research golf and social class

9

Literature Review

Will Hoekwater Southern New Hampshire University SPT-501 Research Methods in Sports Management Dr. Richard Hsiao

Not everybody is a golfer: Bourdieu and affluent bodies in Mexico.

This article examines the golf clubs in Mexico as well as the membership of the people in the upper-middle and upper social classes to demonstrate how socio-economic status and lack thereof are internalized. It also utilized Bourdieu's model to look into the association between physical games and the internalization of social structures. This article strongly relates to my research question of “how social class affects golf?” since it focuses on the area of sports, clubs, and social structures. Golf in Mexico is only played by the affluent private clubs which depicts social stratification.

This study was followed an ethnography of three major golf clubs in the city of Mexico that was conducted for 7 months 2010 and 2014 summers. Two main sources were used during the study: field notes to try and comprehend the association between business and golf, as well as 58 semi-structured in-depth interviews carried out among businesspeople, business executives, golf journalists, caddies, and other people who were associated with the sport. The snowball method was used to collect the interviews. There was an ethical consideration in place, especially at the golf course where the interviews were not recorded to reduce the bias via preconceived categories into the study research.

However, this study had a few limitations which may impact my research. The researcher’s limited capital hindered him from becoming a golf sociologist among other golfers. Being situated between the middle and lower-middle class prevented the researcher from cooperation with some participants which means that some interviewees were not entirely honest in their responses. The research process was also affected by symbolic and material dynamics since establishing contacts, particularly in the upper class was difficult due to the researcher's subordinate position among the golfers. Additionally, the researcher had poor golf skills which prevented him from properly interacting bodily with some of the interviewees at the golf course (Ceron-Anaya, 2017).

This study is very key because it shows how golf is associated with high social status and high social recognition. It also displays the disparities and power dynamics of the sport. Golf is a sport where people strive to get the meaning of the society, their personal identity, and their position within the social world.

Caddies and “Cronies”: golf and changing patterns of exclusion and inclusion in post-apartheid South Africa

This article demonstrates how to golf as a sport represents the change of exclusion from race to class. The study emphasizes how golf has excluded most of the South African population from vital resources and how it is promoting some people to become power elite with economic and political power. This article totally relates to my research question as it examines the interplay between becoming a golf player and achieving a certain social class, and it also explains the benefits of being a member of the elite class in terms of gaining power and influence.

This article does a comprehensive analysis of the literature about some golfers. This study shows that these golfers are entangled in personalized networks based on capitalism. This article proves that golf is generally about class power connected to capitalism and extremes of social and wealth displays. This study also shows that although most South Africans are poor, golf courses are more expensive and the average citizen cannot afford them. Besides, golfers who are made up mostly of whites are paid large sums of money which creates an elite class surrounded by large circles of less privileged people (Cock, 2008).

This article informs my research proposal by explaining the aspects of the inclusion and exclusion of golf as a sport. Golf has taken people's land, heritage, decent work, and being involved in making decisions. The dynamics of inclusion depict how only those who can afford are allowed to play the game. The white community makes up the majority of this group and there are mostly political and business interactions during golf activities. Golf portrays a high social class where the powerful and rich dominate and the rest of the people with low socio-economic status remain at the bottom. The black elite also meets in such golf settings to strike deals and make informal networks with other powerful people.

African American Golf Clubs in the Early Development of Black Golf

This article illustrates the role of African American golf clubs in the promotion and facilitation of golf among African Americans. These golf clubs were involved in sponsoring golf tournaments, networking with other golf clubs, and ensuring the development of golf in the African American community. At the time, golf clubs were formed during a period of racial segregation to create institutional structures that were similar to those of the whites and due to being excluded from white golf activities. The golf clubs aimed to not only reduce racial segregation but also to reduce social classes by encouraging broader participation and a platform of exposure for black golf successful athletes with the hopes of boosting their success in their golf careers. This study's purpose relates to my research as it proves that golf was interwoven in social class and there existed barriers to participation in terms of race.

