive feedback (Brooks, 2003). When answering questions,

For Review

Briefly describe the two activities that take place in the preliminary state of negotiation.

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CHAPTER 7Section 7.3 The Stages of Negotiation

follow two key guidelines. First, never answer until the question is fully understood. Sec- ond, take time to think through your answer. Table 7.8 indicates methods of response to bargaining questions.

Table 7.8: Responding to questions during negotiations

Method of Response Purpose

Complete and forthright answers To move forward to the next issue

Partial answer Tactfully avoid revealing damaging information

Clarify the question Then, answer the part that best serves your interests

Answer a different question To gain an advantage by what you say

Create a positive response Turn a disadvantage into an advantage

Sources: Putnam, L. L., & Poole, M. S. (1987). Conflict and negotiation, in Jablin, F., Putnam, L., Roberts, K., & Porter, L. (eds.) Handbook of organizational communication. Los Angeles, CA: Sage Publications. Byrnes, J. F. (1987). Ten guidelines for effective negotiation. Business Horizons, May–June, 7–12.

Framing A bargaining session moves more efficiently when both parties begin by identifying specific items to be discussed. A frame is a subjective mechanism through which negotiators can make sense of situations, leading them to pursue or avoid subsequent actions (Goffman, 1974; Bateson, 1972). The types of frames used in negotiations are substantive, outcome, aspirational, and loss-gain. A substantive frame identifies a primary point of disagreement. An outcome frame suggests what a negotiator seeks to achieve as a result of the process. An aspirational frame moves from one small issue to a larger set of interests. A loss-gain frame defines the risks and rewards associated with various outcomes (Lewicki, Barry, & Saunders, 2010). Issues should be framed to be presented in a nonjudgmental, neutral manner whenever possible. Beyond starting on an agreeable note, most negotiations will bring up issues about which the parties will disagree, creating the framing process.

As part of the initial process, both sides reveal information that benefits their arguments and avoid revealing damaging information. Persuasion techniques are employed, includ- ing silence, verifying information, and reconfiguring arguments to best suit a party’s posi- tion (Goldman & Rojot, 2003).

When in the framing phase, salespeople use a variety of techniques. Some attempt to control the agenda of the sales meeting by ensuring that only relevant information that pertains to the potential sale is discussed. Buyers may attempt to control the agenda as well. Either party may attempt to slice a deal by tabling issues on which they cannot reach agreement and instead focusing on smaller slices of the deal. They may also attempt to split the difference when arriving at a final deal. Here, they would focus on meeting halfway or somewhere in between the parties’ desired outcome on subjects such as price, delivery demands, and other issues pertaining to the final agreement.

Discovery During the discovery stage, parties try to generate options for settlement. Discovery involves reviewing the needs of parties that relate to disputed areas and looking for

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agreements in principle. Negotiators may consider breaking a major issue into smaller, more manageable issues and generating solutions for these. Discovery tactics are (Lewicki, Barry, & Saunders, 2010, pp. 71–106):

• alternating proposals, allowing each side to “win” certain elements • presenting position/counter-position arguments • making trades or concessions for items of value • trying to generate ideas that benefit both sides

Tradeoffs and compromises are explored in the discovery phase. Negotiators avoid any attempt by the other side to rely on a “higher authority,” such as, “My boss won’t go for that offer,” as a rationale for not meeting vari- ous negotiation points. Also, the effective bargainers are aware of the “vise” tactic, in which the other side continually uses phrases such as, “You’ll have to do better than that,” to put the squeeze on a bargaining position.

Discovery results in true give- and-take. As the two parties

defend their areas of greatest interest, they can offer compromises on other matters. Unless or until a stalemate occurs, discovery continues.

Consensus Consensus or a lack of agreement will be signaled in different ways. A lack of agreement will be indicated when one side concludes that an impasse has been reached. To handle an impasse, three approaches are to offer to set the issue aside and deal with other issues, change one of the negotiating points, or bring in a third party to seek a resolution.

The second type of signal notes that agreeable terms are within sight. When a negotiator says something along the lines of, “That sounds like something we can live with,” the sig- nal has been sent. When a union negotiator responds, “I think our members would ratify that proposal,” a signal of potential consensus and agreement has been offered.

Packaging Packaging begins after a signal has been sent that an agreement is possible. It takes place when negotiators assess final options for settlement. This includes a review of the inter- ests of the parties involved and an analysis of how many interests can be met by the offered options. Part of assessing options includes the evaluation of costs and benefits of selecting each option.

Hemera/Thinkstock Discovery involves reviewing the needs of parties that relate to disputed areas and looking for agreements in principle.

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CHAPTER 7Section 7.3 The Stages of Negotiation

At that point, a party can revise bargaining strategies if necessary. Typically, one side’s power increases by getting the other side to commit first. To move toward the final stage of negotiation, both sides should be willing to note agreement.

One method used to signify that an agreement has been reached involves writing a letter of intent. Often these take the form of a memo, rather than a full letter, and can be sent elec- tronically. The purpose served will be to make sure no surprises result later (Byrnes, 1987). Verbal statements such as “Are we ready to act?” and “Have we got a deal?” indicate that the ending stage has been reached.

Ending Stage

The ending stage can begin after the two parties completely agree to the alternative or set of alternatives. A sale reaches the ending stage when the terms, including price, delivery schedule, financing, and other matters have been finalized. An agreement between a com- pany and a union occurs when all issues present in the bargaining session are resolved. An individual negotiating for salary and benefits reaches the ending stage when all ele- ments of the employment contract have been agreed upon. Two elements of the ending stage are the close and the follow-up.

The Close The parties should establish a procedural means to formal- ize the close. A close will take the form of a written memo or a legal contract, depending on the scale and scope of the agreement. Any written docu- ment should contain sufficient detail to implement the agree- ment and handle any potential contingencies or complications. In many situations, monitor- ing protocols are established to make sure both sides comply with the terms of the agreement.

An individual negotiating for a job with a company has reached the close when a con- tract or memo spells out the date employment will begin, along with all of the details

For Review

What four processes take place during the bargaining state of a negotiation?

iStockphoto/Thinkstock Many times, a handshake accompanies a close.

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CHAPTER 7Section 7.3 The Stages of Negotiation

of the agreement. A close will often simply be a verbal commitment by the employer and applicant, but many such agreements are put in writing, especially for professional occupations.

To close a sale, a contract or similar document specifying the nature of the purchase will be signed or verbally agreed upon by both parties. Monitoring in a sales situation includes updates regarding when orders have been shipped and received. The contents sent in a shipment are noted in a bill of lading. A performance bond also helps guarantee that a project will be properly completed, as with construction of a building or facility.

Mergers, joint ventures, and more complex agreements between companies require a more-detailed close. Normally, notice of a final agreement or close occurs when the two organizations have formally signed legal documents creating the relationship.

For a union-management agreement to close, the bargaining contract has been agreed upon by the negotiators and then a vote by union members will certify the contract. In a formal ceremony, negotiators for both sides will sign the final document. Monitoring of union-management agreements normally includes specified procedures for filing griev- ances regarding contract violations or other matters of contention or disagreement.

Many times, a handshake accompanies a close. Congratulations are offered, and both par- ties can relax and enjoy the accomplishment of completing an acceptable agreement.

Follow-up The standard methods used to follow up include emails, phone calls, letters, and other interactions. These contacts help reassure the other side that the agreement is acceptable and that the terms will be carried out. Then, over time, further efforts can be made to continue the relationship through phone calls, email, videoconferences, mail, and per- sonal visits.

In summary, effective negotiations take place when both sides take seriously each aspect of the three-step process. Careful preparations include analysis of the receiver, sender, and the purpose of the negotiation. The bargaining stage plays out through professional framing, discovery, consensus, and packaging, relying on persuasion rather than taking matters personally. A cordial ending involves a ceremonial close, along with all necessary paperwork and efforts to sustain the relationship.

For Review

What two activities are involved in the ending stage of the negotiation process?

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CHAPTER 7Section 7.4 Conflict and Management Communication

7.4 Conflict and Management Communication

Learning Objective # 4: What forms of conflict exist in organizations, and what roles do communication channels play in those conflicts?

Interpretations of the term “conflict” have taken several directions in the past few decades. One early perspective suggested that conflict constitutes a negative force. Words such as “violent,” “destructive,” and “angry” portray this point of view. As time passed, conflict began to be conceptualized as a continuum from mild disagreement to major confrontations, but still with a negative connotation. More recently, concepts of con- flict have evolved from considering it as something to be avoided or eliminated to viewing conflict as an inevitable, but manageable, process. Some see conflict as a driving force that leads to innovation and much-needed change (Fink, 1968; De Dreu & Van de Vliert, 1997).

For our purposes, conflict will be defined as a circumstance in which one party negatively affects or seeks to negatively affect another party in both observable and perceived ways (Thomas, 1992; Wall & Callister, 1995). Some forms of conflict take place even when it would be difficult to point it out as an observable event. In others, the manifest strife will be readily apparent.

Conflict can be compared to another concept, competition, which is a situation in which all parties in an event or situation attempt to do their best, and the winner emerges as the per- son or group with the highest level of performance. A sales contest between individuals or teams is a competition; a confrontation between two members of a sales force in which one accuses the other of “stealing a sale” becomes a conflict situation.

Conflict has been conceptualized as taking two forms. Functional conflict serves the orga- nization’s interests in some way. An example of functional conflict would be one in which improvement in performance or greater cooperation among individuals or groups takes place. Other terms used to describe functional conflict include constructive, cooperative, and substantive conflict (McGrath, 1984).

Dysfunctional conflicts include the destructive activities that hinder group or organiza- tional performance (Amason, 1996). Poor organizational communication can create dys- functional conflicts. Quality communication systems assist in developing and resolving functional conflicts, and aid in avoiding many conflicts.

Levels of Conflict

Many forms of conflict exist. Members of the business community should be aware that four levels of conflict occur in the workplace. Resolving conflict cannot occur until the level has been properly identified. The four levels of conflict are:

For Review

Define conflict, functional conflict, and dysfunctional conflict.

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CHAPTER 7Section 7.4 Conflict and Management Communication

1. between individuals 2. between groups or departments 3. between companies 4. with the government

Communication processes often accompany the various forms of conflict. Table 7.9 lists the communication venues that can become part of both functional and dysfunctional conflicts.

Table 7.9: Communication channels and conflict

Interpersonal Group Between Companies With the Government

Face-to-face verbal Meetings Advertising Meetings with officials

Memos and letters Informal channels Media releases Media releases

Telephone Social media Court documents Court documents

Email and text Email and memos Social media Social media

Social media Meetings with supervisors

Conflicts Between Individuals Conflicts between individuals, or interpersonal conflicts, take place between employees both on- and off-site. Personality con- flicts often result from workplace incivility and risky communica- tion. Examples of incivility and risky communication are: sexu- ally inappropriate comments, racial or ethnic slurs, ridicule of older or younger workers, deri- sion based on sexual orientation, and insensitive comments about physical or mental disabilities (Blau & Anderson, 2005).

Workplace bullying is repeated, health-harming mistreatment of one or more persons. Bullying

For Review

What four levels of conflict take place in business settings?

Jupiterimages/Thinkstock Workplace bullying is repeated, health-harming mistreatment of one or more persons. Bullying involves one or more perpetrators and takes the form of verbal abuse, offensive conduct, and work interference.

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CHAPTER 7Section 7.4 Conflict and Management Communication

involves one or more perpetrators and takes the form of verbal abuse, offensive conduct, and work interference (Workplace Bullying Institute, 2011). Workplace bullying can create another forum for conflict. Reyner & Hoel (1997) identify five types of workplace bully- ing, including the items in Table 7.10.

Bullying can happen at the same organizational rank (employee to employee) or involve hostility by a supervisor toward an employee. The tactics in Table 7.10 lead to various types of conflicts, some of which go unresolved, as the individual is too intimidated to react. Others lead to withdrawal behaviors, including increased absenteeism and the search for a different job.

Table 7.10: Types of workplace bullying

Threats to professional status

Belittling opinion

Public professional humiliation

Accusation regarding lack of effort

Threats to personal standing

Name-calling

Insults

Intimidation

Devaluation with regard to age

Isolation Preventing access to opportunities

Physical or social isolation

Withholding of information

Overwork Undue pressure

Impossible deadlines

Unnecessary disruptions

Destabilization Failure to give credit when due

Meaningless tasks

Removal of responsibility

Repeated reminders of blunders

Setting up to fail

Source: Rayner, C., & Hoel, H. (1997). A summary review of literature relating to workplace bullying. Journal of Community and Applied Social Psychology, 7(1) 191–191.

Conflicts between individuals play out in many ways, as do the bullying tactics in Table 7.10. Face-to-face confrontations are the most visible and require the most direct, quick action. Other interpersonal conflicts take place in the form of email exchanges, comments made in meetings, questions and arguments following presentations, text messages, and sometimes hostile memos and letters. Telephone skirmishes are also common in com- merce. More recently, postings on Facebook, in Twitter accounts, and through other social media indicate the presence of conflict. Remember that anything you post electronically, such as an email or text, is typically considered the property of the company. As with any

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CHAPTER 7Section 7.4 Conflict and Management Communication

message you put in writing, it can provide evidence of your misbehavior, inappropriate use of language, and other transgressions.

Groups and Departments Intragroup conflict refers to incidents between members of one group. Disagreements about goals, methods of operation, and who will be the leader create intragroup conflicts. The end result can be poor decisions and ineffective group functioning, when conflicts are not properly managed and resolved (Bazerman & Neale, 1992). Intragroup conflict takes the forms of confrontations during meetings, between group members in other locations (face-to-face) and also by phone and email, and through social media. Many times, infor- mal communication or gossip becomes part of the conflict process.

Intergroup conflict transpires between various groups or departments. Besides conflicts between departments within companies, other factions can emerge around any common point between employees (e.g., ethnicity, gender, position of power, etc.) and this can become the basis for various battles. Intergroup conflicts emerge when disagreements about goals, differences of opinion about which group should be assigned a project or task, or budget allocations become the focus of attention. Intergroup conflicts may be brought to the attention of management through memos and emails, and by asking for personal contacts with managers at high levels to present grievances regarding the con- duct of the other group or department.

Conflicts Between Companies Numerous conflicts emerge between companies over proprietary matters. Often, conflicts involve advertising claims or other business tactics deemed unfair or designed to compete in unfair, illegal, or unethical ways. In those circumstances, company leaders engage in private negotiations, issue public statements and releases, and request the intervention of entities such as the Better Business Bureau and Federal Trade Commission.

As an example of conflicts between organizations, the toy company Mattel employed an individual named Carter Bryant for many years. Bryant left the company and became part of MGA Entertainment, where he designed and developed the popular Bratz line of dolls to compete with Mattel’s Barbie brand. Mattel’s executives claimed that Bryant came up with the idea for the Bratz line while still employed at Mattel. After intense con- frontations, the matter went to court. Mattel won a $100 million judgment against MGA Entertainment; however, no punitive damages were assessed. Both sides claimed victory as a result (WCCO, 2010).

A wide range of additional conflicts are possible beyond disputes over products. Compa- nies may dispute rights to other properties, employment of rival workers, theft of trade

For Review

Describe intragroup and intergroup conflict.

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CHAPTER 7Section 7.4 Conflict and Management Communication

secrets, and clash over suppliers and retail outlets. The issues and communication tactics vary by the type of engagement involved.

Conflicts With the Government Many companies engage in various types of conflict with governmental officials and agen- cies. Disagreements over regulations, taxes due, and meeting various regulatory require- ments can spur clashes with individuals from the government. These include encounters with local, state, and national officials, depending on the size and scope of the company and the issue involved. Also, some company managers in international firms cope with governmental officials from other countries.

Domestically, conflicts arise with representatives of the Environmental Protection Agency, Occupational Safety and Health Administration, Internal Revenue Service, Food and Drug Administration, and Federal Trade Commission. Communication venues with these individuals include for- mal written reports, in-person meetings, telephone conversa- tions, email correspondence, courtrooms, and formal media- tion situations. An increasing number of companies take dis- putes with governmental orga- nizations to the public through public relations releases and social media campaigns.

Each of these four types of con- flict requires an intervention. In the case of an intrapersonal con- flict, a counselor or adviser may assist. Intragroup and inter- group conflicts may be resolved in a variety of ways, most notably by the intervention of managers. Conflicts between companies and with the government often result in reliance on attorneys to assist in reach- ing an acceptable solution. Managers choose the most appropriate method for dealing with each problem as it arises.

Stages of Conflict

In 1967, Louis Pondy developed an often-used model of conflict. A modified version appears as Figure 7.1. Pondy’s model notes the presence of the conflict cycle, in which individuals or groups engage in a series of conflicts, even when they are only spectators. This causes them to become increasingly sensitized to the events, which in turn makes subsequent conflict more likely. After a series of conflicts has been resolved, the company enters a more tranquil period. During that time, individuals and groups may become more patient with each other, and the net result will be reduced numbers of potential and open conflicts. Managerial skill and intervention can break the cycle of increasing conflict.

iStockphoto/Thinkstock Conflicts between companies and with the government may involve the use of formal mediation.

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CHAPTER 7Section 7.4 Conflict and Management Communication

As shown in Figure 7.1, latent conflict represents all the potential sources of conflict at the individual or group level. These potential sources may or may not erupt into open con- frontations. Some problems may exist for years without ever becoming manifest. Others may take a “fast track” and quickly develop into altercations. Table 7.11 lists the potential sources of conflict within an organization. A lack of communication or poor communication can worsen latent conflicts. Misinterpreted messages often heighten personality issues and other disagreements. Posts on social media can also exacerbate any latent sources of conflict.

Table 7.11: Sources of conflict

Individual Group or Departmental

Job assignments Group task assignments

Performance appraisals Budgets/resource allocation

Promotions Personalities of group members

Pay raises Dependence/bottlenecks

Personality issues and incivility Goals

Dependence/bottlenecks Communication breakdown

Goals Ethical issues

Status differences

Communication breakdown

Power differences

Ethical violations

Inappropriate use of social media

Sources: Thomas, K. W. (1994). Conflict and negotiation processes in organizations, in Dunnette, M. D., & Hough, L. M. (eds.) Handbook of Industrial and Organizational Psychology, second edition, Vol. 3. Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists. Jehn, K. A. (1994). Enhancing effectiveness: An investigation of advantages and disadvantages of value-based intragroup conflict. International Journal of Conflict Management, 5(3) 223–238. Baack, D. (1998). Organizational behavior. Houston, TX: Dame Publications, 406–408.

Aftermath

Resolution

Perceived conflict

Latent conflict

Felt conflict

Open conflict

Figure 7.1: An adaptation of Pondy’s conflict model

This adapted version of Pondy’s model shows the conflict cycle, which starts with latent conflict or all the potential sources of the conflict. The cycle continues with felt and perceived conflicts. Then comes open conflict, which is the confrontation resulting from escalation of the issue. After open conflict, resolution must take place. The aftermath of the conflict then cycles back to latent conflict again.

Adapted from: L. R. Pondy (1967). Organizational Conflict: Concepts and Models. Administrative Science Quarterly, 12 (September), 296–320.

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CHAPTER 7Section 7.5 Conflict Resolution

Felt conflict occurs when people know something is wrong but cannot pinpoint the source. It is not unusual to have the experience of walking into a room and feeling immediately that something is wrong without knowing the actual problem. That point is the felt con- flict stage.

Perceived conflict means that those near a conflict know the issues and the people involved, yet do not feel discomfort from it. In essence, the conflict is “someone else’s problem.” Often perceived conflicts appear in other departments or parts of the organization.

When two individuals or parties become engaged in a conflict, perceptions play major roles. Inaccurate perceptions of the other side’s position or of the issue at hand lead to inaccurate mutual perceptions in which resolution becomes increasingly difficult (Hynes, 2011). In essence, as felt and perceived conflicts intensify, perceptions become distorted. The tendency shifts toward interpreting people and events as either with one side or against that side. Thinking reverts to more stereotypical and biased forms that favor a person’s viewpoint. This sets the stage for more-open conflict.

Open conflicts appear as showdowns, confrontations, and other outward signs. Often an open conflict results from ongoing escalation of the issue. As this takes place, commu- nication between the parties decreases, issues become blurred by generalizations and blanket statements, such as “You always . . .” or “You never . . .” Parties to the conflict lock into positions and tend to magnify differences and minimize similarities between the two sides.

Manifest conflict behaviors include yelling, loud arguments, and violence toward others at the individual level and work slowdowns, strikes, and deliberate rules violations at the group level. Evidence of conflict in meetings or presentational formats can be revealed through the questions audience or team members pose. Controlling questions take the form of mini-lectures in which one side of an argument or disagreement seeks to dominate the other. Hostile questions aggressively point out the conflict at hand (Munter, 2012). Other forms of manifest conflict are found in memos, emails, and phone exchanges between the parties. At that point, conflict resolution must take place. A manager or arbiter will need to step in.

7.5 Conflict Resolution

Learning Objective # 5: What methods are available to resolve conflicts?

Conflict resolution includes an understanding of the concerns of the parties. Both concerns about personal outcomes and concerns about the other side’s outcomes affect the nature of the conflict. Figure 7.2 lists the potential responses.

For Review

What are the stages of the conflict cycle?

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CHAPTER 7Section 7.5 Conflict Resolution

When one side has little concern about the other’s outcomes, two responses are contend- ing and inaction. Contending or competing occurs when one side fully pursues its out- comes with no regard for the outcomes of the other side. Other terms associated with contending are dominating and forcing (Rahim, 1985). Forcing expresses a high concern for production with low concern for people (Hall, 1986). With this approach, one sees stronger tactics, such as threats, intimidation, and unilateral action.

Inaction or avoiding is withdrawal or remaining passive during the conflict. The passive party has little regard for its own outcome and is not concerned about the other’s out- come. Some authors equate inaction or avoiding with a low concern for people and a low concern for production in the workplace (Blake & Mouton, 1970). In response, one side retreats from the conflict.

A third response involves circumstances in which concerns for the other’s outcomes are high. Two possible actions are yielding and problem-solving. Yielding or accommodating involves seeking to help the other side achieve its outcomes with little care about one’s own outcomes. Yielding can also be termed obliging or smoothing (Rahim, 1985). It occurs when one party has a high concern for people and low concern for production (Thomas & Kilman, 1974).

Problem-solving or collaborating occurs when high concern for the other’s outcomes accompanies high concern for one’s own outcomes, and when the parties share high con- cerns for both people and production (Blake & Mouton, 1970). The goal becomes a win- win solution. Problem-solving has also been labeled as an integrating approach.

When moderate levels of concern emerge for both personal outcomes and the other side’s outcomes, and concerns for people and production are also moderate, the most common approach involves compromising. A compromise becomes more likely when consensus cannot be reached, the goals of the two parties are not strongly connected, and the two sides hold equal levels of power.

Low concern for other’s outcomes

High concern for other’s outcomes

Moderate concern for other’s outcomes

contending / competing

inaction / avoiding

yielding / accommodating

problem solving / collaborating

compromise

Figure 7.2: Responses to concerns

Both concerns about personal outcomes and the other side’s outcomes affect the nature of the conflict and subsequent responses.

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CHAPTER 7Section 7.5 Conflict Resolution

Managers normally have the responsibility of discovering the relative positions of the two sides to a conflict. In order to resolve the conflict, manag- ers try to identify the level of give-and-take that will be pos- sible by assessing the strength of commitment each side has to its position. More effective negotiations or resolutions then become possible. Then, the venue and method for conflict resolution can be chosen. Indi- vidual meetings and group set- tings can accommodate conflict resolution.

The Steps of Conflict Resolution

A manifest conflict often requires a cooling-off period before any attempt at resolution can start. When emotions are high, reasonable dialog will be unlikely. When an arbiter or manager surmises that both sides have sufficiently calmed down, conflict resolution can commence. The steps of the conflict resolution process are:

1. Identify the parties involved. 2. Identify the issues. 3. Identify the positions of the parties. 4. Find the bargaining zone. 5. Make a decision.

Managers identify the parties by investigating whether a conflict involves individuals or groups. Identifying the issues takes time. Often a conflict becomes manifest through an unrelated issue. When two employees become involved in a shoving match over a space in the parking lot, the real conflict may be that one person was passed over for a promo- tion that was given to the person who “stole” his parking space.

When identifying the positions of the parties, a two-person or two-group conflict should have a fairly straightforward analysis. Many times, however, a problem or concern exhib- its many facets, and the net result will be that several people or coalitions have some sort

For Review

What are the five main responses possible in conflict resolution, based on levels of concern for others?

Eyecandy Images/Thinkstock Conflict resolution is an important management communication activity.

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CHAPTER 7Section 7.5 Conflict Resolution

of vested interest. In that circumstance, the moderator tries to determine the agendas of each party.

The bargaining zone may be kept confidential, presented openly, or can be deciphered by a third party. In a conflict resolution, the bargaining zone represents the settlement range in a negotiation, or the boundaries of acceptable solutions for both sides. It consists of the area in which give-and-take can be carried out. At times, no such range may be found; one side will win and the other will lose. Table 7.12 suggests key negotiation techniques when seeking to resolve a disagreement.

Table 7.12: Negotiation techniques during conflict resolution

Focus on ideas and information rather than personalities

Find areas of agreement

Deal with important rather than trivial issues

Discuss potential tradeoffs

Identify objective criteria when assessing solutions

Find ways to move on following a resolution

Source: Andrews, D. C., & Andrews, W. D. (2004). Management communication: A guide. Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company, 150–152.

Making the final decision determines the outcome of the conflict. A win-win solution allows all sides to make gains in the conflict resolution. Win-win solutions can occur only when four conditions have been met (Zand, 1972):

1. The parties believe cooperation will be better than conflict. 2. The parties trust each other. 3. Status differences between the parties have been minimized. 4. Mutually acceptable solutions can be found.

A win-lose solution means one side gains the advantage over the other. A lose-lose, or com- promise, means both parties gain on some issues but lose on others (Rackham, 1976).

When the result of a conflict resolution has been well handled, benefits may appear. Table 7.13 lists some of the positive outcomes associated with dealing directly with conflict. These occur at the interpersonal, intergroup, and intragroup levels.

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CHAPTER 7Section 7.5 Conflict Resolution

Table 7.13: Benefits of dealing directly with conflict

Individual

Stronger relationships with co-workers

Increased self-respect for taking action

Personal growth and development in understanding how you responded

Organizational

Increased efficiency and effectiveness following effective resolution

Spurs creativity

Allows for synergy and teamwork among employees

Source: O’Rourke, J. S. IV (2010). Management communication: A case-analysis approach (4th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Conflict Outcomes

The goal of any conflict resolution should be to reach a functional settlement. Three desired outcomes of conflict resolution are (1) agreement, (2) stronger relationships, and (3) orga- nizational learning. Agreement has been achieved when both sides believe a settlement was fair or equitable. Stronger relationships emerge when both parties try to build trust and goodwill for the future. Organizational learning takes place when an individual or group achieves greater self-awareness and/or better understands how to find creative solutions to problems. While desirable, these goals will be difficult to achieve. Many times, the negative aftereffects of conflict, as listed in Table 7.14, become the result.

Table 7.14: Potential negative aftereffects of conflicts

Anger, revenge, continuing attempts to make the other side look bad

Noncompliance with orders and decisions

Reduced effort/passive resistance

Empire building, withholding information, territory defense

Increasingly legalistic approach to tasks and assignments

Withdrawal behaviors such as daydreaming or meeting in groups to visit

New lobbying efforts

Sarcasm in front of the mediator

Increased sensitivity to statements and comments

For Review

What are the steps of conflict resolution?

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CHAPTER 7Section 7.6 Chapter Review

Effective management of conflict includes two primary activities. The first involves man- agers actively analyzing potential sources of conflict at all times. Then reducing, modi- fying, or removing the source can be accomplished. Second, managers should seek to become adept conflict arbiters. Remember that impartiality, a sense of humor, and a calm disposition are major assets in conflict resolution.

7.6 Chapter Review

Negotiation is a give-and-take decision-making process involving interdependent parties with differing objectives or outcome preferences. Distributive negotiations involve a single issue and a zero-sum game in which one side’s gains becomes the other side’s losses (win-lose). Integrative negotiation resembles a problem-solving agenda in which two or more sides try to obtain a settlement that benefits all sides. Negotiations take place between individuals and companies, between companies, and when compa- nies bargain with outside groups such as unions, the government, or special interests.

Prior to entering a negotiation, managers should believe it represents the best option. By studying the bargaining environment, the availability of bargaining resources, and the characteristics of the bargaining issue, the preconditions to negotiation can be met.

The three stages of negotiation are the preliminary, bargaining, and ending phases. In the preliminary stage, the maximum supportable outcome and lowest supportable outcome define the settlement range or bargaining zone. This zone for each side can be kept confi- dential or shared openly across the bargaining table. BATNA represents the best accept- able alternative to a negotiated agreement, which specifies the lowest acceptable value to a party as a substitute to a stalemate. Bargaining consists of framing, discovery, consen- sus, and packaging. The ending stage includes the close and efforts to sustain a future relationship.

Conflict is a circumstance in which one party negatively affects or seeks to negatively affect another party in both observable and perceived ways. Functional conflict occurs when the organization’s interests are served in some way. Dysfunctional conflict includes the destructive activities that hinder group or organizational performance. Conflicts occur between individuals, between groups or departments, with other companies, and with the government. The stages of conflict are latent, perceived, felt, and open phases.

Responses to conflict are determined by the level of concern for others versus concern for one’s own side. Responses include contending/competing, inaction/avoiding, yielding/ accommodating, problem-solving/collaborating, and compromise. The steps of conflict resolution begin with identifying the parties involved. Then, a manager or someone who

For Review

What benefits are associated with dealing directly with a conflict?

What negative effects can accompany a conflict resolution?

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CHAPTER 7Section 7.6 Chapter Review

intervenes identifies the issues, the positions of the parties, and attempts to discover the bargaining zone. Finally, a decision will be reached, including win-win, win-lose, and lose-lose options. Conflicts offer both potential benefits and problems, depending on how they arise and how they are settled.

Key Terms

BATNA The best alternative to a negotiated agreement that identifies the lowest accept- able value to a party as a substitute to a stalemate.

conflict A circumstance in which one party negatively affects or seeks to negatively affect another party in both observable and per- ceived ways.

distributive negotiations A negotiation involv- ing a single issue and a zero-sum game in which one side’s gains become the other side’s losses (win-lose).

dysfunctional conflicts Conflicts that include the destructive activities that hinder group or organizational performance.

functional conflict Conflict that occurs when the organization’s interests are served in some way, such as improvement in perfor- mance or greater cooperation among indi- viduals or groups; also called constructive or cooperative conflict.

integrative negotiation A problem-solving negotiation agenda in which both sides try to obtain a settlement that benefits both, or a win-win solution.

intergroup conflict Conflicts that take place between various groups or department over matters such as disagreements about goals, differences of opinion about which group should be assigned a project or task, or budget allocations.

intragroup conflict Incidents between mem- bers of a group, including disagreements about goals, methods of operation, and who will be the leader.

lowest supportable outcome The least amount or least favorable position a side will accept from a negotiation.

maximum supportable outcome The absolute most a side can ask for as an opening position, within reason.

negotiation A give-and-take decision-making process involving interdependent parties with differing objectives or outcome preferences.

stakeholder group A group of people with a vested interest in the outcome of a negotiation.

workplace bullying Repeated, health-harming mistreatment of one or more persons by one or more perpetrators that takes the form of verbal abuse, offensive conduct, and work interference.

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CHAPTER 7Section 7.6 Chapter Review

For Review With Possible Responses

1. Define negotiation, distributive negotiation, and integrative negotiation. Negotiation is a give-and-take decision-making process involving interdependent parties with differing objectives or outcome preferences. When a single issue is involved, and a zero-sum game exists in which one’s side gain or advantage becomes the other side’s loss or disadvantage, it is a distributive negotiation. An integrative negotiation is a problem- solving agenda in which two or more sides try to obtain a settlement that benefits both.

2. What three types of negotiations take place in the business community? Individual with company, company with company, company with other organization.

3. What three preconditions to negotiations should be examined to see if bargaining should take place? Three preconditions are understanding the bargaining environment, the availability of bargaining resources, and the characteristics of the bargaining issue.

4. What are the three main stages of the negotiation process? The preliminary stage, the bargaining stage, and the ending stage.

5. Define maximum supportable outcome, lowest supportable outcome, and BATNA. The maximum supportable outcome is the absolute most a side can ask for as an opening position, within reason. The lowest supportable outcome constitutes the least amount or least favorable position a side will accept from a negotiation. BATNA, or best alternative to a negotiated agreement, identifies the lowest acceptable value to a party as a substitute to a stalemate.

6. Briefly describe the two activities that take place in the preliminary stage of negotiation. In the preliminary stage, two primary activities receive attention: preparation and open- ing. During preparation, managers identify and evaluate the receiver, sender, and pur- pose of the negotiation. The opening begins when parties make initial contact in person, by telephone, by mail, or online. In this stage, negotiators seek to build rapport and try to establish a cordial relationship.

7. What four processes take place during the bargaining stage of a negotiation? The bargaining stage includes the processes of framing, discovery, consensus, and packaging.

8. What two activities are involved in the ending stage of the negotiation process? Two elements of the ending stage are the close and the follow-up.

9. Define conflict, functional conflict, and dysfunctional conflict. Conflict is a circumstance in which one party negatively affects or seeks to negatively affect another party in both observable and perceived ways. Functional conflict serves the organization’s interests in some way. Dysfunctional conflicts include the destructive activities that hinder group or organizational performance

10. What four levels of conflict take place in business settings? The four levels of conflict are those between individuals, between groups or departments, between companies, and with the government. Intergroup conflict transpires between various groups or departments.

11. Describe intragroup and intergroup conflict. Intragroup conflict refers to incidents between members of one group. Intergroup conflict transpires between various groups or departments.

12. What are the stages of the conflict cycle? Latent conflict, perceived and/or felt conflict, open conflict, conflict resolution, and con- flict aftermath.

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CHAPTER 7Section 7.6 Chapter Review

13. What are the five main responses possible in a conflict resolution, based on levels of concern for others? Contending/competing, inaction/avoiding, yielding/accommodating, problem solving/col- laborating, and compromise.

14. What are the steps of conflict resolution? The steps of the conflict resolution process are: Identify the parties involved. Identify the issues. Identify the positions of the parties. Find the bargaining zone. Make a decision.

15. What benefits are associated with dealing directly with conflict? For individuals, there can be stronger relationships with co-workers, increased self- respect for taking action, and personal growth and development in understanding how you responded. For organizations, there can be increased efficiency and effectiveness following effective resolution, as well as greater creativity, and it allows for synergy and teamwork among employees.

16. What negative effects can accompany a conflict resolution? The potential negative aftereffects include: anger, revenge, continuing attempts to make the other side look bad, noncompliance with orders and decisions, reduced effort/passive resistance, empire-building, withholding information, territory defense, an increasingly legalistic approach to tasks and assignments, withdrawal behaviors such as daydreaming or meeting in groups to visit, new lobbying efforts, sarcasm in front of the mediator, and increased sensitivity to statements and comments.

Analytical Exercises

1. The past several chapters have examined channel richness in terms of vari- ous media, including face-to-face interactions, telephone conversations, emails, teleconferencing, letters, memos, reports, and presentations. Discuss the role and importance of channel richness in negotiations in these circumstances: a. Individual bargaining for wages and working conditions b. Airline companies seeking to form an international partnership c. Union-management bargaining

2. Describe the potential for conflict and the types of conflict that might be expected to emerge in the following negotiations. Then explain the most likely channels of a. communication to be used in each circumstance. b. individual bargaining for wages c. sales call—company to company d. company leaders with union e. company leaders with the government f. company leaders with leaders of a special-interest group

3. The five sources of influence in negotiations include legitimate, reward, coercive, expertise, and charisma. Explain how these would be present for both sides of a negotiation in the following bargaining circumstances. Then explain which chan- nels of communication should be used in the negotiation. a. successful CEO negotiating to become CEO of a different company b. Intel negotiating to sell its processors to a new computer company c. United Auto Workers negotiating with General Motors, which is seeking to

reduce pay and benefits to stay in business d. Major financial institution bargaining with the United States government for

a loan to maintain operations

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CHAPTER 7Section 7.7 Case Studies

4. Make a chart that explains the potential for conflict, the type of conflict to be expected, and the channels of communication that should be used in the follow- ing stages of negotiation:

Preliminary Stage Bargaining Stage Ending Stage

Prepare Framing Close

Open Discovery Follow-up

Consensus

Packaging

5. At times, a conflict stands a better chance of effective resolution when a third party intervenes. Alternative dispute resolution attempts to incorporate more user-friendly methods of dispute resolution, seeking to avoid adversarial approaches. The methods used in this approach include facilitation, concilia- tion, peer review, ombudsman, mediation, and arbitration. Facilitation involves a third party urging the two sides to meet and to deal directly in a constructive, positive fashion. Conciliation uses a neutral third party who acts informally as a communication conduit to help resolve a dispute without directly meeting. Peer review asks a panel of trustworthy co-workers who can remain objective to render a nonbinding verdict or opinion about how the conflict should be resolved. An ombudsman will be a respected employee who will hear both sides of an argument and attempt to arrange a solution that is acceptable to both sides. Mediation employs a trained arbiter to find innovative solutions to the conflict. Arbitration retains a third party who will operate in a formal, court-like environ- ment and will hear testimony and evidence before rendering a judgment about how the conflict should be resolved. Describe three circumstances in which these options would be better than a manager stepping in to resolve a conflict.

7.7 Case Studies

Case Study 1: Cutting the Best Deal

Jennifer Swann faced one of the bigger decisions in her young life. She graduated college with a degree in physiology but changed course and became a massage therapist instead. She built a solid clientele list while working in a local beauty salon, HairPros. She paid a monthly rental fee for booth space and in exchange for some telephone support in terms of employees taking messages. More important, the salon sold gift certificates on her behalf, which greatly increased her business, espe- cially during the holidays.

Tragically, a fire destroyed the HairPros facility. After careful consideration, its owner, Bruce Penske, decided to relocate to a more upscale part of the city rather than to rebuild on the current lot. As part of the moving process, Bruce also felt it was time to renegotiate his agreement with Jennifer.

Meanwhile, Jennifer had taken the initiative to rent a separate space during the initial period in which HairPros was closed. She informed her clients that they could receive massage at the (continued)

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CHAPTER 7Section 7.7 Case Studies

same rate in her temporary location, which helped maintain her income. She no longer had the advan- tage of phone service, but had mostly relied on her own cell phone to make appointments for the past year. She was concerned about losing gift-certificate business. At the same time, the rental for her temporary office was lower than the amount Bruce had charged, and she was able to set her own hours. She did not tell Bruce about her temporary office for the first three weeks following the fire.

After a month had passed and HairPros was about to resume operations, Bruce offered Jennifer a new agreement. He asked her to raise her rates for all her services. In exchange, he was willing to lower her rental fee and pay her a small amount to supervise that part of his business. He notified Jennifer of his plans to hire a second therapist, as the new facility would have two rooms. The new therapist would charge a lower rate per session. Jennifer would have first choice of rooms.

