Analysis of ′two texts′ written by EAL Learners

Michelle_Michy

Week4Sentencelevelppt.pptx

Home >Education homework help >Analysis of ′two texts′ written by EAL Learners

ETL 705

Week 4

Sentence Level Grammar

And…

An Introduction to Functional Grammar

A Linguistics perspective: Phrases

What is a phrase?

a prepositional phrase, np, adjp, advp, or vp

a non-sentential answer to a question

head together with all its modifiers

Note: one-word phrases do exist (under certain conditions): these are heads to which the speaker/writer has added no modifiers.

What are the noun phrases in the following sentence?

Children can recognise the voices of their grandparents.

How many nouns?

How many noun phrases are there?

Word order (in simple sentences)

Languages have different word orders. English is a subject verb object or SVO language, as in:

The princess kissed the frog

In Hebrew, Maori or Welsh you would have to say something that translated as:

Kissed the princess the frog (VSO)

And in Japanese:

The princess the frog kissed (SOV)

Structure of a basic SVO clause

aux = a slot for auxiliary verbs and/or tense, but can be empty

Clauses

Trask (2007, p.37): “the largest grammatical unit smaller than a sentence”

In order to understand a clause, we need to know a sentence.

Traditionally, grammarians defined a clause as a grammatical unit composed of a subject and a predicate. In sentence 1below, John is the subject and the rest is the predicate (or np-vp, though np is not always the subject). Grammarians also added that a sentence must have one or more clauses. Look at the following examples:

1. John submitted his assignment online.

2. John submitted his assignment online but Peter submitted his in hard copy.

3. When John came home, he found that he had to submit his assignment in hard copy.

Sentence 1 ‘John submitted his assignment online’ is a simple sentence, sentence 2 is a compound and sentence 3 a complex sentence.

Compound Sentences

Compound sentences contain two or more independent clauses joined by ‘and’, ‘but’ or ‘or’.

‘and’, ‘but’ and ‘or’ are called Coordinating Conjunctions.

Compound sentences are very common in Spoken English

If the subject in the second clause is the same as in the first clause, we can leave out the subject in the second clause.

I fell over and twisted my ankle.

As long as learners understand the lexical differences between these three conjunctions and the SVO rules for simple sentences, compound sentences usually do not cause many problems for learners

Coordinating conjunctions

Coordinating Conjunctions do not only join clauses together they can join any two words or phrases of the same type

Boys and girls come out to play.

The film is well-made but rather depressing.

We can sort this out amicably or in the law courts.

Complex Sentences

Complex Sentences contain a main clause and one or more subordinate clauses joined by a subordinating conjunction

Subordinate clauses cannot stand on their own

Subordinate Clauses can be of three types

Adverbial clauses

Noun clauses

Adjective clauses (relative clauses)

Adverbial clauses

What do they look like?

Introduced by a subordinating conjunction such as while, although, as before, since, as if, as long as in order that etc

Meaning

They tell us more about time, manner, reason, contrast, condition, purpose or result.

I will go to the party

when I’ve finished my assignment. (time)

so that I can find out more about his plans. (reason)

if nothing better turns up. (condition)

as long as I get a free glass of wine.(condition)

although I don’t really want to.(concession)

so my poor little cat will be left all alone. (result)

Usually the main clause will come first, but sometimes we can change the order (theme/rheme)

If we put the subordinate clause first, we need to put a comma between the clauses. (This indicates that it is marked)

Although I really don’t want to, I will go to the party.

The same subordinating conjunction can introduce clauses of different semantic types

Since

I’ve known you since the day I arrived in Australia. (time)

Since you’re the one who knows him best, you should be the one to ask him. (reason)

While

I was washing the dishes while he was sitting in front of the telly with a beer. (time)

While I agree that Keira Knightly is good in ‘Atonement’, I really don’t like her as an actor. (concession)

Problems for Learners

Making the subordinate clause a sentence

Because he is smart.

Repeating conjunctions

Although I worked very hard, but I didn’t pass the exam.

Using prepositions as conjunctions

I passed the unit due to I worked very hard.

Choosing inappropriate or invented conjunctions

Even I’ve been working here for 20 years, I still don’t have a permanent contract.

Noun Clauses

What do they look like?

Introduced by a ‘wh- question word’, ‘if’ or ‘whether’, or ‘that’

I can’t think where I’ve left my glasses.

I don’t know why people seem to be fascinated by Kim Kardashian.

I wonder if Bill Shorten will be the next premier of Australia.

‘that’ noun clauses

‘That’ noun clauses can come after:

Verbs

She said that she loved me.