This article takes a deep dive into the history of golf development among African American golf clubs since the early 20th century America. It shows the earlier goals of golf clubs and how private golf courses were slowly established by African American golf clubs. Golf clubs became those of the elite and the common African American golf players who were great at the sport became golf instructors and professionals among the socially elite. The main limitation of the article is the lack of sufficient documentation of the African American golf activities to gain a better understanding of their success and eventual decline (DAWKINS, BRADDOCK & GILBERT, 2018).

This article will greatly contribute to my research proposal because I will be able to explore the development of golf through a historical lens. I will investigate how golf, once a whites-only sport diffused into the African American culture, and how social classes were formed within the sport over time.

Golf Class Teaches Students the Art of Schmoozing

This article explains a basic golf course that entails more than just swinging a club but also swinging a deal. This is better known as the art of schmoozing. This implies that playing golf is more than a physical exercise but a platform to conduct business. This article is proof that golf is mainly played by the upper class or people who have succeeded in their careers and businesses. It is a place of striking deals and building businesses which demonstrates the relationship between golf and social class.

This article explores a teacher-student interaction where the former teaches her students the golf course. Ms. Schendel teaches golf students and she emphasizes the need for acumen such as proper golf etiquette to impress clients. While playing golf, Ms. Schendel teaches her students to always play a character or not be their true selves to best serve their interests. A golf course is a platform where the main goal is to please others, act interested in what other people have to say, or remain silent depending on the golf activity. Regardless of one’s career path, taking a golf course may be the best approach to meeting and networking with clients. The article even stresses that on the field, you do not have to win, losing may be preferable especially if the client is not that good to boost their confidence and esteem (Golf Class Teaches Students the Art of Schmoozing. 2002, April 19).

The article does not follow a normal research process and thus there are no study limitations. Nevertheless, this article will strongly influence my research proposal because it explores the business side of golf. Unlike most sports, golf has a certain class to it, and conversations and interactions are quite unique. Golf requires more than having the technique to play in the field but the knowledge of how to interact with the elite to get a seat at the table.

Who Cares Where I Play? Linking Reputation with the Golfing Capital

and the Implication for Golf Destinations

This article indicates that people can be motivated to play golf to increase their golfing capital which is often strengthened by being part of the golf courses and destinations that are elite and have high reputations. Besides, the variations in golfing capital create hierarchies in the golfing community and golf players at reputed courses enjoy high levels of self-esteem. This relates to my research question of how social class affects golf because it is evident that golfers choose golf activities and destinations with good reputations and capital to enjoy high social status. Being part of a high social class comes with a strong personal identity and a sense of power and influence which is what most golfers chase.

This study collected data via qualitative research to explore the connections between the choices of destination and reputation. It illustrates how partaking golf affects the growth of reputation by regarding the presence of dominant and developing cultures that enable golfers to repute golf facilities and use the same reputation to improve their position or status. This article also uses Bourdieu’s ideas of cultural and social capital to acknowledge the motivations impacting destination and course selection for golf holidays.

This study will inform my research proposal by pointing out the connections between reputation, golfing capital, and golf destinations. Golfers tend to have a lot of leisure time and money to afford expensive destinations and extravagant accessories. Golf is synonymous with a particular kind of economic and social status and not just anyone can play the game if they wish to. The choice of where the golfer wants to play is related to sacred feelings and it depends on the involvement of the golfer. Reputation also affects how the golfer perceives the course and this reputation can increase based on the quality of direct perceptions, recommendations by word of mouth, media exposure, etc. (Humphreys, 2011).