Jennifer worried that most new business, including the part that came from gift-certificate sales, would go to the second therapist. She also wondered if the modest increase in her rates would affect her regular customers. At the same time, she worried that “going solo” by staying in her temporary location and cutting ties with HairPros would be a risky move. She would no longer have referrals from hairstylists in the same location, several of whom were her clients.

Review Questions

1. What are the bargaining issues in this scenario? 2. What channels of communication should Bruce and Jennifer use while negotiating their new

arrangement? 3. What would define the settlement zone in this situation? 4. What should Jennifer do? Defend your answer.

Case Study 2: Meet the New Boss

Winston’s Cleaning Service had enjoyed a long run as the premier clean-up company in the greater Cincinnati area. Myron Winston founded the company three decades earlier and built the business through careful attention to customer and employee needs. He was well known for giving unsched- uled bonuses when he believed an employee or team had gone above and beyond to keep a cli- ent happy. The local Chamber of Commerce had recognized Winston for building the city’s “Most Respected Minority-Owned Company.”

Winston’s Cleaning Service served a variety of local firms. Shifts began at 6 p.m. as crews would head to office buildings, banks, and other facilities that closed earlier in the day. Shifts ended at 2:00 a.m. Employees worked five days per week, with either Saturday or Sunday off, along with one weekday. They received a week of paid vacation after one year of service, two weeks per year for two to five years on the job, and three weeks per year for any time after five years. Wages were slightly above prevailing local rates for comparable work.

When Myron Winston retired, his son Tyler Winston took over the role of top manager. Unfortunately, after only three years in the role, he was forced to step down because of health problems. He did retain ownership of the company. The new company manager was promoted from the ranks. Billy Branton was known for his willingness to tackle the most repugnant tasks, including sewage spills and other nasty assignments. He was always the first to arrive and the last to leave for a shift.

It did not take long for Branton to make his mark. He began assigning workers to come in for five con- secutive days, even when this meant the worker had to be on the job over the weekend.

Case Study 1: Cutting the Best Deal (continued)

(continued)

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CHAPTER 7Section 7.7 Case Studies

He also tended to be harsh and critical about poor performance, rather than excited and supportive for superior work. It did not take long for employee grumbling to grow.

A group of employees contacted Tyler Winston about the situation. They expressed concern that Branton was gradually changing the culture of the company. They carefully noted that Branton did not seem to value their efforts in the same way that Tyler and Myron Winston had over the years. Tyler promised to visit with Branton to discuss the issues.

Two weeks later, however, the situation reached a boiling point. Branton announced that there would be no further raises until companywide performance improved. He stated that there was too much malingering at various sites, making jobs take too long. Then, Branton notified employees that he had scheduled shifts for Thanksgiving night, Christmas Eve and Christmas night, as well as New Year’s Eve and New Year’s night, because he had contacted organizations and companies that wanted clean-up services on those occasions. The Winston family had always made sure that all employees had each of those evenings free, along with other holidays such as Hanukkah, Easter, Passover, Memorial Day, the Fourth of July, Labor Day and even President’s Day.

Branton sniffed when asked about those working additional holidays. “What are you complaining about? You make time and a half,” he told a group of employees.

“What if we would rather have time with our families?” asked one brave employee.

“You know, in this economy, I just can’t imagine it would be too hard to replace someone,” came the reply.

“You know,” the employee responded, “I have friends that are Teamsters. They have been talking about paying this company a visit. Maybe they could get us organized.”

“Bring it on,” Branton replied.

The next day, another group of employees approached Tyler Winston. They really did not want to go through the unionization process, if it wasn’t necessary. Mainly, they just wanted the same treatment that they had always received.

Review Questions

1. What form of latent conflict is present in this situation? 2. Did this conflict become felt or perceived, or just move directly into open conflict? Explain your

analysis. 3. What steps should Tyler Winston take to resolve the conflict? 4. Is a functional conflict possible in this situation? Defend your answer. 5. What should Tyler Winston do about Billy Branton?

Case Study 2: Meet the New Boss (continued)

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Learning Objectives

After reading this chapter and studying the materials, you should be able to:

1. Describe what constitutes ethical management communication. 2. Identify the major ethical dilemmas in management communication. 3. Communicate clear, transparent, accurate messages and respond effectively to unethical tactics. 4. Improve your ethical reasoning processes when communicating.

Ethical Management Communication

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CHAPTER 8Section 8.1 Understanding Ethics

8.1 Understanding Ethics

Learning Objective # 1: What constitutes ethical management communication?

Ethics, also known as moral philosophy, is a branch of thought that addresses ques-tions about morality and deals with concepts such as right and wrong, virtue and vice, and justice and crime (Rae, 2009, p. 15). Ethical challenges have been part of the world of business for as long as there has been a business world.

Recent dramatic stories involving Enron, BP, Arthur Andersen, and other corporate giants, as well as several banking chains involved in the 2008 mortgage crisis, have re- ignited interest in building a more ethical business climate. Enron engaged in manipula- tion of energy prices and illegal accounting practices. Arthur Andersen was complicit by failing to identify the illegal accounting practices as part of audits of company books. BP failed to follow safety protocols and record keeping, which led to the 2010 Gulf oil spill disaster.

Communication systems inevitably play into a fraud or unethical action taken by a cor- poration, manager, or employee. Ethical decisions are made not only by corporate lead- ers, but also by every member of an organization. As recent headlines have been packed with ethical issues, colleges and universities teaching the business leaders of tomorrow have enhanced training and awareness of ethical decision-making. One perspective, ethi- cal management, favors training for individuals preparing to enter the world of business (Waite, 2011). We will focus on this approach in this chapter by examining the nature of ethical and unethical communication and by offering analytical models and reasoning processes associated with moral dilemmas and ethical choices.

Values form the building blocks of an ethical system (Rae, 2009). Individual and collec- tive values vary, of course, because they are influenced by numerous forces, including religion, national origin, upbringing, and social associations. This means that the dis- tinction between right and wrong can be debatable or controversial. For example, charg- ing interest is considered wrong in some cultures, while most of you reading this have come to expect to pay interest on certain purchases, such as your tuition or the purchase of a house.

An ethical system that determines what is good or bad, right or wrong, and appropriate or inappropriate leads to a code of behavior based on those principles. The belief that steal- ing, theft, or obtaining money through a less-than-transparent business practice is wrong leads to a code of behavior in which it would be objectionable to take money from inno- cent people through “legal,” if not ethical, business practices. Such a choice might cause a person not to conduct business with a company dealing in payday or car-title loans, or with similar lending institutions. Business ethics are standards and guidelines regarding the conduct of commerce and the development of relationships in business (Ferrell, Frae- drich, & Ferrell, 2011).

Ethical communication consists of passing information along in a manner that is truthful, does not violate the rights of others, and does not aim to deceive (Kolin, 2001). This chap- ter explores the value of ethical communication in the context of business management. Unethical communication, on the other hand, violates the principles of truthful commu- nication and can hurt others. Examples of unethical communication appear in Table 8.1.

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CHAPTER 8Section 8.1 Understanding Ethics

Table 8.1: Selected examples of unethical communication

Theft of intellectual property, including patents, copyrights, trade secrets, Internet domain names

Misleading by omitting essential information

Selective misquotation

Distorting statistics and facts

Violating privacy of others

Sources: Cheeseman, H. R. (2003). Contemporary business and e-commerce (4th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall. Kolin, P. C. (2001). Successful writing at work (6th ed.). Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin.

For Review

Define ethics, business ethics, and ethical communication.

The 2008 Mortgage Crisis and the Failure of Management Communication

In early 2012, Bank of America, Wells Fargo, JP Morgan Chase, Citi- group, and Ally Financial paid a $25 billion settlement for foreclo- sure abuses. The payments were designed to assist those consum- ers who had been injured by unethical practices in the banking and mortgage industries (Associated Press, 2012).

Three entities contributed to the financial disaster that resulted from the 2008 mortgage crisis—consumers, financial institutions, and governmental agencies. Many consumers applied for and received mortgages that they simply could not afford. Enticed by 100 percent financing offers and other high-risk instruments (sub- prime mortgages), many consumers purchased homes at prices that were far beyond their means. In addition, governmental offi- cials failed to recognize a trend in which far too many of these high-risk mortgages were being granted (including those made by quasi-governmental lenders Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac) and that those instruments were being packaged and bundled to sell in the securities markets, where they eventually failed. Many finan- cial lending institutions contributed mightily to what took place.

These lenders often failed to adequately explain the terms of mort- gages to customers, whether by deliberate deception or mere exu- berance. A great deal of paperwork was either never filled out, was partially completed, or was simply ignored, regarding a consumer’s ability to make payments on homes with potentially artificially high prices. Consequently, a large number of high-risk loans were written (Wilson, 2010).

Internal management communication failed to notify those creating mortgages that a problem existed. It may have been top financial officers who knew of the problem and failed to report it inter- nally, or that internal communications were intentionally deceptive. In either case, the loans placed many of these institutions at risk, and eventually government bailouts of these banks became the only remedy that would forestall a worsening recession in the U.S. economy. (continued)

Ingram Publishing/Thinkstock Many financial lending institutions contributed significantly to the 2008 economic crisis in the United States.

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CHAPTER 8Section 8.1 Understanding Ethics

Ethical Approaches to Management Communication

Individuals, cities, and countries develop laws and regulations designed to protect citi- zens and businesses. The same holds true for companies and collectives of businesses. In each instance, ethical frameworks, to whatever degree they are present, are founded on the basic philosophical principles of morality. While the study of ethics can be broad and complex, we will focus on four approaches that particularly relate to decision-making in business and in management communication: utilitarianism, individualism, the rights approach, and the justice approach.

Utilitarianism When decisions are made based on what is the greatest good for the greatest number of people, a utilitarian principle may be the guiding force. Utilitarianism has been termed the “calculus of pain,” because it tries to minimize pain and maximize pleasure for the greatest number of people, based in part on the concept of hedonism. Many economic models that rely on utilitarian principles explain how consumers and producers seek to maximize personal utility or organizational profits.

The utilitarianism perspective, however, often overlooks the rights or needs of the minor- ity. As an example, paying subsistence wages to workers in unsafe conditions in one coun- try may create lower-priced goods for the majority of consumers in other countries, but the system creates great harm to those in the factory. A company that hides the fact that

When the housing market began to collapse, many mortgage-holders were “under water,” meaning that the amount remaining on the mortgage was higher (in many instances, much higher) than the value of the house, should it need to be sold. Individuals who lost jobs or faced other financial difficul- ties soon faced foreclosure. Oftentimes, however, the original loan had been sold to another institu- tion and bundled into a financial package, and the actual paperwork for a foreclosure was either lost or never created in the first place.

Still, numerous homeowners were told that foreclosure proceedings had begun, even when legal paperwork was not available. This form of deception caused many homeowners to lose their resi- dences without fair legal representation (Adelman, 2012).

As a result, the government began investigating such abuses. The initial $25 billion payment was made to assist those who were under water but still in their homes and to help others who had fallen behind on payments. Governmental officials retained the right to pursue any further legal action, if actual fraud were to be identified.

Questions for Students:

1. Which group do you think holds the greatest responsibility for the financial crisis, consumers, financial institutions, or the government?

2. Was the failure by these banks to inform customers of the potential for default an ethics viola- tion or an illegal act?

3. How could a management communication system be improved to make certain such an event does not occur in the future?

The 2008 Mortgage Crisis and the Failure of Management Communication (continued)

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CHAPTER 8Section 8.1 Understanding Ethics

it engages in such business practices may be viewed as unethical in terms of the practice itself, as well as in terms of the communication system that hides the activity.

Ethicists might conclude that utilitarianism involves a judgment call as to what consti- tutes “good,” as well as considering that “good” in light of its effects on both the majority and the minority. Care should be given in deciding how much “pain” to others is accept- able (Velasquez, Andre, Shanks, & Meyer, 2011).

Individualism The degree to which society values personal goals, personal autonomy, and privacy over group loyalty constitutes the level of individualism present. In an individualist society, ethical decisions are based on personal self-interests, as long as one’s actions do not harm others (Sexton, 2008).

Use of the individualist approach may cause the weakest members of society or of a busi- ness to suffer the most. In a business setting, the individualist perspective would suggest that an employee should be able to write personal messages using the company’s email system, so long as those messages do not harm the company. In point of fact, the law dic- tates that organizations own all email information and can inspect it at any time, which violates the individualistic point of view. Managers have to deal with balancing these perspectives on a daily basis in many organizations.

Rights Approach A social system that makes decisions based on the belief that each person has fundamen- tal rights that should be respected and protected reflects the rights approach. Such rights include freedom of speech, privacy, and access to due process, plus the right to a safe and healthy environment at work and at home (Ferrell & Gresham, 1985).

The difficulty with the rights approach is that, in many instances, the rights of one group, or a certain type of right, may infringe on others. For example, an ongoing conflict exists between a client’s right to privacy or confidentiality and the obligation of a corporate officer to protect the public’s interests when a questionable or unethical business practice exists. Instances of insider trading of common stock serve as an example; Martha Stewart faced such a charge in 2002–2004. When an investor takes advantage of privileged infor- mation that is being kept from the public, in deciding to buy or sell stock, and that inves- tor makes a profit, a corporate officer faces the dilemma of exposing the inside trader but also divulging potentially damaging corporate secrets. Trying to ascertain whose rights supersede the others (the public’s interest versus a company’s interest) can create an ethi- cal dilemma that is difficult to resolve.

Justice Approach Decision-making based on treating all people fairly and consistently demonstrates the justice approach. Distributive justice concentrates on the fairness of rewards, punishments, and outcomes, such as promotion decisions, equitable pay in the workplace, termination decisions, and decisions regarding who will be laid off during downsizing. Procedural justice focuses on fair, consistent application of rules and protocols, including grievance

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CHAPTER 8Section 8.1 Understanding Ethics

procedures when unions represent employees, as well as the use of the discipline system in a man- ner that does not discriminate against individual employees for any reason.

The justice approach suggests that when some- one is hurt by your actions, as an individual or in a collective, consequences should result. These consequences are supposed to punish you for the misdeeds and serve as a deterrent to others. Also, when your actions help others or lead to a greater good, the consequences should return in the form of a reward. In both circumstances (harm or good), the methods by which rewards are granted or negative sanctions are imposed should be based on an impartial, reasonable, and constant program of justice.

One problem with the justice approach is that what one person considers a proper reward or punishment may not seem fair to another. Many people believe capital punishment represents a just outcome. Others believe it is never justified. The same holds true regarding those who make the judgments. What may seem like a fair proce-

dure to one person or group when making a termination, promotion, or hiring decision, including communicating how the process will take place to individual employees and employee groups, could appear to be completely biased to another.

Influences on Business Ethics

A complex interaction of components influences the study of business ethics. Different levels of ethics combine to create an entire ethical climate in businesses. Moral respon- sibilities and ethical decisions are influenced by and reflect the activities of individuals, organizations, and entire governmental systems.

Individuals Every day employees routinely make ethical choices. Many of the issues raised in this chapter involve the decision by a specific person to engage in communications that deceive or injure others. Further, ethical dilemmas exist in a variety of actions beyond

For Review

What are the four primary approaches to ethical thought described in this chapter? Briefly describe each one.

Comstock/Thinkstock Decision-making based on treating all people fairly and consistently demonstrates the justice approach to ethical reasoning.

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CHAPTER 8Section 8.1 Understanding Ethics

communication. As part of your career, from entry level to top management, moral com- plications will emerge as part of workplace life.

Organizations Business ethics concern the conscience that every company possesses, even when moral codes are not spelled out in management communications. Groups of leaders in organiza- tions make moral and ethical choices. For example, “greenwashing” is the practice of mak- ing an organization appear to be concerned with the environment and the preservation of natural resources when, in fact, the company pollutes or conducts other environmentally damaging activities. Greenwashing cannot be accomplished by a single individual, but rather by groups of leaders in the company. Decisions and actions can be shaped by the eth- ical climate present in an organization, even when an individual carries out the specific act.

Governmental Systems National governments engage in moral choices. A country that fails to enact or enforce intellectual property or patent protections has made a moral decision. Any government that allows imports from nations where forced labor is used to produce goods has made a moral choice. Any government that censors all messages except those approved by offi- cials has made a moral choice.

Interaction Among Levels Individuals, organizations, and governmental systems all interact to create a business climate in which companies and their employees operate. At the system level, some stockholders have become involved in what has been termed shareholder activism. Large investors, particularly institutional investors, are becoming more directly involved in decisions made by corporate executives. Such activism may add one more layer of protec- tion to the general public’s interests, as well as to the well-being of shareholders (Schulte, Roth, & Zabel, 2011).

At the same time, a case can be made that managers make as many ethical mistakes or mis- judgments as governments or the marketplace. The sources of these actions can be lack of information (not knowing an activity will have a negative effect on society) or a delib- erate violation of ethical and moral principles by a manager. Thus, although some manag- ers may not have been aware of the effects that certain materials (such as asbestos) would have on workers, the net result was the same. Conversely, when the

Jupiterimages/Thinkstock Shareholder activism involves large investors, particularly insti- tutional investors, becoming more directly involved in decisions made by corporate executives.

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CHAPTER 8Section 8.1 Understanding Ethics

top management team at Peanut Corporation of America chose to sell salmonella-con- taminated products to the public in 2009, the managers apparently placed profits ahead of public safety (Hartman, 2009).

Frameworks for Decision-Making

Management communication often serves as an instrument when ethical and unethical activities transpire. Managers seeking to act in the most ethically sensible manner should examine the moral, economic, and legal implications of the choices they make. These can then be communicated to others in the organization and in larger society, through public statements, memos, letters, comments in corporate documents such as shareholder state- ments, and company policy decisions, and by the examples set by leaders, even in one- on-one conversations.

Three frameworks form the basis of an ethical decision-making approach. The three points of view, when combined and balanced, can help to guide decision-making processes as various ethical dilemmas arise. The perspectives or elements consist of the ethical, eco- nomic, and legal components of the matter at hand (see Figure 8.1).

Ethical Components The first key element present in a decision is the individual’s or group’s desire to act in an ethical fashion. This ethical component reflects the extent to which the individual or group is willing to seek out and act on justifiable reasons, and to remain impartial when making ethical choices. The decision-maker would compare personal gain or loss resulting from an action or activity with the needs and interests of the larger organization (Boatright, 2006, pp. 7–9).

Whistle-blowing provides an example of a choice with an ethical component. An employee who exposes improper company activities often risks retribution from others in the orga- nization, and the disclosure may damage the economic well-being of the company. In the United States, the employee might rely on the legal component of the decision-making process discussed later—protection for whistle-blowers, to care for his or her own interests.

Ethical components

Legal components

Economic components

Figure 8.1: Decision-making frameworks

Ethical, economic, and legal components are all part of a person’s decision-making framework when moral dilemmas arise.

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CHAPTER 8Section 8.2 Ethical Dilemmas in Management Communication

Economic Components Economic theories vary in terms of how business systems should operate. Adam Smith and Milton Friedman (1962) argued that the invisible hand of the marketplace guides the con- duct of business. According to proponents of the “invisible hand” perspective, companies that ignore the rights and well-being of the large public will eventually fail. This means governmental intervention should be limited—companies should not be encumbered by too many laws and regulations. In such a system, companies should be left free to maxi- mize profits for shareholders.

In contrast, the governmental duty perspective suggests companies that only pursue profits may not hold the larger interests of society as important. Therefore, government plays the role of protecting citizens from business practices in the economy that create harm, such as polluting the environment or exploiting workers. More recently, the governmental duty perspective has expanded to include protecting employees from losing jobs that are being outsourced to countries in which pay is insufficient and deplorable working condi- tions prevail (Watson, 1991).

Legal Components The third element, legal issues, cannot and should not be confused with ethical arguments. Many times, a practice in business has been considered legal, but could be considered unethi- cal. The 2008 financial crisis in the United States resulted from legal financial maneuvers that placed individuals and the entire economy at risk. If more financial managers had examined legal loans to individuals at high risk of default, and more financial officers had not bundled the same loans into legal, high-risk instruments that eventually failed, the nation would have avoided unnecessary risk, debt, and economic instability (C-Span.org, 2011).

In summary, ethics apply at many levels, from what individuals do, to what groups do, to what companies do, to the actions of entire nations. The ethical frameworks described in the last section can be applied to each level. Utilitarianism and individualism point out the conflict of personal interest and well-being with the consideration of the good of the larger group. The utilitarian position favors the group; individualism favors the individual.

8.2 Ethical Dilemmas in Management Communication

Learning Objective # 2: What are the major ethical dilemmas in management communication?

Management communication may be viewed as essentially a “blank slate.” It is neither ethical nor unethical in its inherent state. Managers can use the system to inform, persuade, and call to action in a highly transparent and ethical manner.

For Review

What three elements are present in an ethical decision-making framework?

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CHAPTER 8Section 8.2 Ethical Dilemmas in Management Communication

Others can use the very same system to hide the truth and to cover the presence of unethi- cal activities. Others still may pervert the actual communication system. This section examines communication as a medium for unethical and ethical actions.

Communication As a Medium for Unethical Actions

Over the years, organizations have engaged in the socially irresponsible behaviors listed next. In those instances, communications serve the purposes of covering up the act or distracting others from noticing what has transpired. Unethical communications in these circumstances are:

• deliberate mistruths • half-truths • withholding information • silence/stonewalling • misdirection • obfuscation

Deliberate mistruths occur when an individual or corporation seeks to deceive the public or another person through the use of false information. When a company assures con- sumers that a product is completely safe, knowing otherwise, a mistruth has been com-

municated. Half-truths involve offering only elements that can be verified, while attempt- ing to hide more damaging or confidential information. As noted, many instances of green- washing result from a com- pany claiming that its actions are environmentally friendly, when, in fact, the company’s actions have no impact, or a negative impact, on the ecosys- tem (Spaulding, 2009).

Withholding information in- cludes concealing what could be damaging facts about a com- pany’s misdeeds. The tobacco industry has been accused of suppressing information about the health hazards associated with smoking and using tobacco

in other forms. Silence and stonewalling go beyond withholding information, constituting a complete refusal to comment on or discuss an action. In more than one instance, own- ers of coal mines have been accused of withholding, from both employees and the pub- lic, safety and inspection information that may have been connected to mining accidents (United States Mine Rescue Association, 2012; Rostum, 2002).

Stockbyte/Thinkstock The tobacco industry has been accused of suppressing information about the health hazards associated with smoking and using tobacco in other forms.

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CHAPTER 8Section 8.2 Ethical Dilemmas in Management Communication

Misdirection occurs when company spokespeople seek to distract the audience by point- ing attention to some other event or cause, rather than its own misdeeds. In the case of the Ford Explorer vehicles that experienced blowouts and rollovers, Ford implied that Firestone tires were the cause of the problem; Firestone suggested that people were over- inflating the tires and even provided pressure gauges to dissuade the public from think- ing the company’s products were at fault (Reaves & Greenwald, 2001).

Obfuscation means deliberately making something more difficult to understand in order to confuse the audience. The financial crisis of 2008 also included elements of obfuscation by spokespersons defending various companies that took unnecessary risks and that even counted on instruments failing in order to make profits, through processes such as short- selling (Bajaj & Bowley, 2008).

Unethical Communication

Words matter. In fact, many times words hurt. Unethical messages seeking to injure or damage another in some way are common. Some of the more notable forms of unethical messages include (Redding, 2011):

• coercive • intimidating • destructive • intrusive • secretive • exclusive language • hegemonic language • manipulative • exploitative

Coercive messages seek to force another to do something against his or her will. Coercive messages can be constructed to cause someone to perform an unethical act because the individual believes the consequences of not following an order or directive will be dire. For example, when a clerical employee worries that she will be fired if she does not falsify a record, a coercive message has been used.

Intimidation creates power for the sender. Someone who fears a supervisor may not point out mistakes or problems, or stand up for personal rights. Intimidation can be used to cre- ate silence in others as a form of workplace bullying (Long, 2011).

Destructive messages take many forms, including those used to harass others. Sexual- harassment comments, racial remarks, and statements about another person’s intellectual level or body type hurt co-workers. Destructive messages belittle the other person.

For Review

What are the methods used to make communication a medium for unethical actions?

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CHAPTER 8Section 8.2 Ethical Dilemmas in Management Communication

Intrusive messages pry into another person’s affairs. Asking about family matters, finan- cial dealings, and other relationships can be designed to discover private information to be used later or to make the person feel uncomfortable. Implying that you know some- thing about a person that could harm him or her, such as that the person has previously been in prison, suggests the use of intrusive information and is a form of blackmail.

Secretive statements intentionally withhold information from co-workers. In a manner similar to withholding information, only a select few have access to a message.

Exclusive language uses terminology or a frame of reference to include people in or exclude them from a social interaction. As Chapter 2 notes, exclusive language accen- tuates the differences between employees and creates an eventual barrier, based largely on excluded employees feeling as if they are not part of the “in- crowd” on the job.

Hegemonic processes limit the choices of others by perpetuat- ing the influence of a dominant culture and are closely related to exclusive language. In cer- tain male-dominated industries such as engineering, for exam- ple, the specific use of exclusive language can be used to deter women from even considering applying for certain positions (Connell, 2005).

Manipulative messages seek to influence behavior through the use of emotion, context, or some other closely related method of interpersonal influence. If you can make someone afraid of an imagined threat, fear serves to manipulate that per- son. The same holds true for causing someone to believe that actions are “patriotic” or to follow religious dictates (Papa, 2011).

Exploitative messages take advantage of another person’s weaknesses. A typical form of exploitation involves one person exaggerating his or her own needs and preferences, while minimizing the needs and preferences of the message target (Mills & Clark, 1986). When one employee says, “I need this client more than she does; I have to feed my fam- ily,” to a supervisor, in order to take the client away from another employee, the first employee has engaged in the use of an exploitative message.

For Review

What are the forms of unethical messages used to hurt other people?

Hemera/Thinkstock Exclusive language uses terminology or a frame of reference to include people in or exclude them from social interaction.

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CHAPTER 8Section 8.3 Ethical Responses

Informal Communication and Social Media Many times, informal communication channels are used as part of the process of support- ing unethical actions, as well as to create unethical communication. At the most extreme, the financial activity of short-selling involves essentially betting (by purchasing stock futures) that a stock price will go down, in order to make a profit. Informal communica- tion has been used to transmit messages that a certain company was experiencing trouble, such as an expected decline in sales or a shortage of investment capital, in order to sup- press stock prices. This, along with other unethical actions, led to a suspension of short- selling practices in 2009.

Social media make it possible to send unethical messages with nearly complete anonym- ity. Use of social media pages to coerce, intimidate, send destructive messages, reveal secrets, create exclusive language, and manipulate and exploit others has become part of the business landscape. In essence, these media do not create new forms of unethical communication; rather they provide a new and explosive channel through which such

messages may be sent.

In summary, management com- munication systems and actual messages both can carry unethi- cal components and serve uneth- ical intents. The use of language to achieve these ends often estab- lishes a climate that encourages future violations. A cycle of dis- honesty can emerge from the continued use of media to obfus- cate, confuse, distract, or fool others. A pattern of unacceptable interpersonal relations results from using unfair or inaccurate messages to gain an advantage over others inside and outside the workplace.

8.3 Ethical Responses

Learning Objective # 3: How can individuals and managers communicate clear, transparent, and accurate messages and effectively respond to unethical tactics?

Individuals, groups, organizations, and governments can make ethical responses to com-munication issues. Individuals can aspire to act and communicate in a morally respon-sible fashion. Groups can work to avoid groupthink or any other pattern of behavior that would lead to the development and delivery of unethical messages or use of com- munication to assist in unethical actions. Organizations can utilize various mechanisms to foster an ethical environment through both rewards and punishments. Governments have responded to unethical actions with improved laws and enforcement of existing laws. This section examines the nature of ethical communication at these levels.

iStockphoto/Thinkstock Social media make it possible to send unethical messages with nearly complete anonymity.

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CHAPTER 8Section 8.3 Ethical Responses

Promoting Ethical Values

Two activities assist in becoming ethical members of a company and the larger society. The first is avoiding the unethical use of communication that was described in the previous sec- tions, with regard to both communication messages and the use of communication to cover unethical acts. Second, an individual, group, or organization can seek to be positive and pro- active, when creating management communication, by utilizing the following principles:

• clarity • transparency • honesty • objectivity

• credibility • coherence • loyalty • respect for human beings

No matter the format—whether written or verbal, a short message or a lengthy report— the principle of clarity offers several benefits. First, the reader or listener will be better able to comprehend the intent and content of the message. Second, clarity lessens the possibil- ity of unnecessary conflict. And third, with regard to ethical management communication, clear messages do not allow for the tactics noted above, such as half-truths and obfusca- tion. In essence, clarity represents the opposite of ambiguity and intentional deception.

Transparency refers to an environment of openness in which all participants in a con- versation or organization activity, such as a team or group meeting, receive access to the information needed to process messages, noting that it is equally important to treat some information delicately and privately in order to protect individuals and certain organi- zational secrets. Individuals’ medical histories and other personal information should be protected. Organizational secrets include patents and managerial plans, such as when a major product launch will take place, expansion plans, and other actions that would give a company a first-mover advantage that in no way unethically or illegally harms others. Transparency on a larger scale means that outside observers have sufficient access to cor- porate documents and transcripts of meetings to know that deceptive practices and other unethical actions do not take place “behind closed doors” (MoreBusiness.com, 2007).

Honesty accentuates the direct intent to provide information in the most forthright man- ner possible. Beaulieu (2009) presents several ideas related to honest business communica- tion. They include insisting on candor in others by including an analysis of it in employee performance appraisals and pay raise decisions. Honesty can be emphasized through role reversal games that encourage employees to see the other side of a debate. Involving all levels of the organization in ethics inspections and leading by example also foster an envi- ronment less tainted by half-truths and mistruths.

Objectivity requires setting aside personal biases and preferences when engaged in communication. Thompson (2005) provides guidelines to help maintain objectiv- ity in business communication. First, carefully distinguish between facts and opinions in any message. Also, report all pertinent information, even the data that do not favor your side or preference. Use bias-free language in terms of gender, age, race, and other diversity and organizational differences. Finally, remain impersonal in your communication style, rather than relying on emotional or argumentative approaches.

Credibility must be earned. Accuracy in a report represents one key aspect. When communi- cation is not accurate, the sender loses credibility. Trust in a person’s integrity and credibility

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CHAPTER 8Section 8.3 Ethical Responses

can easily be damaged with inac- curate or misleading messages; this trust can be very hard to restore. As a result, vigilance and attention to detail help build cred- ibility over time (Richards, 2011).

Coherence reflects the use of logic in business communica- tions. Well-written, understand- able messages, including those designed to persuade, result not only from writing, but from rewriting. A coherent letter, memo, or report removes the potential for obfuscation, misdi- rection, and half-truths, because an outside reader is able to ver- ify information contained in the document and study the reasoning used to create any argument or message.

Loyalty means treating employees and other groups with fairness, objectivity, and a sense of respect that grows from sharing a common bond (Guffey & Loewy, 2011). Loyalty in communication results in careful consideration of the message, medium, and audience. Sensitive messages travel through organizations daily. Notices of layoffs, terminations,

and transfers are unsettling messages. Others are performance appraisals with negative informa- tion, announcements of promotions that involved consideration of internal candidates, and plans for disciplinary actions. The manner in which an employee receives this information reflects the presence or absence of loyalty.

Respect for human beings extends far beyond the world of business. Treating people with deference in communications includes the choice of words and tone. Sarcasm and derision communicate a lack of respect. Management experts note that respect must be earned—you receive respect only by granting it first.

To help achieve these objectives, individuals can seek ethical training through conferences, semi- nars and college courses, and ethics counselors and hot lines, which are made available to indi- viduals and industries. The elements described in this section can be used to help combat the tendency to create unethical messages or to hide the unethical activities of an individual, group, or organization. Mentoring processes, whereby

Ryan McVay/Thinkstock Objectivity requires setting aside personal biases and preferences when engaged in communication.

Image Source/Thinkstock Mentoring processes, whereby senior members of an organization tutor and assist newer employees, provide an additional venue for teaching ethical behaviors and the use of ethical management communication messages.

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CHAPTER 8Section 8.3 Ethical Responses

senior members of an organization tutor and assist newer employees, provide an addi- tional venue for teaching ethical behaviors and the use of ethical management commu- nication messages.

Codes of Ethics

Many organizations and some profes- sions engage in ethical self-regulation. Organizations such as the Better Busi- ness Bureau help businesspeople and overall organizations regulate them- selves. Ethical codes, such as those fol- lowed by members of the American Medical Association, the Academy of Management, and the National Com- munication Association, help direct the activities of those engaged in commerce and in educational systems that pro- vide education for those entering the business world.

Codes of ethics can be applied to all members of an organization, whether it is a nonprofit or for-profit, in any given profession. Table 8.2 presents the credo and guid- ing perspectives of the National Communication Association.

Table 8.2: Credo and guiding principles: The National Communication Association

Questions of right and wrong arise whenever people communicate. Ethical communication is fundamental to responsible thinking, decision-making and the development of relationships and communities within and across contexts, cultures, channels, and media. Moreover, ethical communication enhances human worth and dignity by fostering truthfulness, fairness, responsibility, personal integrity, and respect for self and others. We believe that unethical communication threatens the quality of all communication and consequently the well-being of the society in which we live. Therefore, we the members of the National Communication Association, endorse and are committed to practicing the following principles of ethical communication.

We advocate truthfulness, accuracy, honesty, and reason as essential to the integrity of communication.

We endorse freedom of expression, diversity of perspective, and tolerance of dissent to achieve the informed and responsible decision-making fundamental to a civil society.

We strive to understand and respect other communicators before evaluating and responding to their messages.

For Review

What concepts can be used to promote ethical values in organizational communications?

Zoonar/Thinkstock Codes of ethics can be applied to all members of an organization, whether it is a nonprofit or for-profit, in any given profession.

(continued)

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CHAPTER 8Section 8.4 Ethical Reasoning and Ethical Competence

Table 8.2: Credo and guiding principles: The National Communication Association (continued)

We promote access to communication resources and opportunities as necessary to fulfill human potential and contribute to the well-being of families, communities, and society.

We promote communication climates of caring and mutual understanding that respect the unique needs and characteristics of individual communicators.

We condemn communication that degrades individuals and humanity through distortion, intimidation, coercion, and violence, and through the expression of intolerance and hatred.

We are committed to the courageous expression of personal convictions in pursuit of fairness and justice.

We advocate sharing information, opinions, and feelings when facing significant choices while also respecting privacy and confidentiality.

We accept responsibility for the short- and long-term consequences of our own communication and expect the same of others.

Source: National Communication Association, Retrieved from: http://www.natcom.org/uploadedFiles/About_NCA/Leadership_and _Governance/Public_Policy_Platform/PDF-PolicyPlatform-NCA_Credo_for_Ethical_Communication.pdf. Used with Permission.

In addition to codes of ethics, individual companies create messages signaling the intent to conduct business ethically and in a socially responsible fashion. Corporate ethics statements posit the company’s values and intentions with regard to its citi- zenship in the larger society. Many company websites include pages that specifically address these issues.

In summary, responding to ethical dilemmas involves first awareness of and rejection of unethical activities, and avoiding the use of management communication to conduct unethical activities. It also involves seeking to communicate in positive ways that reflect the goals of creating a higher personal moral standard and improving organizational communications. Codes of conduct, while not complete answers to moral questions, can provide guidance, especially when accompanied by ethics training, careful attention to past experiences, and the willingness to consult with others as issues arise. Educa- tional programs, ethics counselors, and mentors can help individuals deal with moral and ethical dilemmas. In those settings, employees are able to ask questions, discuss both real and hypothetical ethical challenges, and ask for advice when they encounter a moral dilemma, through contacts with those who are specially trained or have greater experience to help with such issues.

8.4 Ethical Reasoning and Ethical Competence

Learning Objective # 4: What types of ethical reasoning processes can improve communication skills?

Personal ethical reasoning processes evolve over a lifetime. As you enter a career, beliefs about what is right or wrong, appropriate or inappropriate, and moral or immoral may be based on one set of premises. As time passes, experiences, teach- ing, and role modeling by others influences those assumptions. Ethical values become the

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CHAPTER 8Section 8.4 Ethical Reasoning and Ethical Competence

result. Ethical sensibility, ethical reasoning, ethical conduct, and ethical leadership comprise key elements that assist in making ethical or moral judgments in communications and other set- tings (Paine, 1991).

Ethical sensibility reflects a per- son’s capacity to impose ethical order on an encounter by identi- fying the aspects of the situation that contain ethical elements. Ethical reasoning consists of the ability to reach a solu- tion, when an ethical dilemma arises, by using logic, objectiv- ity, and the goal of moral cor- rectness. Ethical conduct results in clearly observable words and

deeds designed to seek the goal of integrity in everyday business. Ethical leadership pro- vides examples to those of all ranks about how to seek the greater good and find moral responses to ethical dilemmas.

These four ingredients lead to increased levels of ethical competence. Table 8.3 lists signs that an employee has achieved a stronger level of ethical competence.

Table 8.3: Signs of ethical competence

Self-awareness The individual understands his or her own values and morals, and knows how to apply them to ethical dilemmas

Self-confidence The person acts with less hesitation when dealing with ethical situations

Character Others notice and comment on the person’s moral fiber

Moral imagination The ability to consider unusual or unique ethical challenges

Resistance to outside pressures Withstands demands by others to engage in unethical acts

Follow-through Turns ethical decisions into actions, behaviors, and communications

Source: Adapted from Johnson, C., & Hackman, M. Z. (2002, November). Assessing ethical competence, paper presented to National Communication Association, and Walker, R. (2011). Strategic management communication for leaders (2nd ed.). Mason, OH: South- Western Cengage Learning, p. 52.

In achieving ethical competence, three frameworks that assist when examining personal moral growth and the development of ethical reasoning are the works of Lawrence Kohl- berg, Carol Gilligan, and William Perry. You can use these frameworks to reflect on how you view and respond to ethical issues.

Digital Vision/Thinkstock Employees can to seek to communicate in positive ways that reflect the goals of creating a higher personal moral standard and improving organizational communications.

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CHAPTER 8Section 8.4 Ethical Reasoning and Ethical Competence

Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development

Lawrence Kohlberg (1966) believed that moral reasoning results from a process called internalization. Over time, a person’s moral framework moves from externally driven behaviors (fear of being scolded by parents and teachers) to internal control (“I think this is wrong, so I’m not going to do it”). As the shift takes place, ethical reasoning evolves (see Table 8.4).