Adjectives

I’m delighted that you can come.

Nouns

I’ve a feeling that you’re bored to tears.

Notice that in ‘that’ clause we can, and usually do, leave the ‘that’ out.

He said he loved me.

I’m delighted you can come.

I’ve a feeling you’re bored to tears

Problems for Learners

Leaving out ‘that’ means it is less clear that it is a subordinate clause

Some people believe Krashen is right.

Wh- words are also question words, which makes learners think the word order should be question form (V + S)

Please tell me what is the time.

I don’t know where do you live.

‘if’ is associated with conditionals, which muddles learners about verb tenses

If I had known you were coming I would bake a cake.

Adjective clauses

What do they look like?

Introduced by who, which, that, whom, whose and sometimes where or when.

Sometimes it can be left out.

J K Rowling is a writer who introduced many children to reading for pleasure.

The man that lives next door is a complete nutter.

The gun that was used in the murder has never been found.

Everyone I met was furious about the rise in fees.

Matty Hayden chews chewing-gum all the time, which I find very annoying.

David Hicks, who spent five years in Guantanamo Bay, is now free to speak to the press.

Defining and non-defining relative clauses

Some Relative Clauses identify or classify nouns

They tell which person or thing or which kind of person or thing is meant.

They often tell us more about a general noun (anyone, people, everything, etc)

They are called ‘defining’ (or ‘identifying’ or ‘restrictive’ ) relative clauses.

People who live in glass houses shouldn’t throw stones.

Anyone who had a heart would know that you love me.

I’ll be watching every move (that) you make.

A cardiologist is a doctor who specialises in diseases of the heart.

Non-defining (or non-identifying or non-restrictive) relative clauses do not identify or classify.

They merely tell us something more about a person or thing that is already identified.

They often follow proper nouns

Wayne Bennett, who has been with the Broncos for 20 years, is now going to coach the Dragons.

Edinburgh, which I think is the most beautiful city in the world, is the capital of Scotland.

Grammatical and stylistic differences between defining and non-defining clauses.

Non-defining clauses are generally more formal and used more in written rather than spoken English.

Non-defining clauses are separated from the rest of the sentence by commas (or in speech by a pause). Commas are not used with defining clauses.

The relative pronoun ‘that’ is commonly used for things and even people informally in defining relative clauses. In non-defining clauses ‘that’ is not possible and we must use ‘which’ for things and ‘who’ for people.

When the relative pronoun is an object, it can be (and usually is) left out in defining relative clauses. The relative cannot be left out in non-defining clauses.

Defining (restrictive)

Necessary information

No separation markers

Not usually after proper nouns

Not usually with quantity expressions (many of whom, some of whom)

Can have ‘that’ or zero relative pronoun

With general antecedents

Shorter and more common

Non-defining (non restrictive)

Extra information

Separation markers (commas)

After proper nouns

With quantity expressions

Not with that or zero relative pronoun

Not with general antecedents

Longer and less common

Yule(1998) Explaining English Grammar

What is the difference between……

My sister who lives in Vancouver is coming over for Christmas.

My sister, who lives in Vancouver, is coming over for Christmas.

The biscuits which were brought by Keith were absolutely delicious.

The biscuits, which were brought by Keith, were absolutely delicious.

If we were saying these sentences, what would be the difference in intonation between the pairs of sentences?

In which sentences could you use ‘that’?

Could we leave out the relative pronoun? If not why not?

Problems for learners

When to leave out ‘that’

Which relative pronoun to use

Underusing ‘that’ in the belief that it’s not ‘good English’

Putting in extra pronouns (That’s the man that I married him)

Confusion between defining and non-defining clauses

Grammar at Suprasentential level

Traditional grammar stops at sentence level

Often competence in grammar at word and sentence level is not enough.

Appropriacy, pragmatic and discourse competence are also important for some to function successfully in a second language.

Calling someone a ‘Silly old bastard’ or ‘a wuss’ might be perfectly appropriate in some situations and land you in deep trouble in others.

Larsen-Freeman talks about the use of ‘Of course’

This is a perfectly appropriate way to show agreement in response to a request.

“Could you turn off the lights before you leave?”

“Of course”

But not an appropriate way to show agreement with a statement of fact

“Canberra is the capital of Australia”

“Of course”

“’Atonement ‘ is a really wonderful film.”

“Of course”

Canale’s (1981) 4 Dimensions of Communicative Competence

Linguistic (grammatical: forms, inflections, sequences)

Sociolinguistic (knowing how to express the message in terms of the addressee and overall circumstances and purpose)

Discourse (selection, sequence and arrangement of words and structures to fulfill speaker’s intention)

Strategic (any strategies used to compensate for any weaknesses the speaker/writer has in the above three areas.