Etiquette and the Cultural Diffusion of Golf: Globalization

and Emotional Control in Social Relations

This study explores the effects on golf etiquette codes when golf experiences global diffusion. This article aimed to understand the golf social situation and interaction and thus assessed the social framework within which the players pursued their goals, the unconscious learnings that influenced their actions, the constraints faced, and the actions of other players. The study concluded that face-to-face interactions such as golf required impression management such as dressing well, managing emotions, and showing politeness to other players. In cases where etiquette was not followed, the victims felt embarrassed and unsafe and there was a need to re-establish the initial impression by making excuses. This study relates to my research question by illustrating the importance of emotional control in regulating social relations.

This study was part of a larger etiquette study by the Norwegian Research Foundation. A historical review of the growth of golf and its etiquette as well as a comparative analysis of the experience and practice of golf etiquette in England and Norway. Semi-structured interviews were utilized to stimulate the memories of interviewees and assist them to remember their experiences and practice of etiquette in the sport. The responses reflected the interviewees' comprehension of golf etiquette and some elements of emotional control and social relations regulation. The comparative method helped evaluate how these elements were affected by the cultural and social factors in both countries. However, the study was limited because it focused on only two countries and thus the findings cannot be generalized to the global community (Malcolm & Tangen, 2015).

This study will inform my research proposal as it shows the role of etiquette in golf. This article shows how social relations are founded on great emotional control among golf players. Golf etiquette centers around self-control, impression management, and embarrassment.

The Impact of Social Class on Golf Participation: A Local Study

This article acknowledges that golf is a sport well concentrated among the elite groups of society especially because of the expenses associated with joining a golf club. This article demonstrates the relationship between golf and social class and recommends strategies for mainstream sports. The article also explores the barriers to pursuing golf such as socio-economic barriers, lack of opportunities, and lack of a local golf champion to trigger interest in golf. This article greatly attempts to answer my research question about the impact of social class on golf.

The study was sociological and thus used human subjects and interviews to obtain ideas and views on mainstream golf. The study used a sample size of 12 people from 4 categories of 3 pre-identified golf clubs. This was essential because it allowed a comparison between members within the same club and between different golf clubs. This data was complemented by quantitative data such as the number of members and the membership cost. All the interview questions were designed to analyze class and taste because they highlighted the people’s social class and their interesting patterns of behavior. However, the study was limited in trying to access relevant information from local golf clubs concerning their membership and figures. For instance, one club was dropped from the study because of a lack of disclosure about some club details. Besides, face-to-face interviews were converted to telephone or skype interviews because of time and logistical constraints. Besides, those who could not be reached via telephone and skype sent their responses in written form via email. All these different methods interfered with the validity of the responses. Lastly, one of the respondents was not interviewed and was unable to be replaced only leaving 11 respondents interfering with the initial sample size (Ivarrson, 2013).

However, this article will build on my research proposal by informing the different forms of capital needed to develop a taste for golf. This includes economic forms, inheriting from family, learning from friends, or adopting the sport on competitive grounds.

Reference

Ceron-Anaya, H. (2017). Not everybody is a golfer: Bourdieu and affluent bodies in

Mexico. Journal of Contemporary Ethnography, 46(3), 285–309.

Cock, J. (2008). Caddies and “Cronies”: golf and changing patterns of exclusion and inclusion in post-apartheid South Africa. South African Review of Sociology, 39(2), 183.

DAWKINS, M. P., BRADDOCK, J. H., & GILBERT, S. (2018). African American Golf Clubs in the Early Development of Black Golf. Western Journal of Black Studies, 42(1/2), 71–82.

Golf Class Teaches Students the Art of Schmoozing. (2002, April 19). The Chronicle of Higher Education, 48(32).

Humphreys, C. (2011). Who Cares Where I Play? Linking Reputation with the Golfing Capital and the Implication for Golf Destinations. Journal of Sport & Tourism, 16(2), 105-128

Ivarsson, V. (2013). The Impact of Social Class on Golf Participation: a Local Study. Retrieved 25 September 2022, from.

Malcolm, D., & Tangen, J. O. (2015). Etiquette and the Cultural Diffusion of Golf: Globalization and Emotional Control in Social Relations. International Journal of Golf Science, 4(1), 33-49.