Table 8.4: Kohlberg’s theory of moral development

Preconventional Reasoning Behavior is controlled by external rewards and punishments

Stage One: Punishment and Obedience

Driven by authority figures Motivated by fear of punishment

Stage Two: Purposeful Individualism

Individual furthers self interests Reciprocal arrangements (“I’ll scratch your back if you scratch mine”) Insistence on justice and fairness

Conventional Reasoning Behavioral standards moderately internalized although the standards are still imposed by others such as parents, authority figures, and laws

Stage Three: Interpersonal Norms

Desire to be socially accepted drives behaviors (being a “good boy” or “good girl”)

Behaviors judged as much for intentions as for consequences

Stage Four: Law and Order

Behavior driven by desire to maintain social order, insure justice, perform duty

Postconventional Reasoning Totally internalized reasoning, personal moral code

Stage Five: Contractual–Legal

Rights and standards of society govern behaviors Unfair limits to personal freedom challenged and changed

Stage Six: Enlightened Conscience

Universal human rights are the most profound guides to behavior and actions

The highest level of moral reasoning

Kohlberg’s view is that over time, a person will move toward the highest stage, an enlight- ened conscience. Four qualities of stage development complete his theory:

1. Stage development is fixed. One cannot get to a higher stage without going through the preceding stage.

2. Individuals may have difficulty seeing the logic of moral reasoning more than two stages above their own.

3. People tend to be attracted to the reasoning of the next highest level. 4. Movement through the stages is affected when a person’s current level of reason-

ing proves inadequate to a given moral dilemma.

For Review

What four elements are associated with ethical values and ethical competence?

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CHAPTER 8Section 8.4 Ethical Reasoning and Ethical Competence

Kohlberg’s theory may shed some light on how people react to the communication issues suggested in this chapter. Positive and ethical management communications that result from reasoning processes move beyond strictly legal responses to messages designed from an enlightened conscience. As you navigate through a career, it will be possible to consider whether your view of what is right and wrong is “legalistic” or is technically unethical to the higher state Kohlberg suggests. Doing so would help you avoid using tac- tics such as obfuscation or mistruths when designing management communication mes- sages. At the least, use of the framework might assist in helping you understand how you view ethical issues.

Gilligan’s Response

Carol Gilligan (1982) took issue with some of the conclusions regarding ethical reason- ing that were reached by Kohlberg. Her primary criticism was that Kohlberg based his theory on studies using only male subjects, and that there may be differences in the ways female subjects look at ethical reasoning. For example, women may be more likely to view moral development in terms of connections with others. In circumstances in which men may be more likely to value justice and individual freedom, women are more likely to believe caring, interpersonal communication, and developing and maintaining interper- sonal relationships are more important ethical outcomes. A review of Kohlberg’s model, as shown in Table 8.4, confirms that concepts about ethical and social justice appear to be fairly “legalistic” rather than relationship-based.

As an individual, consider the role that your gender and that of others plays in how you view ethical dilemmas. This could lead you to include such concepts as treating others fairly and well, when considering the ethical consequences of actions, including the use of communications. Such an approach applies more than just laws and principles; it moves into the realm of positive human relationships, which are a major part of business activi- ties and management communications.

Perry’s Theory of Moral Development

William Perry (1968) wrote that moral development takes place in nine, rather than six, stages. The stages can be grouped into categories called dualism, relativism, and commitment.

For Review

What levels of ethical reasoning are posited in Kohlberg’s theory of moral development?

For Review

What criticism does Carol Gilligan raise regarding Kohlberg’s theory?

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CHAPTER 8Section 8.4 Ethical Reasoning and Ethical Competence

Dualism reflects the belief that things are absolutely right or wrong, good or bad. Such beliefs often rely greatly on guidelines provided by experts or authorities, and to some seem fairly simplistic.

Relativism expresses the view that many points of view about right and wrong are potentially valid. A particular situation often determines what is morally acceptable. For instance, in dire circumstances one may take actions that help others survive, although those actions would be unacceptable in other situations.

According to Perry, commitment is the search for evidence to support actions and explore the consequences of various acts. One’s own set of personal values is integrated with those actions. A person will utilize his or her own set of beliefs to make moral judgments, in a manner similar to Kohlberg’s postconventional stage.

As part of your own ethical reasoning, the concept of relativism may be particularly ger- mane when interacting with those from other cultures. What is ethical and/or legal var- ies, depending on the nation involved. As an example, nations guided by Islamic law tend to outlaw or frown upon charging interest on loans. Therefore, communication docu- ments regarding sales offers, prices, and terms of repayment should be carefully worded to reflect this ethical value.

In other nations, women may be expected to refrain from speaking or to act in a highly deferent manner in social settings, which may offend the ethical reasoning of a woman from the United States or other Western culture. The concept of relativism may help such a person analyze and respond to such circumstances.

Commitment involves adding your own personal values to the manner in which you view ethical challenges. Doing so might add elements of your religious training, as well as personal experiences, into your views of the world and how to respond in an ethical manner.

Each of these three frameworks (Kohlberg, Gilligan, and Perry) suggests at least two sets of guidelines when making personal ethical and moral decisions. The first involves the views and guidance of others; the second concerns one’s own personal instincts, values, and reasoning processes. As you consider the ethical communications issues described in this chapter, these frameworks can serve as a guide regarding beliefs about what is ethical and what is not, as well as how you will respond.

For Review

What are the stages of ethical development in William Perry’s theory?

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CHAPTER 8Section 8.5 Chapter Review

8.5 Chapter Review

Ethics are principles about what is good or bad, right or wrong, and appropriate or inappropriate that often lead to a code of behavior based on those principles. Business ethics are standards and guidelines regarding the conduct of commerce. Ethical communication consists of all messages and relevant items of information that are passed along in a manner that is truthful, does not violate the rights of others, and does not aim to deceive.

Ethical issues arise for individuals, groups and organizations, and in governmental sys- tems. Ethical management communication challenges among these are simply part of operating in an active business world. Shareholder activism involves shareholders taking a more active role in influencing decisions, including ethical components, made by corpo- rate executives.

Four common foundations of ethical thought guide business and communication deci- sion-making: utilitarianism, individualism, the rights approach, and the justice approach. Also, three ethical components in any system are the ethical, economic, and legal elements.

Communication can serve as a medium for unethical actions through deliberate mis- truths, half-truths, withholding information, silence and stonewalling, misdirection, and obfuscation. The goal of each of these unethical actions is to deceive or to communicate information that violates ethical standards. Unethical messages designed to harm oth- ers include coercive, intimidating, destructive, intrusive, secretive, exclusive, hegemonic, manipulative, and exploitative messages.

Ethical responses include promoting ethical communication through clarity, transparency, honesty, objectivity, credibility, coherence, loyalty, and respect for human beings. Four elements in ethical activities are ethical sensibility, ethical reasoning, ethical conduct, and ethical leadership. Codes of ethics also assist in building ethical business environments.

Three frameworks aid in understanding personal moral development. Kohlberg’s theory, Gilligan’s response, and Perry’s framework all portray ethical reasoning as something that develops and evolves over time.

Key Terms

business ethics Standards and guidelines regarding the conduct of commerce and the development of relationships in business.

corporate ethics statements Statements that posit the company’s values and intentions with regard to its citizenship in the larger society.

ethical communication All messages and rele- vant information that are passed along in a man- ner that is truthful, does not violate the rights of others, and does not deceive in any way.

ethical competence The combination of ethical sensibility, reasoning, conduct, and leadership.

ethical conduct Clearly observable words and deeds designed to seek the goal of integrity in everyday business.

ethical leadership Providing examples to those of all ranks about how to seek the greater good and find moral responses to ethi- cal dilemmas.

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CHAPTER 8Section 8.5 Chapter Review

For Review With Possible Responses

1. Define ethics, business ethics, and ethical communication. Ethics, also known as moral philosophy, is a branch of thought that addresses questions about morality and deals with concepts such as right and wrong, virtue and vice, and justice and crime. Business ethics are standards and guidelines regarding the conduct of commerce and the development of relationships in business. Ethical communication con- sists of passing information along in a manner that is truthful, does not violate the rights of others, and does not aim to deceive.

2. What are the four primary approaches to ethical thought described in this chapter? Four approaches that particularly relate to decision-making in business and in manage- ment communication are utilitarianism, individualism, the rights approach, and the justice approach.

3. What three elements are present in an ethical decision-making framework? Three perspectives or elements include the ethical, economic, and legal components of the matter at hand.

4. What are the methods used to make communication a medium for unethical actions? Unethical communications include deliberate mistruths, half-truths, withholding infor- mation, silence and stonewalling, misdirection, and obfuscation.

5. What are the forms of unethical messages used to hurt other people? Some of the more notable forms of unethical messages include those that are coercive, intimidating, destructive, intrusive or secretive, that use exclusive or hegemonic lan- guage, and those that are manipulative or exploitative.

6. What concepts can be used to promote ethical values in organizational communications? An individual, group, or organization can seek to be positive and proactive when creating management communication by utilizing the following principles: clarity, transparency, honesty, objectivity, credibility, coherence, loyalty, and respect for human beings.

ethical reasoning The ability to reach a solution when an ethical dilemma arises by using logic, objectivity, and the goal of moral correctness.

ethical sensibility A person’s capacity to impose ethical order on an encounter by iden- tifying the aspects of the situation that contain ethical elements.

ethics A branch of thought that addresses questions about morality and deals with con- cepts such as right and wrong, virtue and vice, and justice and crime.

individualism The degree to which society val- ues personal goals, personal autonomy, and pri- vacy over group loyalty, commitments to group norms, involvements in collective activities, social cohesiveness, and intense socialization.

mentoring processes Systems in which senior members of an organization tutor and assist newer employees.

the justice approach Ethical decision-making based on treating all people fairly and consistently.

the rights approach A social system that makes decisions based on the belief that each person has fundamental rights that should be respected and protected.

utilitarianism Making ethical decisions based on the greatest good for the greatest number of people.

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CHAPTER 8Section 8.5 Chapter Review

7. What four ethical elements are associated with ethical values and ethical competence? Ethical sensibility reflects a person’s capacity to impose ethical order on an encounter by identifying the aspects of the situation that contain ethical elements. Ethical reasoning consists of the ability to reach a solution to an ethical dilemma by using logic, objectiv- ity, and the goal of moral correctness. Ethical conduct results in clearly observable words and deeds, designed to seek the goal of integrity in everyday business. Ethical leadership provides examples to those of all ranks about how to seek the greater good and find moral responses to ethical dilemmas.

8. What levels of ethical reasoning are part of Kohlberg’s theory of moral development? The three levels are preconventional, conventional, and postconventional.

9. What criticism does Carol Gilligan raise about Kohlberg’s theory? Her primary criticism was that Kohlberg based his theory on studies using only male subjects, and that there may be differences in the ways women look at ethical reasoning.

10. What are the stages of ethical development in William Perry’s theory? The stages can be grouped into categories called dualism, relativism, and commitment.

Analytical Exercises

1. Compare the four foundations of ethical thought, utilitarianism, individualism, the rights approach, and the justice approach, to these three perspectives: a. The “invisible hand of the marketplace” approach, in which the market pun-

ishes irresponsible firms and rewards those that earn profits and maximize shareholder value without violating laws

b. The governmental duty perspective, which emphasizes the importance of regulation and intervention when companies violate citizens’ rights and engage in unfair competition

c. The enlightened management approach, which suggests ethical managers promote values that include defending the well-being of others

2. Explain the ethical, economic, and legal components in the following instances: a. Ford and Firestone officials’ explanations of tire blowouts and rollovers b. Financial officers creating false rumors about companies, resulting in lower

stock values but leading to profits for investors through short-selling tactics c. Companies using the label “lite” on products that contain carbohydrates and

other calorie-laden ingredients 3. The driving force behind socially responsible actions, according to Adam Smith,

is enlightened self-interest. He further argued that selfishness and greed are not virtues. Acting in a selfish or greedy manner leads to deceptive advertising, fraud, theft, and taking advantage of others. How would enlightened self-interest become apparent in the field of business and management communications? How would selfish actions and greed be discovered?

4. The Sarbanes-Oxley Act of 2002 is an example of a governmental response to unethical activities in the accounting profession and in the larger business com- munity. More recently, Congress has been pressed into action due to the mort- gage and foreclosure crisis. Lenders that used deceptive tactics when granting loans to individuals who could not afford to make the payments led to many of the foreclosures. Should similar legislation be created for management communi- cations? If so, what kinds of laws should be enacted?

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CHAPTER 8Section 8.6 Case Studies

5. Explain the forms of unethical messages related to the following activities: a. seeking to garner an undeserved promotion over more-qualified candidates b. maintaining the glass ceiling in a company c. trying to justify a pay raise after a poor year of performance

6. Apply the principles of proactive, positive ethical communication to the follow- ing circumstances: a. Facebook posts b. emails and written memos c. proposals d. presentations e. interactions during meetings with co-workers f. messages to the public

7. You have a co-worker who consistently complains that a supervisor does not “follow the rules.” The supervisor is a woman; the co-worker is a man. Explain the moral reasoning your co-worker may be using from the following perspectives: a. Kohlberg’s theory of moral development b. Gilligan’s response c. Perry’s theory of moral development

8.6 Case Studies

Case Study 1: Caught in the Middle

Sherman Olson was in a frustrating position. He had information that would help his company but would damage his job and career. Deciding what to do next had kept him awake for the past two nights.

Sherman was a purchasing officer for Finley Manufacturing. His job was to finalize purchases of all sorts, including office equipment and supplies, raw materials for production, and even bathroom items. In each situation, he would confirm the purchase price with the seller when the sale was autho- rized and then check the inventory and bill of lading before authorizing payment.

One of the key raw materials purchased by Finley Manufacturing was industrial resin. The company had developed a longstanding relationship with Murphy Resins to the point at which re-orders were routine. Sherman’s immediate supervisor, Taylor, was a good friend of Martin Murphy, son of the owner of Murphy Resins.

On a day in which Taylor was away from the plant, Sherman received a visit from a competitor to Murphy Resins. The salesperson made a strong presentation in which she provided information that her company’s materials were superior for the type of products made by Finley Manufacturing. Then she offered a price that was lower than what had been charged by Murphy Resins for the past two years. Sherman carefully asked if this was a one-time enticement or a more-permanent price. The salesperson assured him that the price would remain the same for at least one year, and as long as her company’s costs did not increase. Sherman carefully documented all of the information.

When Taylor returned the next day, Sherman showed him the offer. Taylor’s response was, “Yeah, we get stuff like this all the time. Let’s just stay with what we know.”

Sherman decided to follow up with some research of his own. He contacted other regional manufac- turers and discovered that several had changed to the competitor company for the two (continued)

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CHAPTER 8Section 8.6 Case Studies

reasons the salesperson noted: price and quality. Further, the companies he spoke with indicated a high degree of satisfaction with both the product and the company’s method of conducting business.

Sherman once again approached Taylor with the additional information. This time Taylor appeared genuinely annoyed and said, “Look, no one asked you to investigate this. You’d better stick with doing your job, or you may have a big problem.” Taylor added, “Besides, I just put in a big order that will carry us for at least six months.”

In essence, Taylor had taken over Sherman’s job for that one purchase. Sherman carefully documented the price being paid to Murphy Resins in comparison with the price the other company would have charged. A purchase from the new company would have saved his company over $100,000. He placed a copy of the comparison in Taylor’s office mailbox, but kept a copy for himself. Now it was time to decide what to do next.

Review Questions

1. What unethical management communication practices had Taylor used? 2. How would ethical communication practices have kept this situation from occurring? 3. What should Sherman do? 4. If you were a senior manager and Sherman approached you with this information, how would

you react?

Case Study 1: Caught in the Middle (continued)

Case Study 2: Smart, but Healthy?

Dr. Eileen Kennedy faced a difficult moment in her career. As the Dean of the Friedman School of Nutrition, she had made a controversial statement and a questionable endorsement of the American Society of Nutrition, which had been established to evaluate the nutritional merits of various products. Kennedy supported the society’s Smart Choice program, which extended across several companies.

Several food industry leaders had created the American Society of Nutrition conglomerate that would approve various products to carry the Smart Choice label, a bright-green check mark inside a red box that could be prominently placed on a product’s package, with the words “Guiding Food Choices” included. To outside observers, it was a clear attempt to imply a governmental or health official’s rec- ognition of the product’s healthy characteristics (Ruiz, 2009).

Ten large food manufacturers enrolled in the program, including Kellogg’s and Kraft. Any company seek- ing to obtain the program’s approval would pay up to $100,000 per year to the American Society of Nutri- tion. Quickly, numerous food producers enrolled in the program, and the endorsement appeared on sug- ary cereals, snacks, and sandwich spreads. Among the products carrying the Smart Choice endorsement were Kid Cuisine Cheeseburgers, Teddy Grahams, Froot Loops, and Cocoa Krispies (Neuman, 2009).

Dr. Kennedy had been quoted in the New York Times. Evoking a hypothetical parent in the supermar- ket, she said, “You’re rushing around, you’re trying to think about healthy eating for your kids, and you have a choice between a doughnut and a cereal. So Froot Loops is a better choice.” She displayed a small, 100-calorie package of the cereal as her evidence (Dumke & Zavala, 2009).

The Smart Choice program quickly drew scrutiny. Following reports on the CBS Evening News (Pinkston, 2009) and in other outlets, companies began to withdraw support for the program and the logo. The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) issued a “Guidance for Industry” letter, stating that the organiza- tion would analyze food labels with the intent of identifying any that were misleading. Quickly, the Smart Choice label disappeared. (continued)

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CHAPTER 8Section 8.6 Case Studies

Dr. Kennedy’s words and endorsement, however, did not. The Friedman Sprout, the school newspaper for the Friedman School Nutrition Science and Policy, published an article suggesting that the school’s image had been severely damaged (Dumke & Zavala, 2009). Dr. Kennedy received a great deal of criti- cism, but did not step down.

Review Questions

1. What ethical issues are involved in the Smart Choices program? 2. If the American Society of Nutrition did not pay Dr. Kennedy, had she violated any ethical codes?

If she had been compensated, how would your answer change? 3. Explain how the Smart Choices program might be viewed in terms of its moral, legal, and eco-

nomic components. 4. What type of formal communication channel should Dr. Kennedy use to justify her stance? What

should be her message?

Case Study 2: Smart, but Healthy? (continued)

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Learning Objectives

After reading this chapter and studying the materials, you should be able to:

1. Communicate effectively in formal and informal groups. 2. Manage communication through the stages of group development. 3. Successfully lead team and group meetings. 4. Create effective business and management communications when acting as part of a group or team.

Leading Groups

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CHAPTER 9Section 9.1 Business and Management Communication in Groups

9.1 Business and Management Communication in Groups

Learning Objective # 1: How can individuals effectively communicate in formal and informal groups?

Today’s business world features a considerable number of tasks that cannot be per-formed by a single employee. Complex assignments demand the attention of a series of individuals. Managers designate teams and groups to complete such projects. Business management requires effective communication in groups. A group consists of two or more people, interacting, with a common purpose or goal (Schein, 1980). Formal and informal groups function in companies on a daily basis. It may be tempting to think of a group and a team as the same thing. Recent literature suggests otherwise. Both consist of a small set of people and seek to achieve goals, but differences exist. Teams become dis- tinct from groups when synergies emerge from greater interdependence and shared effort (Katzenbach & Smith, 1999; Rico et al. 2008). This chapter focuses on groups and the com- munication processes involved in managing them, although team-building represents an important aspect of group management and leadership.

For Review

Define group and team.

Harley-Davidson: Building Strong Groups

Harley-Davidson should be considered one of the more iconic U.S. companies. Many things stand out, including the product itself (motorcycles), the customers who buy the products (individualist riders), and the organization’s marketing program. The Harley-Davidson brand remains strong with intense customer loyalty. The HOG (Harley Owners Group) program serves those who purchase products.

The company’s management program may be lesser known. Harley-Davidson’s management team focuses on a strong company culture, built on open communications among all levels of employees and a commitment to teaching all workers about the organization’s operations, and utilizing teams and groups to complete numerous company activities. Top management developed a shared vision of the company’s values that perme- ates all group activities. Among these values are:

• Tell the truth. • Be fair. • Keep your promises. • Respect the individual. • Encourage intellectual curiosity.

Comstock/Thinkstock Even though Harley-Davidson produces highly individualistic products, the company operates using teams and groups, from the production floor to the executive suites.(continued)

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CHAPTER 9Section 9.1 Business and Management Communication in Groups

Communicating in Formal Groups

When an organization’s leaders establish a formal group, the purpose is to achieve com- pany goals and objectives. Formal groups are established through a notation in an orga- nization chart or by a management directive. Three common types of formal groups are work groups, committees and boards, and project teams.

Communication in a work group or department consists of the standard chain of com- mand, as a supervisor directs the activities of members who also interact with one another. The same will be true for a committee or board directed by an elected or appointed leader, although many times such groups also keep formal minutes to record their activities and elements of discussions. A project team, which is led by a team leader, will interact in many of the same ways as work groups. Project teams often are asked to file progress reports as stages of the project or task are completed.

Management sought to earn and keep the respect and trust of employees through these principles (Infotechdesign.net, 2008). Imperato (1997) describes the management program this way: “Beneath the image of a hard-riding, tough-as-nails Harley-Davidson bike is a company that thrives on the ‘soft’ side of management, emphasizing participation, inclusion, learning, and cooperation.”

At the core of the management program, self-managed teams operate at both the manufacturing and executive levels. At the production level, semi-autonomous work groups include members who are cross-trained and set their own work schedules. To support the program, management created the Harley-Davidson Learning Center, a facility dedicated to lifelong learning with the primary role of help- ing employees to keep their skills current. In some cases, this means remedial training in basic skills, but the Learning Center deals mainly with requests for specific job-training courses.

At the executive level, the organization chart became three overlapping circles representing various groups: a Create Demand Circle, a Produce Products Circle, a Support Circle, and in the center where the three circles intersect, a Leadership and Strategy Council. The Create Demand Circle is responsible for sales and marketing issues; the Produce Products Circle handles engineering and manufacturing; and the Support Circle takes care of legal, financial, human-resources, and communications concerns. The Leadership and Strategy Council coordinates the efforts of the three circles without the use of a standard chain of command, instead relying on interactive group communication. The idea is to apply the concept of self-directed, factory work teams to the executive level.

An important link was established between the union and management through the employee involvement program, which established the goal of overall company long-term success to be achieved through continuing cooperation among all members. Following the reorganization at both levels, Harley-Davidson’s sales and profitability began to soar. The company has been able to with- stand economic hard times and expand to an international base of satisfied hog owners.

Questions for Students

1. Do you think the internal culture of Harley-Davidson matches external perceptions of the company?

2. What types of communication skills would be needed to work in a self-managed production team?

3. What types of communication skills would be needed for an executive to work in a self- managed team?

Harley-Davidson: Building Strong Groups (continued)

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CHAPTER 9Section 9.1 Business and Management Communication in Groups

Communicating in Informal Groups

An informal group, or a friendship group, emerges for the purposes of socialization and friendship. Such groups form without the endorsement of organizational leaders and do not have a designated structure (Shirky, 2004). People make friends on the job for various reasons. Three items tend to bring informal groups together: activities, shared values or sentiments, and interactions. Communication patterns in informal groups involve net- works such as gossip and rumors via various media, and in-person conversations. Many employees depend on informal groups for social support and a sense of belonging, as well as an outlet to discuss company actions, decisions, and policies.

The distinction between formal and informal groups has become blurred. New forms of office design, coupled with the emergence of social media, lead to sets of individuals simultaneously engaging in formal and informal interactions and activities. Employees increasingly rely on social media to stay in contact with the home office but also with friends and peers inside and outside the organization. The use of Twitter and instant mes- sages or texts to contact a manager to notify her that an employee is sick results in a fol- low-up to check on the person and offer assistance, but also results in another immediate message to other employees to cover for the employee who is ill. The same media allow employees to make social contacts with each other on and off the job.

Group Members

Four types of group members make up formal and informal groups: the leader, opinion lead- ers, members in good standing, and the gatekeeper. The leader directs group activities. For- mal leaders are assigned by the organization. Informal leaders emerge based on the group’s choice over time. Members who are most closely aligned with the leader become opinion lead- ers. These individuals are most willing to express group values. Members in good standing are those included in the group who do not share its leadership. The gatekeeper determines who will

For Review

Define formal group and name the three most common types.

Fuse/Thinkstock The gatekeeper determines who will be included in or excluded from the group.

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CHAPTER 9Section 9.2 Stages of Group Development

be in the group and who will be excluded. The gatekeeper will be one of the first three, a member, opinion leader, or leader. At times, the entire group serves in the role, which is then known as the gate-keeping function. An employee who agrees to chair a commit- tee, on the condition that a certain co-worker not be included in the group, is acting as a gatekeeper; when several employees form a bowling team and deliberately exclude one person, the group has performed the gate-keeping function.

Styles of Group Behavior Individual members of groups and larger sets of people adopt one of three styles of behav- ior in groups—conflict, conformity, or consensus (Phipps, 2007; Tubbs, 1995). Conflict can occur as a natural consequence of social interaction. Conformity involves acceptance of the will and agenda of the majority or leader in order to move on. Pressures for conformity or premature consensus can lead to less-than-ideal decisions or decisions without true agreement, as the side with the greatest authority or willingness to defend a point of view wins as the other side concedes. Consensus occurs when genuine agreement among members emerges.

Several tactics help in avoiding conflicts, and achieving conformity and consensus. Vari- ous problem-solving techniques (as will be noted later in this chapter) are open commu- nication, goal clarification, and the creation of superordinate goals that all members agree can be used to facilitate group interactions.

9.2 Stages of Group Development

Learning Objective # 2: How can a leader effectively manage the stages of group development?

Tuckman and Jensen (1997) developed an often-cited explanation of how groups evolve. The model suggests a sequence in which individuals gradually surrender a sense of independence in favor of greater interdependence. The sequence is not as precise as the one depicted in Figure 9.1, but it does provide a general sense of how groups tend to operate. Table 9.1 identifies the communication issues in each stage.

For Review

What are the four types of group members found in formal and informal groups?

For Review

What are the three styles of behavior present in groups?

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CHAPTER 9Section 9.2 Stages of Group Development

Table 9.1: Communication issues in group stages

Stage Communication Challenge

Forming Resolving feelings of uncertainty Acquainting members with one another Seeking to become a leader Testing behaviors to see if they are acceptable to the group (feedback)

Storming Reduce and resolve conflicts Overcome resistance to group standards

Norming Inform members about norms Provide feedback to someone who violates or ignores a norm Explain the consequences of not following norms Offer encouragement and assistance to new and ongoing members

Performing Support team members Coordinate activities Quickly resolve disputes

Adjourning Provide closure formally or informally Ceremonial skills

1. Forming

2. Storming

3. Norming

4. Performing

Figure 9.1 The stages of group development

Communication issues are present at each stage of group development.

For Review

What are the five stages of group development?

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CHAPTER 9Section 9.2 Stages of Group Development

Forming

Initially, new members of a group are less likely to trust one another to some extent and to experience feelings of uncertainty. Two behaviors appear in the forming stage. The first is to try out actions and activities to see if others in the group deem them as acceptable. The second is tentative action by a designated leader, or by those who seek the role when a leader has not been appointed. The forming stage ends when sufficient compliance sug- gests that members see themselves as part of the larger group.

Communication skills can give you an advantage in the forming stage. The ability to make others feel comfortable, remembering names and individual idiosyncrasies, and building cooperation can help you attain a leadership role. Those wishing to be effective team play- ers also rely on communication skills to coordinate and work with others.

Storming

Although members now view themselves as part of something, they sometimes disagree with the constraints imposed by the group or simply test to see what the limits are. In the storming stage, the leader faces resistance as individuals seek to discover their place in the group’s structure (Tuckman, 1965). If the leader cannot manage the group successfully, the possibility of subgroups, member procrastination, conflicts between members, and open rebellion emerges. Group survival may be at risk.

Conflict resolution skills and the ability to reduce potential new conflicts, as Chapter 7 notes, are the key communication skills required in the storming stage. They include hav- ing the ability to listen and find common ground among disputing parties, and seeking or encouraging the willingness to make tradeoffs as part of the conflict resolution process. A leader and group members who cannot effectively communicate run the risk of a dys- functional group. Leaders who are able to define limits and find common ground among members help navigate the group through the storming stage.

Norming

The close of the storming stage occurs when a leader has been established, often through the efforts of another member who challenges the group to come together. Closer rela- tionships build between members, and discussions of power become less emotional and more matter of fact. The norming stage is complete when members share a common set of expectations about behaviors and contributions to the group. The communication approach used by the leader and group members defines the way a group works, such as by integrating new members into the group, offering advice and encouragement to all members, and coordinating group activities.

Also in this stage, group norms develop. Norms are rules governing behaviors in the group. As shown in Table 9.2, norms apply to three main areas in both formal and infor- mal groups. Many times, norms overlap between the two. When a member violates a norm, group members will express disapproval, formally or informally.

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CHAPTER 9Section 9.2 Stages of Group Development

Table 9.2: Types of norms

Effort/Productivity Units of production Time on the job and working overtime Department-specific activities (e.g., sales calls, sales totals, follow-ups with customers)

Work Behaviors Clothes worn, jewelry, hairstyle, other features of appearance Use of language, cursing, formality Following or ignoring work rules and procedures Punctuality versus tardiness

Social Behaviors Fraternization between management and labor Office romances

Norms summarize group influence processes, including the rules for joining and main- taining membership (Hackman, 2003). Norms apply to workplace behaviors rather than off-work circumstances. They often develop slowly but then become difficult to change. Norms also apply to behaviors rather than private feelings and thoughts. Some group members may “go along” with norms they think are foolish or insignificant. High-status members may choose to ignore some norms, because they do not fear losing member- ship. In the norming stage, these rules of behavior clarify the group or organization’s key values and convey a sense of identity. Enforcing norms assists an individual in meet- ing behavioral expectations and in avoiding making behavioral mistakes (Feldman, 1984).

Communication informs mem- bers of the presence of norms, violations of norms, and the potential consequences of ignor- ing or violating a norm. Formal and informal messages convey such information. For example, someone who is chronically late might receive a memo (formal) regarding the behavior or may be taken aside by group mem- bers who informally remind the individual that the norm is to be on time.

For Review

Name three types of norms present in formal and informal groups.

iStockphoto/Thinkstock Norms apply to a variety of workplace behaviors, from the level of effort given on the job to starting office romances.

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CHAPTER 9Section 9.2 Stages of Group Development

Performing

The performing stage has opened when the group reaches the point at which the primary activities revolve around solving problems. Clear lines of communication connect mem- bers, and members support one another and cooperate. Disputes in the performing stage are handled quickly and constructively (Mason & Griffin, 2005). At this point, interde- pendence reaches its peak and independence has been surrendered as much as it will be. Ongoing work groups and committees that reach the performing stage remain there unless drastic events interfere. The performing stage often involves moving from a formal group to a successful team. Then, project teams and informal groups with an end point (such as when a task is complete or the bowling season ends) move to the final stage, adjourning.

Adjourning

Groups that successfully complete tasks often end with a ceremony or celebration. These take the form of parties, official statements of appreciation by company leaders, and even graduations and mock funerals. Individuals resume a stronger sense of independence as the group disbands. In the adjourning stage, a leader can summarize group accom- plishments and express gratitude for good work, providing a role model for future group efforts. Adjourning can provide closure to group members and let every member know what the next assignment is.

The group development models proposed by Tubbs, Fisher, Tuckman, and Jensen com- bine the elements of conflict, conformity, and consensus with individual willingness to subsume personal agendas to larger group goals and activities. Positive outcomes occur only when communication skills are effectively utilized.

Leading Groups

Two forms of leadership appear in groups as they develop. Formal group leadership occurs when an individual has been selected or designated by the organization to fulfill the role. A person who has been assigned to manage a task force or serve as a chair of a committee is a formal group leader. Informal leaders, or emergent leaders, evolve into the role and are selected by the group.

Poole (1983) suggests that groups move back and forth between three “tracks.” Effective leaders work to understand the natures of and interrelationships between the task track, topic track, and relation track. The task track represents the process by which a group seeks to accomplish goals. A group can complete tasks by individuals working separately and then coming together at a key moment or it can subdivide into sets of individuals working on different parts of a project. The task track affects communication patterns within the group as it functions. The topic track is the specific topic a group discusses when it meets. The relation track focuses on the role and state of relationships in the group as they affect functioning.

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CHAPTER 9Section 9.2 Stages of Group Development

When a group meets, the leader will experience “breakpoints” at which the group switches from one track to another. Shifts in the conversation, postponing discussion of topics, and seeking to adjourn are examples of breakpoints. As groups operate over time, leaders coordinate activities while seeking to ensure that the group functions efficiently.

One key aspect of leading effective groups involves building cohesion and encouragement of effort by group members. At times, group members tend to give less effort to a group than they would if working individually or alone, a problem known as social loafing. At times, a member may decide to take a free ride and contribute nearly nothing. Effective group leadership includes finding ways to persuade a social loafer to at least get involved and show an effort. One method is to assign the individual specific tasks and require prog- ress reports to be made in front of the group. The leader can encourage the social loafer to offer opinions during meetings, thereby increasing the person’s involvement with the group (Liden & Erdogan, 2003).

Building Cohesion Group cohesiveness reflects the degree of goal commitment, conformity, cooperation, and group control over members. The term “tight knit” applies to groups exhibiting higher levels of cohesion. A link exists between the level of cohesion in a group and sub- sequent performance, most notably when the group focuses more on the task (the task track) than on mere interpersonal relationships (the relation track) or group pride (Mul- len & Copper, 1994). Leaders have vested interests in developing and maintaining cohe-

sive groups (Litterer, 1973; Sea- shore, 1954). A cohesive work group often experiences lower levels of member turnover and conflict. Cohesive committees use time more efficiently and engage in fewer counterpro- ductive arguments. Cohesive task force groups focus on final- izing the job and work together more efficiently.

A group with too little cohe- sion often suffers from the lack of productivity. The prob- lems associated with low cohe- sion begin with goal disagree- ment rather than agreement.

For Review

Define social loafing.

iStockphoto/Thinkstock The term “tight knit” applies to groups exhibiting higher levels of cohesion.

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CHAPTER 9Section 9.2 Stages of Group Development

Members do not conform to any potential group norms. They fail to cooperate, and group sanctions do not affect them. A dysfunctional group can result, one that demonstrates (Lencioni, 2002):

• lack of trust • fear of conflict • little or no commitment to the group • avoidance of accountability • inattention to results

In contrast, groups with desirable levels of cohesion tend to enjoy the highest levels of success. Among the benefits of a cohesive, functional group are:

• Members achieve high productivity. • Members help those experiencing problems. • Members extend extra effort during a crisis. • Members work without supervision. • Members share a positive social atmosphere.

A leader can build cohesion among group members through the tactics in Table 9.3.

Table 9.3: How to build group cohesiveness

Keep the group size from four to seven members

Provide opportunities for members to interact frequently

Create common goals for all members (superordinate goals)

Communicate expectations for individual members and the overall group

Source: G. C. Homans (1950). The human group. New York, NY: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich.

Effective leaders help build cohesion; ineffective ones drive wedges between members (Homans, 1950).

Group leaders should also understand that cohesion might grow to a point at which prob- lems begin to emerge. Overly cohesive groups are more likely to set norms to reduce output or lower levels of effort. They may be inclined to view other groups as rivals and create unnecessary conflicts. At times, the formal leader in the group becomes unable to function because of the influence of the informal leader.

The most substantial problem with overly cohesive groups is labeled groupthink, which results when group pressures for conformity become so intense that the group avoids unusual, minority, or unpopular views (Janis, 1991). At the extreme, groupthink becomes a process by which the group develops a sense of invulnerability, believing it can function without outside influence or sanction. The group self-censors information, and it fails to perform effectively within organizational confines (Von Bergen & Kirk, 1978). Some observers suggest that, under the leadership of Kenneth Lay, the executive team at Enron engaged in groupthink by failing to challenge instances of fraud and corruption. These

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CHAPTER 9Section 9.3 Leading Meetings

instances involved the use of accounting loopholes, special purpose entities, and poor financial reporting, which were used to hide billions in debt from failed deals and proj- ects, along with coercion directed at the Arthur Andersen accounting firm that audited Enron’s books (Healy & Krishna, 2003).

To combat groupthink, leaders can introduce new members (at least two) who have divergent opinions. Members may be isolated from each other in order to reduce inter- actions that reinforce groupthink opinions. Also, members may be assigned to new groups to encourage involvement in other parts of the organization. A group leader combating groupthink (if not a part of the groupthink process) needs to find ways to introduce divergent opinions and attitudes into the group. During interactions, differ- ences in points of view should be encouraged. The leader or highest-ranking person should not be first to express an opinion. A second group can be established to examine the findings of the original group. The use of a devil’s advocate to challenge ideas can be helpful (Janis, 1982).

In summary, effective communication skills facilitate every stage of a group’s develop- ment. Further, an effective leader finds ways to establish the most productive level of group cohesion. This includes dealing with problem members, such as social loafers. Communication skills assist in managing a team’s efforts and social relationships. These skills include decision-making, persuasion, and coordination.

9.3 Leading Meetings

Learning Objective # 3: What steps and tactics are involved in successfully leading team and group meetings?

Effective group leadership requires successful coordination of meetings. Unfortu-nately, attending meetings can be one of the more universally despised aspects of organizational life. People easily become bored, frustrated, and even gloomy. At the same time, tasks assigned to teams and groups often require going to meetings (Dvorak, 2006). Effective managerial communications programs use meeting time wisely and lead to productive results. Ineffective systems cause people to waste time and become annoyed (Armour, 1997).

Meetings take place for a variety of reasons. They can be called at the unit or departmen- tal level to discuss issues pertaining to that group. A task force or project team may meet frequently to coordinate activities. Meetings held at the companywide level often transmit

For Review

Define group cohesiveness and groupthink, and explain the relationship between the two concepts.

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CHAPTER 9Section 9.3 Leading Meetings

information that applies to every employee. To facilitate the success of any type of meet- ing, follow these steps:

• stating the motivation for holding a meeting • preparing for the meeting • managing the meeting session • following up on the meeting

The technologies that create virtual meetings present new challenges to leading meetings. Leaders will still need to tend to these steps, but face additional challenges. Time differences must be accounted for when scheduling meetings with those in other locations. The manager will need to be able to overcome the problems associated with a less-rich information channel in which members cannot see all nonverbal and paraverbal cues. Additional information about virtual teams is provided later in this chapter.

The Motivation for Holding a Meeting

Meetings take time and cost the organization money in terms of the payroll devoted to attendees. For example, a meeting with six attendees, each averaging $25 per hour in wages, costs $150 per hour. Therefore, a manager should determine that the benefits of holding the meeting exceed those costs. Table 9.4 identifies legitimate reasons for conduct- ing meetings.

For Review

What four steps are involved in holding meetings?

Digital Vision Effective group leadership requires successful coordination of meetings.

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CHAPTER 9Section 9.3 Leading Meetings

Table 9.4: Reasons for calling meetings

Reason Activity

Initiate a new activity Planning and goal setting sessions

Invigorate a stagnant activity Brainstorming or creativity technique; progress report

Information session Present findings of a report or analysis

Discussion session Evaluate pros and cons of a proposal, plan, or product

Performance session Update on progress of an activity

Motivate employees Pep talk, set goals and rewards

Educate employees Updates on events or outcomes of events

Networking Panel or breakout sessions with other professionals

Reward high-performers Public recognition with prize, trophy, certificate

Recreation Team-building exercises off-site

Adapted from: J. S. O’Rourke, IV (2010). Management Communication: A case analysis approach. (4th ed.) Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Managers should not call meetings when a key person will not be available. They should not hold meetings unless attendees have sufficient time to prepare. And, managers should avoid scheduling meetings that they know will lead to conflicts rather than positive results. The next phase begins when the manager has become convinced that holding a meeting will be worthwhile.