Functional grammar

Functional grammarians (eg Halliday & Hasan) are concerned with how people use language in different social contexts.

Language is a social phenomenon and to use language is to be engaged in a social activity.

The way we use words and the way we construct texts will have a social reason and a social effect.

Halliday stressed the need to consider the relationship between language and its cultural context.

Every text (spoken and written) is embedded in the context of culture.

Within that culture the context of the particular situation will influence the choices made from the language system.

CULTURE

SITUATION

GENRE

LANGUAGE

field

tenor

mode

A representation of the functional model of language

A culture will determine the kinds of genres which are valued and a situation will determine the specific instance of that genre.

The language choices will reflect the specific situation.

Genres

Language features of different genres

Cohesion and coherence

Context of situation can be specified through use of Register

Field What is going on in the text and what is being spoken about

Activity focus (nature of social activity)

Object focus (subject matter)

Tenor who is involved in the interaction and the social relationships between them

Status or power (agent roles, peer and hierarchic relations)

Affect (degree of like, dislike or neutrality)

Contact (frequency, duration and intimacy of social contact)

Mode how language is being used

The channel of communication (spoken or written)

Face to face or more remote

Action or reflection

Textual features of written language

How is the text organized?

The selection and sequencing of subject matter (generic features)

Which words are used?

The words appropriate to the contextual factors especially subject matter (vocabulary, lexical chains)

How are the words organized?

The ordering of words in phrases, clauses and sentences, including forms of questions, commands and statements (grammar

How are the ideas related?

The linking words and phrases within and across sentences which make clear the logical relationships between items of subject matter (cohesive devices)

Consider different genres. What are the structural, lexical and grammatical features of each text?

Cohesion

Cohesion refers to the resources within a language that provide continuity in a text, that help a text hang together.

Haliday and Hasan (1976) identify five mechanisms that provide cohesion to texts:

Reference

The boy wanted a new bike. One day he…. (he refers back to the boy)

Conjunction

Peter needed some money. He, therefore, decided to get a job. (therefore makes explicit the causal relationship between the first and second sentences)

Lexical cohesion

He was grateful for the money he had been given. He slipped the coins into his pocket and hurried down the street. (coins refer back to money)

Ellipsis

A. Who wrote the letter?

B. Marty.

Substitution

I plan to enter college next year. If I do…..(do substitutes for enter college)

Common errors at text level

Wrong pronoun cohesion

I saw my brother. She was not looking very well.

Wrong cohesive device

I like Australian wine. In addition I hate Australian beer

Wrong register

I’m dying to get your answer. (In a formal letter of application)

I am delighted to make your acquaintance. (teenagers first meeting each other)

Poor structure of paragraphs and text

Differences between traditional and functional grammar

traditional	functional
Sentence	Text
Word level	Word level but usually with large chunks
Written language	Spoken, written, multimodal
Correctness not consider context	Correctness related to context
Discrete grammar exercises	Grammar within study of genre - how contributes to meaning

Differences between traditional and functional grammar

Generally the largest level of analysis in traditional grammar is the sentence. Generally the largest level of analysis in functional grammar is the text.

Tradition grammar generally operates at word level (noun, adjective etc). Functional grammar can operate at a word level but generally is interested in larger chunks

(eg noun group – adjectives and nouns together)

Traditional grammar is generally only interested in written language, but functional grammar is interested in spoken, written and multimodal texts

Traditional grammar is not very interested in the context of the text, but functional grammar is interested in how the context has impacted on and is revealed in the language choices

Grammar exercises in traditional grammar can be discrete, unrelated exercises (eg how to construct the passive voice) but grammar exercises in functional grammar are within the context of the genre and related to how the meaning has been constructed (eg why was the passive voice chosen).

KEY RESEARCHERS

Development of systemic linguistics:

Sydney systemists: Michael Halliday (from 1970s); Hasan; Martin; Matthiesson

Links with other systemists: Gregory; Sinclair and Coulthard

Language Education: Christie; Macken and Rothery

Visual art: O’Toole; Kress and van Leeuwen; Unsworth

Psychotherapy: Eggins; MacKinnon

Artificial Intelligence: Bateman

Speech Pathology: Armstrong

References:

Eggins (1994) An Introduction to Systemic Functional Linguistics, Pinter

Identify the

field in this

text?

What sort of

tenor is this

text creating?

What is the

Mode?

vpaux