Meeting Preparation

The first assignment in meeting preparation is to decide who should attend. This includes the number of people, the organizational elements they will represent, what function(s) each might serve, and potential compatibility with others at the meeting. As discussed earlier, a more limited group of five to seven employees will be the most effective in many situations (Filley, House, & Kerr, 1976; Levine & Moreland, 1990).

When you are assigned to lead a meeting, the level of preparation put into the process will determine whether it will succeed. Following these steps helps to create a systematic, organized meeting:

1. Obtain clearance for the meeting place or location. 2. Make sure the meeting location has all needed equipment. 3. Send out advance notice to participants that a meeting will take place, and con-

firm their attendance at the meeting. 4. Create a detailed agenda for the meeting, including any ground rules. 5. Distribute the agenda to all the confirmed attendees, allowing enough time for

them to read it thoroughly (Stoneman & Dickinson, 1989; Hynes, 2008).

A detailed agenda, as shown in Figure 9.2, contains four elements: logistics, purpose, agenda items, and attachments.

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CHAPTER 9Section 9.3 Leading Meetings

Even the seating arrangement of the meeting deserves attention. A meeting held at a circu- lar table reduces the influence of the leader, because the person does not sit in a dominant position, but the arrangement increases communication among members. A rectangular table with a chair at one end establishes greater dominance but may limit interaction and communication. The leader should consider power dynamics and the intent of the meet- ing when setting up a seating arrangement (Hackman & Morris, 1975). After establishing the meeting time and place, and distributing the agenda, the next phase will be conduct- ing the actual event.

Figure 9.2 : A meeting agenda

Agenda for Workplace Safety Committee Meeting

Prepared on: June 27, 2011

By: Jennifer Jones, human resource department

Attendees: Jennifer Jones, Fred White, Susan Ward, Roger Smith, Marvin Johnson, Yen-Wen Kuo

Date and Meeting Time: July 2, 2:00 p.m.

Location: South Conference Room, 2nd floor

Subject: Recent Fire in Storage Facility

Agenda items:

1. Call to Order

2. Reports (time allotment: 20-30 minutes) a. Fire Department assessment of the cause -- Fred White b. Injuries to personnel -- Jennifer Jones c. Insurance claim filing -- Yen-Wen Kuo d. Contacts and counseling of families of the injured -- Marvin Johnson e. Company liability and legal concerns -- Susan Ward

3. Resolution of current crisis (time allotment: 20-30 minutes) a. Recommendations b. Discussion

4. Avoidance of similar accidents in the future (time allotment: 20-30 minutes) a. Recommendations b. Discussion c. Set goals and deadlines

5. Adjournment

Attachments:

Fire Department official report Injury roster

A meeting agenda for a workplace safety committee is shown.

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CHAPTER 9Section 9.3 Leading Meetings

Managing the Meeting

Effective participation in meetings becomes the responsibility of every person involved. The leader plays the pivotal role, but other individuals can contribute in ways that are helpful or detrimental. Part of career success involves the perception by others that you can participate in a team or group setting without being the source of problems. As a leader, conduct the meeting in four stages: introduce and restate the meeting’s purpose, provide a brief review of the agenda, tend to all matters stated in the agenda, and summa- rize and present conclusions to establish closure. The final stage often includes assigning various tasks to specific group members and following with an email or memo that lists these responsibilities. The leader can then ask for follow-up reports about completion of the assigned tasks.

As a meeting begins, four roles can be assigned to participants. First, the leader normally will be the person who called the meeting and formulated the agenda. This person holds primary authority during the course of the meeting. Second, a recorder takes notes that will later be used as meeting minutes or a meeting summary. Third, a timekeeper makes sure the agenda stays on a reasonable schedule without running too long. Fourth, partici- pants are those who actively engage in the discussion and agenda.

Formal meetings that will include votes often employ mechanisms such as Robert’s Rules of Order, which spells out protocols for enumerating agenda items, entertaining motions, seconding of motions, discussion of motions, and how to conduct the actual vote, includ- ing the vote to adjourn the meeting. These instruments help maintain order and make it easier to record decisions, votes, and outcomes, including passed motions, rejected motions, and tabled motions. Less-formal meetings still need order. Table 9.5 lists three other styles of meeting formats.

Table 9.5: Meeting formats

Format Explanation

Staff Conference Each team member reports to the leader, answers any questions, and makes recommendations with little input from other team members

Congressional System Leader is in charge; members raise hands to participate or contribute

House of Commons Style Leader delegates conduct of the meeting to another member; all members speak freely

Source: New York Times. Chairing a meeting: To keep order, be true to form, September 22, 1999 p. C25.

The primary problems that meeting leaders encounter include topic drift, running over time, and conflicts rather than conversations. Unexpected topics can cause the discussion to drift away from the intended agenda. For example, in the meeting agenda shown in Figure 9.2, the group convened specifically to discuss a fire in the facility. Drifting into dis- cussions about the union protecting the person who accidentally caused the fire quickly becomes counterproductive (Matson, 1996).

A meeting that runs over often results when people dominate discussions with per- sonal opinions and observations. Everyone has experienced a meeting in which one

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CHAPTER 9Section 9.3 Leading Meetings

participant loves “the sound of his own voice.” Effective meeting management seeks to contain these individuals with comments such as, “Let’s move on to the next agenda item,” or, “We only have about five min- utes left, so let’s finish this up.”

The most difficult issue involves communicating during meet- ing conflicts. Tempers can flare when emotions run high and people hold strongly different positions on an issue. Meeting leaders can use communication tactics such as “time out” peri- ods in which the group disbands to take a break, and other conflict management techniques, to hold

emotions in check. Angry participants can be separated. All members can be reminded of the group’s purpose, and the leader can acknowledge that some might have intense opin- ions or feeling about an issue. Humor often diffuses charged conflict situations, but the leader must be aware of the parties involved before making jests during a strong disagree- ment. Even a phrase such as, “Let’s all take a deep breath here,” might help. Summary statements are used to record conflicting positions (Mann, 2006).

Group Decision-Making Processes

One pitfall of trying to avoid confrontation is that a manager might seek to balance levels of conflict by arriving at a consensus too early, before the ideal course of action has been identified. To avoid this pitfall, one discussion technique, dialectical inquiry, involves inspiring genuine debate on an issue. The approach requires that all points of view be presented, discussed, and debated until a resolution is decided. Dialectic inquiry stands in contrast to the consensus method, in which the goal becomes to reach consensus rather than to conduct a genuine debate of the issue. Research suggests that dialectic inquiry achieves better results than the consensus method in the areas of final group consensus, individual member acceptance of the decision, and member satisfaction with the group (Priem, Harrison, & Muir, 1995; Schweiger, Sandberg, & Rechner, 1989).

In certain situations, a devil’s advocacy approach to conflict resolution provides the needed discussion and debate. The “devil’s advocate” is the person in the group (leader or other- wise) who willingly challenges ideas and asks tough questions designed to force individuals and subgroups to defend their positions. Devil’s advocacy appears to share the advantages of dialectic inquiry over the consensus approach (Murrell, Stewart, & Engel, 2011).

Group decision-making represents a key element in achieving goals. Successful analysis of alternatives and choosing the appropriate course of action involves the efforts of the

John Howard/Corbis When emotions run high, meeting leaders can use communication tactics such as “time out” periods in which the group disbands to take a break.

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CHAPTER 9Section 9.3 Leading Meetings

members and the leader working cooperatively. Communication skills, including listen- ing, conflict resolution, and the ability move the group forward by summarizing posi- tions, can assist in reaching the desired decision.

Responsibilities of Attendees Those attending the meeting also have responsibilities. Punctuality means the meeting will not be disturbed by late arrivals. Other forms of considerate behavior, coupled with effective listening skills, are in order. Participants may take notes to help remember key points or to raise questions at appropriate times. Disagreements that remain civil stand the best chance of resolution. Participants should remain aware of and sensitive to the verbal and nonverbal messages they transmit while in attendance.

Disruptive Members At times, communication and decision-making processes suffer from the disruptions of a single member. An individual may have strong objections to some aspect of the meeting or may have a hidden agenda to pursue. Tactics used by disrupters are:

• attempting to change the subject • making accusations against other members or the leader • dominating and interrupting • clowning and joking to interrupt the flow of discussion

A leader can seek out a potential disrupter prior to a meeting and ask for cooperation. The leader can attempt to settle the dis- rupter’s agenda before going to the meeting. At times, the leader can assign the disruptor a role, such as taking notes or summa- rizing the viewpoints of others. To confront the disrupter, the leader may pre-arrange allies to deal with the behavior. The disrupter can be told in advance that his or her actions may lead to negative consequences from other members of the group.

For Review

Explain dialectic inquiry, the consensus method, and the devil’s advocacy approach to group decision- making processes.

Nick White/Thinkstock Disruptions of meetings take many forms.

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CHAPTER 9Section 9.4 Formal Group Business Communication

During a meeting, the leader should make sure that emotional issues do not get out of hand. Summarizing viewpoints allows time to prepare more reasoned responses. Asking questions may help prevent the disruptor from dominating the agenda (Jones, 1980).

Follow-up

After a meeting, completing follow-up documents begins. Formal meetings normally require minutes, which are a summary record of what transpired during the meeting. Min- utes are recorded by one of the group members and will be filed at a key location. Meeting summaries or minutes may be sent to participants via email or a memo following less-for- mal meetings. One purpose is to make sure that events and decisions during the meeting are accurately recorded. A second purpose will be to remind participants of any activities they have volunteered to take care of as well as commitments made to future activities.

Meetings continue to offer the possibility of coordinating activities, making better deci- sions, gathering expertise for discussion and negotiation, and even serving as a place to train managers, who can conduct meetings in order to practice taking charge in a struc- tured setting. Meetings also offer the potential of wasting time and money, leading to con- flicts, and allowing members to disengage and take a free ride. The quality of the leader or manager determines the outcome.

9.4 Formal Group Business Communication

Learning Objective # 4: Preparing effective management communications by groups and teams involves what processes?

Two levels of communication take place when a group operates. The first involves communication among members as the group completes its assignment, as has been described in this chapter. The second occurs when the group seeks to send a message or messages to others, among them managers at higher ranks, other groups, sets of employees, and outside publics such as the government. Group communications such as these appear in written and oral forms.

Group and Team Writing Projects

Formal groups are often asked to prepare formal written documents. Three of the more common are official letters, reports, and proposals, although other variations may be pre- pared, such as a manifesto or mission statement, a revision to the mission statement, a statement of corporate vision (including those pertaining to ethics and sustainability), a planning document, and even smaller items such as memos.

Communicating in an authoritative voice that represents the viewpoints of all group members—including the voices of consensus and dissent—constitutes the primary chal- lenge for formal team writing projects. The final product should speak with one voice,

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as if the document had been prepared by a single individual, even though more than one person has been involved. Three options for preparing a team’s writing project are single writer, co-authorship, and multiple authors. Each exhibits distinct advantages and disadvantages.

Single Writer Most of you have probably experienced a situation, at work or in class, in which one individual clearly has superior writing skills. Oftentimes the group, individually or col- lectively, will ask that person to write the report or proposal. This should not mean others in the group abdicate responsibility. Instead, single authorship allows the document to be prepared in a consistent voice, including the level of formality or informality as well as the preciseness of language with regard to both technical terminology and not-so-technical aspects of the message.

The other members of the group assist the process by collecting materials for the first draft and offering suggestions for revision. Group members might provide feedback that a point should be added, omitted, or expanded upon. The more concrete the suggestions, the better the odds that the document will communicate exactly as it should.

Two potential disadvantages of employing a single author are conflicts and social loafing. Members may genuinely disagree about what the document should say and not say. Some may decide not to participate, either because they believe their opinions will be ignored or because they wish to attend to other matters (Ede & Lunsford, 1990).

The role of the group leader in a single-author situation will be to make sure everyone contributes his or her fair share, that conflicts about content are resolved in a professional and efficient manner, and that the process stays on schedule. An effective leader expresses appreciation to both the single writer and to those in the group who continue to partici- pate in preparing the final document.

Co-authorship Several forms of co-authorship can be used when preparing formal documents. It may be that two individuals are assigned the responsibility. In other circumstances, nearly every member of the group writes a part of the document and then it is compiled and finalized by one or more members.

The advantages of co-authorship include the ability to break the document down into areas of interest or specialization, which can then be assigned to the individuals best suited to each one (Allen et al., 1987). Doing so may allow each part of the report to receive greater scrutiny by the person with the greatest level of expertise. Collecting materials moves more quickly, as

For Review

What three methods can be used when preparing group and team writing projects?

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CHAPTER 9Section 9.4 Formal Group Business Communication

each part is prepared separately during the same time period. Collaborative writing helps group members socialize with one another, including allowing more senior members to assist and counsel newer employees. Co-authorships can also foster communication among mem- bers. In some instances, the pro- cess of collaboration improves the writing skills of team mem- bers (Gebhardt, 1980).

Co-authorship also creates chal- lenges. Writing in one voice becomes considerably more dif- ficult. Making transitions from

one part of the document to the next also requires attention. Those who complete indi- vidual sections may be more prone to be defensive if the segment is challenged or if other members of the group request revisions.

The role of the group leader in co-authorship begins with making sure the project does not break down into “turf wars,” with each section of writers and/or individual person defending their work. The leader assumes larger coordination responsibilities, making sure that each part arrives on schedule and that the whole document can be completed on time. The leader ensures communication between all members so that the whole report works toward a consistent voice in content and writing style. The leader may need to adjudicate the decision to select a final person to polish and edit the completed document before submission.

Multiple Authors, Single Editor Similar to co-authorship, the multiple-authors-single-editor approach involves individu- als and sets of employees that are assigned to segments of work. The difference is that one individual is placed in charge of each draft and the final document at the outset. Each seg- ment will be submitted to the editor for revision individually. Then, the editor prepares the final document for consideration by the overall group.

The multiple-authors-single-editor approach takes advantage of one person’s writing skills and ability to view the project from a micro and macro perspective. Many times, this talent can be hard to find. When a person is available, the final document stands a bet- ter chance of being written in a clear voice and with a consistent style. At the same time, multiple authorship often allows for greater specialization, making it possible for each part of the report to be detailed and clarified by someone with specific knowledge about that area.

The primary disadvantages of the multiple-authors-single-editor approach continue to be the potential for turf-building and conflict over content. Someone, or a few people who

Creatas Images/Thinkstock Co-authorships can also foster communication among team or group members.

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have invested considerable effort into a section, may have such a sense of ownership that they do not take criticism or suggestions for revision well. Conflicts among these authors can arise as well as conflicts between the authors and the editor (Ede & Lunsford, 1990).

The role of the group leader in a multiple-authors-single-editor context remains basically the same. The leader continues to be responsible for deadlines, coordination, and conflict resolution (Bacon, 1990).

The role of a member in all three of these writing circumstances should be to contribute as a responsible team player. Doing so involves communicating concerns in a nonconfronta- tional manner, offering assistance when needed, meeting deadlines, and seeking to help successfully achieve the group’s objectives. Effective team players are also good listeners. They respect differences, value diversity, and are willing to use the resources provided by others (Harper & Harper, 1993)

Group Speaking Projects

A group may be asked to make a verbal presentation of findings or group activities. Many of the principles, as discussed in previous chapters, that apply to individual verbal communications also pertain to a group presentation. It is important to understand the target audience, including its size and composition, in order to construct an effective mes- sage. The group should seek to predict the audience’s probable reaction to the presentation— positive, neutral, or negative— in order to be able to respond. The presentation should put forth a key idea or limited set of ideas, and the message should be tailored to those ideas. At that point, the group can collectively decide whether a single-speaker or multiple- presenter approach will be most effective.

Single Speaker A single speaker may be chosen for the same reason as a single author. One group member may possess superior public-speaking skills, and the group wishes to take advantage of

For Review

What two methods can be used when making group or team presentations?

IT Stock/Thinkstock Group verbal presentations require preparation and practice.

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CHAPTER 9Section 9.4 Formal Group Business Communication

that talent. Members of the group may be seated in the audience together or separately to reinforce the speaker and provide additional support.

The primary advantage of a single speaker, especially one who is gifted, will be the ability to control the tone and pace of the presentation. Other members of the group can assist by running any audiovisual equipment or other features incorporated into the event. The net result can be a more seamless presentation that concentrates on the key points in the message.

A single speaker typically begins a presentation by acknowledging the other members of the group. The presenter often also thanks other members both for their contributions and for attending the presentation. Then the actual content can be delivered. Following the presentation, the other group members may be called on to respond to questions and objectives.

A potential disadvantage is that a single speaker may give a more mundane presentation, should the individual not be as talented as the group had hoped. Audience members may wonder why only one person is talking. If there is a cohesive team that worked to create the presentation, allowing several presenters can create a greater awareness of this and could allow for a better impact overall.

Multiple Presenters When more than one speaker will be presenting, several potential advantages emerge. The switch from one person to the next can enliven the audience, and differing styles of speaking may prove interesting. The address can be framed in such a way that a person with expertise speaks about his or her part of the operation or analysis, adding credibility. Multiple speakers may also reflect valuable professionalism, even gravitas, suggesting the topic is indeed important.

Ordinarily, one individual serves as moderator or coordinator when multiple presenters appear. This individual will have the most polished speaking skills. It will be his or her role to open the session with a welcoming statement, introduce the speakers or panel members, and possibly outline what will be said. As the presentation unfolds, the coordi- nator directs the audience to the next speaker while providing a transition.

Multiple-presenter arrangements can become distracting. Differences in presentation style may cause the audience to need to adjust, and some may be focused on the previous speaker rather than the new one. When transitions are abrupt and not well coordinated, the presentation does not appear as professional. Movements by and facial expressions of those not speaking can attract the attention of the audience, moving it away from the person talking.

Effective multiple-presenter events are practiced and well coordinated. The moderator moves the flow of information as smoothly as is possible. Those not speaking remain focused on the message provided by the one in front. Transitions between speakers hap- pen quickly. The individuals with the most direct experience or expertise handle ques- tions. The moderator then provides closure as the presentation ends. The key goal of a presentation will be to provide the appearance of competent professionalism.

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Virtual Groups Today’s technologies allow for the use of virtual groups or sets of individuals who employ technologies to achieve the same common goals as those groups functioning in the non- virtual realms, such as collaboration, sharing information, solving problems, and sched- uling activities. Virtual teams and groups are formed for short- and long-term projects, including group writing assignments, as well as deliberations on long-range, ongoing issues (Ante, 2003). Virtual groups allow individuals and companies to reduce travel costs

and permit people from remote locations to participate. A meet- ing can be arranged as quickly as if members are simply down the hall, not across the country or ocean (Naughton, 2003).

The leader’s role in a virtual group is to schedule meetings, keep the conversation and dia- log flowing, and to summarize at the end. A leader should follow up virtual meetings to ensure that agreement occurred, that individuals know their tasks and assignments, and that members are aware of upcom- ing deadlines and meetings.

Virtual groups do have limitations. If group meetings have no visual aspects, such as those in a videoconference, then paraverbal and nonverbal cues, such as voice tone, inflec- tion, eye contact, distance, gestures, and facial expression, cannot as easily be transmitted. This limits the richness of communications between members. Socialization can become less likely, or paradoxically, more likely in virtual groups. The typical boundaries between colleagues working and living in the same place do not exist between colleagues of vir- tual groups. There is both more (for example, connecting with a colleague via Facebook or over email outside of work hours) and less freedom to communicate (for example, the lack of spontaneous office socialization that occurs with colleagues in a centralized work environment) about topics outside work. The boundaries of what is and what is not appropriate still apply, but the routines of virtual groups typically take on a life of their own and relate back to the business culture and leader of the company or industry, and the specific task at hand. Scheduling virtual meetings can also prove a challenge or be quite easy, depending on the colleagues’ locations.

In spite of the obstacles, the use of virtual groups can be expected to increase. The ability to see the other party through various new technologies increases the usefulness of virtual groups, which can have great value for national and international companies.

For Review

Describe a virtual group.

Christopher Robbins Virtual groups allow communication and collaboration over great distances.

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CHAPTER 9Section 9.5 Chapter Review

9.5 Chapter Review

Management communication plays a critical role in operating groups and teams effectively. A group consists of two or more people, interacting, with a common purpose or goal (Schein, 1980). Teams become distinct from groups when syner- gies emerge from greater interdependence and shared effort. An organization’s leaders establish a formal group to achieve company goals and objectives. Three common types of formal groups are work groups, committees, and project teams. An informal group, or a friendship group, emerges without the endorsement of organizational leaders and does not have a designated structure or work toward organizational goals other than socializa- tion and friendship. Three items tend to bring informal groups together: activities, shared values and sentiments, and interactions. The distinction between formal and informal groups has been blurred by new office designs and virtual communication technologies.

Four types of group members make up formal and informal groups: the leader, opinion leaders, members in good standing, and the gatekeeper. Individual members of groups and larger sets of people adopt one of three styles of behavior in groups—conflict, confor- mity, or consensus. Formal groups require consensus to operate effectively.

Five stages of group development are forming, storming, norming, performing, and adjourning. During forming, new members of a group are likely to distrust one another and experience feelings of uncertainty. Some members try out actions and activities to see if others in the group deem them as acceptable. There may be tentative actions of a leader, if one has been designated, or by those seeking to lead.

In the storming stage, the leader faces resistance as individuals seek to push boundaries and discover their place in the group’s structure. Conflict resolution skills and the abil- ity to reduce potential new conflicts are vital. The norming stage will be complete when members share a common set of expectations about behaviors and contributions to the group. Norms or rules governing group behaviors begin to form. The performing stage occurs when the group reaches the point at which the primary activities revolve around solving task problems. Clear lines of communication connect members. In the adjourning stage, groups that successfully complete tasks often end with a ceremony or celebration. In this stage, a leader can summarize group accomplishments and express gratitude for good work. Leadership of groups requires attention to social loafing and levels of group cohesiveness, especially when groupthink emerges.

Leading meetings involves stating the motivation for the meeting, preparation, manag- ing the actual event, and following up. Leaders obtain clearance for the meeting place, arrange equipment, send out notices, and then create and distribute the agenda, confirm- ing those who will attend. Group decision-making processes during meetings can include dialectic inquiry, the consensus method, or a devil’s advocacy approach. Attendees should be responsible and professional, and the leader should work to prevent disrupters from interrupting or sidetracking the meeting.

Formal group business communications include writing projects and presentations by groups and teams. Group writing projects, such as letters, formal reports, formal propos- als, and other documents can be prepared by a single writer, through co-authorship, or by multiple writers with a single editor. Group speaking projects may be handled by a single spokesperson or with a carefully rehearsed and choreographed multiple-presenter

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CHAPTER 9Section 9.5 Chapter Review

format. Virtual groups employ technologies to achieve the same common goals as those groups functioning in the non-virtual realms, such as collaboration, sharing information, solving problems, and scheduling activities.

Key Terms

consensus method A group decision-making process in which the goal becomes to reach consensus rather than a genuine debate of the issue.

devil’s advocacy A group decision-making pro- cess in which a person in the group (leader or otherwise) willingly challenges ideas and asks tough questions designed to force individuals and subgroups to defend their positions.

dialectical inquiry A group decision-making process that involves inspiring genuine debate that allows for all points of view to be pre- sented, discussed, and debated until a resolu- tion is reached.

dysfunctional group A group with low cohe- sion and goal disagreement in which members ignore any potential norms.

formal group A group established by an orga- nization’s leaders as part of the managerial process.

formal group leadership What occurs when an individual has been selected or designated by the organization to fulfill the leadership role.

functional group A group exhibiting desirable levels of cohesion and the highest levels of success.

group Two or more people, interacting, with a common purpose or goal.

group cohesiveness The degree of goal com- mitment, conformity, cooperation, and group control over members.

groupthink What occurs when group pres- sures for conformity become so intense that the group avoids unusual, minority, or unpopu- lar views.

informal group Or a friendship group, a group that emerges for the purposes of socialization and friendship without the endorsement of organizational leaders and that does not have a designated structure.

informal leaders Or emergent leaders, are individuals who evolve into the leadership role and are selected by the group.

minutes A summary record of what transpired during a meeting as recorded by one of the group members.

norms Rules governing behaviors in a group.

social loafing When group members give less effort to the group than they would working individually or alone.

teams Sets of individuals with synergies that emerge from greater interdependence and share effort.

virtual groups Sets of individuals who employ technologies to achieve the same common goals as those groups functioning in the non- virtual realms, such as collaboration, sharing information, solving problems, and scheduling activities.

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CHAPTER 9Section 9.5 Chapter Review

For Review With Possible Responses

1. Define group and team. A group consists of two or more people, interacting, with a common purpose or goal. Teams become distinct from groups when synergies emerge from greater interdependence and shared effort.

2. Define formal group and name the three most common types. When an organization’s leaders establish a formal group through a notation in an orga- nizational chart or by a management directive, the purpose will be to achieve company goals and objective. Three of the most common types of formal groups are work groups, committees and boards, and project teams.

3. What are the four types of group members found in formal and informal groups? Four types of group members make up formal and informal groups: the leader, opinion leaders, members in good standing, and the gatekeeper. The leader directs group activities. Members who are most closely aligned with the leader become opinion leaders and are the most willing to express group values. Members in good standing are those in the group who do not share its leadership. The gatekeeper determines who will and who will not be included in the group.

4. What are the three styles of behavior present in groups? Individual members of groups and larger sets of people adopt one of three styles of behav- ior—conflict, conformity, or consensus. Conflict can occur as a natural consequence of social interaction. Conformity involves acceptance of the will and agenda of the majority or leader in order to move on. Consensus occurs when genuine agreement emerges among members.

5. What are the five stages of group development? Forming, storming, norming, performing, and adjourning.

6. Name three types of norms present in formal and informal groups. Norms regarding effort or productivity, work behaviors, and social behaviors.

7. Define social loafing. The problem known as social loafing occurs at times when group members give less effort to a group than they would if working individually or alone.

8. Define group cohesiveness and groupthink, and explain the relationship between the two concepts. Group cohesiveness reflects the degree of goal commitment, conformity, cooperation, and group control over members. Groupthink results when group pressures for conformity become so intense that the group avoids unusual, minority, or unpopular views. Group- think emerges when groups experience levels of cohesion that are too high.

9. What four steps are involved in holding meetings? When seeking to hold meetings the steps to be followed include stating the motivation for holding a meeting, preparing for the meeting, managing the meeting session, and follow- ing up on the meeting.

10. Explain dialectic inquiry, the consensus method, and the devil’s advocacy approach to group decision-making processes. Dialectic inquiry involves inspiring genuine debate on an issue. The approach requires that all points of view be presented, discussed, and debated until a resolution is decided. Dialectic inquiry stands in contrast to the consensus method in which the goal becomes to reach consensus rather than conduct a genuine debate of the issue. The devil’s advo- cacy approach to conflict resolution provides the needed discussion and debate in which the “devil’s advocate” willingly challenges ideas and asks tough questions designed to force individuals and subgroups to defend their positions.

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CHAPTER 9Section 9.5 Chapter Review

11. What three methods can be used when preparing group and team and writing projects? Three options for preparing a team’s writing project include a single writer, co-authorship, and multiple authors.

12. What two methods can be used when making group or team presentations? The group can collectively decide whether a single-speaker or multiple-presenter approach will be most effective.

13. Describe a virtual group. Virtual groups are sets of individuals who employ technologies to achieve the same com- mon goals as those groups functioning in the non-virtual realms, such as collaboration, sharing information, solving problems, and scheduling activities.

Analytical Exercises

1. Newer office designs and technologies have blurred the distinction between for- mal and informal groups. Explain how the use of Twitter, Facebook, and LinkedIn might be used by group members for formal group functioning, informal interac- tions, and linking the group to persons outside the organization.

2. A disruptor interrupts communication and disturbs group functioning by attempting to change the subject, making accusations against other members or the leader, dominating and interrupting, or by clowning and joking to interrupt the flow of discussion. Describe how a disruptor would influence the following: a. conflict b. conformity c. consensus d. gate-keeping activities

3. Explain which specific tools of formal and informal, and verbal and written com- munications, along with nonverbal communications, a group leader can use in the stages of forming, storming, norming, performing, and adjourning.

4. How would group norms regarding effort/productivity, work behaviors, and social behaviors be different or the same in the following circumstances? And, how could a leader communicate regarding the appropriateness or inappropri- ateness of each norm to group members, from the company’s perspective? a. a set of bank tellers who are friends b. a road construction crew that also plays slow-pitch softball together on

weekends c. information technology employees who enjoy playing video games together d. friends working together at McDonald’s

5. How would social loafing and groupthink affect the following? a. the task track b. the topic track c. the relation track

6. Explain the value of dialectic inquiry, the consensus method, and a devil’s advo- cacy approach in the following group decisions: a. medical staff considering a highly risky but more-effective medical treatment

for a patient b. sales team trying to agree on the best method to approach a new, lucrative client c. management team deciding whether or not to close a plant and outsource a

product’s manufacture

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CHAPTER 9Section 9.6 Case Studies

7. Choose a form of group writing (single authorship, co-authorship, multiple authors/single editor) for the following circumstances and select the type of written message to be used in the following circumstances. a. human resources department conducting a fact-finding mission to identify

prevailing benefit plans in a metropolitan area b. product development team describing how the item it created is superior to

the competitor’s product to the marketing department c. accounting department explaining how a new tax code will affect company

operations

9.6 Case Studies

Case Study 1: The Sale Before the Sale

Henry Fong faced the biggest challenge of his career. He had been with his company for five years, selling fleets of American-made cars to other businesses. Currently, Henry had been given the charge to oversee a new major sales project by his employer. He was to head a sales group assigned to market a fleet of midsized trucks to a local delivery service. A normal order would be 20 trucks, plus a main- tenance agreement, which generated a sizable amount of revenue for his company.

Until this year, the task would have been given to a single member of the company’s sales force, Blake Mercer. Blake had been with the company for 10 years and earned a substantial amount of money in commissions during that time. Recently, however, he had failed to capture three major accounts that had been continuous customers. Each time, a Japanese company had obtained the contract by emphasizing fuel efficiency and reliability of its trucks.

Company executives at Henry and Blake’s U.S. firm had decided to try a sales team approach, rather than relying on interpersonal relationships, as Blake had done in the past. Blake was assigned to the team, based on his knowledge of the product and the market. This was to be the first sales call under the new system.

Henry called a meeting of his five-person team. As the group met in a conference room, Henry opened. “Thank you all for coming. I think this is an exciting new project, and I’m certain we’ll do a great job. Now first of all, I believe we need to find a way to counter this Japanese company’s claims about bet- ter gas mileage and reliability. What do you all think?”

A member of the team replied, “Well, it seems to me our advantage is that our trucks are much easier to load and unload, which saves time and money during deliveries, plus I think we can challenge them on the idea of low maintenance.”

“Great,” Henry responded, “do you all agree?” Everyone in the room except Blake nodded “yes.”

“I also think,” Henry continued, “that we can point out all of the high tech we offer, the same as those guys—on-board computers and GPS. So, what I’m hoping is that we can break this down into a really professional sales pitch, with visuals and maybe a couple of different presenters.”

At that point Blake interrupted sharply, “You know folks, this whole thing is designed to get rid of our commissions. They figure that, if this team thing works, they can cut back on how much each of us gets paid.”

Henry answered, “Well, I’m sure we’ll end up dividing the commission, but I haven’t heard anything about a straight salary system.” (continued)

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CHAPTER 9Section 9.6 Case Studies

“You’re a trusting little soul,” Blake replied.

“Well, I really don’t think this is the time for that discussion,” Henry responded. He quickly moved on, “So, what I’m hoping is that Sally and Gene will think about maybe putting together some visuals. Don and Erin can work on the main message and coordinate with them. And I’m hoping Blake can give us all insights about the company and how we can tailor our pitch to them.”

“I’ve got a lot on my plate right now,” Blake sneered. “We’ll see.”

“How about the rest of you?” Henry asked, “Can we put something good together?”

The rest of the group, while tense, nodded in agreement.

“Good. And think about how many presenters we want, and who they should be,” Henry continued. “Well, listen, I don’t really believe in long meetings, so maybe we can just get some email going back and forth about this. All right? Okay, good. Thanks for coming.”

While the rest of the group lingered to visit, Blake quickly left the room. Two of his colleagues were waiting outside. As he moved out of sight, Henry was certain that he heard Blake continuing to com- plain about the new system. Henry felt his fist clench. He resisted the urge to follow Blake and con- front him directly. “Be calm; be professional,” he thought. Henry knew he faced two issues; making the sale and dealing with Blake.

Review Questions

1. What type of sales presentation should Henry’s team put together? 2. Were the company executives at Henry’s firm wise in putting Blake on the sales team? 3. How should Henry deal with Blake in the future?

Case Study 1: The Sale before the Sale (continued)

Case Study 2: The Accident

Murphy Manufacturing suffered a terrible tragedy. For the first time in the company’s history, a worker died while on the job. The employee, Luis Morales, apparently had ignored a warning whistle that signals when a forklift is moving in reverse. He was briefly pinned against a wall, causing internal injuries that led to his death.

Luis had worked for Murphy Manufacturing for over three years. He had gone through safety training and had never received a warning for violating safety protocols. In fact, his supervisor had called him a “model employee” on his last performance evaluation, partly based on Luis’ willingness to carefully follow directions.

Top management formed a task force to prepare a report and response. Specifically, four areas required investigation. First, the group was to investigate the cause of the accident to see if somehow it could have been prevented. Second, employee training was to be reviewed to make sure all employ- ees had been made aware of safety protocols. Third, the financial response was to be formulated. The company wanted to make sure Luis’ family received fair financial compensation from insurance and all other sources, including a company-sponsored fund-raiser. Fourth was the human response. Com- pany executives wanted to make sure emotional support was being provided to the family of Luis but also to the employee who was operating the forklift at the time of the accident.

The task force included an executive in the area of finance, two members of the human resource department, two entry-level production workers, and a quality-control employee. An attorney was retained to work with the task force regarding all legal issues. (continued)

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CHAPTER 9Section 9.6 Case Studies

Beyond the internal report to be prepared, the task force was also directed to respond to all media inquiries. The company’s CEO made it clear that he wanted the investigation and response to be “transparent and humane.” He asked for a direct, sincere apology to all concerned, if the company had failed in some way.

Review Questions

1. What written documents should the task force prepare? 2. Should the task force prepare written documents using a single author, co-authorship, or mul-

tiple authors with a single editor? 3. What presentations will be necessary in this case? Who should give them? 4. Should a single speaker or multiple presenters make the presentations?

Case Study 2: The Accident (continued)

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Learning Objectives

After reading this chapter and studying the materials, you should be able to:

1. Adapt to various audiences when preparing a public speech or presentation. 2. Create a public presentation tailored to a specific audience. 3. Take the necessary steps to prepare and present an effective speech. 4. Deliver effective public presentations.

Public Speaking and Presentations

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CHAPTER 10Section 10.1 The Nature of Public Speaking

10.1 The Nature of Public Speaking

Learning Objective # 1: What is the nature of the public speaking process?

Public speaking presents one of the greatest opportunities you will have to make a positive impression on others. An effective and memorable public speech can launch a career or lead it to greater heights. For example, an unknown U.S. senator, when asked to make a speech at the Democratic National Convention in 2004, suddenly became so well known that four years later he was elected president of the United States. And, even though you may never make a speech that leads to such a high office, you may very well impress members of top management with your potential to lead and assume a position of greater authority, based on a well-delivered public presentation.

The public communication process involves one communicating with many (Wiseman & Barker, 1967). Public speeches take place in a vast number of ways and places, from stand- ing on a street corner to the annual State of the Union address. The audiences are as varied as the number of forums. Two public communication formats are in-house speeches and presentations, and presentations to the general public.

For Review

What is public communication?

Indra Nooyi: Talk the Talk, Walk the Walk

She played cricket and performed in a rock band in college in India, and then worked the third shift as a dorm receptionist while obtaining her master’s degree in business administration at Yale. Clearly a woman of great energy and passion, Indra Nooyi became the CEO of PepsiCo, directing more than 185,000 employ- ees in over 200 countries.

Nooyi has achieved fame and acclaim in the business world for her dress, demeanor, vision, and public pre- sentation skills. She often comes to work dressed in the traditional Indian sari. For many years, she was accompanied by one of her two young daughters. Nooyi is well known for her caring, compassionate approach to employee relations. She is “a deeply car- ing person who can relate to people from the board- room to the front line,” as dean of the business school at Wake Forest University and former Pepsi CEO Steven S. Reinemund has said (Useem, 2008).

Indra Nooyi’s vision included key strategic corporate moves in the 1990s, among them the divestment of KFC, Pizza Hut, and Taco Bell while acquiring Tropicana and Quaker Oats, the producer of Gatorade. These profitable moves also took the company in a new direction—toward providing healthier prod- ucts while conserving water and energy. By 2010, half of the company’s products were from healthier foods. The company began an anti-obesity campaign at the same time.

(continued)

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CHAPTER 10Section 10.1 The Nature of Public Speaking

In-House Speeches and Presentations

In-house presentations take the forms of downward, upward, and lateral communica- tions. A downward presentation means the company’s CEO or another higher-ranking manager creates a message for those at lower ranks. An upward presentation occurs when an individual makes a pitch for a special project, such as a when an employee proposes to renovate the interior of a store to integrate social media or when a logistics expert makes a proposal designed to cut a company’s shipping costs. Another upward presentation takes place when a candidate stands before an individual or panel as part of the interview process for a promotion. Lateral presentations travel between managers of the same rank.

In-house messages normally focus on specific issues related to the organization or busi- ness. The audience consists of fellow employees. Even with those parameters, in-house speeches reach diverse audience members with differing opinions and viewpoints. Audi- ence familiarity might lead to spontaneous interruptions or leaps in judgments by mem- bers. The same degree of preparation (including the steps described in this chapter) will be required as with any other public presentation to a more general audience.

For Review

What kinds of communications are involved in in-house speeches and presentations?

Nooyi often engages in public presentations. To stress the importance of her vision, she created the phrase, “Performance with purpose.” “It doesn’t mean subtracting from the bottom line,” she said, but rather “that we bring together what is good for business with what is good for the world.” To further emphasize this point, she noted in the same speech, “People these days are bringing their principles to their purchasing. We, in return, are bringing a purpose to our performance” (Useem, 2008).

The ability to provide a powerful vision while relating to both internal and external audiences is one of Nooyi’s key skills. She speaks often at company functions and is willing to engage in musical perfor- mances at company events as well.

As a result, Fortune and Forbes magazines have named Nooyi as one of the world’s 100 most powerful women. U.S. News & World Report has named her as one of America’s best leaders. These awards, along with several honorary doctorates, note her tenacity in tying personal values into a corporate vision, assisted by effective public speaking skills.

Review Questions

1. What types of audiences would Nooyi address when emphasizing sustainability and healthy eating?

2. How does public speaking relate to articulating a vision to the world? 3. How does the willingness to perform music at company events relate to public speaking and

relationships with employees?

Indra Nooyi: Talk the Talk, Walk the Walk (continued)

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CHAPTER 10Section 10.1 The Nature of Public Speaking

Presentations to the General Public

Company officials are asked to make presentations to the public on a variety of subjects. Some speeches relate specifically to their businesses; others address more general issues and concerns. Local company owners may be asked to comment on a new local tax code or zoning decision. Many national company CEOs move about the country, promoting their organizations but also providing motivational speeches to conventions and other gatherings of people.

At the height of his tenure as CEO of Southwest Airlines, Herb Kelleher was such a popu- lar speaker that he was booked for speeches as far as two years in advance. Many times, he was asked to relay information about the birth and growth of the airline. At others, speech topics included customer service, teamwork, and how to create a fun-loving orga- nizational culture.

Four main types of audiences listen to speeches by members of organizations. First, busi- ness-related organizations, including conventions, will request a speech from an expert

or executive from a company. These speeches focus on various topics such as a specific industry or profession as well as on more general subjects, such as the political climate. Second, groups of consumers may invite speak- ers to talk about their issues, such as environmental protec- tion, governmental regulations, fair dealings with employees, and the ethical treatment of ani- mals. Third, company speak- ers address employees of other companies. Fourth, presenta- tions to the general public can include special occasions, such as high school or college gradu- ation ceremonies.

The Steps of Public Speaking

The purpose of this chapter is to assist you in becoming a more effective public speaker. In addition to the basic advice contained here, other organizations can help you develop your ability to make a public presentation. For example, the Toastmasters (www.toast- masters.org) sponsor many local organizations with the express purpose of helping indi- viduals become more effective speakers.

Taking the time to prepare is key to being a successful public speaker. The steps of public speaking, from preparation to the speech itself, are outlined in Table 10.1. This section pres- ents the first step, setting a strategy. The upcoming sections will explore the other steps.

iStockphoto/Thinkstock Company officials are asked to make presentations to the public on a variety of subjects.

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CHAPTER 10Section 10.1 The Nature of Public Speaking

Table 10.1: The steps of public speaking

Set a Strategy

Identify the Audience

Evaluate Potential Barriers to Communication

Prepare the Message

Prepare for Questions

Practice the Presentation

Make the Presentation

Set a Strategy

According to Aristotle, the three basic reasons for public speaking are to inform, persuade, and inspire (Cooper, 1961). Another goal of public speaking can be to collaborate. Making sure an audience understands an issue or process is the primary goal of an informative presentation. Persuasion involves the attempt to change peoples’ minds, or at least to get them to see a different perspective. In both cases, time at the end may be reserved for vari- ous questions, comments, issues, and challenges to the message. Inspirational speeches seek to move an audience from a concept to an action. Employees may be inspired to pro- vide better customer service. A larger audience may be inspired to vote in an election or contact governmental officials about an issue. Inspirational speeches often allow for little audience participation beyond cheering and encouragement.

Collaborations seek to collect information and to engage in mutual dialog to reach a resolution on an issue. Fuller audience participation takes place when the speaker plays a more collaborative, facilitating role. In that case, the speaker guides the discussion and inclusion of ideas. Collaborations often take the tone of a meeting rather than a presentation.

Further, public relations speeches may have the objective of offering an apology or defend- ing a company from unfair or unwarranted attacks. Other public speeches attempt to build a company’s image in a positive manner. Image building is creating a positive pub- lic identity for an organization that matches the goals of the organization’s leaders (Clow & Baack, 2012; Goldhaber, 1993).

No matter the objective, the strategic approach to public speaking requires that the speaker define a clear message. Then, all other elements of the preparation process can be aligned with that message. Failing to do so may lead to a confused or less-effective speech.

For Review

What is image building?

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CHAPTER 10Section 10.2 Public Speaking: Identify the Audience and Potential Barriers

10.2 Public Speaking: Identify the Audience and Potential Barriers

Learning Objective # 2: How can you create an effective public presentation tailored to a specific audience?

The previous section outlined the steps of public speaking. Following the process of set-ting a strategy, the next two elements are to identify the audience and evaluate poten-tial barriers to communication. These important steps help you structure a speech or presentation that will have the best chance of being well received by the target audience.

Identify the Audience

Aristotle also told his students to consider three elements when making a speech. The audience, the purpose, and the occasion should combine to direct the preparation of the message. While the elements are mostly described independently in this chapter, in real- ity, all three should be considered simultaneously.

In an in-house presentation, the audience will be determined by the direction the infor- mation flows. Downward-flowing messages have audiences consisting of lower-level managers and first-level employees. Upward-flowing messages target higher-ranking managers. The audience establishes the tone and style of message presentation. Top man- agers making downward presentations often first seek to reduce audience anxiety (that something bad is about to happen) or try to create a sense of partnership with employees. Lower-ranking members making presentations are likely to create more structured, for- mal messages designed to establish credibility.

For external speaking engagements, an audience profile, or analysis of the audience, assists in matching the strategy of the speech with a method of delivery. Table 10.2 identi- fies the key elements of an audience profile.

Table 10.2: Elements of an audience profile

Is this a single, homogenous group with major similarities, or a heterogeneous (diverse) group?

For a Heterogeneous Group

What are the characteristics of the majority?

What are the characteristics of the minorities?

General Audience Characteristics

What is the level of audience knowledge about the topic?

What is the level of audience emotion or feeling about the topic?

What will be the desired response from the audience?

Speaker Relationship to the Audience

Am I similar to or different from the majority?

Will the audience agree or disagree with my message?

Will the audience consider me to be credible, even if its members disagree?

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CHAPTER 10Section 10.2 Public Speaking: Identify the Audience and Potential Barriers

When speaking to an outside group, the first point to examine will be audience demo- graphics, including socioeconomic characteristics; attitudes, values, and beliefs; and the level of education and understanding of the audience with regard to the subject of the presentation. While at least some diversity will be present in nearly every audience, the speaker can seek to understand the characteristics of the majority.

Demographics At the most basic level, the speaker should identify the demographics, or population characteristics of the audience. The speaker can examine the age, gender, and the race or ethnic origin of the majority. Consider a speech by a company leader to a group of high school students visiting the company, as compared with a group of senior citizens at a local community center. Dramatic frame-of-reference differences should direct the devel- opment of the content and the tone of the message.

In any public speaking situation, consider the preponderance of hand-held recording devices. A wise course of action is to review the appropriateness of your speech. Any language that may be considered offensive in any way can lead to greater repercussions, especially with the ease with which a speech can be recorded and shared over the Internet.

Socioeconomic Characteristics Socioeconomic characteristics include the background, income, level of education and occupation, and often the city, region, or neighborhood in which people live. A speaker preparing to address a group with lower levels of education or income should be aware that such an audience will be less likely to know about interna- tional travel and luxury items, such as designer clothes and expensive wines, or possibly even about home ownership. Conversely, when composed of wealthy “angel” investors, the audience will expect a sophis- ticated approach with fineries as well as business plans and financial forecasts. At the same time, be careful to avoid stereo- typing audiences and do not make overly general assump- tions about them.

For Review

What elements are parts of an audience profile?

iStockphoto/Thinkstock Identifying audience characteristics includes assessment of demographic and socioeconomic status.

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CHAPTER 10Section 10.2 Public Speaking: Identify the Audience and Potential Barriers

Attitudes, Values, and Beliefs Attempting to know your audience becomes even more complicated when considering their attitudes, beliefs, and values. Most audiences will consist of a mix of political and religious beliefs. A topic such as gun ownership, free speech, or the role of government in private enterprise may spur deep feelings before the speech even begins. The key, in this instance, will be to make sure to understand the link between the subject of the speech and any potential “hot buttons” it might press in the audience, if not handled properly. In a business speech, taking a point of view or side on such an issue might distract the audience from the intent of the overall message. Most of the time, businesspeople tend to remain as neutral as possible on controversial matters during public speeches.

Knowledge of the Subject To whatever degree possible, the speaker should ascertain the knowledge level of the audience. An accountant making a speech to a local accounting association assumes

a great deal of knowledge. Explaining fundamentals may come close to insulting the audience. At the other extreme, when a speaker begins “over the heads” of an audience, mem- bers will lose interest quickly. Knowing the audience’s level of background knowledge will help the presenter decide what to say and how to say it, as well as what not to say. A speaker may attempt to gauge an audi- ence’s knowledge of a sub- ject early in the talk by asking questions or seeking feedback through nods of understanding or confused expressions.

Identify Potential Barriers to Communication

Part of identifying an audience goes beyond examining its characteristics. As Chapter 2 notes, a series of situational factors can disrupt interpersonal communication. Each becomes germane to a speaking engagement as well. The emotions of anger, sadness, envy, and jealousy, the setting, and distractions can disrupt what might have other- wise been an effective speech. Further, transmission problems affect the quality of a speech. The use of language that does not match the audience, inappropriate slang, over-reliance on technical terminology, and disabilities might hinder the quality of a presentation. Also, a speaker can contradict his or her own message through nonverbal and paraverbal cues.

Further, the level of audience interest or the mindset of those involved can become a bar- rier to communication when making a speech. Table 10.3 describes a series of potential mindsets.

Digital Vision/Thinkstock Knowing the audience’s level of background knowledge will help the presenter decide what to say and how to say it, as well as what not to say.

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Table 10.3: Potential audience mindsets

Audience mindset How speaker can address

Supportive of message and speaker Speaker can reinforce or add to support for an idea

Interested, neutral Speaker can seek to gain agreement with a position or idea

Interested, mild disagreement Speaker can change misconceptions, clarify positions, seek to persuade

Uninterested Speaker seeks to spark interest, tie concept to personal values of audience members

Concerned Speaker can attempt to allay fears or help the audience overcome those fears, when concerns are genuine

Hostile toward speaker Speaker copes with anger, tries to connect with members

Hostile toward message Speaker looks for common group, explains position in detail in unemotional terms

Outlining the strategy, understanding audience characteristics, including any bias that might exist toward the speaker or the intent of the speech, and identifying potential bar- riers to communication form the foundation for creating the body of the speech. Various constructions of speech format are possible. The speaker matches them with the objective and audience in mind.

10.3 Public Speaking: Preparing the Message and Answers to Questions

Learning Objective # 3: How can you prepare and present an effective speech?

The classic truism “success results when preparation meets opportunity” directly applies to making a quality speech. A rule of thumb used by many college profes-sors indicates that a one-hour lecture demands at least three hours of preparation. For speeches, the ratio may be even higher. The presentation includes selecting a design, conducting quality research, and carefully choosing words or phrases.

The speech should be customized to fit the situation. A speech in December probably contains a holiday theme; one made in November may express thanks; one in July might stress independence or patriotism. The speaker references one of these or other themes, such as commencement as a beginning, retirement as a new journey, or introducing a new product as an adventure, as part of the introduction or as a connecting theme throughout the presentation.

For Review

Identify the primary barriers to communication in a public speaking setting.

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CHAPTER 10Section 10.3 Public Speaking: Preparing the Message and Answers to Questions

Even the length of the talk merits deliberation. A presentation that is too short will leave out key details or persuasive arguments. One that is too long will cause the audience to drift away.

As noted in Chapter 5, a standard, partitioned presentation may be used, often for informa- tive speeches. The format consists of forecasting what will be presented, making the pre- sentation, and then reminding the audience of the key points. Persuasive presentations often utilize the unfolding format. The format moves from one point or argument to the next in a more seamless fashion. Table 10.1 suggested the elements of designing an effec- tive speech. The middle elements in that table are:

• Prepare the message. • Prepare for questions.

This section concentrates on those two activities.

Prepare the Message

With the audience, message type, and communication goal in mind, the message can be con- structed. The key message point should serve as the organiza- tional framework for the entire speech and drive the preparation of the message. The key message constitutes the primary idea to be conveyed with the goal of causing the audience to think, feel, and respond in a desired manner. Consequently, consider- able attention should be paid to the preparation of the message. The development of the message incorporates four processes:

1. Prepare the introduction. 2. Prepare the message body. 3. Prepare the conclusion. 4. Prepare other details.

A well-designed speech incorporates each of these activities into a well-crafted presentation.

Brand X Pictures/Thinkstock With the audience, message type, and communication goal in mind, the message can be constructed.

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CHAPTER 10Section 10.3 Public Speaking: Preparing the Message and Answers to Questions

Prepare the Introduction The introduction serves several key purposes. First and foremost, the opening statement should be designed to capture attention. Table 10.4 provides examples of attention-getting opening-statement approaches.

Table 10.4: Attention-getting introduction methods

Method Example

Personal anecdote My father worked for this company for 40 years. He retired believing that the next generation of employees would enjoy a great future. We now face circumstances that could change that outcome.

Shocking statement Did you know that if we raised the price of every item in each of our stores by just 1 percent, we could fully fund an affordable company health insurance plan for our employees?

Rhetorical question What will happen if gas prices rise to $7 per gallon, as some forecasters believe will happen by 2020? How will we keep our prices affordable?

Company crisis As you know, this most recent cyber attack on our system threatens the well-being of our company and the confidence that our customers have in our ability to protect their private information. I have a plan to restore that confidence.

Famous quotation President Franklin Roosevelt once famously said, “The only thing we have to fear is fear itself.” I see too much fear in our employees’ eyes.

Historical trend or event Isn’t it interesting that, only about 10 years ago, a tweet was just a sound made by a bird? Friends, the social media boom is not only changing the world—it is changing how we must do business.

Source: Adapted from G. E. Hynes (2011). Managerial communication: Strategies and applications. (5th ed.). New York, NY: McGraw- Hill, and J. S. O’Rourke (2010). Managerial communication: A case-analysis approach. (4th ed.). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Beyond capturing an audience’s attention, the other key elements of an introduction are to state the objective of the presentation, find ways to keep the audience listening, and pre- view the key points about to be made. Previewing key points will be especially important in a standard presentation format. In some circumstances, two other parts of an introduc- tion can include a statement about whether interruptions from the audience are welcomed or discouraged, along with some evidence regarding the speaker’s credibility. The latter point becomes more likely when the presentation flows upward.

During the introduction, the speaker should avoid starting with an apology, such as, “I’m not very good in front of an audience.” The speaker should not provide the audience with an excuse to disengage, such as, “I know you probably have more important things to do.” An effective introduction draws people in; it should not push them away.

For Review

Name techniques that can be used to capture an audience’s attention during the introduction of a speech.

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CHAPTER 10Section 10.3 Public Speaking: Preparing the Message and Answers to Questions

Prepare the Message Body: Persuasion The body of the presentation often dictates a presentation’s success. It takes time and thought to develop a presentation that will continuously engage an audience. The body of the presentation contains two key parts: content and process. The content of the presenta- tion covers the actual material. Effective content contains three main elements:

• It states main points clearly. The audience should be able to easily follow along. • It limits main points to a manageable set, normally about three. • It provides transitions and informs the audience when a new main point will be

presented.

Transitions can move both backward and forward. A forward transition moves on to the next point, as in the statement, “We are losing too many IT (information technology) special-

ists due to salary and benefits issues. Let me tell you how we can keep this from happening in the future.”

A backward transition restates the previous point or points, and then moves forward, for exam- ple, “Now that we know two new competitors are entering the market and that they have substantial funding to advertise and promote their products, we can turn our attention to how we intend to respond.”

When making a persuasive arg- ument, key points to remember include balancing emotion and logic and creating the flow that leads to the conclusion you seek.

An important element in persuasion is to provide credible evidence; persuasion based solely on emotion and personal opinion normally will not achieve the same result. Four methods assist in making effective persuasive speeches or presentations:

• the AIDA model • psychological progression approach • problem-solving method • state the case and prove it

To create the flow you seek, one method with great appeal is the AIDA model, as described in Chapter 5 (St. Elmo Lewis, 1925; Bennett, Cunningham, & Dees, 2006). As noted, the AIDA method involves four processes:

Stockbyte/Thinkstock When making a persuasive argument, key points to remember are balancing emotion and logic, and creating the flow that leads to the conclusion you seek.

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CHAPTER 10Section 10.3 Public Speaking: Preparing the Message and Answers to Questions

• Attention: Capture attention and draw the audience into the idea. • Interest: Maintain interest by making sure members of the audience see the ben-

efit to them. • Desire: Help audience members understand how change also benefits the com-

pany and respond to questions and concerns. • Action: Lead the audience to the desired response or behavior.

The AIDA model creates a flow that should be easy to follow and builds to the desired conclusion.

A second form of persuasive presentations, the psychological progressive pattern approach, involves a set of steps leading to the desired change in attitude (Howell & Bor- mann, 1971). The steps in this method include:

• arouse • dissatisfy • gratify • visualize • act

Arousal relates to capturing attention. The speaker adapts the opening to the specific issue to be addressed and can even forecast the resolution as part of his or her first remarks. Tac- tics to dissatisfy the audience demonstrate an issue or concern. Gratification shows how the resolution will take care of the dissatisfying factor. Visualization helps the audience see the potential outcome. They can then be more readily moved to act.

When making a case for a back-up generator for a retail location, the manager could employ the psychological approach. Arouse—”Remember when the power went out last winter and it got so cold in here that our pipes froze?” Dissatisfy—”We all lost several days of pay waiting for everything to be repaired, and we probably lost some customers during that time as well.” Gratify—”If we would have been able to turn on a back-up generator, the store could have stayed open and we wouldn’t have had that big repair bill.” Visualize—”Just think how much better it would be, when the power goes off, to have our lights come back on in a matter of seconds.” Act—”We need to buy a genera- tor and have it installed before the next big winter storm.” Such a presentation could be made by a lower-ranking supervisor to top management, or a store manager to corpo- rate officers.

Other methods of persuasion in public speaking involve a simpler approach. The prob- lem-solving method works effectively with an audience not familiar with the problem. Using an unfolding format, the speaker outlines the problem and then goes step-by-step leading to the solution. The steps are

• Define the problem. • Explain the problem, including causes and effects. • Outline and evaluate potential solutions. • Prescribe the most ideal solution.

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CHAPTER 10Section 10.3 Public Speaking: Preparing the Message and Answers to Questions

The final method, state the case and prove it, relies on the development of a central thesis and supporting arguments. Each supporting argument should first be presented in a basic form and then facts, logic, and any emotional justifications follow. The conclusion restates the case and its potential solution.

Balancing emotion and logic means first developing the logical components of the presen- tation. Three methods used to make your points are analogy, induction, and deduction. An analogy draws a comparison to a similar event or circumstance. For example, a cyber attack can be compared to a war in which strategies and tactics are required to respond.

Induction takes specific information and builds to a more general conclusion. For instance, increased turnover, a reported number of on-site conflicts, and more people calling in sick in a department that recently changed its pay policy can all be presented as symptoms of the larger problem—that employees do not feel adequately compensated.

Deduction involves eliminating alternative explanations for an outcome. For example, when sales have declined, if a manager can demonstrate that the product has wide con- sumer acceptance, that the price remains comparable to the one offered by the competi- tion, and that advertising is effective, the conclusion can be drawn that something in the delivery system, such as an outdated retail facility or the lack of an e-commerce program, is the cause of the problem.

Following the development of the logical argument, the emotional component can be added. This includes vocal tone, the addition of both emotive and informative visuals, and other elements such as music. Emotions that run too strong are often counterproduc- tive when making persuasive presentations.

Prepare the Message Body: Informational Presentations Informational presentations often rely on a standard, partitioned presentational approach. The speaker notes the main points to be made, makes the points, and then summarizes them. Informational presentations can be made for:

• noncontroversial changes or plans • background information about an upcoming decision, including advantages and

disadvantages of various options • background on the company and its history • explanation of an event that has taken place • preparation for a future event

Visuals often assist in providing information through bar graphs, pie charts, and tables. The audience does not need to be persuaded; however, the speech succeeds only if they remain interested and absorb the information for future use (Borden, 1971).

For Review

How can a speaker develop persuasive arguments in a speech or presentation?

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CHAPTER 10Section 10.3 Public Speaking: Preparing the Message and Answers to Questions

Prepare the Conclusion The type of conclusion will depend on the nature of the presentation. A conclusion to an informative presentation summarizes the key points made, to remind the audience mem- bers of what they have learned. The conclusion to a persuasive presentation should include a call to action that helps the audience internalize the mes- sage given and take any further steps. Many conclusions refer back to the introduction, to sig- nal to the audience that the pre- sentation has come to a close.

Effective speakers let the audi- ence know that the conclusion is coming. Changes in vocal tone and posture indicate the speech has reached an end point. Sometimes a speaker can use a phrase to indicate that the conclusion is coming, such as “I’ll close with this.” The con- clusion should leave the audi- ence with a feeling of closure. The members should also be able to easily carry away the primary intent of the message, which should be re-emphasized in the concluding remarks.

Prepare Other Details: A Pre-Speech Checklist Beyond the actual content of the speech, part of preparation involves accounting for addi- tional elements and activities. Making an effective presentation is similar to preparing a play or a musical performance; a well-orchestrated performance achieves a better effect. Three ingredients involved in finalizing speech details are preparing a pre-speech check- list, preparing a method of delivery, and preparing technological support.

An organized and systematic pre-speech preparation checklist can prevent many prob- lems before they occur. Table 10.5 provides a pre-speech checklist designed to ensure the event runs smoothly. As you can see, a visit to the site where the presentation will be made may be useful. If that is not practical, the speaker can obtain information from the individual who scheduled the speech or from the venue itself, such as a hotel or confer- ence center.

For Review

What types of information presentations do business speakers prepare?

Digital Vision/Thinkstock The conclusion of a presentation should leave the audience with a feeling of closure.

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CHAPTER 10Section 10.3 Public Speaking: Preparing the Message and Answers to Questions

Table 10.5: A pre-speech checklist

Date, time, location

Layout of the room (including height of the podium relative to the audience)

Sound system

Room acoustics

Internet access (if needed)

Accommodation of visuals

Entry point (off stage, from the floor, from a panel on stage)

Time allotted

Room to move around (or not)

Lighting

Failing to check on these details can lead to awkward moments, such as when you expected to be able to show PowerPoints but no projector is available, or when you planned to speak with a hands-free microphone and the site does not have the technology to accom- modate that approach. Many speakers provide their own technologies to prevent such occurrences. Others prepare back-up plans in case something goes wrong.

Prepare Other Details: Method of Delivery Several methods of delivery are possible. The goal will be to use the method that best assists in making a smooth, inviting, and interesting presentation. Four potential methods of delivery are

• manuscript • memorized • note-assisted • impromptu

Reading from a manuscript probably will result in a stilted, boring presentation. The only time a manuscripted speech becomes necessary may be when an executive or official needs to make a presentation in precise, exacting language. A teleprompter may be used to assist in making the presentation more palatable.

Committing a speech to memory takes a great deal of time and effort for most people. Normally, it eliminates some of the spontaneity of and energy in a presentation. While

For Review

What are the elements of a pre-speech checklist?

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CHAPTER 10Section 10.3 Public Speaking: Preparing the Message and Answers to Questions

you want to be strongly familiar with what you are about to say, memorization may not be necessary or useful.

Note-assisted speeches are commonplace. Until the past decade, notes would normally be written on a 3 × 5 card that easily fits in the palm of a person’s hand. Some of the newer hand-held technologies allow for electronic notes, as does most presentation soft- ware. Each note serves as a memory jog for the more important points in the speech, spells out exact quotations, and includes any exact or specific information, such as sta- tistics, that will be delivered as part of the speech. Note-assisted speeches make it easier to maintain eye contact with the audience, with the reassurance of knowing what to say next (Morgan, 2000).

Impromptu speeches are made without preparation. When someone is asked to “make a few remarks,” the idea will be to keep them short and make one or two quick key points. When such a situation arises, the speaker may refer back to the content of the previous speaker or toward the nature of the event. Normally, audience expectations are relatively low, which should help you relax as you talk.

Prepare Other Details: Technological Support Technology provides a powerful number of resources that can add to the effectiveness of a formal presentation. The PowerPoint method can now be enhanced with streaming video, Internet references, and real-time connections to remote locations. The secret to selecting additional media will be to keep the technology from overwhelming the message or dis- tracting the audience. Additional visuals should:

• Identify the speaker and the topic in the opening. • Highlight and summarize key points during the body. • Add additional information or emotional imagery. • Provide final thoughts in the conclusion.

Effective visuals are colorful and informative. Words should be printed in a large enough font to be easy to read. Graphs should be easy to see and follow. Diagrams must be simple enough to digest without having to study them in great detail. Photos and other images, such as a picture of an accident or an angry customer with a salesperson, make memora- ble points. Too many slides or too many words per slide will be distracting and eventually overwhelming. A good standard is to include no more than one idea per slide.

An effective presentation software slide has “stand alone” qualities. In other words, the audi- ence can interpret the meaning as the speech is being given without the speaker needing to explain it. Effective visuals create interest by posing an intriguing question or presenting

For Review

What methods of delivery can be used when presenting a speech?

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CHAPTER 10Section 10.3 Public Speaking: Preparing the Message and Answers to Questions

an incongruity. A slide that asks, “Can you afford to retire?” draws the audience in to a presentation about saving and retirement planning. A slide that states, “50 percent of all people ages 50–60 have less than $100,000 in retire- ment savings,” achieves the same objective. During a speech, the main focus should be on the speaker, not on the slides. Long blocks of text or compli- cated slides will distract from the speaker’s message. Visuals on slides should reinforce key points. Additional information on effective visuals may be found at www.presentationzen.com.

Video clips and film clips, when carefully introduced, make a presentation more inter- esting. The speaker will need to attend to issues such as lighting and sound before the speech, so that they flow smoothly with the presentation.

In some instances, a speaker may provide background music. Beyond being appropri- ate, the music must not distract the audience by being too loud or containing words that interfere while the speaker talks. One standard use of music involves having it play as the speaker moves into the conclusion of the speech, building to a crescendo at the end.

Remember that the effective use of technology complements and supplements a presen- tation. Ineffective audiovisual cues become distractions. Effective speakers and present- ers practice with them before making the actual presentation. A speaker should pause to allow the audience to digest slide material before moving on with the presentation, as it helps keep the audience engaged in the message.

Prepare for Questions

Many times, an in-house presentation will be followed by a question-and-answer period. Remember that the questioners can have several motives, including agreeing, disagreeing, changing the subject to his or her pet topic, or simply stating an opinion. As a final step of speech preparation, try to anticipate the types of questions you will receive. Knowledge of the audience and of any past objections to your topic can assist in making sure you are ready for most queries. Remember, some people will ask questions just to draw attention. Graciously handling these attempts helps get the audience on your side.

When the elements of a speech are in place, the introduction, message body, conclusion, and additional details are complete. After anticipating any types of post-speech questions, it is time to move on and practice the speech before presenting.

Jack Hollingsworth/Thinkstock Technology provides a powerful number of resources that can add to the effectiveness of a formal presentation.

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www.presentationzen.com

CHAPTER 10Section 10.4 Making the Speech and Following Up

10.4 Making the Speech and Following Up

Learning Objective # 4: How can you effectively deliver a speech?

As is the case with many other activities in life, practice can go a long way toward helping you to achieve success. The idea is to be confident, relaxed, and comfort-able with the material when making the actual presentation. The final four steps of the public speaking process are

• Practice the presentation. • Make the presentation. • Deal with responses and answer questions. • Follow up.

Practice the Presentation

Many people are nervous about public speaking. To overcome anxiety, a speaker can prac- tice the presentation in front of a few key friends or colleagues. Even those with consid- erable experience and comfort levels can benefit from running through in advance what they wish to say. During the practice, the speaker can make sure that the visuals and other ingredients are carefully orchestrated to work as intended, which is especially important if a second person will run the audiovisual part of the presentation.

Practicing identifies any potential problems. The speaker can make sure the presentation fits in the allotted time. The presenter can concentrate on the proper pace and tone, and ensure that his or her notes are complete but not distracting. Practicing provides mental reassurance and comfort to someone who is a little edgy about standing in front of an audience.

Make the Presentation

When making the presentation, attention to detail begins before the event. The presenter should be sure visual equipment works, that the room temperature is adequate, and that nearby activities will not disrupt the proceedings. Also, ensure that the audience seating arrangements are as planned. In addition, the speaker should dress appropriately. Loud colors and large patterns distract the audience. Large jewelry can also be a distraction, especially when it reflects light or makes noise.

The actual presentation should follow a process. The process involves setting and main- taining a tone that leads to the desired outcome. Two key elements of the process are pre- senting a positive tone and maintaining audience interest.

A positive tone results from treating the audience members with respect. Demeaning statements injure credibility. A negative tone will appear to be pompous, stuffy, vague, disingenuous, patronizing, bored, or nervous. A positive tone consists of the following characteristics (Hamlin, 1989):

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CHAPTER 10Section 10.4 Making the Speech and Following Up

• warm and friendly • excited and interested • confident and organized • knowledgable and competent • honest and authentic

Even a speech that gets off to a slow start, for whatever reason, such as several late arrivals that interrupt the flow, can be successful.

The second part of the process, maintaining audience interest, includes a combination of elements. Use of visuals helps keep an audience engaged. The speaking method also plays a key role. To maintain interest, employ the techniques displayed in Table 10.6.

Table 10.6: How to maintain audience interest during a presentation

Technique Description

Maintain eye contact Move to different sections of the room at a relaxed pace.

Tell stories Make sure the moral of the story is a point you wish to present.

Variety Use clear, vivid language that avoids repetition of words.

Effective language Use understandable, clear words.

Use audience member names Include people of all organizational ranks, know whether to use Mr./Mrs. or first names.

Logical order Make the presentation easy to follow.

Crescendo and decrescendo Use natural rises and reductions of energy.

Keep connected Relate the message to audience member needs.

Ask rhetorical questions Expect that someone may answer and how you will respond if they do.

Assist memory Present in such a way that the message is easily understood and easy to retain.

Solicit feedback after the presentation Let them know you want to hear what they think.

Remember that you are not married to the podium. Some speakers prefer to stand directly in front of the audience (Bailey, 1992). If you do not like that method, make sure your hands stay free to make gestures, and allow for some body movement.

While speaking, remain aware of audience cues. Stick to the designated timetable. When using a whiteboard or some of the newer screen-based technologies, make sure your writ- ing is legible and covers key points.

The secret to making an effective speech includes finding the level of intensity that main- tains interest and engages the audience without boring or alienating people. Effective vocal presentation styles are

• use of tone, from low to high • vocal variety, including volume and rate of speech

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CHAPTER 10Section 10.4 Making the Speech and Following Up

• clear pronunciations and articulations • effective use of pauses • avoidance of verbal hedges and crutches, such as “um,” “uh,” “ya know”

Public speaking coaches often emphasize the importance of breathing during a speech. Take the time to draw an even breath, which allows for pacing and keeps you from hyper- ventilating. Pauses for effect assist in making a speech more poignant. While you are speaking, the focus rests with the message and the audience, not on you. Worrying about gestures and other elements can make you appear to be nervous and uncertain. Engaging the audience exudes confidence.

Actors are aware that an audience forgets much of what it sees during a performance. The members do tend to recall obvious errors. The same holds true in a speech. Do not bring attention to any gaffe unless it is a misstatement of an important fact; otherwise simply move on.

The key moment in many speeches will be the conclusion. A strong finish erases some or all of the misgivings an audience might have had about the speech. When the speech has concluded, leave with an air of assurance and confidence. Then prepare for any questions or responses.

Deal With Responses and Answer Questions

After the speech, a question and answer, or Q & A, session often follows. Queries range from asking for more information, to using the question to show appreciation to the speaker, to creating a more hostile response. Some preparation for this ses- sion should have taken place as the speech was being prepared, noting that there is always room for surprises.

Some basic guidelines can help you effectively answer ques- tions. First, as the questioner speaks, try to avoid nodding in a “yes” motion, as this may signal

For Review

How can a speaker create a positive tone during a speech?

How can a speaker maintain audience interest throughout the presentation?

Creatas/Thinkstock After the speech, a question and answer, or Q & A, session often follows.

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CHAPTER 10Section 10.4 Making the Speech and Following Up

agreement when that is not your intention. Look directly at the questioner as he or she speaks, and repeat the question if you believe the audience did not hear. Carefully avoid getting off subject, and, if the person merely states an opinion, acknowledge the comment and move on as gracefully as possible. Make contact with more than just the questioner when responding—pull in the overall audience. Take questions from all parts of the audi- ence and avoid letting one person dominate with questions. If you don’t know the answer, simply acknowledge that you do not and move on (you can, of course, offer to follow up with the person in a few days once you have the answer to their question). Phrases such as, “Like I said earlier,” may seem condescending, as does, “That’s a good question.” Remain professional and courteous as you answer. Thank the audience members for their questions.

The most difficult part of a question-and-answer period occurs when a hostile statement is made. When this happens, do not respond in a hostile fashion, which likely will escalate the problem. Instead, you can reframe the question in words that are less aggressive, by saying something such as, “I think what you are asking is . . .” When you do not concur with the other person, point out that, at times, people simply agree to disagree.

Following Up After the Speech

The final ingredient in making a public appearance comes after the session has closed. Many times, an audience member will approach to offer thanks, continue a conversation, or simply to say, “Hello.” This can be a time to build bonds with audience members and learn more about their opinions and ideas. When setting aside time to make a speech, allow for audience interaction after the event, whenever possible.

A well-delivered speech can provide a great sense of personal satisfaction. In-house and public audiences who have been impressed are likely to comment on a person’s manage- rial potential. Effectively delivering speeches can become a key career asset.

Preparing for a News Interview

Public speaking takes place in planned circumstances, unplanned circumstances, and situations that are somewhat in between. A speech to an audience that allows for prepara- tion and audience analysis, as well as message design, is the primary focus of this chapter. Other chapters in this book have dealt with unplanned circumstances, such as chance meetings in a hallway or in other venues, such as during a group project.

For Review

What techniques can be used to effectively deal with responses and answer questions following a speech?

For Review

What role does follow-up play in a public speaking engagement?

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CHAPTER 10Section 10.4 Making the Speech and Following Up

One special circumstance of public speaking involves an element of planning as well as a degree of spontaneity: interviews by the media. Members of the media may interview company leaders and members of the public relations department, individually or collec- tively. At a press conference, one or a few speakers respond to questions by reporters. In other circumstances, a single reporter interviews a single individual. In preparation, pre-

senting professionals undergo “media training” to prepare themselves for being on cam- era, in front of an audience, and staying on message.

The primary issues associated with preparing for a news inter- view begin with carefully out- lining the message you wish to transmit. Then the subject of the interview can practice and refine delivering the message, including turning questions to his or her advantage. Third, the person to be interviewed should confirm the details and ground rules, including where to meet, day, and time. It will be impor-

tant to find out if the interview will be recorded and what will be done with the recording (Telg, 2010). Table 10.7 presents guidelines to help effectively interact with a reporter.

Table 10.7: Keys to effective interviews

Lead with your main point

Stay on message

Express key points from public’s perspective

Speak clearly

Speak honestly

Remain calm

Do not argue

Rephrase the question

Remain cordial

Some reporters assume an adversarial stance at the outset. Others look for “gotcha” moments. A third set believes in asking fair but firm questions. Knowing the interview- er’s style in advance can assist in preparation for the interaction (Wheeler, 2010). Also, preparation for many news interviews will include careful consultation with the orga- nization’s legal team. Tension often exists between what company attorneys advise as communication strategies and the wishes of the public relations department. These issues should be explored and resolved before agreeing to any interview. An additional part of

Digital Vision/Thinkstock One special circumstance of public speaking involves interviews by the media.

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CHAPTER 10Section 10.5 Chapter Review

the preparation involves coverage of any legal dictates regarding full disclosure. A com- pany’s spokesperson must follow clear guidelines regarding any communication that could affect and unfairly advantage or disadvantage company stockholders.

As this section indicates, the number and types of speaking engagements create chal- lenges for those expected to interact with internal and external publics. Understanding how to make a speech or presentation effectively can become a valuable career asset and give your company an advantage in dealing with the public.

10.5 Chapter Review

Public communication involves one communicating with many. Speeches represent one aspect of public communication. In-house speeches and presentations are made to other members of the same organization. Presentations to the general public reach a wide variety of audiences on any number of topics. When making a speech or presenta- tion, first set a strategy. Typical objectives include information, persuasion, inspiration, and collaboration. Next, identify the audience. An audience profile assists in matching the strategy of the speech with a method of delivery. Audience characteristics to be examined include demographics, socioeconomic conditions, attitudes, beliefs, values and knowl- edge of the subject, plus any potential communication barriers that deserve consideration.

A speech will be prepared using a standard, partitioned presentation or an unfolding format. Preparing the message includes development of the introduction, message body, conclusion, and additional details. Capturing attention will be a key part of the introduc- tion. Persuasive message bodies rely on the AIDA method, the psychological progres- sive pattern, the problem-solving method, or the “state the cause and prove it” approach. Informational presentations often use the standard, partitioned presentational message- body approach, combined with visuals. A strong conclusion will help the audience recall the content. Then account for additional details, including preparing a pre-speech check- list, a method of delivery, and any technological support. At this point in the process, the speaker also prepares for questions that might follow the speech.

Effective public speaking involves practicing the presentation. During the actual speech, the presenter maintains a positive tone and audience interest. The speaker then deals with audience responses and answers questions in a friendly, professional, nonconfrontational manner. The event closes with a cordial follow-up with members of the audience.

Preparing for news interviews begins with outlining the intended message. The person being interviewed can practice the message, including using questions to his or her advan- tage. The person should pay attention to details and ground rules.

For Review

How can a speaker prepare for a news interview?

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CHAPTER 10Section 10.5 Chapter Review

Key Terms

For Review With Possible Responses

1. What is public communication? The public communication process involves one communicating with many.

2. What types of communications are involved in in-house speeches and presentations? In-house presentations take the forms of downward, upward, and lateral communications.

3. What is image building? Image building is creating a positive public identity for an organization that matches the goals of the organization’s leaders.

4. What elements are parts of an audience profile? An audience profile, or analysis of the audience, assists in matching the strategy of the speech with a method of delivery. It consists of discovery of whether it is a single, homog- enous group with major similarities or a heterogeneous (diverse) group, general audience characteristics, and the speaker’s relationship to the audience.

5. Identify the primary barriers to communication in a public speaking setting. The emotions of anger, sadness, envy, and jealousy, settings, and distractions can disrupt what might have otherwise been an effective speech. Further, transmission problems affect the quality of a speech. The use of language that does not match the audience, inappropri- ate slang, overreliance on technical terminology, and disabilities might hinder the quality of a presentation. Also, a speaker can contradict his or her own message through nonver- bal and paraverbal cues.

6. Name the techniques that can be used to capture attention as part of the intro- duction of a speech. The techniques include a personal anecdote, shocking statement, rhetorical question, com- pany crisis claim, famous quotation, and recall of a historical trend or event.

7. What methods can be used to develop persuasive arguments in a speech or presentation? The four methods that assist in making effective persuasive speeches or presentations are the AIDA model, the psychological progression approach, the problem-solving method, and state the case and prove it.

AIDA model Using attention, interest, desire, and action in a persuasive argument or speech.

audience profile An analysis of the audience that assists in matching the strategy of the speech with a method of delivery.

demographics The population characteristics of an audience.

image building Creating a positive public iden- tity for an organization that matches the goals of the organization’s leaders.

problem-solving method A persuasion tech- nique that outlines the problem and then goes step-by-step to the solution.

psychological progressive pattern A persua- sion technique using the steps of arouse, dis- satisfy, gratify, visualize, and act.

public communication One individual com- municating with many.

state the case and prove it A persuasion technique that relies on the development of a central thesis and supporting arguments.

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CHAPTER 10Section 10.5 Chapter Review

8. What types of informational presentations are prepared by business speakers? Informational presentations can be made for non-controversial changes or plans; back- ground information about an upcoming decision, including advantages and disadvan- tages of various options; background on the company and its history; explanation of an event that has taken place; and preparation for a future event.

9. What are the elements of a pre-speech checklist? The elements include the date, time, location, layout of the room (including height of the podium relative to the audience), sound system, room acoustics, Internet access (if needed), accommodation of visuals, entry point (off stage, from the floor, from a panel on stage), time allotted, room to move around (or not), and lighting.

10. What methods of delivery can be used when presenting a speech? Four potential methods of delivery include manuscript, memorized, note-assisted, and impromptu.

11. How can a speaker create a positive tone during a speech? A positive tone consists of the following characteristics: warm and friendly, excited and interested, confident and organized, knowledgable and competent, and honest and authentic.

12. How can a speaker maintain audience interest throughout the presentation? The speaker should maintain eye contact, tell stories, use variety, employ effective lan- guage, use audience member names, provide a logical order, make use of crescendo and decrescendo, keep connected, ask rhetorical questions, assist memory, and solicit feedback after the presentation.

13. What techniques can be used to effectively deal with responses and answer ques- tions following a speech? As the questioner speaks, try to avoid nodding in a “yes” motion, as this may signal agree- ment when that is not your intention. Look directly at the questioner as he or she speaks and repeat the question if you believe the audience did not hear. Carefully avoid getting off the subject, and, if the person merely states an opinion, acknowledge the comment and move on as gracefully as possible. Make contact with more than just the questioner when responding—pull in the overall audience. Take questions from all parts of the audience and avoid letting one person dominate with questions. If you don’t know the answer, simply acknowledge that you do not and move on. Phrases such as, “Like I said earlier” may seem condescending, as does “That’s a good question.” Remain professional and courteous as you answer. When a hostile statement is made, do not respond in a hostile fashion. Instead, reframe the question in words that are less aggressive. When you do not concur with the other person, point out that, at times, people simply agree to disagree.

14. What role does follow-up play in a public speaking engagement? This can be a time to build bonds with audience members and learn more about their opinions and ideas.

15. How can a speaker prepare for a news interview? The primary issues associated with preparing for a news interview begin with carefully outlining the message you wish to transmit. Then the subject of the interview can prac- tice and refine delivering the message, including turning questions to his or her advan- tage. Third, the person to be interviewed should confirm the details and ground rules, including where to meet, day, and time. Determine whether the interview will be recorded and what will be done with the recording.

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CHAPTER 10Section 10.5 Chapter Review

Analytical Exercises

1. What is the speaking strategy in the following situations? a. convincing employees to pay more for their health insurance, or the company

will need to lay off workers b. explaining how employees will be selected for international assignments

when a company enters a new country c. convincing employees to give to the United Way, in part because it helps the

company’s image d. a company executive is trying get employees to help him win election to a

local school board 2. Use the attention-getting techniques listed in Table 10.4 to prepare an introduc-

tion for the following types of speeches to in-house audiences. a. announcement that a company will sell a new product b. announcement that a company will stop selling a product line c. launch of a major sustainability effort within a company d. introduction of new CEO to company employees

3. Which form of persuasion should be used in the following speeches and why? The forms of persuasion are AIDA, psychological progressive pattern, problem- solving, or state the case and prove it. a. convincing a public audience that a company does not pollute b. convincing a public audience that a company pays its fair share in taxes, even

though in this particular year the amount was low c. convincing the public that tax money should be used to build a stadium to

attract a professional football team to a city d. convincing graduates of a small college with mostly minority students that

they should apply for jobs in your organization 4. In advertising, a source or spokesperson is a celebrity, company executive, or

expert who endorses and speaks for a product. Five key source characteristics are attractiveness, trustworthiness, expertise, likability, and similarity. Attractive- ness can be more than physical appearance; it can also be a desirable personal- ity. Trustworthiness results from people believing the person and the message. Likability arises from liking the person in general terms or even from liking the character an actor plays in a television program or movie. Similarity allows the audience to identify with the speaker, because the members are the same in some way. Expertise comes from training, as with a physician, or practice, as with an auto mechanic who works on NASCAR vehicles. Which of these characteristics would be useful in the following circumstances? a. CEO making a persuasive speech to a hostile public audience b. CEO making a persuasive speech to employees c. Low-ranking employee making a proposal to top management d. Public relations official making a public speech explaining why the company

should not have been faulted for a problem that occurred 5. The concept of “working the room” applies to individuals who are adept at con-

versing with people in social settings, such as company gatherings. Explain how “working the room” can be part of effectively delivering a speech or presentation.

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CHAPTER 10Section 10.6 Case Studies

10.6 Case Studies

Case Study 1: The Tough Audience

John Douglas was about to deliver the most difficult speech of his life. As the CEO of a major medical group that owned four for-profit hospitals in the city of Portland, Oregon, he had been asked to speak many times on subjects as diverse and difficult as childhood obesity, end-of-life decisions by family members, a hospital’s role in identifying and assisting mentally ill patients who constitute a danger to society, and the role of government in the health care system.

This speaking event, however, would be unique. Mercy Regional Hospital, a local organization that had been supported by the Catholic Church, had run into trouble. Difficult economic times, plus other local circumstances, had made it nearly impossible for the church to continue its role with the hospital. The decision had been made to sell Mercy Regional, allowing a profit-seeking organization to assume control.

John’s company, the Portland Medical Group, made an offer that the Catholic Church was willing to accept. Difficult issues had to be resolved. In the area of women’s services, Mercy Regional did not allow abortion services nor would it permit surgical birth control methods on site. The same was true for men seeking vasectomies. John and his company had strong philosophical disagreements with the church on these policies. Still, he agreed to a three-year “moratorium” on the procedures, in order to move into those areas in an orderly fashion.

The church also wished to maintain religious counseling and support offices in the hospital. This was to include regular weekly worship services (Mass) conducted by visiting priests. John’s team had agreed with the proviso that other denominations would be welcome to use the facilities as well. Church leaders agreed. It would be the first time, however, that the sanctuary in the hospital would house Protestant worship services. Local Jewish leaders stated no interest in conducting services on site, but would be welcome in every other way. Islamic leaders took basically the same option, as did other local religious leaders of smaller groups.

The Portland Medical Group was also to manage all hospital operations. The change would displace numerous managers in Mercy Regional. Some would be offered positions at lower ranks and salaries. Others would be let go. John’s team offered help with placement for those individuals.

The final issue was the hospital’s name and the organization’s marketing program. Church leaders had asked to keep the name as Mercy Regional Hospital and to continue to promote the hospital as hav- ing ties with the Catholic Church. John expressed concerns that doing so might suggest a greater tie than would actually exist. He had proposed a three-year period in which the name would continue, but would eventually change to something more secular. Church officials reluctantly agreed, knowing time was short to close a deal that would keep the hospital alive in any form. Gradually, Catholic con- nection in advertisements and publicity would be phased out.

John was to make his speech to Mercy Regional Hospital’s current employees, including physicians and nurses. News of the purchase had already reached the media, but John felt that it was important to explain all of the details to an in-house audience. He would give the speech in an auditorium within the hospital, with careful monitoring to make sure that only employees were admitted. He would then imme- diately proceed to a press conference in which the same details would be explained to the larger public.

Review Questions

1. Explain the speech strategy John should use. 2. Conduct an audience analysis and explain the barriers to communication in this setting. 3. What type of message body should John prepare? 4. How should John conclude the speech? 5. Should John take questions and follow up with individual audience members? Why or why not?

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CHAPTER 10Section 10.6 Case Studies

Case Study 2: The “Audition”

Casey Williams knew she was being put to the test. The previous week she had been made a finalist for the position of manager of the public relations department for the Tampiko Tile Company. And now, a unique opportunity unfolded.

Tampiko Tile manufactured roofing materials, mostly shingles, and sold them nationwide. Over the years, the company had encountered charges and lawsuits about the amount of pollution it created, along with the unpleasant smell that accompanied the manufacture of its products. Company leaders had worked diligently to reduce any noxious fumes and to become welcome members of the local community.

Unfortunately, just as the effects of negative publicity associated with pollution and smells had begun to diminish, another event took place. Three years ago, Tampiko’s previous public relations manager had been asked to give the commencement address for the local high school. This was a very big deal in a town of 60,000 people with one school. At the time, Shawn MacDougal had “knocked it out of the park,” to paraphrase Tampiko’s executives, when he gave a speech titled “The More Things Change, the More We Stay the Same.” A genuinely inspired audience gave the speech a standing ovation.

Shawn parlayed the positive buzz into a job as the local city finance director. The position paid well and was a sure stepping-stone to become the city manager at some future point. Then, the trouble began. Shawn was, by nature, a gambler in both his private and public life. When he became finance director, the city held $21 million in reserves for major events, such as ice storm or tornado cleanup, plus a fund to cover any revenue shortfall years. Shawn invested those funds in highly speculative markets, and quickly $21 million was reduced to $8 million.

Naturally, the local city council and the community were outraged. They knew it would be impossible to ask for any tax increases for years. The spillover would clearly affect the school system, even though Shawn’s job and financial misconduct had nothing to do with that organization. Local people were not going to vote for any bonds to support public education after the financial fiasco. Shawn was termi- nated and moved to another city.

Casey had been asked to give the commencement address for the most recent graduating class. The school board had decided that it might be possible to restore some faith in public officials if another member of Tampiko were to somehow calm the waters. The executive team chose Casey and gave a similar public relations assignment to the other finalist for the job of public relations manager. Casey knew this speech would go a long way toward determining who would get the position but that the speech also had major ramifications for the city’s government and school system.

Review Questions

1. What should be the strategy for Casey’s speech? 2. Conduct an audience profile for the speech. 3. How can Casey make a presentation that fits the primary audience (graduates) but also the local

community? 4. Should Casey use any visuals in her presentation? Why or why not? 5. Design a key phrase for Casey’s speech that you believe can guide the entire presentation.

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Week6/ContentServer.pdf

Winter 2011 • Morality in Education 35

Workplace Bullying: Costly and Preventable By Terry L Wiedmer

W orkplace bullying is a pervasive practice by malicious individuals who seekpower, control,domination, and subjugation. In businesses or schools, such bullying is an inefficient way of working that is both costly and preventable. Senior management and executives are

ultimately responsible for creating and sustaining bully-free workplaces. Workplace bullies can be

stopped if employees and employers work together to establish and enforce appropriate workplace

policies and practices. This article presents information about workplace bullying, including its

prevalence, targeted individuals, bullying behaviors, employer practices, and steps to prevent

bullying. In the end, leadership and an environment of respect provide the ultimate formula for

stopping workplace bullying.

Bullying occurs between and among people in all venues—in the home, community, and workplace. It is a pervasive, targeted, and planned effort that can be overtly obvious or can fly under the radar and is conducted by practiced and malicious individuals who seek power, control, domination, and subjugation. The impacts of such actions—in terms of finances, emotions, health, morale, and overall productivity—are destructive, and the ramifications are limitless (Mattice, 2009). Because no one is immune from the potential of being subjected to bullying in the workplace, this topic merits further review and analysis (Van Dusen, 2008). :

To combat workplace bullying, often referred to as psychological harassment or violence (Workplace Bullying Institute [WBI], 2007), employers must have a full range of policies in place and means available to them to create and maintain a healthy workplace culture and climate. Although they are not generally for-profit endeavors, schools and school systems are purposeful businesses that share the same concerns and have the same responsibility to ensure that each employee works in a respectful environment and is not subjected to workplace bullies.

Workplace Bullying • According to the Workforce Bullying Institute (WBI), workplace bullying is

the repeated, health-harming mistreatment of one or more persons (the targets) by one or more perpetrators that takes one or more of the following forms: verbal abuse; offensive conduct/behaviors (including nonverbal) which are threatening, humiliating, or intimidating; and work interference—sabotage—which prevents work from getting done. (Definition of Workplace Bullying, para. 1)

Bullies seek to induce harm, jeopardize one's career and job, and destroy interpersonal relationships. The behaviors of bullies harm people and ravage profits.

36 The Delta Kappa Gamma Bulletin

Prevalence of Workplace Bullying Thirty-seven percent of U.S. workforce members report being bullied at work; this amounts to an estimated 54 million Americans, which translates to nearly the entire population of the states of Washington, Oregon, California, Nevada, Arizona, and Utah (Namie, 2007). These statistics are based on the August 2007 responses of 7,740 participants in the online WBI-Zogby U.S. Workplace Bullying Survey; the respondents comprised a sample representative of all American adults. The WBI-Zogby survey is the largest scientific study of bullying in the United States. Other key and depressing findings of the 2007 study included the following:

• Most bullies are bosses (72%); • 60% of bullies are men; • 57% of targets are women; • Bullying is four times more prevalent than illegal forms of harassment; • 62% of employers ignore or worsen the problem; • 45% of targets suffer stress-related health problems; • 40% of bullied individuals never tell their employers; and • only 3% of bullied people file lawsuits. (WBI, Key Findings, para. 2)

These workplace bullying activities resulted in the targets reporting stress-related health problems such as debilitating anxiety, panic attacks, clinical depression, and even post- traumatic stress (WBI).

Another significant finding of the WBI-Zogby survey was that, in 72% of cases, bullies had control over the targets' livelihood and consequently used this leverage to inflict pain or to block transfers, thus forcing employees to quit or lose their jobs (Namie, 2007). In addition to having to leave a job or a profession of choice, other reported economic impacts imposed by bullies included the target being forced to transfer (13%), being discharged without reasonable cause (24%), and quitting to address a decline in health and sanity (40%) (Namie, 2007). Controlling bullies seek to make targets resign, which results in unemployment, loss of health insurance, and the inability to seek medical attention. Accordingly, the bottom line is that all members of society pay for the consequences of unacceptable workplace behaviors and practices. According to the WBI, workplace bullying is thus a silent epidemic.

Profiles of Targets The WBI (2007) reported that 61% of bullying occurs within the same gender, and 7 1 % of female bullies target other women. In 2000, a WBI study found that veteran employees— often the best and brightest, not the weakest—are often selected to be targets (WBI, 2010). Bullies typically target individual(s) they perceive to pose a threat. Skilled targets are often sabotaged by insecure bully bosses who take credit for the work of the targets, who are thus not recognized or rewarded for their talents and contributions.

Based on findings from thousands of interviews in 2000, the WBI researchers

Dr. Terry L. Wiedmer is an associate professor of curriculum in the Educational Studies Department of Teachers College at Ball State University, Muncie, IN. She currently teaches undergraduate teacher education courses and graduate courses specializing in supervision and instruction, staff development, and public relations. A 32-year member of Delta Kappa Gamma, Dr. Wiedmer belongs to Beta Mu Chapter, IN, and serves on the research committee. She is a graduate of the 1983 DKG Leadership Management Seminar, recipient of an Ola B. Hiller International Scholarship, and grantee of an Educational '. - - Foundation Self-initiated Study Grant, [email protected]

Winter 2011 • Morality in Education 37

confirmed workplace bullies typically target independent employees who refuse to be subservient. Furthermore, in 2010 WBI confirmed that targets were typically more technically skilled than the bullies and that they were the "go to" veteran employees from whom new workers sought guidance. Collectively, the targets were reportedly better liked, had more social skills, likely possessed higher emotional intelligence, and were appreciated by colleagues, customers, and management (bullies excluded) for the warmth and care they brought to the workplace (WBI, Who Gets Targeted). The principal weapons that bullying bosses and coworkers reportedly employed were alienating these targets from social interaction and withholding validation. As a result, coworkers often chose to separate themselves from the target out of fear of being the next victims (WBI, 2010).

Ethics and honesty are attributes often commonly possessed by targets. In particular, whistle blowers who expose illegal or fraudulent behaviors are most vulnerable to being bullied. Targets can be typified as morally superior to bullies due to their generally nonconfrontational, prosocial orientation focused on a desire to help, heal, teach, develop, and nurture others (Namie, 2007).

Practices of Employers and the Rights and Responsibilities of Targets Employers have a moral and social responsibility to protect employees from bullying and to safeguard those who comprise their workforce. Employees need to be aware of bullying practices and knowledgeable about their rights and responsibilities, but ultimately managers and supervisors are the key players who are responsible for building and maintaining healthy and bully-free work cultures. When managers and supervisors commit time and effort to talk with their employees about the ecology of relationships in the workplace, employees better understand what factors foster the evolution of bullying. Such conversations can aid in policy refinement, improved employee guidance, and professional-development initiatives that contribute to a healthy and bully-free workplace.

Employees deserve and should be assured their place of employment is one where respect and civility prevail. Managers, supervisors, and other identified leaders of employees need to be foot soldiers to lead the fight against bullying—to identify bullies, to protect the bullied, and to intervene and stop bullying behaviors (Namie, 2007). Employees need to feel physically, emotionally, and socially safe and to believe they are valued and belong.

Practices of Bullies Bullying is typically a series of calculated incidents that accumulate over time, carefully planned and executed by the bully to avoid legal grounds for grievance or disciplinary actions (Bully Online). Bullies may engage in some or all of the following behaviors toward their target(s): t- -

• consciously undermine the position, status, worth, value, and potential; • marginalize, ignore, overrule, and freeze out; • set unrealistic (and even undesirable) goals, timelines, and expectations; • distort, misrepresent, and twist anything said or done; • single out, treat one differently from others, or ostracize; • increase responsibility and simultaneously reduce authority; • overload with work or have work taken away to trivialize existence; • deny leave, even when provided for contractually; • steal or plagiarize work and take credit for it; • deny opportunities for training that are requisite for job performance; and • coerce into leaving (constructive dismissal) through no fault of the target and

38 The Delta Kappa Gamma Bulletin

activate early or ill-health retirement (Bully Online, para. 2).

Profile of the Typical Workplace Bully Bullies engage in predictable and recurring practices to debase and debilitate their targets (Bully Online). Individuals who engage in such uncivil and amoral workplace bullying tactics demonstrate common elements and behaviors. Are any of these behaviors evident in your workplace? If so, you, too, may be subject to potentially being bullied. Workplace bullies often

• possess a Jekyll and Hyde nature (vindictive in private but charming in public); • display self-assuredness and certitude to mask insecurity; • portray self as wonderful, kind, caring, and compassionate, but actual behaviors

contradict this self-crafted persona; • cannot distinguish between leadership and bullying behaviors; • counter attack and deny everything when asked to clarify; • manipulate others through guilt; • are obsessed with controlling others; • use charm and behave in an appropriate manner when superiors or others are

present; • are convincing and compulsive liars in order to account for matters at hand; and • excel at deception, lack a conscience, and are dysfunctional (Bully Online, para. 3).

At times every employee may demonstrate one or more of these behaviors. The key, however, is to monitor whether or not the behaviors are recurring and predictable with an intended outcome to cause harm. The target must document and record accurately when suspected bullying occurs should a need arise to stop bullying behaviors.

Stopping Bullying To stop bullying in the workplace requires time, input, policy changes, and a company culture that does not tolerate bullies. To help managers and supervisors maintain a civilized workforce and handle bullying, Alsever (2008) outlined and recommended the following five-step process: (a) understand what constitutes bullying and recognize it in action, (b) act fast to show that the company will not tolerate bad behavior, (c) enforce a clear action plan, (d) devise a policy for a civilized workplace, and (e) screen for bullies in the recruiting process.

Serial violators need to be identified and stopped in their tracks. Policies, rules, and practices must be in place to make workplaces safe and conducive to workers producing at peak levels. Bullying hurts the bottom line through lost productivity, low morale, the departure of experienced workers, and higher health care costs for stressed-out victims (Ceridian Services, 2008, para. 12).

Chief executive officers, including school superintendents, can ill afford to mislead their supervisors, managers, and human resource personnel about the level of bullying in their workplaces. Efforts to cover up bullying may include no reporting, under-reporting, leveling no punishment, dismissal of the bullied, and promotion of the bully (WBI, How Bullying Happens). Left unaddressed, bullying can rapidly evolve into a serious workplace health issue.

Steps to Take To reduce workplace bullying effectively, employees need to know that they are supported. The bottom line is that the employer's return on investment is dependent on the work

Winter 2011 • Morality in Education 39

produced in the workplace. If work is not completed successfully in a business, finances will suffer and the losses will inspire management to make adjustments. If workers in schools and school systems cannot be productive because of workplace bullying, the bottom line of student achievement is impacted. Thus, employers and school leaders need to take positive steps to address bullying with commitment and intensity.

First, put a policy in place. Second, address directly any reported or suspected bullying—regardless of who is reported. Third, identify resources and solutions and make them available to remedy a suspected problem. Those who manage and supervise employees ultimately represent and enforce workplace policies. They need to be competent and proactive in employee rights, as well as engage in leadership behaviors that create and enforce bully-free environments.

Put a policy in place. Workplace policies and procedures for addressing bullying may include disciplinary and legal consequences, additional supervision and oversight, training or counseling, and relationship-building activities. An extremely important aspect of

policy and procedure is to have clear, detailed, and T^n<itiiJP ílYíA accurate documentation. Once reported, bullying incidents should be monitored and tracked over relationships time to chronicle the incident reportage, steps i i i i i taken, outcomes realized, and effectiveness of and tlOe ftnOWleClge strategies employed. By tracking instances of -Ji Í / 7

^ , i' y y I . a concern will be taken transgression, employers can use the information gained to formulate preventative measures, SeriOUsly are Critical identify alternative interventions, and guide professional development for all employees. COmpOnentS tO preventing

Employees and supervisors need to be aware i j . of the most up-to-date policies and practices to ^ ^ ^ remedying ensure report assessment and implementation of appropriate actions. Timely implementation of policies is critical to initiate intervention, alert the parties involved, bring attention to the matter, monitor the situation, and address underlying, contributing problems. In extreme cases, it may be necessary to involve law enforcement officials. •

As part of policy, employers should incorporate regular and ongoing climate assessments for all employees in order to record their perceptions of workplace bullying, and the results of these assessments should be made public. Recognizing their responsibility to stop and prevent bullying, employers must ensure that policies are clearly outlined to mandate that managers and supervisors not only report bullying acts but also work quickly to protect bullied employee(s) from retaliation and further harm while resolving the situation.

Address reported or suspected bullying directly. A tremendous disconnect often occurs between what employees and employers believe to be the existence and degree of workplace bullying. To resolve this discrepancy, or at least narrow the divide, employers must encourage and enable all members of the workforce to report possible bullying incidents in a timely manner and, even more importantly, ensure an expeditious, fair, and ethical review and evaluation of suspected bullying incidences. They cannot allow a code of silence—often prevalent in bullying cases—to exist. Positive and trusting relationships among adults and the knowledge that a concern will be taken seriously are critical

40 The Delta Kappa Gamma Bulletin

components to preventing and remedying bullying. Employees must be able to go to a person(s) who can be trusted and who will respond

to the matter in a concerned, proactive, and supportive way. Having such a trusted individual is key, because all too often the bully is the supervisor. In the case of schools, employee options may include going to a department chairperson, principal, human resource officer, or the superintendent. Multiple avenues are necessary if the bullying is endemic, or it will be nearly impossible to achieve recourse and resolution. Friends and coworkers of bullied individuals need to feel free and safe to speak up when they witness bullying behaviors, and employers have a responsibility to support employees in identifying and resolving troublesome behaviors without violence. Workplace cultural norms can either foster or eliminate bullying, depending on how superiors react to supported or suspected incidents. In short, unless actions are taken to address the underlying work culture and climate conditions that precipitated or allowed for bullying, such behaviors will continue.

Even more importantly, employers must carefully guard workplace climate by recognizing that bullying seldom occurs in isolation. Aggressive or bullying individuals typically seek out and befriend like individuals. When managers and supervisors model bullying behavior in the workplace, they unfortunately serve to normalize workplace- bullying behaviors. In such settings, when the managers or supervisors are the perpetrators and when they ignore or minimize the situation, employees report a diminished allegiance to and effort expended in their workplaces. Similarly, managers and supervisors are often less proactive and persistent in addressing and resolving bullying behavior among employees when human resource managers and chief executive officers are less focused on enforcing policies.

Identify resources and solutions. Employee training and awareness of anti-buUying policies and procedures that comprehensively address the issue of workplace bullying are key. The message must be clear wherever bullying behavior may occur—the office, lunchroom, parking lot, classroom, assembly line, cell phone, or the Internet—it will not be tolerated. Employers must establish and publicize systems to support employees and to address bullying behaviors and interpersonal conflicts. For example, rather than fighting, shutting down, or giving in to a bully, targets need to stay engaged and do their work. They need to maintain a calm and professional demeanor, remain engaged and focused, and plan ahead to deescalate a situation before it occurs (Ross, 2007-2009). The success of the school or business depends on all employees knowing where they can go for assistance and on their learning and practicing necessary skills to address workplace bullying.

A Respectful Workplace Cade (2010), a workplace-bullying expert, identified three things leaders can do to create iL respectful workplace where bullying is not allowed to exist: (a) show appreciation, (b) treat employees like insiders, and (c) demonstrate empathy for problems. She further suggested that bullying rarely exists when all workers honor each other as valuable; treat one another with dignity; communicate to include, not exclude or control; are heard by another and respond with courtesy and curiosity; acknowledge thoughts and feelings; ask—do not order or yell or swear; provide clear and informative answers to questions that are legitimately their business; know the right to receive encouragement and support; speak of others positively; and seek to connect and build communication for all parties as opposed to positioning for control (Cade, 2010, para. 2).

Winter 2011 • Morality in Education 41

Everyone's Responsibility Elimination of workplace bullying is the responsibility of all employees; however, senior management and executives are ultimately responsible for creating and sustaining bully- free workplaces. In school settings, key leaders such as superintendents, human resource officers, principals, supervisors, and department heads must guide the educational workforce to recognize and report bullying within their ranks. By launching united efforts, defining and implementing clear policies, putting model practices in place, and having the courage to stand up against bullies, individuals in all lines of work can stop workplace bullying. The simple formula of combining leadership with an environment of respect will contribute to the well-being of all employees and make an improved and healthy work climate and culture a reality.

References

Alsever, J. (2008, October 20). How to handle a workplace bully. Retrieved from http://www.bnet.com/article/how-to-handle-a -workplace-buUy/242687

Bully Online. United Kin^dotn National Workplace Bullying Advice Line. Retrieved from http://www.bullyonUnc.org/workbuny /amibeing.htm

Cade, V. (2010,July 7). 10-point assessment: What is respect? Remeved from http://www.bullyfreeatwork.com/blog/ipsl289

Ceridian Services. (2008, August). The workplace bully and the bottom line. Ceridian Connection. Retrieved from http://www .ceridian.com/eap_article/l,6266,15757-69778,00.html

Mattice, C. (n.d.) What is workplace bullying? No Workplace Bullies. Retrieved from http://noworkplacebullies.com/

Matrice, C. (2009). Successful learning organizations understand the power of positive workplaces. Retrieved from

http://noworkplacebullies.com/yahoo_site_admin/assets/docs/Kirkpatrick_Article.36120227.pdf

Namie, G. (2007, September). Workplace Bullying Institute & Zogby International. U.S. Workplace Bullying Survey [Electronic Version]. Retrieved from http://www.workpIacebullying.org/docs/WBIsurvey2007.pdf

Ross, M. (2007-2009). Workplace bullies: How to best the business bullies. Retrieved from http://www.Kamaron.org/Dealing-With -The-Business-Customer-Bullies

VanDusen, A. (2008, March). Ten signs you're being bullied at work. Retrieved from http://forbes.com/2008/03/22/health-bullying -ofBce-fbrbeslife-cx_avd_0324health.html

Workplace Bullying Institute. Definition of Workplace Bullying. Retrieved from http://www.workplacebullying.org/targets/problem /definition.html

Workplace Bullying Institute. How bullying happens. Retrieved from http://www.workplacebullying.org/targets/problem/why -bullies-bully.html

Workplace Bullying Institute. Who gets targeted. Retrieved from http://www.workplacebullying.org/targets/problem/who-gets -targeted.html

Workplace Bullying Institute. (2007). Results of the WBI U.S. Workplace Survey. Retrieved from http://www.workplacebullying.org /docs/WBIsurvey2007.paf

Workplace Bullying Institute. (2010). Frequently asked questions. Retrieved from http://www.workplacebullying.org/faq.html

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Week6/Media.txt

This video will assist you in the Reducing Communication Barriers Weber, A. S. (Director), & Friedman, G. (Producer). (2000). Barriers to communication (Links to an external site.) [Video file]. Retrieved from https://fod.infobase.com/OnDemandEmbed.aspxToken=10886&aid=18596&Plt=FOD&loid=9174&w=640&h=480&ref Mind Tools. (n.d.). How good are your communication skills? Retrieved from http://www.mindtools.com/pages/article/newCS_99.htm This video will assist you in the Listening discussion. Weber, A. S. (Director), & Friedman, G. (Producer). (2000). Listening. [Video file]. Retrieved from https://secure.films.com/OnDemandEmbed.aspx token=10886&aid=18596&loid=9175&plt=FOD&w=420&h=315&fWidth=440&fHeight=365 This article will assist you in The Impact of Workplace Bullying (Look ContentSERVER) Wiedmer, T. L. (2010). Workplace bullying: Costly and preventable. Delta Kappa Gamma Bulletin, 77(2), 35-41. Retrieved from the ProQuest database. This video discusses how to give TED talks everywhere you go, and it may assist you in your Business Presentations TEDxTalks. (2013, November 9). Give a TED talk everywhere you go: Jason Teteak at TEDxMadison (Links to an external site.) [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=z6D6GO28aaM&feature=youtu.be

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Intercultural Competence and Harmonious Intercultural Relations:

Interdisciplinary Perspectives and Insights

Helen Spencer-Oatey, University of Warwick, UK

Abstract: Harmonious interpersonal relations are frequently identified as an important facet of internationalisation

and globalisation, yet in specifications of the components of intercultural competence they are rarely identified

explicitly. Instead, they are usually incorporated implicitly. After an introduction to this broad topic, the article starts

by reviewing conceptualisations of intercultural competence and outlining the rare exceptions that explicitly identify

relational management as a core component. It then turns to work in interpersonal pragmatics on (im)politeness and

the evaluation process, as this is so central to interpersonal rapport and the management of relations. Key steps in the

evaluation process are briefly explained, including contextually-based normalcy assessment, the evaluation of

behaviour and agent, drawing on the evaluation warrant (interpersonal sensitivities and socio-moral warrants), and the

judgements made of behaviour and agent. The relevance of this to the conceptualisation and development of

intercultural competence is then discussed, focusing particularly on two concepts that are frequently mentioned in the

intercultural field: ‘norms’ and ‘appropriateness’.

[Helen Spencer-Oatey. Intercultural Competence and Harmonious Intercultural Relations:Interdisciplinary

Perspectives and Insights. China Media Research, 16(2):1-12]1

Keywords: intercultural relations, intercultural competence, norms, appropriateness, social/moral orders, moral

dimension, evaluation process

Introduction

There is increasing awareness of the importance of

intercultural competence and various rationales for its

importance have been proposed. For instance, the ‘global

competence framework’ produced by the OECD (2018)

identifies four reasons as to why we need global

(intercultural) competence:

• To live harmoniously in multicultural communities

• To thrive in a changing labour market

• To use media platforms effectively and responsibly

• To support the Sustainable Development Goals (of the United Nations)

This article focuses on the first one: living

harmoniously in multicultural communities. The OECD

(2018, pp. 4-5) explains the importance of this element

as follows:

Education for global competence can promote

cultural awareness and respectful interactions in

increasingly diverse societies. […] Contemporary

societies call for complex forms of belonging and

citizenship where individuals must interact with

distant regions, people and ideas while also

deepening their understanding of their local

environment and the diversity within their own

communities. By appreciating the differences in the

communities to which they belong - the nation, the

region, the city, the neighbourhood, the school –

young people can learn to live together as global

citizens.

This goal raises several questions, including: what

does intercultural competence for harmonious

interactions entail, how can it be fostered, and what

criteria can/should be used to judge whether or not it has

been achieved? The OECD (2018) framework proposes

four target dimensions that people need to apply in their

lives in order to develop intercultural competence and

one of these is particularly relevant to the goal of living

harmoniously in multicultural communities. They

explain it as follows:

Dimension 3: Engage in open, appropriate and

effective interactions across cultures.

This dimension describes what globally competent

individuals are able to do when they interact with

people from different cultures. They understand the

cultural norms, interactive styles and degrees of

formality of intercultural contexts, and they can

flexibly adapt their behaviour and communication

to suit. This dimension addresses appreciation for

respectful dialogue, desire to understand the other

and efforts to include marginalised groups. It

emphasises individuals’ capacity to interact with

others across differences in ways that are open,

appropriate and effective. Open interactions mean

relationships in which all participants demonstrate

sensitivity towards, curiosity about and willingness

to engage with others and their perspectives.

Appropriate refers to interactions that respect the

expected cultural norms of both parties. In effective

communication, all participants are able to make

themselves understood and understand the other.

(OECD, 2018, p. 10)

In terms of competence, this framework identifies

two core abilities: understanding of “the cultural norms,

interactive styles and degrees of formality of intercultural

contexts” and the ability to “flexibly adapt their

behaviour and communication”. Moreover, three criteria

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are identified for judging people’s interaction: openness,

appropriateness, and effectiveness. In reality, these are

extremely challenging competence goals and criteria and

it is important therefore to explore them in greater detail.

In this article I argue that valuable insights can be gained

from work in interpersonal pragmatics. First, though, I

consider how intercultural competence as it pertains to

interpersonal relations across cultures has been

conceptualised in the intercultural literature.

Interpersonal Relations and Conceptualisations of

Intercultural Competence

There are numerous conceptualisations of intercultural

competence in the literature (e.g., for reviews, see

Spencer-Oatey & Franklin, 2009; Spitzberg & Changnon,

2009). Many of these are compositional in approach

(Spitzberg & Changnon, 2009) in that they aim to specify

the components comprising intercultural competence.

Table 1 summarises a number of key conceptualisations

that have been proposed by various authors.

Author(s) Component Constructs

Brinkmann and van Weerdenburg

(2014)

Intercultural sensitivity (cultural awareness & attention to signals);

Intercultural communication (active listening & adapting communication

style); Building commitment (building relationships & reconciling

stakeholder needs); Managing uncertainty (openness to cultural diversity

& exploring new approaches)

Byram (1997) Attitudes; Knowledge; Skills of interpreting & relating; Skills of

discovering & interacting; Critical cultural awareness/political education

Chen and Starosta (2005) Personal attributes; Communication skills; Psychological adaptation;

Cultural awareness

Deardorff (2006) Attitudes; Knowledge & comprehension; Desired internal outcomes;

Desired external outcomes

Gudykunst (2004) Motivation; Knowledge; Skills

Mendenhall, Stevens, Bird, and

Oddou (2010)

Perception management; Relationship management; Self management

Prechtl and Davidson Lund (2009) Tolerance for ambiguity; Behavioural flexibility; Communicative

awareness; Knowledge discovery; Respect for otherness; Empathy

Spencer-Oatey and Stadler (2009) Knowledge & ideas; Communication; Relationships; Personal qualities

and dispositions

Ting-Toomey (1999);

Ting-Toomey and Dorjee (2019)

Mindfulness: Knowledge factors, Motivational factors (mindset and

attitudes), Skill factors (communication)

Table 1: Conceptualisations of the component constructs of intercultural competence according to different authors

As can be seen from Table 1, only three of the

frameworks (Brinkmann & van Weerdenburg, 2014;

Mendenhall et al., 2010; Spencer-Oatey & Stadler, 2009)

explicitly identify relationship management as a core

component of intercultural competence. Of course, many

of the attributes listed by others are also relevant, such as

respect for otherness (Prechtl & Davidson Lund, 2009)

and mindfulness (Ting-Toomey, 1999; Ting-Toomey &

Dorjee, 2019). In fact, communication, which is listed by

almost all authors, is also of crucial importance for

relationship management. Nevertheless, relational

management needs to be identified more explicitly and

this is something that Deardorff (2009) draws attention

to. In her synthesis of the 13 chapters on conceptualising

intercultural competence in her handbook, she argues that

a stronger focus needs to be given to it, noting that it

emerges as a theme in many of the chapters, especially in

non-Western contexts.

Author(s) Competency Explanation

Relationship

management global

competencies

according to

Mendenhall et al.

(2010, pp. 9-14)

Relationship interest The extent to which people exhibit interest in, and awareness

of, their social environment.

Interpersonal

engagement

The degree to which people have a desire and willingness to

initiate and maintain relationships with people from other

cultures.

Emotional sensitivity The extent to which people have an awareness of, and

sensitivity to, the emotions and feelings of others.

Self awareness The degree to which people are aware of: 1) their strengths and

weaknesses in interpersonal skills, 2) their own philosophies

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and values, 3) how past experiences have helped shape them

into who they are as a person, and 4) the impact their values

and behavior have on relationships with others.

Social flexibility The extent to which individuals present themselves to others in

order to create favorable impressions and to facilitate

relationship building.

Rapport

management

intercultural

competencies

according to

Spencer-Oatey and

Franklin (2009, p.

102):

Contextual awareness Sensitive to key features of the interaction, including

participant relations (equality/inequality and

distance/closeness), the rights and obligations of people’s

roles, and the nature of the communicative activity

Interpersonal

attentiveness

Pays focused attention to people’s face sensitivities (e.g. their

status, competence, social identity), behavioural expectations

and interactional goals, and manage them effectively

Social information

gathering

Gathers information about the interactional context (e.g.

people’s roles and positions in a hierarchy) by asking relevant

others or by careful observation

Social attuning Uses indirect signals such as paralanguage (e.g. intonation,

speaking volume and speed, pausing) and non-verbal

communication (e.g. eye contact and other elements of body

language) to infer social meaning – how s/he is coming across

to others (how his/her behaviour is being evaluated from a

relational point of view) and what the emotional state (e.g.

offended, annoyed) of the other person is

Emotion regulation Resilient – is able to handle criticism or embarrassment when

things go wrong. Accepts and feels at ease with people who are

different e.g. who hold different views or values

Stylistic flexibility Uses a range of strategies flexibly so that they are congruent

with people’s rapport sensitivities.

Table 2: Intercultural relationship/rapport management competencies according to Mendenhall et al. (2010) and

Spencer-Oatey and Franklin (2009)

It is important, therefore, to consider how

competence in managing interpersonal relations in

intercultural contexts can be conceptualised. Mendenhall

et al. (2010) and Spencer-Oatey and Franklin (2009) each

identify a number of component elements (see Table 2),

but there is clearly a need for more work in this area,

especially from a process perspective. One potential

source of inspiration is work in interpersonal pragmatics

on relations and relating, and I turn to that next.

Pragmatic Perspectives on Interpersonal Relations

A very important branch of pragmatics –

(im)politeness theory – has focused on interpersonal

relations for very many years. Early scholars defined it

in those terms, as the following quotations indicate:

[The role of the politeness principle is] to maintain

the social equilibrium and the friendly relations

which enable us to assume that our interlocutors are

being cooperative in the first place. (Leech, 1983,

p. 82)

I define linguistic politeness as the language usage

associated with smooth communication … (Ide,

1989, p. 225)

Politeness can be defined as a means of minimizing

the risk of confrontation in discourse. (Lakoff,

(1989, p. 102)

In other words, they drew attention to the role that

language plays in maintaining harmonious relations and

minimising confrontation. Over the years there have been

numerous concepts and frameworks proposed, and

recently there has been a particularly strong move

towards interpersonal pragmatics (e.g. Haugh, Kádár, &

Mills, 2013; Locher & Graham, 2010; O'Driscoll, 2013).

This has also involved an increasing emphasis on

evaluation rather than just on what one should do or say.

This means that it is important not only to understand

what strategies can be used for managing smooth

relations, but also to understand the evaluation process

that underpins people’s judgements of the

appropriateness of behaviour. Despite Fraser and Nolan

(1981, p. 96) arguing many years ago that words and

phrases are not inherently polite or impolite, but rather

are judged as such by participants, strangely there has

been remarkably little research into this process since

then. However, this has begun to change recently, with a

number of papers (e.g., Chang & Haugh, 2011;

Economidou-Kogetsidis, 2016; Fukushima, 2013; Haugh

& Chang, 2018; Kádár & Márquez-Reiter, 2015;

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Spencer-Oatey & Xing, 2019) reporting empirical studies

of people’s evaluative judgements. Moreover, there have

also been a number of publications (e.g., Culpeper, 2011;

Davies, 2018; Haugh, 2013b; Spencer-Oatey & Kádár,

2016; Spencer-Oatey & Xing, 2019) that have aimed at

theorising the evaluation process.

Building on the work of Spencer-Oatey and Xing

(2019), I provide an overview here (see also Spencer-

Oatey & Kádár, forthcoming) and propose that the

evaluation process entails four key elements:

1. Assessment of the ‘normalcy’ of the behaviour for the given context. If it is unexpected, then …

2. Evaluation of the behaviour and the agent, drawing on the evaluation warrant which

comprises:

o Interpersonal concerns: face + goals + rights and obligations

o Socio-moral warrants 3. Judgement of appropriateness (offensive –

complimentary) of behaviour and agent

4. Impact on interpersonal rapport

These elements are depicted visually in Figure 1.

Figure 1: Key steps in the evaluation process

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Contextually Based Normalcy Judgements

Behaviour always takes place in a situational context

and our interpretation of this situational context is a very

important aspect of the evaluation process (marked as

Step 1 in Figure 1). People build up background

knowledge over time on a wide range of different types

of situational context, holding schematic-type knowledge

on what typically happens, who is present to say and do

what, and so on. In other words, through socialisation in

a range of social groups, people develop cultural schemas

and cultural norms about situations and their participants,

and these give rise to expectations as to what will and will

not happen, as well as to what should or should not

happen.

A very useful notion used in pragmatics for

interpreting the context is that of communicative activity

(also known as activity type). Allwood (2000, 2007) has

developed this into a framework, specifying the key

contextual parameters, as shown in Table 3.

Table 3: Allwood’s Communicative Activity Contextual Parameters

Allwood explains that the type, purpose or function

of an activity gives it its rationale, and that procedures

typically become established in order to facilitate the

regular and smooth achievement of that purpose.

Moreover, in order for the procedures to be carried out,

there are standard activity roles, with associated rights

and obligations which require an appropriate level of

competence to fulfil them. Similarly, there are expected

artifacts (e.g., a whiteboard and projector for a lecture)

and features of the environment (e.g. rows of seats,

possibly tiered, for a lecture).

People bring their socialisation/experience-based

expectations into any communicative activity, and it is

these expectations that give rise to evaluative moments.

If a form of behaviour is completely expected, it will fall

below the evaluation trigger threshold and so will

typically not even be noticed. If it is perceived to be a

deviation, but only a minor one, it will typically be

ignored, and the evaluation process stops here on this

occasion (1a in Figure 1). In other words, these instances

of behaviour that a participant regards as not deviating or

only deviating to a minor degree from their expectations,

remain below the evaluation trigger threshold and are

probably barely noticed.

When the divergence from expectations is greater

and exceeds a person’s subjective trigger threshold (i.e.

it is marked in some way), this is when the (im)politeness

evaluation process gets truly started. It is important to

note that the trigger threshold can be exceeded in both

positive and negative senses.

Evaluation of Behaviour and Agent

Once evaluation has been activated, both the

behaviour itself and the person performing the behaviour

are subject to evaluation. People draw on the evaluation

warrant when making their evaluations. As can be seen

from Figure 1, the evaluation warrant comprises two

elements: interpersonal sensitivities (face, goals, and

rights and obligations) and socio-moral warrants. The

interpersonal sensitivities (2a in Figure 1) refer to

Spencer-Oatey’s (2008, 2015) bases of rapport, which

she explains as follows:

Face: Face is concerned with people’s sense of

worth, dignity and identity, and is associated with

issues such as respect, honour, status, reputation, and

competence. People have a fundamental desire for

others to evaluate them positively and NOT to

evaluate them negatively. When others fail to do this,

it can cause upset and disturb rapport.

Goals: People often (although not always) have

specific goals when they interact with others. These

can be relational as well as transactional (i.e. task-

focused) in nature. These ‘wants’ can significantly

affect their perceptions of rapport because any

failure to achieve them can cause frustration and

annoyance and hence disturb rapport.

Parameter Explanation

Purpose The purpose and function of the activity, along with the associated procedures for achieving it.

Roles The expectations (and sometimes formal requirements) which exist concerning the rights,

obligations and competence needs that are associated with a given role in an activity.

Artifacts The instruments, tools and media used to pursue the activity.

Environment Includes both the social environment and the physical environment such as sound, temperature

and furniture.

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Rights and obligations: People regard themselves as

having a range of sociality rights and obligations in

relation to other people. People develop behavioural

expectations in relation to their perceived sociality

rights and obligations, and if these are not fulfilled,

interpersonal rapport can be negatively affected.

(Spencer-Oatey, 2008, pp. 14, 15, 17)

When people make evaluations based on these

interpersonal sensitivities, they often add comments to

justify their appraisal; for instance, someone may say “I

was really embarrassed by what he said” (face threat), or

“she had no right to treat me like that” (infringement of

sociality rights). However, sometimes people appeal to

a ‘deeper reason’, arguing that something is ‘unethical’

or simply ‘wrong’. In other words, they are appealing to

a moral order, and using that to warrant or justify their

judgement. Several theorists within politeness theory (e.g.

Haugh, 2013a; Kádár & Haugh, 2013) have drawn

attention to this, arguing that people implicitly subject

behaviour to moral evaluations. However, these authors

do not unpack the concept further, and so it is useful to

refer to work in moral psychology for more insights. A

particularly well known framework is that developed by

Haidt and his colleagues (e.g. Graham et al., 2018; Haidt

& Kesebir, 2010): the Moral Foundations Theory (see

Table 4). People often appeal (frequently implicitly, but

sometimes explicitly) to the fundamental values shown

in their framework; for instance, they may appeal to the

need to show care for others, to act fairly and honestly, to

be loyal, to respect authority, and to show moral

uprightness.

Table 4: The moral foundations of Moral Foundations Theory (MFT) (Graham et al., 2018; Haidt & Kesebir, 2010,

p. 822)

These concerns are shown in Figure 1 (2b) as socio-

moral warrants. In interpersonal pragmatics, authors such

as Haugh (2013a) and Kádár and Haugh (2013) argue

that people’s (im)politeness judgements (implicitly)

appeal to a moral order. In moral psychology, however,

a distinction is widely made between social

proscriptions/prescriptions and moral

proscriptions/prescriptions (e.g., Huebner, Lee, &

Hauser, 2010; Turiel, 1983). Similarly, some

pragmaticists (e.g. Culpeper, 2011) have distinguished

between ‘social oughts’ and ‘moral oughts’. The basic

idea is that some behavioural conventions seem to be just

a matter of convention – they are local protocols and

simply facilitate social interaction through a shared

understanding of group etiquette. There does not seem to

be a strong moral underpinning to them. These are known

as social rules or ‘social oughts’. In contrast, moral rules

seem to proscribe behaviour that is more wrong and more

punishable, with the wrongness being more authority

independent. So, for example, if a child fails to raise his

or her hand in class (when that is what the teacher

requires them to do), most adults would interpret this as

less ‘bad’ than someone physically hitting another child

so hard that the latter is injured. Hand raising would be

regarded as a social rule or social convention while

avoiding physical or emotional harm to others would be

regarded as a moral rule. In psychology, many theorists

(e.g., Huebner et al., 2010) (but not all) regard there to be

a continuum between social orders and moral orders

(hence the label, socio-moral), and the shading in Figure

1 (2b) represents this. However, breaches on all parts of

the spectrum can affect interpersonal relations. There is

likely to be greater cultural variation towards the social

order end of the spectrum and so acquiring intercultural

competence in upholding the social order is likely to be

particularly challenging.

Moral Foundation Explanation

Care/harm Concerns for the suffering of others, including virtues of caring and compassion.

Fairness/cheating Concerns about unfair treatment, cheating, and more abstract notions of justice and

rights.

Loyalty/betrayal Concerns related to obligations of group membership, such as loyalty, self-sacrifice,

and vigilance against betrayal.

Authority/subversion Concerns related to social order and the obligations of hierarchical relationships, such

as obedience, respect, and the fulfilment of role-based duties.

Purity/degradation Concerns about physical and spiritual contagion, including virtues of chastity,

wholesomeness, and control of desires.

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Judgement of Behaviour and Agent and the Impact

on Rapport

The final two steps in the evaluation process (3 and

4 in Figure 1) are the judgement itself and its relational

consequences. The judgement can be positive (i.e.

complimentary) or negative (i.e. offensive) and

frequently it is applied to both the behaviour and the

agent (i.e. the person performing the behaviour). In fact,

people often make no conscious distinction between the

two and simply focus on the agent. This can have very

important consequences for the degree of rapport

between the participants concerned, enhancing it or

undermining it. When the judgement is positive, it is

likely to enhance interpersonal relations. When the

judgement is negative, it is likely to have a negative

impact on interpersonal relations, undermining rapport,

unless other steps are taken (such as an apology) to

mitigate it.

Intercultural Competence and Harmonious

Relations

How then can these pragmatic perspectives inform

our understanding of intercultural competence? I explore

the question in relation to two of the statements made by

the OECD (2018):

They [globally competent individuals] understand

the cultural norms, interactive styles and degrees of

formality of intercultural contexts, and they can

flexibly adapt their behaviour and communication to

suit. (OECD, 2018, p. 10)

It [this dimension] emphasises individuals’ capacity

to interact with others across differences in ways that

are open, appropriate and effective. […] Appropriate

refers to interactions that respect the expected

cultural norms of both parties. (OECD, 2018, p. 10)

Understanding Cultural Norms

The word ‘norm’ has several different meanings; for

example, Cialdini (e.g., 2007, 2012) distinguishes

between descriptive norms (what is typically/usually said

or done) and injunctive norms (what people believe ought

to be said or done, or what ought to be avoided). Both are

important from an intercultural competence point of view,

although injunctive norms are likely to have a greater

impact on rapport if breached. Both are highly context

dependent. This raises a very fundamental question: how

feasible is it for anyone to understand the cultural norms

for all social groups and in all contexts? I would argue

that this is an impossible task for anyone. The goal should

not be for people to understand (in advance) what norms

will be operating in innumerable unspecified situations,

but rather to have the ability to perceive norms, whatever

context they find themselves in. This is in line with the

well-known saying, “Give a man a fish (i.e. explain

specific patterns of behaviour), and you feed him for a

day. Teach a man to fish (i.e. give him the tools to

identify the patterns operating in the specific context they

are in), and you feed him for a lifetime.

To help achieve this, I would suggest the following

approach, at least as a starting point: that people are

helped to understand the key parameters for interpreting

(a) unfamiliar contexts and (b) interactional styles. In

terms of the former, Allwood’s (2000, 2007) explication

of communicative activities (outlined above) provides an

extremely useful framework for considering key features

of the context. This then needs to be supplemented with

sensitivity to/mindfulness towards interactional styles.

Actually, there is still debate over the conceptualisation

of styles, although the notion of relational dialectics

(Baxter & Montgomery, 1996; Montgomery & Baxter,

1998; Spencer-Oatey, 2013) offers a potential way

forward. For example, Baxter and Montgomery (1996)

identify three main dialectics that are pertinent to

interpersonal relations: Connection–separation,

Openness–closedness, and Certainty–uncertainty, each

with multivocal constellations.

An example may be helpful here to illustrate the

importance of these two issues. The data come from a

study by Wang (2013) in which she collected recordings

and reflections on the experiences of a group of Chinese

officials who visited their counterparts in the USA (see

also Spencer-Oatey & Wang, 2019; Wang & Spencer-

Oatey, 2015). The example presented here concerns the

degree to which people display emotion or show restraint

(identified by Spencer-Oatey, 2013, as a multivocal

variant of openness-closedness), and associated

evaluation judgements.

On one occasion, the delegation was attending a

meeting in a very grand, majestic building in a certain US

city. They were greatly struck by the grandeur of the

building and very enthusiastically took photos for 5

minutes, while the American host who was receiving

them stood at the side waiting patiently for them. In the

evening, at an internal delegation meeting, the Head of

Delegation reprimanded the delegates as shown below:

Head: I could understand the awe that everyone

experienced […] but taking photos continuously

before the meeting was not polite and lost part of our

face. Fortunately, the research director was patient

enough to look at us taking photos for 5 minutes. I

did not stop you because we had the interpreter

employed by the American who could understand

Chinese. I didn’t want to make you lose face and

moreover I didn’t want to lose our delegation’s face.

Such behaviour was detrimental to our delegation’s

image. If we were in a scenic spot, just do it, but we

were in a formal setting dealing with American

counterparts and we must consider our image.

Everyone’s behaviour will impact our group’s image.

(Wang & Spencer-Oatey, 2015, p. 58)

In other words, the Head of Delegation wanted his

delegation members to show emotional restraint in their

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behaviour, and when they did not, he regarded it as a loss

of face for the delegation. However, on another occasion

he took the opposite position. Towards the end of the

delegation’s visit to the USA, the members attended a

farewell banquet organised by their American hosts. In

the evening, at their internal delegation meeting, the

Head and Deputy Head of Delegation, expressed regret

at the restrained atmosphere during the event:

Head: The problem was that the farewell lunch was

too short and too quiet – too short to develop deeper

personal relationships, and too quiet for a farewell

lunch of an official delegation trip.

Deputy Head: I also felt that the farewell lunch

lacked the due atmosphere of a successful

completion of a visit. It should be a jolly, warm and

exciting event where people talk animatedly,

emphasise how successful the trip has been, indicate

the possibility for future cooperation and exchange

visits, and show greater care for each other’s work

and life, and so on. Most of our expectations fell

short. No liquor and no animated talk. It was too

formal and too quiet for a farewell lunch and it was

a little bit disappointing. (Wang, 2013, p. 180)

On this occasion, both the Head and the Deputy

Head of the delegation were disappointed that little

emotion was shown – that everything was so quiet, with

no animated discussion and no spirits for toasting, and

that it therefore did not suitably reflect the success of the

trip. (For the original Chinese version of the comments,

see the sources given.)

What emerges very clearly from these comments

from the Head and Deputy Head is the vital impact of

context on what counts as an ‘appropriate’ interactional

style. The communicative activity of ‘farewell banquet’

was treated as significantly different from the early stages

of a formal meeting. In applying Allwood’s (2000, 2007)

framework, we can note the impact of all elements

(purpose, roles, artifacts, environment) on the expected

level of emotional display–restraint. As a result, in one

context, conveying enthusiasm was criticised, while in

another context lack of animation was criticised. The

Chinese delegation clearly had normative expectations as

to what ‘should’ and ‘should not’ happen in each context

and made evaluative judgements of ‘successfulness’ and

‘appropriateness’ accordingly.

In terms of developing intercultural competence in

‘understanding cultural norms’, it is possible that with

experience, people may be able to build up their

understanding of norms in given contexts with certain

types of participants. However, it must always be

remembered that if the participants change (e.g.

university academics rather than government officials,

even when the nationalities are kept constant) and/or if

the communicative activity changes, the norms and

associated expectations will change too. As a result, it

can be dangerous to make generalised predictions as to

how people will behave; rather if people are familiar with

the key parameters that can lead to different (normative)

behaviour, and can develop skills in ‘reading the situation’

and being sensitive to prevalent interactional styles, this

is likely to be more useful in the long run.

The GlobalPeople initiative at the University of

Warwick conceptualises this from a developmental point

of view in terms of ‘Global Fitness’ building. Referring

to intercultural competence as ‘Global Fitness’ (to try and

make the concept more accessible to non-specialists), the

team have drawn attention to the importance of (a) the

study/work environment, in terms of providing

opportunities for stimulating and fostering global fitness,

and (b) the engagement by individuals with those

opportunities.

In terms of personal engagement, and building on

the concept of transformative learning (Mezirow, 2000;

Taylor, 1994), the GlobalPeople team argue that in

order to foster intercultural competence, people need to

move outside of their comfort zones and face up to the

disorienting encounters that inevitably arise when

moving into unfamiliar situations. Importantly, though,

this is not enough on its own; people also need to

manage their emotions, reflect on their experiences,

thinking them through from different perspectives, and

then making behavioural adjustments. In other words,

they need to mindfully reflect and stretch. Often,

though, the process of reflection and stretching can be

challenging and so guided support from others (e.g.

trainers/cultural mediators) is also needed. (See Figure

2.) If people are helped to become familiar with the key

parameters to look out for in the context and in people’s

interactional behaviour, it can make it much easier for

th em to n otice th em, u nd erstand th em, an d app ly

them in flexible ways. The GlobalPeople@Work 1

intercultural e-Courses for professionals developed at

the University of Warwick are designed on these

principles.

1https://warwick.ac.uk/fac/cross_fac/globalpeople2/com

panies/gpatwork/

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Figure 2: Ongoing Process of building Global Fitness according to the GlobalPeople Fitness Program

Appropriateness as a Criterion of Competence

Several competence criteria (i.e. criteria for judging

global fitness) have been proposed by theorists (e.g.,

Chen & Starosta, 2005; OECD, 2018; Ting-Toomey &

Chung, 2005; Ting-Toomey & Dorjee, 2019), most

notably effectiveness and appropriateness. Ting-Toomey

and Dorjee (2019) also identify adaptability, while Dai

and Chen (2015) refer to the moral dimension. In relation

to interpersonal harmony, the criterion of appropriateness

is very widely mentioned. Ting-Toomey and Dorjee

(2019, p. 139) define it as follows:

Communication appropriateness refers to the degree

to which the exchanged behaviors are regarded as

proper and match the expectations generated by the

culture’s insiders.

Yet Spencer-Oatey and Franklin (2009, pp. 54-55)

explain that the criterion poses several challenges: it is a

subjective judgement and it is always context dependent.

They also argue that the issue of ‘whose appropriateness’

needs engaging with more thoroughly:

A shortcoming of the appropriateness criterion as

commonly conceptualized is that it is often

interpreted as the creation of cultural

appropriateness with respect to the other

interactant(s) rather than communicative

appropriateness with respect to the communication

situation in which the interactants find themselves.

There is often an implicit assumption that the

interaction of the parties to the communication must

be modified primarily to take account of cultural

differences between the interactants, for example, in

communication style. Another implicit assumption

is that the other interactant is a prototypical member

of the other or ‘host’ culture towards whose

culturally based expectations the first interactant has

to adjust, rather than a person possessing

intercultural experience and/or competence also able

to adjust in order to create interactional

appropriateness.

The pragmatic perspective on the evaluation process,

explained above, offers a way of exploring the issue of

appropriateness in greater depth. Firstly, interlocutors

need to pay attention to the interpersonal sensitivities of

face, goals, and rights and obligations. In fact, it should

be possible to be sensitive to all participants’ face

concerns and to gain insights into their respective goals,

if all are mindful as they interact. However, rights and

obligations are more challenging, because they are

particularly subject to cultural variation. On the one hand,

they are highly context specific; on the other, people’s

rights and obligation claims are affected by their sense of

the socio-moral warrants. Appeals to the more social

warrants are particularly subject to cultural variation,

while for more serious violations, the various

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components of Haidt’s (e.g., Graham et al., 2018; Haidt

& Kesebir, 2010) Moral Foundations Theory can offer

helpful insights.

Dai and Chen (2015, pp. 107-108) identify the moral

dimension as important for harmonious relationships and

depict it as underpinning the other facets of intercultural

competence. Dai (2019) has also rightly pointed out that

the moral dimension has been omitted from most (if not

all) Western conceptions of intercultural competence. It

is mentioned in the GlobalPeople concept of Intercultural

Skilfulness (see Figure 2) but is not given central place.

Clearly, given the importance of socio-moral warrants in

interpersonal pragmatics, along with the recognition of

morality within some Chinese conceptions of

intercultural competence, there is a definite need for the

socio-moral perspective to be incorporated more

centrally within intercultural competence frameworks.

Yet more work needs to be done on what it entails; for

example, how do Dai and Chen’s (2015) moral

dimension components relate to those of Haidt’s

(Graham et al., 2018; Haidt & Kesebir, 2010) Moral

Foundations Theory, and to those in other frameworks

such as in Janoff-Bulman and Carnes’ (2018) Moral

Motives Model? It seems clear that the moral criterion

operates at a deep level, yet is also extremely important,

warranting further attention, particularly in relation to

interpersonal relations.

Conclusion

Harmonious interpersonal relations are vitally

important for individuals, social groupings, and whole

nations. They are never easy to achieve but can be

particularly challenging in intercultural contexts. They

are therefore an extremely important facet of intercultural

competence, yet strangely there has been little unpacking

of what this means both conceptually and practically.

This article has explored the insights that can be offered

from work in interpersonal pragmatics and has argued

that achieving ‘understanding of norms’ is particularly

challenging, while appropriateness is a complex concept

that raises the question of ‘appropriate for whom’. There

are no quick and easy solutions to these issues, but it

seems that further research into the evaluation process

and the criteria that people use for making their

judgements could be highly beneficial. Graham et al.

(2018, p. 213) acknowledge that “there likely are many

other moral foundations” and Spencer-Oatey and Xing

(2019) found that neither the Moral Foundations Theory

(e.g. Graham et al., 2018; Haidt & Kesebir, 2010) nor the

Moral Motives Model (e.g. Janoff-Bulman & Carnes,

2018) is fully satisfactory for explaining data. So perhaps

a useful way forward would be able to combine work

within moral psychology with Chinese perspectives on

the moral dimension of intercultural competence (Dai &

Chen, 2015) and thereby to achieve synergistic new

insights.

Correspondence to:

Helen Spencer-Oatey, BA, MEd, PhD

Centre for Applied Linguistics, University of Warwick

Coventry CV4 7AL, UK

E-mail: [email protected]

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KYLE E. BRINK Western Michigan University

ROBERT D. COSTIGAN St. John Fisher College

Our purpose in this study was to assess the alignment of oral communication (OC) skills between the workplace and business schools. Drawing on theory related to communication interactivity, we differentiate three types of OC: presenting, listening, and conversing. In reviewing prior empirical research, we found that listening was the most important of these OC types in the workplace, followed by conversing and presenting, respectively. We review and analyze learning goals of U.S. undergraduate business programs accredited by the Association to Advance Collegiate Schools of Business. We found that 76% of the business programs had an oral presentation learning goal, 22%, a conversing goal, and 11%, a listening goal. Our research reveals a misalignment between the OC skills needed in the workplace compared to those emphasized in business curricula. We discuss potential reasons for the misalignment and offer suggestions for closing the gap.

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From the perspective of recruiters or prospective employers, oral communication (OC) is either the most important competency or at least among them (Buckley, Peach, & Weitzel, 1989; Casner-Lotto & Barrington, 2006; Kane, 1993; Maes, Weldy, & Icenogle, 1997; Moody, Stewart, & Bolt-Lee, 2002). Ample research shows that OC skills are critical for success as a manager (Hynes, 2012; Penley, Alexander, Jernigan, & Henwood, 1991). Dozens of criterion-domain taxonomies, typologies, and com- petency models specific to managerial job perfor- mance have been developed over the past 60 years. Without exception, these models include OC skills (see summaries by Dierdorff, Rubin, & Morgeson,

2009; Tett, Guterman, Bleier, & Murphy, 2000). Within the human resource management (HRM) profession, the Society for Human Resource Management (SHRM) conducted surveys of stu- dents, human resource (HR) professionals, and senior HR professionals and all rated “interpersonal-communication skills” as the most valuable knowledge, skill, or ability for career success for both undergraduate (Kluttz & Cohen, 2003) and graduate (Dooney, Smith, & Williams, 2005) HR students. Clearly, OC skills are important in the workplace.

Given that OC is a broad, multidimensional con- struct, some facets of OC may be more important than others. Here, we put forth a definition of com- munication and differentiate it from other types of social or interpersonal skills. Next, we define OC

We wish to thank research assistants Kaitlin Tanner and Anne Costigan for their contributions. Authorship order was determined randomly; both authors contributed equally.

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and identify three predominant types: presenting, listening, and conversing. We then address three questions: What types of OC skills are valued by employers and needed for business graduates to succeed in employment? What types of OC skills do AACSB-accredited undergraduate U.S. business programs value? Are the types of OC skills that are valued in the workplace and in business schools aligned?

DEFINING COMMUNICATION AND OC

Little consensus exists regarding the definition of communication competence (Wilson & Sabee, 2003) or social skills (Spitzberg, 2003). Interpersonal, social, and communication skills are used in- terchangeably, and distinctions among them are not widely recognized (Segrin & Givertz, 2003). Indeed, nearly every action in the workplace— especially social or interpersonal interactions— involves some element of communication (Katz & Kahn, 1966). Roberts, O’Reilly, Bretton, and Porter (1974: 503) observed that organizational communi- cation is often confounded with leadership, con- trol, motivation, and so forth, and that the term “has been so often used in different ways, its efficiency for theoretical purposes is greatly reduced.” Without adequate theories, the research cannot be effectively integrated. Almost 30 years later, Spitzberg (2003:117) echoed that “there still are no widely accepted theoretical models that specify what skills comprise the essential competencies of social interaction.”

Although definitions of communication vary widely, information exchange is a common element in all of them (Roberts et al., 1974). Therefore, “communication” could be defined as the exchange of information between two or more parties (cf. Katz & Kahn, 1966). For the purposes of our research, broader social or interpersonal skills are excluded from our operational definition of communication, which is consistent with the management literature, in typically regarding social or interpersonal skills as separate constructs that warrant their own at- tention as workplace competencies and research constructs. In contrast to our definition, much of the communications literature (e.g., Greene & Burleson, 2003a; Hargie, 2006a; Hayes, 2002) includes social skills or social interaction skills (e.g., teamwork, group dynamics, leadership, interpersonal skills, helping behaviors, impression management, building relationships, motivating employees) in the same domain as communication skills.

However, if the communication construct is to add value to theory, research, and practice in its own right, it must be distinguished from related con- structs. Although most social or interpersonal skills necessarily rely on communication, their construct domains expand beyond it, extending into broader forms of interpersonal interaction. OC can be differentiated from other forms of

communication (cf. Dickson, 2006; Hargie, 2006b). Communication includes both nonlinguistic and linguistic forms. Nonlinguistic communication is the body language that is used including tacesics (body contact), proxemics (utilization of space, per- sonal space), and kinesics (gestures, body move- ment, body posture, facial expressions; Hargie, 2006b). Linguistic communication is the use of the voice, speech, or words. Both oral and written forms of communication are considered linguistic. We define “oral communication” as linguistic commu- nication that exchanges information vocally and aurally.

OC Types: Presenting, Listening, and Conversing

We develop a model of OC by drawing on estab- lished communication theory. Figure 1 shows its three types, which vary along a communica- tion interactivity continuum. At one end of the

Low Interactivity

High Interactivity

Presenting

Listening

Conversing

1-Way Communication 2-Way Communication

Asynchronous Synchronous

FIGURE 1 Oral Communication Interactivity and Types. Note. The figure depicts the relationships among our three oral com- munication types (presenting, listening, and conversing), and maps them to the one-way to two-way continuum and the asynchronous- to-synchronous continuum (Barry & Fulmer, 2004). The asynchronous- to-synchronous continuum is nested within two-way communication.

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continuum, OC is one-way and is comprised of one party “presenting” and the other, “listening.” The predominant form of one-way OC in the workplace would be presenting or public speaking.1 Listening would include active listening, as well as un- derstanding and following instructions. At the other end of the interactivity continuum, communication is synchronous, that is, live, simultaneous two-way communication (Barry & Fulmer, 2004). We refer to synchronous OC as “conversing” to distinguish it from other types of synchronous communication (e.g., nonlinguistic, written, or electronic). In the context of the workplace, conversing might include behaviors such as explaining, describing, inform- ing, advising, influencing, persuading, managing or resolving conflict, or negotiating.

We derived our model by synthesizing existing communication theory. Centuries ago, Aristotle identified three key ingredients of communication, or rhetoric: the speaker, the speech, and the listener (Berlo, 1960). Contemporary communication models still build upon these ingredients. Many contem- porary communication models also trace back to Shannon and Weaver’s (1949) mathematical theory of communication, which was developed in the engineering field and applied to electronic com- munication of that era. This model has been subsequently adapted to interpersonal communi- cation (e.g., Barnlund, 1970/2008; Berlo, 1960; Hargie, 2006b; Stead, 1972). The mathematical theory of communication and Berlo’s (1960) source– message–channel–receiver model depict commu- nication as a linear process in which a source encodes a message and transmits it by way of a communication channel or medium to a receiver, who decodes the message. The sender–receiver blueprint of these models is a mainstay in commu- nication theory and research spanning across multiple disciplines, including organizational behavior.

The sender–receiver models imply that commu- nication is one-way and is comprised of two broad activities: sending messages (i.e., constructing and sending a message) and receiving messages (i.e., receiving the message, perceiving its meaning, and interpreting the message). Hence, when the

communique is oral, the sender–receiver models provide the basis for presenting (the act of sending a message vocally) and listening (the act of re- ceiving a message aurally) OC types, and highlight the importance of these two OC skills. In support, Berlo’s (1960) model depicts five communication skills that he argued would result in more accurate communication; the two skills that pertain exclu- sively to OC are speaking and listening. Likewise, Fleishman’s taxonomy of human abili-

ties (Fleishman, Quaintance, & Broedling, 1984) contains two verbal cognitive abilities that are nearly identical to Berlo’s two skills: oral expression (defined as the ability to communicate information and ideas in speaking so others will understand) and oral comprehension (defined as the ability to listen to and understand information and ideas presented through spoken words and sentences). It is likely that these two constructs are widely used by HR practitioners because the abilities that are contained in the Occupational Information Network Consortium (O*NET; n.d.) are from Fleishman’s taxonomy. Furthermore, O*NET also includes two nearly identical basic skills: speaking (defined as talking to others to convey information effectively) and active listening (defined as giving full attention to what other people are saying, taking time to un- derstand the points being made, asking questions as appropriate, and not interrupting at inap- propriate times). Thus, presenting and listening are two well-established OC constructs that have a long history in the research literature (e.g., see Shelby’s 1986 summary of the roles of the sender and receiver in the communication process from the perspective of several major theories) and are widely used in practice. Although linear models of communication serve

to highlight the importance of the sender and re- ceiver, communication is often an interactive pro- cess, so these models do not adequately represent many forms of communication. Berlo (1960) modeled communication in a linear fashion, but he recog- nized that communication is a dynamic and in- teractive process. The source might become a receiver, and the receiver might become a source, and feedback can improve communication effec- tiveness. Communication models developed sub- sequent to Berlo’s model (e.g., Barnlund, 1970/2008; Hargie, 2006b; Stead, 1972) depict communication as an interactive process and, when the communique is oral, serve as the basis for the conversing type of OC. Interactive, or two-way, communication is akin to Leavitt and Mueller’s (1951) transmission of

1 Dance (1987) explains how presenting and public speaking may have situational differences, but in terms of the behaviors re- quired of the presenter, there are no discernible differences. One difference is that the presentation is slightly more interactive than the public speech. Presentations are more common in the business setting.

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information with feedback, which they adapted from information and learning theories. One-way communication, in contrast, does not involve feed- back. Strict, one-way communication begins with the sender and terminates with the receiver.

The distinction between presenting and listening versus conversing becomes blurred as interactivity moves toward the middle of the continuum. With asynchronous communication there is a delay be- tween the receiving of a message and sending of a return message; the acts of receiving and sending are separated in time (Barry & Fulmer, 2004). Al- though asynchronous communication is two-way communication, the difference between presenting and listening—as separate skills—is more pro- nounced than it is with conversing, but less so than it is with one-way communication. The distinctions among the three OC types are also complicated by the fact that these constructs are hierarchical: con- versing requires both presenting and listening. Nevertheless, the three constructs have tradition- ally been regarded as separate concepts in man- agement and HRM research. The differences are also corroborated in established competency tax- onomies. Tett et al.’s (2000) taxonomy of managerial competence includes OC, public presentation, and listening competencies. Similarly, O*NET (n.d.) includes social skills, speaking, and active listen- ing competencies.

IMPORTANCE OF OC TYPES IN THE WORKPLACE

Subscribing to the communication competence perspective (e.g., Wilson & Sabee, 2003), presenting, listening, and conversing can be regarded as skills that can be developed; the more developed the skills, the greater the capability to communicate effectively. Identifying the relative value of these skills is critical for prioritizing education and training and for increasing our understanding of communication competence and its relationship to overall job performance.

Theoretical Basis for Importance of OC Types

Prior research suggests that listening might be the most important of the three types of OC in the workplace. Berlo (1960: 52) emphasized that “if we limit our discussion to effective communication, the receiver is the most important link in the commu- nication process…When we speak, it is the listener who is important.” Similarly, King (2010: 70) argued that a key problem with the use of rhetoric is “a lack

of focus on listening.” Active listening and un- derstanding others and their points of view are critical for effective two-way communication. For example, Shelby’s (1988, 1991) macrotheory of man- agement proposes that communication success depends on strategic choices that the sender makes, based on the sender’s perceptions of the receiver’s needs, goals, and probable response. Also related, viewing communication as a social- cognitive process, Hale, O’Keefe, and colleagues drew on personal construct theory to show that communication competence is impacted by one’s capacity to assume another’s point of view (Hale, 1980; Hale & Delia, 1976; O’Keefe & Delia, 1979; O’Keefe & Sypher, 1981). Their results suggest that the active listening skill is critical for successful communication and, in turn, job performance. Conversing is also crucial in the workplace, be-

cause it is the method of choice when the oral message is important or complex. The communi- cation medium richness model (Daft, Lengel, & Trevino, 1987; Lengel & Daft, 1988) presents a hier- archy of media richness depicting various levels of one-way and two-way communication. The richest medium is face-to-face communication, which “allows rapid mutual feedback. A message can be adjusted, clarified, and reinterpreted instantly” (Daft et al., 1987: 358–359). The least rich media include fliers and bulletins, which are forms of one- way communication. Drawing on the medium rich- ness model, Barry and Fulmer’s (2004) theory of media adaptation proposed that richer channels signal the message is more important and should be used to gain commitment or reduce resistance. The medium richness and media adaptation mod- els propose that less rich channels are more ap- propriate and efficient for routine communication but may be less accurate; whereas richer mediums are more effective for conveying complex messages (Barry & Fulmer, 2004; Daft et al., 1987; Lengel & Daft, 1988).

Empirical Evidence of Relative Importance of OC Types

We conducted a literature review of empirical re- search that compared the relative importance of the three types of OC (i.e., presenting, listening, and conversing) for successful employment. We sought studies that must meet the following criteria: (1) Are quantitative empirical research; (2) are conducted with workplace samples (i.e., using employees as participants); and (3) compare all three types of OC

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(i.e., presenting, listening, and conversing). After a thorough search,2 we found no shortage of re- search with respect to communication and an abundance of research touting the value of OC, as well as the value of different types of OC skills. For example, extensive narrative reviews of research have focused on communication competencies, such as explaining, arguing, persuasion, conflict management, negotiating, listening, and nonverbal communication (see recent communication hand- books edited by Greene and Burleson, 2003a, and Hargie, 2006a). However, we found only four re- search articles that met all three of our criteria.

Table 1 summarizes the results of our literature review and displays the relative importance of the types of OC skills as reported in the original stud- ies.3 Respondents in the original research studies were asked to rate various skills with respect to their importance to successful job performance. We derived the ranks that are shown in Table 1 based on the mean importance ratings that were reported by the researchers. Some of the research studies summarized in Table 1 compared only communi- cations skills (including skills beyond OC, such as written communication), and some compared a wider variety of skills in addition to communica- tion skills. Therefore, many ranks from the original sources are not presented in the table.

To ensure that we accurately classified the vari- ables from the original studies into our three OC types, we independently reviewed each of the

variables included in the original studies and linked them to one of four categories: presenting, listening, conversing, or other/not applicable. Note that the conversing construct is broader than pre- senting and listening; as a result, it is comprised of many subcategories. Any discrepancies in linkages were resolved by the independent judgment of a third rater. Intercoder agreement was determined based on the independent ratings of the first two raters using percent agreement and Cohen’s kappa. The percent agreement was .89, which is sufficient, according to qualitative research standards (Miles & Huberman, 1994). Cohen’s kappa was .83 (p , .001), demonstrating sufficient intercoder agree- ment (Lombard, Snyder-Duch, & Bracken, 2002; Sun, 2011). The results depicted in Table 1 clearly show that

presenting is the least important of the three OC skills. It was ranked as the least important in six of the seven workforce samples. The results suggest that listening is the most important. It was ranked as such in three of the seven workforce samples, tied as most important in one sample, and second most important OC skill in the remaining three samples. Even though one conversing skill (of the many) was rated as more important than listening skills in three of the samples, the relative impor- tance of the majority of the conversing skills in all samples reported in Table 1 fell between listening skills and presenting skills.

IMPORTANCE OF OC TYPES IN BUSINESS SCHOOLS

Ideally, the relative importance placed on the OC skill types in business programs should match that of the workplace, and some empirical evidence supports this (Conrad & Newberry, 2011; Dooney et al., 2005; Glassman & Farley, 1979; Kluttz & Cohen, 2003), but the preponderance of evidence suggests that presenting may actually be regarded as the most important OC skill in business schools. Research has shown that academics place higher value on oral presentation skills than do business professionals (Kluttz & Cohen, 2003). When com- paring business communications courses taught by instructors from business disciplines versus from communication disciplines, Laster and Russ (2010) found that communications instructors ranked lis- tening and various conversing skills (giving and receiving feedback, leading meetings, and partici- pating in meetings) the highest; whereas business instructors provided more moderate rankings to

2 We used electronic databases (e.g., ABI/Inform, EBSCO, Google Scholar) to search for research pertaining to OC and its types. We also perused two handbooks pertaining to communication skills (Greene & Burleson, 2003a; Hargie, 2006a) to identify relevant research. We manually reviewed the table of contents of eight journals for the years 1998–2012. Four of the journals (Journal of Business Communication, Journal of Business and Technical Communication, Management Communication Quarterly, and Business Communication Quarterly) were chosen because members of the Association for Business Communication re- garded them as the highest quality and most read business or management communication research journals (Rogers, Campbell, Louhiala-Salminen, Rentz, & Suchan, 2007). Three of the journals (Academy of Management Journal, Academy of Man- agement Review, and Administrative Science Quarterly) were chosen because members of the Association for Business Com- munication included them among communication journals in their top-six journals for career-enhancing publications (Martin, Davis, & Krapels, 2012). Finally, given our research focus on business or management education, we also manually searched the Academy of Management Learning and Education’s table of contents. 3 Table 1 depicts seven samples because one of the research articles (i.e., Di Salvo & Larsen, 1987) included four separate samples.

2015 209Brink and Costigan

T A B LE

1 R el a ti ve

Im p or ta n ce

of O ra l C om

m u n ic a ti on

S ki ll T yp

es in

th e W or kp

la ce

S ou

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t oc

cu p a ti on

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C on

ve rs in g

P re se

n ti n g

C om

m u n ic a ti n g

w it h ot h er s

C on

ve rs a ti on

E x p la in

/ d e sc ri b e

D is cu

ss In fo rm

/ a d v is e

G iv in g

fe e d b a ck

P e rs u a si o n

M a n a g in g

co n fl ic t

N e g o ti a ti n g

C o n ra d &

N e w b e rr y a

M a n a g e r

2 16

13 16

2 16

M a es

e t a l. b

M a n a g e r

2 5

3 4

9 10

7 D i S a lv o &

L a rs e n c

M a n a g e r

3 5

4 9, 12

2 7

10 6

G ra yd

A cc

o u n ta n cy

1, 2

5 25

6, 9, 13

8 19

11 22

24 ,2 6, 27

D i S a lv o &

L a rs e n c

F in a n ce

2 5

4 7, 14

3 6

11 8

D i S a lv o &

L a rs e n c

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3 2

5 6, 12

4 7

13 8

D i S a lv o &

L a rs e n c

L e g a l

3 4

6 2, 13

5 7

9 8

N o te .R

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ra te d sk

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p o rt a n ce

to su

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a n ce

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k il ls .R

a n ks

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re n o tr e p or te d in

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m or e th a n o n e ra n k b e ca

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th e re se

a rc h e rs

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(1 99

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c D i S a lv o & L a rs e n (1 98

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17 sk

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d G ra y (2 01

0) h a d re sp

o n d e n ts

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27 sk

il ls .

210 JuneAcademy of Management Learning & Education

these areas. In surveys of business-communication instructors, respondents rated the oral presentation higher than all other OC topics as far as the im- portance of, and course time allotted to, the topic (Wardrope & Bayless, 1999), and three of the top four most-covered OC topics in business communica- tion courses pertained to public speaking (Russ, 2009). Students enrolled in business communication courses indicated that the course had the biggest impact on their ability to dress professionally for oral presentations; it had the least impact on participating actively in class discussions and communicating well during face-to-face interviews (Zhao & Alexandar, 2004).

The premium placed on the presentation is not specific to business communication courses. In fact, oral presentations were included in 35–38% of business school courses at AACSB-accredited pro- grams and 45% of business school courses at non- AACSB-accredited programs (Yunker, 1998). Deans of AACSB-accredited business schools rated “ef- fectively delivers an oral presentation” as the most important OC competency for new business majors (English, Manton, & Walker, 2007). Likewise, busi- ness department chairs rated “making oral pre- sentations” the most important OC topic (Wardrope, 2002). Maes et al. (1997) questioned why the oral presentation is emphasized so heavily in the typical college business curriculum when it plays such a minor role in the recruitment process and is in- significant for newcomers in organizations. They concluded that business-meeting skills and conflict resolution are two OC competencies that are over- looked in the typical college business curriculum.

To better understand the relative value that business programs place on the three OC types, we investigated the learning goals of undergraduate AACSB-accredited business schools. We chose to focus on learning goals because they explicate a business school’s mission and programmatic curricular priorities, as well as the competencies they deem important for all of their graduates to possess. More specifically, AACSB’s Standards4

(2012: 60) state that “the learning goals describe the desired educational accomplishments of the degree programs. The learning goals translate the more general statement of the mission into the edu- cational accomplishments of graduates.” Milton Blood, when he was the managing director of the

AACSB, emphasized the importance of learning goals, saying that they are “a way of focusing on the com- petencies you want students to have as graduates of the program, and [give] the schools a way to say to both prospective students and to potential employers of graduates of that program. ‘Here are the knowledge and skills that will be instilled in the graduates of that program’” (cited in Thompson, 2004: 437). Learning goals that are established for the pur-

pose of AACSB accreditation are the first step in the assurance of learning process and establish pro- grammatic curricular priorities. The goals are then implemented by way of programmatic learning activities within or outside of the classroom, and goal progress or attainment is ultimately measured by way of programmatic assessment. Learning goals are not all-encompassing curricular goals, nor are they necessarily course-specific learning goals. In- deed, professors, courses, departments, and busi- ness programs attempt to develop many more competencies beyond those included in their pro- gram’s learning goals, and professors may develop course learning goals and objectives that are more specific than their program’s learning goals. Rather, per the guidelines of the AACSB’s Stan- dards, learning goals formally articulate and adver- tise the 4–10 competencies that a business program regards as most important and intends to instill in all of their students.

Methods

We content-analyzed undergraduate learning goals provided by a sample of AACSB-accredited U.S. business programs to determine which goals ap- pear most frequently. Our analysis will determine the priority that communication skills in general, and more specific types of OC (i.e., presenting, listen- ing, and conversing), are given in business schools. We assume, in accordance with the AACSB’s Stan- dards that having a learning goal that includes skill development in any of these areas means that the school is placing value and priority on developing these skills in its students.

Sample

We searched for learning goals on the websites of U.S. undergraduate business programs that appeared on AACSB’s accreditation list. Searches of schools’ websites yielded 116 sets of learning goals. If we could not find the learning goals on the website, we contacted each school’s dean by e-mail

4 AACSB’s Standards refer to the “Eligibility Procedures and Accreditation Standards for Business Accreditation” (AACSB International, revised January 31, 2012).

2015 211Brink and Costigan

and requested that they send us their learning goals. E-mail correspondence from deans, or rep- resentatives of the deans, yielded another 91 sets of learning goals. In total, we obtained the learning goals of 207 of the 465 AACSB-accredited U.S. un- dergraduate business programs, which translate into a participation rate of 45%.

If a school listed an OC goal or a more general communication goal but provided no further explana- tion or details as to the type of (oral) communication, we sent an e-mail to the dean requesting additional in- formation on what “oral communication” or “commu- nication” means to the business school, and we also asked for any additional objectives and learning out- comes that are associated with these ambiguous goals. Supplemental documentation (e.g., learning goals, subgoals, learning outcomes, assessment rubrics, and course syllabi) was provided by 60 schools.

Learning Goal Content Analysis

Learning goals were coded in accordance with the six classes of goals shown in Figure 2. For example, if the goal was related to oral presentations or public speeches, it was coded as presenting. If the goal was related to listening or active listening, it was coded as listening. To be consistent with theory and the empirical research summarized in Table 1, conversing was a broader category that included a greater variety of subcategories (e.g., conversation, explain or describe, discuss, inform, giving feedback,

advocacy, persuasion, influencing, managing or re- solving conflict, negotiation, etc.); goals related to any of these subcategories were coded as conversing. Our first preference was to code learning goals

according to the three aforementioned OC types. Goals were only coded into these categories if they were worded specifically enough to clearly de- termine that they fit. Sometimes OC learning goals were worded more generally and were not suffi- ciently specific to code them into one of these three types. In these instances, the goal was coded using a fourth, more general OC category as applicable. Furthermore, in some instances programs had a general or vague communication learning goal and provided no further information as to the type of communication; goals of this nature were coded us- ing the fifth communication category as applicable. Finally, given that we were reviewing and coding communication and OC goals, we decided also to identify the prevalence of written communication learning goals to provide a more complete record of communication goals, so written communication was a sixth category. Figure 2 shows the three hier- archical levels of the six classes of learning goals. Two raters independently coded all business

programs’ learning goals. For all six learning goal categories, a coding of “1” was assigned if the goal was present in the program’s set of learning goals; a coding of “0” was assigned if the goal was not present. Any discrepancy between the two raters was resolved by a third rater. Intercoder agreement was determined based on the independent ratings of the first two raters using percent agreement and Cohen’s kappa. The percent agreement for the six learning goal categories ranged from .88–.98, all of which are sufficient according to qualitative research standards (Miles & Huberman, 1994). Cohen’s kappa for the six learning goal categories ranged from .68–.86 (all were statistically signifi- cant, p , .001), demonstrating sufficient intercoder agreement (Lombard et al., 2002; Sun, 2011).

Additional Variables

We included Bloomberg’s BusinessWeek (2010) rankings of top undergraduate business schools and the Carnegie classification (Carnegie Founda- tion, 2010) in our analyses to determine if either of these variables might be associated with differ- ences in the inclusion or exclusion of types of communication skills in the learning goals. For BusinessWeek rankings, we coded each school as ranked (n 5 51) or unranked (n 5 156). For Carnegie

Communication (33)

Written Comm. (150)

Oral Comm. (48)

Presenting (102)

Listening (15)

Conversing (37)

FIGURE 2 Hierarchical Communication Constructs and Their Prevalence in Business School Learning Goals. Note. Numbers in parentheses indicate the number of times a learning goal in this category appeared in the entire sample of 207 schools. Numbers do not sum to 207 because a school could have learning goals coded into more than one category within and across the hierarchical levels.

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classification, we grouped each institution into one of two categories: research (n 5 79) and teaching (n 5 122).5 The research category was comprised of Doctoral/Research Universities—Extensive (n 5 45) and Doctoral/Research Universities—Intensive (n 5 34) schools. The teaching category was com- prised of Baccalaureate Colleges—General (n 5 3), Baccalaureate Colleges—Liberal Arts (n 5 6), Baccalaureate/Associate’s Colleges (n 5 1), Master’s Colleges and Universities I (n 5 104), and Master’s Colleges and Universities II (n 5 8).

RESULTS

Figure 2 shows the number of learning goals falling into each of the six classes of learning goals. A busi- ness school could have more than one learning goal within or across the hierarchical levels.6 Of the sample of 207 AACSB-accredited U.S. undergraduate business programs, 193 programs (93%) have at least one learning goal related to communication (i.e., any of the six classes of learning goals). A total of 150 programs (72%) have at least one learning goal re- lated to written communication. A total of 156 pro- grams (75%) have at least one learning goal related to OC (including the OC category and the three OC types). Assuming learning goals are an indicator of competencies valued by business schools, clearly OC and written communication skills are highly valued.

Next, we examined the emphasis placed on each OC type in business school learning goals. Our analysis excluded programs with goals that did not have sufficient specificity to determine if the goal fit one of the three types of OC skills (i.e., it excludes programs with goals only in the more general communication or OC categories, n 5 72); therefore, the analysis included the subset of 135 programs that either had learning goals that were clearly re- lated to any OC type (n 5 116) or had no goals coded in the communication or OC categories (n 5 19; 14 schools had no goal in any of the goal categories, and 5 schools had goals in only the written communication category). Figure 3 shows the

percentage of the programs in this sample subset with learning goals related to each of the three types of OC skills. Results show that 76% of schools have a learning goal related to presenting, 22% have goals related to conversing, and 11% have goals related to listening.7 Even though conversing is a broader type of OC that includes several sub- categories,8 it is still far less prevalent in learn- ing goals than the presenting skill. Assuming learning goals are indicative of what business programs value, the presenting skill is valued by business programs far more than conversing or listening skills. Although we are unable to evaluate the relative priority using tests of statistical signif- icance, we believe the difference is obvious and meaningful. Figure 3 also shows that conversing is valued by business programs more than listening skills, but the difference is not as marked as com- pared to presenting skills. Finally, we used the Pearson chi-square test of

association to determine the relation between the BusinessWeek (2010) ranking (ranked vs. unranked)

100% 90% 80% 70% 60% 50% 40% 30% 20% 10% 0%

% o

f B us

in es

s P

ro gr

am s 76%

22%

11% 14%

Presenting Conversing Listening None Type of Oral Communication Skill

FIGURE 3 Prevalence of Oral Communication Skill Types in Business School Learning Goals. Note. Data included the subset of 135 schools with learning goals related to any of the three types of oral communication skills (n 5 116) or no learning goal coded in the communication or oral communication categories (n 5 19).

5 Six institutions that had other types of Carnegie classifications (e.g., “Other or Unknown” or “Specialized Institutions”) were excluded from analyses that included the Carnegie classification variable. 6 It is possible for a business program to have any combination of learning goals across the three hierarchical levels of goals (i.e., communication, OC, and the three types of OC). However, only nine programs have goals at more than one level. One school has a general communication goal and a goal related to one of the OC types. Eight schools have a general OC goal and at least one goal related to one of the OC types.

7 Any program could have goals present in more than one of the three types of OC skills. Of the subset of 135 programs, 93 (69%) have a goal in a single type of OC skill; 15 (11%) have goals in two types of OC skills; and 8 (6%) have goals in all three types of OC skills. 8 Business schools could have multiple goals in the conversing goal category, but most do not. Of the 30 schools that have at least one conversing goal, 5 of the schools have two goals related to conversing and only 1 school has three goals related to conversing.

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and the presence or absence of each of the six com- munication learning goal categories as well as the relation between the Carnegie classification (re- search vs. teaching) and the presence or absence of each of the six communication learning goal cate- gories. When examining the association between the BusinessWeek ranking and the communication, OC, and written communication learning goal cate- gories, analyses were performed on the entire sam- ple of 207 institutions. Analyses of the association between Carnegie classification and these three communication variables excluded six institutions that had “Other or Unknown” or “Specialized Insti- tutions” Carnegie classifications. Analyses of the association between BusinessWeek rankings and the presenting, listening, and conversing OC types were performed on the subset of 135 programs. Analyses of the association between Carnegie classification and the OC types excluded five institutions that had “Other or Unknown” or “Specialized Institutions” Carnegie classifications. Results of the chi-square analyses are reported in Table 2. None of the chi-square tests were statistically significant, in- dicating that ranking and Carnegie classification are not associated with the presence of the different types of communication learning goals.

ARE THE PRIORITIES OF THE WORKPLACE AND AACSB-ACCREDITED BUSINESS PROGRAMS ALIGNED?

Research clearly indicates that OC skills are im- portant. Likewise, undergraduate business pro- grams, without a doubt, value the development of OC skills. Our examination of the learning goals of 207 undergraduate business programs showed that OC appears as a learning goal in 75% of the

programs. This percentage is probably under- estimated because 33 (or 16%) of the business pro- grams in our sample have vague communication goals, which, with more information, could feasibly indicate an OC theme in their operational defi- nitions. Therefore, at a more macro level, there appears to be alignment between the workplace and business schools with respect to valuing OC skills. Given that OC is a multidimensional construct,

we sought to determine if the workplace and AACSB-accredited business programs were em- phasizing the same types of OC skills. When ex- amining the relative value that is placed on the presenting, listening, and conversing types of OC, a gap emerged. The gap is summarized in Table 3. Based on importance ratings from empirical re- search, we found that the workplace most valued listening, followed by conversing and presenting, respectively. In contrast, based on the prevalence of learning goals, we found that business schools most valued presenting, followed by conversing and listening, respectively. Therefore, there is an inverse relationship between the specific types of OC skills that are important in the workplace and those that are emphasized in business school learning goals, reflecting misalignment. The OC skills that are less important in the workplace are more emphasized in business school learning goals.

Potential Reasons for Misalignment

Several plausible reasons exist for why the mis- alignment in OC priorities has occurred. We, as business professors have noticed a stronger em- phasis placed on oral presentation skills in business

TABLE 2 Learning Goal Association With BusinessWeek Ranking and Carnegie Classification

BusinessWeek ranking Carnegie classification

Learning goal category x2 p F n x2 p F n

Communication .25 .62 -.03 207 1.99 .16 .10 201 Written communication .14 .71 .03 207 .27 .60 -.04 201 Oral communication 2.14 .14 -.10 207 1.71 .19 .09 201 Oral communication type:

Presenting .18 .67 -.04 135 .65 .42 .07 130 Listening .01 .95 -.01 135 1.13 .29 -.09 130 Conversing .32 .57 -.05 135 .30 .58 .05 130

Note. Learning goals were coded as 0 (absent) or 1 (present). BusinessWeek ranking was coded as 0 (unranked) or 1 (ranked). Carnegie classification was coded as 1 (research) or 2 (teaching). df 5 1 for all analyses.

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schools, so the misalignment is not entirely sur- prising. Might the misalignment result, in part, from an egocentric bias? Perhaps academics infer that the presenting skill is the most important OC skill in the corporate workplace because they believe it is so important in the academic workplace. Yet, Innes (2006) advocates using less lecture and more di- alogic communication in the classroom to enhance learning. Engaging students in more open, two- way, dialogic communication allows for greater student learning, and it more closely mirrors and better prepares students for the workplace.

Another explanation for the misalignment may reside in the popularity of the oral presentation pedagogy. Indeed, the oral presentation is a com- monly used pedagogy (Yunker, 1998). It fits the empowered learning culture that today’s students are wanting; it is relatively efficient especially when a group presentation is employed; and it is a convenient way to introduce pedagogical variety into a course. Because these reasons are valid, we find no fault in using oral presentations in business education. However, its status has been elevated to a learning goal at the expense of more important communication skills, which should not be the case.

The primacy placed on the presentation could be a vestige of the past. In describing the history of business communication in education, Krapels and Arnold (1996) reported that prior to World War II, business communication focused primarily on writing. After World War II, business communica- tion expanded to include speech. Reinsch (1996) recounted that the Carnegie Corporation research project conducted by Pierson in 1959 criticized business education, and business communication in particular. The report expressed the importance of communication and called for more emphasis on public speaking. Therefore, public speaking was the first OC skill that was emphasized in business

education. However, as early as 1983, Aronoff (as cited in Krapels & Arnold, 1996: 335–336) stated that “business communication educators must broaden their approach and understanding to include not just writing and/or speaking skills, but also the social and behavioral communication dimensions of man- agement.” Despite the growing emphasis on other types of OC, it seems that the oral presentation and public speaking are still the primary emphasis. The misalignment might also stem from the ab-

sence of communication theory, a bona fide typol- ogy of workplace OC skills, or even a common definition of OC (Greene & Burleson, 2003b; Roberts et al., 1974; Segrin & Givertz, 2003; Spitzberg, 2003; Wilson & Sabee, 2003). DeKay (2012) concluded that verbal presentations might be overemphasized and interpersonal communication underemphasized in business communication curricula because inter- personal communication in the workplace is a “largely unexplored region,” and is so because we do not have clear definitions of “soft,” interpersonal, or communication skills or a clear understanding of their interrelationships. There is a need for a com- prehensive typology that details different types of communication and OC skills, provides a hier- archy of complexity for these categories, and demonstrates appropriate convergent and dis- criminant validity with related constructs such as nonlinguistic, interpersonal, social, and soft skills. Roberts et al. (1974: 518) explained, “with- out a taxonomy of organizational communica- tion, research will continue to be fragmented which, in turn, will make it difficult to develop any theoretical positions.” We encourage more integration and collaboration across the com- munications and business disciplines to develop communication theory as well as more consistent operationalizations of communication, social, and interpersonal constructs. Given that OC is perhaps the most important competency in the workplace, it is surprising that it has received so little attention in management literature and journals (see Martin et al., 2012). Another reason for the misalignment could lie

with a school’s misguided attempt to meet AACSB’s Standards. Soft skills are difficult to teach and as- sess (Robles, 2012). In contrast, oral presentations are relatively simple to assess. Rubrics are com- mon, allowing for easy measurement of the pre- sentation; whereas assessing listening or conversing (e.g., persuading, resolving conflicts, negotiating) may be a more arduous and unfamiliar task. Kilpatrick, Dean, and Kilpatrick (2008) have

TABLE 3 Rank Order of Oral Communication Types

Oral communication type

Importance in workplacea

Learning goal frequencyb

Listening 1 3 Conversing 2 2 Presenting 3 1

a Rank order was derived from published empirical research studies summarized in Table 1.

b Rank order was determined based on our research results summarized in Figures 2 and 3.

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argued that business schools have abandoned difficult-to-measure learning goals and opted for easy-to-measure goals to meet AACSB’s standards and maintain accreditation. Even the AACSB’s Standards provide an example that uses the easily assessed oral presentation as the method of dem- onstrating achievement for a communications learning goal (see Example 2 on p. 67 of the AACSB’s Standards). Perhaps the safest and easiest way to maintain accreditation is to adopt the learning goal and assurance of learning method explicitly de- scribed and implicitly endorsed by AACSB. We hope the rampant use of oral presentations in learning goals is not a result of business programs simply adopting the methodology described in AACSB’s example. AACSB’s Standards make clear that curriculum management should not be based on ease of measurement, but should be aligned with the program’s mission and stakeholder needs.

Moving Toward Alignment

Curriculum management and redesign should in- clude input from all stakeholders (BizEd, 2011), and external guidance from the business community, employers, recruiters, and graduates may provide valuable information about critical competencies for graduates. The AACSB’s Standards (2012) state that “definition of the learning goals is a key element in how the school defines itself” (p. 61) and the “contents of the learning experiences provided by programs should be both current and relevant to needs of business and management positions” (p. 70). As such, it is important that business programs carefully choose the compe- tencies that are included in their learning goals because they signal the program’s priorities to internal and external stakeholders.

Any real or perceived gap in skills or curricula could be closed through a programmatic re- alignment of priorities through revised learning goals. The gap we identified indicates that business schools may not be meeting the needs of student or employer stakeholders. As further evidence, Reinsch and Shelby (1996, 1997) found that young business professionals’ most challenging work- related incidents involved OC in a dyadic re- lationship. In terms of skill deficiencies, the skills perceived as being needed or desired the most were persuasiveness, explaining things clearly, and conflict management. Challenging incidents related to presentations was the least frequent context for communication challenges. Graduates

perceive that they are least prepared with respect to listening and conversing skills; presenting skills are of less concern to graduates (Di Salvo & Larsen, 1987; Huegli & Tschirgi, 1974). Business-meeting skills and conflict resolution are two OC compe- tencies that are overlooked in the typical college business curriculum (Maes et al., 1997). Hynes (2012) noted that the typical business communication course focuses on writing and formal speaking; she advocated for a course in interpersonal communi- cation and interaction to prepare students for a career in business. Aligning the OC skills currently emphasized in

business programs’ learning goals with the OC skills needed for success in the workplace appears to be not only justified, but sorely needed. Unless workers are in a formal sales or trainer role, they may rarely have the opportunity to present a well- planned proposal or deliver a presentation. The formal oral presentation may be too staid and con- trived. Today’s workforce faces uncertainty, quick changes, complexity, and ambiguity. Providing quick, unrehearsed, reasoned, and persuasive arguments in favor of solutions to new problems leads to career success. A highly rehearsed, organized, and planned persuasive presentation does little to mirror the cog- nitive complexity of the spontaneous, synchronous persuasion called for in the business environment. The late Steve Jobs held this perspective:

One of the first things Jobs did during the product review process was ban PowerPoints. “I hate the way people use slide presentations instead of thinking,” Jobs later recalled. “Peo- ple would confront a problem by creating a presentation. I wanted them to engage, to hash things out at the table, rather than show a bunch of slides. People who know what they’re talking about don’t need PowerPoint” (Isaacson, 2011: 337).

With the exceptions of the impromptu speech and the question-and-answer segment in the standard oral presentation, the presentation does not appear to develop the student’s ability to “think on their feet.” Indeed, we have observed numerous instances in the classroom where students deliver presen- tations with ease and then struggle to answer basic questions or have simple conversations about what they just presented. We caution that our findings do not necessarily

indicate that (business) communication professors, courses, or course activities neglect conversing and

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listening skills. We know that faculty can and do de- velop the full spectrum of communication skills, and there are many well-established pedagogies that have been successfully used to enhance the type of OC skills that are more common and more important in the workplace. For example, Smart and Featheringham (2006) describe the fishbowl discus- sion technique for enhancing interpersonal commu- nication, discussion, and conversation skills that are needed in the workplace. Krapels and Davis (2000: 107) conclude that “classroom activities could replicate training in business and industry,” and they propose using simulations and role plays in the classroom. Another useful pedagogy is the case method; the Business Communication Quarterly journal has had two issues that focused on the use of cases in business communication (see Dyrud & Worley, 1999; Rogers & Rymer, 1998). Costigan and Donahue (2009) advocated the use of the leaderless group discussion pedagogy to introduce informal debate into business education.

Given that a variety of OC pedagogies are al- ready available, we suspect that the most fruitful avenue for moving toward alignment would be to advance the programmatic assessment of convers- ing and listening skills. AACSB’s Standards provide little guidance with respect to conversing and lis- tening learning goals and assessments, and most business faculty are probably less familiar with the assessment of these skills. Nevertheless, assess- ment of these skills and pedagogies could be easily implemented by way of measurement methodolo- gies that mirror those used in the workplace, such as behaviorally anchored rating scales (BARS). BARS have a well-established history with respect to employment selection, training and development evaluation, and performance appraisal purposes (e.g., see Campbell, Dunnette, Arvey, & Hellervik, 1973; Guion, 1998; Smith & Kendall, 1963). Indeed, BARS are used to assess a variety of communication skills in assessment center exercises, such as oral presentations, role-play exercises, and leaderless group discussions. These assessment center exer- cises resemble the aforementioned pedagogies available for use in the classroom, and they have been successfully implemented in the academic environment. Some AACSB-accredited business programs use the assessment center methodology for the assessment of nearly all of their learning goals. In fact, Waldman and Korbar (2004) found that students’ individual performance in a small lead- erless problem-solving group exercise was the best predictor of the student’s promotion rate (after graduation) and their future salary.

Developing and implementing BARS rubrics for conversing and listening skills does not have to be an arduous task (see Ohland, Loughry, & Woehr, 2012 for a detailed description of how to develop a BARS for assurance of learning purposes). First, subject matter experts (e.g., individuals with ex- pertise in the course content, business communi- cation, or HR) develop critical incidents, which are example behaviors of effective and ineffective (or high, moderate, and low) performance with respect to the exercise being assessed. Students partici- pating in the exercise are then rated based on how their behaviors match up to the example behaviors provided. A BARS not only allows for accurate assessment—it is also instructive for students. For example, the BARS can be used as a teaching tool to help students understand what is effective versus ineffective behavior before they engage in the ex- ercise. In addition, after completing the exercise the students can be provided with rich feedback related to the effectiveness of their behaviors. Once de- veloped, BARS can be implemented for assessing conversing and listening skills in the same manner as the oral presentation rubrics that have tradi- tionally been used.

LIMITATIONS AND FUTURE RESEARCH

Our business school sample is made up of 45% of U.S. AACSB-accredited undergraduate programs. Whether our results generalize to the learning goals of the other 55% of accredited undergraduate pro- grams or graduate, international, or non-AACSB accredited programs not in our sample is uncertain. Although generalizability is a concern, it is worth noting that our sample has a good balance between ranked (25%) and unranked (75%) schools as well as research (39%) and teaching (61%) schools. In addi- tion, research by The Council for Industry and Higher Education has shown that OC is the most important competency to employers in the U.K. (Archer & Davison, 2008). Other research has shown that interpersonal or conversing communication skills are the most important type of OC skill in Singapore, the Turkish Republic of North Cyprus (Goby, 2007), and Jordan (Freihat & Al-Machzoomi, 2012). Therefore, it is likely that the gap is quite similar internationally. We caution that even though our sample is com-

prised of AACSB-accredited business programs, our results should not be interpreted or misconstrued as an indictment of the AACSB or as being limited to the schools accredited by the AACSB. We suspect

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that the misalignment is just as pronounced in other business programs. In fact, given that oral pre- sentations are required in a greater percentage of courses in non-AACSB-accredited schools (Yunker, 1998), we suspect that there might be a greater mis- alignment in the non-AACSB-accredited schools.

The research summarized in Table 1 is limited in that nearly all studies used a sample from a small geographical region or a single occupation. Fur- thermore, we know little about the extent to which OC research findings apply to younger genera- tions and newer communication technologies. The Millennial generation is stereotyped as being more technology connected than interpersonally con- nected (Hartman & McCambridge, 2011). The extent to which mobile technologies and social media are altering OC in the workplace is unclear. Myers and Sadaghiani (2010: 232) questioned whether these technologies are the “best media for developing and maintaining workplace relationships (com- pared with face-to-face interactions with coworkers and customers).” Future research might focus spe- cifically on Millennials and newer communication technologies to better gauge any changes regard- ing the importance of OC and its effectiveness across worker generations.

Much of the OC literature reported here is based on respondent perceptions of the utility of different OC skills for job performance rather than empirical associations with job performance. In fairness, there has been no strong empirical study that has definitively ruled against the effectiveness of oral presentation skills for predicting job success. Al- though there is no reason to believe that incum- bents and managers are oblivious to which skills are important in the workforce, empirical relation- ships with performance would bolster their claims. More research linking communication quality to business-related outcomes is needed (Shelby, 1998). A similar limitation is that workplace and business school priorities were determined at an ordinal (or rank order) level; the exact magnitude of the gap is unknown.

Another possible limitation is that our analysis of alignment compares different levels of analysis. Data regarding workforce values reported in Table 1 were gathered by way of surveys at the in- dividual level; whereas data regarding business school values were gathered at the program level. Although this may be a confound, we suspect it has no impact on our findings. Our literature review showed consistent results across several different workforce samples with respect to relative importance. Our

analysis of learning goals examined goals at the school level, but prior research has found that individuals at all levels within the business school place the highest value on the presentation includ- ing deans (English et al., 2007), chairs (Wardrope, 2002), and instructors of the business communica- tions course (Russ, 2009; Wardrope & Bayless, 1999). The premium placed on the presentation in busi- ness schools is consistent at all levels. We did not, however, identify whether programmatic priori- ties and values are consistent with programmatic actions, nor did we investigate what actually goes on in the classroom. A closer examination of the implementation (i.e., learning activities) and eval- uation (i.e., assessment measures) of the different types of OC skills is an important topic for future research.

CLOSING THOUGHTS

The OC learning goals for our sample of AACSB- accredited business programs are out of sync with the OC competencies needed in the workplace. This gap is particularly noteworthy, because it exists in the learning goals that symbolize what competen- cies business programs value the most, and drive schools’ curricula and program assessment. This is not a trivial gap given that our review of the litera- ture suggests OC to be among the most important competencies for success in the workplace. Fur- thermore, there is evidence that communication is the most frequently used learning goal among AACSB-accredited undergraduate business pro- grams (Brink, Palmer, & Costigan, 2014)—the most frequently used goal is off target. Although we have offered plausible explanations for this mis- alignment, business school deans and faculty ulti- mately bear the responsibility for any faulty OC learning goals. With detection of this gap, there is hope that business schools will, in the future, take greater care to insure that each and every learning goal is properly aligned with the interests of their stakeholders. In sum, we see the value of learning goals related to listening and conversing skills; but more important, we believe that any new OC goal should be evidence-based and then be fitted to the business program’s mission and stakeholder needs.

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Kyle E. Brink is an assistant professor in the Management Department at Western Michigan University’s Haworth College of Business. Brink received his PhD in industrial and organiza- tional psychology from the University of Georgia. His current research interests are in the areas of staffing and business education.

Robert D. Costigan is a professor of management, teaching human resources management and organizational behavior at St. John Fisher College. Costigan received his PhD in applied psy- chology from the University of Missouri–St. Louis. His research interests include workplace trust in cross-cultural settings and business education.

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Week6/ScholarlyWriting.pdf

WORDS ON THE LINE: IMPROVING YOUR WRITING

This column on better business writing evolved from Philip Vassal- lo's teaching experiences in corporate and college settings and from his own work as the marketing director for ACRMD, a New York human services agency. While his focus is generally on business writing, the ideas discussed in the column apply to a broader spec- trum of communication and can benefit nearly all persons interested in improving their writing skills.

WRITING FROM IRE REART

HERE'S NOT A WRITER'S MANUAL around that doesn't urge the reader to keep it short and simple. The writer's job is to

streamline messages because the business world demands immediate solutions to complicated problems.

That's not as easy as it sounds. Creating order of chaos in the workplace can be a writer's nightmare. Maintaining or- der requires a stable situation, but how stable have the fol- lowing aspects of your business been during the past year?

* Philip Vassallo has taught writing in academic and corporate environments, most recently for Cornell University, Middlesex County College, the Internal Revenue Service, Chase Manhattan Bank, and International Flavors and Fragrances. His articles on writing and teaching writing have appeared in Teaching English in the Two-Year College, New jersey Business Trends, and Business Education Guide. Copyright © 1993 Philip Vassallo

WORDS ON THE LINE 65

• Personnel • Standard operating procedures • Clientele and markets • Products or services produced • Communications and data equipment

The point is that modern offices undergo constant changes in all or most of the above business areas just to keep up with technological advances. Like it or not, this causes an unsta- ble working environment, one which the new employee finds confusing and the seasoned pro finds frustrating.

In short, managers want technical writers to communicate clearly and plainly in an environment that is anything but. Writers fight the eternal battle of trying to make sense of problems caused by the system they are beholden to.

So what do you do, wave the white fiag and retreat from the corporate firing line? You might have felt you had no other choice if you were the writer assigned to compose a two-page executive letter to serve as the annual report for an insurance company as occurred in a case reported by Geof- frey A. Cross of the University of Louisville. In that study, seven different company employees reviewed the writer's work (including the president, vice-president, and writer's immediate supervisor) during 27 revision meetings that spanned 11 days — all for 504 words!

There are surely many boss-battered, weary casualties of the corporate battlefield who can relate equally sadistic tales of language butchers smashing syntax and semantics for the greater glory of their superior position. Yet the most skillful of communicators would have to admit that almost any mes- sage could be improved once experienced editors decide they want to revise it.

Whether writing on the job for clients, supervisors, train- ees, or associates, there are at least ten points, which, if re- membered, will have a long-lasting, positive effect on your written communication.

. 1. Trust your critics. Even if your writing is 99.99% accu- rate, there will always be someone with a differing opiruon.

66 Et cetera • SPRING 1993

This may be because that someone is envious, arrogant, or ignorant. But it could also be because in this one instance — regardless of how many times he might have been wrong in the past — he knows something you don't. Perhaps it is that you have mistakenly quoted an erroneous or misleading sta- tistic, or that you've overlooked the correct spelling of an ob- scure or technical word.

Hard as it may be, assume that the opinion has some credi- bility and that the critic is genuinely concerned about the ex- cellence of your presentation. See what insight he can offer, even if he cannot write to save his life. The best advice in the business world comes from specialists, not English teachers. After all, your critic may know the 0.01% about the subject that you do not.

2. Hit them before they hit you. In the true spirit of the max- im, "If no one uses you, you must be useless," approach as- sociates and supervisors with your finished draft for their evaluation. Even if they're busy, they'll probably be flattered you asked and will gladly help you. You'll also give the im- pression that you are always trying to improve yourself.

In addition, you'll catch your reviewers with their guards down. They'll be hard-pressed to attack your work when you have elevated them to the lofty position of editor-in- residence. They owe you the honor of their valued opinion. And once they know you'll be hitting them again and again for their editorial expertise, they'll be less inclined to criticize your writing and probably more inclined to duck when they see you coming — which is what you may have desired in the first place.

3. Know that not all people believe that all people are created equal. You may find people in your organization who are critical of your work simply because it is your work or be- cause they are never satisfied with anything anybody does. But what does this have to do with your writing? Nothing.

4. No two people see the "same" thing the same way. Partly, this results from our having to write for different audiences. That was the problem faced by the insurance company writer.

W O R D S ON THE LINE 67

The president wants to please the board of directors, the of- fice manager wants to please the president, and the trainee wants to please the office manager. All will tailor their mes- sage to meet those needs.

This means that if you know your report is going to be read by people several steps removed from your domain, expect them not to read it as you think it should be read. If they do, then maybe you're not as far removed from them as you think.

5. The only thing you should take too seriously is not to take anything too seriously. Just as you survived personal traumas, you'll survive the writing mistakes you make. Don't get up- set by the well-intentioned criticism of those who notice your errors.

On the other hand, make sure you learn from those mis- takes. Did you fail to check a punctuation rule? Did you try writing all those statistics from memory? Did you verify your sources?

6. Remember it ain't over EVEN when it's over. This revision of Yogi Berra's immortal aphorism has helped me more than I care to remember. After you've mailed or faxed your thrice- proofread letter to your most important client and only then discover a glaring error, don't despair. There's always the apology call followed by a letter of clarification. This proves two positive things about you to your client: that you are only human and that doing things correctly is your priority.

7. Don't change the world. Use the formats already in place at your company. You have enough to worry about re- searching the facts, interpreting them accurately, and pre- senting them neatly. If you really don't have a sure plan for improving the company's correspondence policy and proce- dures, then leave such politically volatile stuff to those paid to take the heat.

8. Have good reference books. Every doctor, lawyer, and pro- iessor's office is stacked with them — they're frequently used. Keep a dictionary, thesaurus, and grammar book around.

68 Et cetera • SPRING 1993

But lock them in your desk. They're in big demand around the office and are among the most frequently borrowed — and unreturned — writing tools.

Get into the habit of using the dictionary even when you don't need it. This is the best way to expand your vocabulary. Try doing this when your phone call is on hold or when standing by as your printer does its job.

9. Be a rip-off. I'm not suggesting you violate copyright lav^s, but it doesn't hurt to keep around good models of me- mos, letters, and reports. Before looking for them in hand- books, search the file cabinets in your office. You're sure to find a wealth of material that will help you avoid needless repetition each time you write a new proposal.

10. Write right from the heart. This may sound strange to the writer who is trained to be stiff and dry. Don't give into the fiuorescent lighting, the environmentally controlled room, and the phosphors blinking and glowing on your computer screen. Put some of you in that message. Who said you al- ways have to be impersonal and direct? Who would say you are wasting words in an order confirmation letter if you wish your client well on something unrelated to the business? Building good relations is like saving money. Have a clear mental picture of the person(s) your are addressing but also enable your readers to picture you as you wish them to know you.

If you feel this is easier said than done, I'll agree with you. This article took me an entire workday (without lunch) to complete. Writing is hard work. But it is also human. Keep trying to develop your own style, not just for on-the-job writ- ing, but especially for on-the-job writing. If business writing is about communicating, then isn't it you who does the communicating?