Week 4 - Assignment: Prepare Initiatives for an Organization and Week 5 - Assignment: Formulate Responses to the Application of Strategic Management
Fila64
Week4Fullarticle_StrategyFormulationStrategyContentandPerformance.pdf
1/25/22, 11:53 AM Full article: Strategy Formulation, Strategy Content and Performance
https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/14719030802489989 1/59
Home All Journals Public Management Review List of Issues Volume 11, Issue 1 Strategy Formulation, Strategy Content a ....
Volume 11, 2009 - Issue 1 Public Management Review
3,088 Views
82 CrossRef citations to date
0 Altmetric
Articles
Strategy Formulation, Strategy Content and Performance An empirical analysis
,Rhys Andrews ,George A. Boyne &Jennifer Law Richard M. Walker Pages 1-22 | Published online: 15 Jan 2009
Download citation https://doi.org/10.1080/14719030802489989
Figures & data References Citations Metrics
Reprints & Permissions PDF
Abstract
This article tests the independent e�ects of strategy formulation and strategy content
on organizational performance. The formulation variables include rational planning,
logical instrumentalism and strategy process absence, and the strategy content
variables are prospecting, defending and reacting, which are derived from the work of
Miles and Snow (1978). The model, which also controls for past performance and
service expenditure, is tested upon forty-seven service departments in Welsh local
government. The statistical results indicate that logical incrementalism and strategy
absence have negative consequences for performance while prospecting and
Listen
Full Article
Log in | Register
In this article
1/25/22, 11:53 AM Full article: Strategy Formulation, Strategy Content and Performance
https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/14719030802489989 2/59
absence have negative consequences for performance while prospecting and
defending are strategies that are likely to result in higher levels of organizational
performance. The implications of these �ndings for public management research are
considered.
Key words: Strategy formulation strategy content organizational performance local government
empirical study
Introduction
A central task for public management research is to de�ne and measure the sources
of service improvement. Research e�orts are increasingly focused on this complex
topic and examine variables including organizational structure, goal ambiguity and
networking (Boyne 2003; Boyne et al. 2006). Strategic management is increasingly
singled out as one of the primary means through which organizational performance
can be enhanced (Boyne and Walker 2004; Andrews et al. 2006a; Meier et al. 2007).
Strategy is the broad way in which an organization seeks to maintain or improve its
performance and is relatively enduring and unlikely to change substantially in the
short term (Zajac and Shortell 1989; Amburgey et al. 1990). Two central facets of
strategic management are the ways in which strategy is formed, referred to as strategy
formulation, and the substance of those decisions, or strategy content (Hart 1992;
Ketchen et al. 1996; Boyne and Walker 2004). To date, research has typically focused
on either formulation or content (Boyne and Gould-Williams 2003; Andrews et al.
2006a). Moreover, existing studies of strategic management in the public sector focus
on either a single approach to formulation or a limited range of alternative strategy
content options (Zahra and Pearce 1990; Elbanna 2006). As Ketchen et al. (1996: 231)
comment: ‘The traditional distinction between strategy process and strategy content
has perhaps limited the ability of strategic management research to explain the
determinants of organizational performance.’ Therefore, in this study we examine
Previous article View issue table of contents Next article
In this article
1/25/22, 11:53 AM Full article: Strategy Formulation, Strategy Content and Performance
https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/14719030802489989 3/59
determinants of organizational performance. Therefore, in this study we examine
multiple formulation and content approaches and assess their impact on
organizational performance.
The questions we pose here are not just academic. Strategy formulation and strategy
content are at the heart of government attempts to achieve public service
improvement in a variety of international settings (Pollitt and Bouchaert 2004). In the
UK, a range of processes has been promoted by central government over recent years
to achieve service improvement. This includes reforms associated with increased
rationality in strategy formulation (for example target-setting), and with aspects of
decision making (such as devolved management and �exibility) (O�ce of Public Service
Reform 2003; Walker and Boyne 2006). A number of reforms have also attempted to
stimulate changes in strategy content, by promoting innovation, partnership and a
customer focus in public organizations (O�ce of Public Service Reform 2002; Boyne et
al. 2004; Walker and Boyne 2006). Our empirical analysis examines if the strategy
formulation and content approaches adopted by public service organizations in Wales
are conducive to improved service performance.
In answering these questions we initially explore the existing literature on strategy
formulation and content, and develop hypotheses on their relationship with
organizational performance. This discussion is followed by a description of our
methods, data and measures. The results of the statistical analysis are presented
before the �ndings are considered and conclusions drawn.
Strategy and Organizational Performance
Over recent years there has been increasing research that seeks to apply strategic
management theory to public organizations (Moore 1995; Joyce 1999). Boyne and
Walker (2004) recently evaluated the relevance of strategic management frameworks
to public organizations. They criticize most prior strategy research for placing
organizations in mutually exclusive boxes and assuming that each organization has In this article
1/25/22, 11:53 AM Full article: Strategy Formulation, Strategy Content and Performance
https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/14719030802489989 4/59
organizations in mutually exclusive boxes and assuming that each organization has
only a single strategy. Organizational strategies are messy and complex rather than
neat and simple – a mix of strategies is likely to be pursued at the same time, so it is
inappropriate to categorize organizations as belonging solely to a single type. Although
strategic management approaches are likely to be enduring, an organization may shift
emphasis between di�erent strategies when faced with di�erent circumstances,
resulting in the emergence of a new strategic management framework. Such
circumstances may include the imposition of new legislation, a regulatory regime or
innovation by an organization in response to changes in the external environment.
In the remainder of this section we consider the dominant approaches to strategy
formulation and strategy content and develop hypotheses on their consequences for
organizational performance.
Strategy formulation
Rational planning and logical incrementalism are the two main models of strategy
formulation in the management literature (Elbanna 2006). Where neither of these
approaches is present, organizations are likely to lack clearly discernable processes,
thereby exhibiting ‘strategy absence’ (Inkpen and Choudhury 1995).
Rational planning is characterized by analytical, formal and logical processes through
which organizations scan the internal and external environment, and develop policy
options which di�er from the status quo. The options that are generated by this
process are evaluated prior to the setting of organizational targets, which are then
regularly reviewed and monitored (Dror 1973; Mintzberg 1994). Planning thus
operates within a framework of bounded rationality because of the cognitive limits of
decision-makers and the iterative way in which they move between the various
planning phases (Elbanna 2006). Prior large-scale experiments in rational planning in
the public sector have not been successful. For example, during the 1970s UK local
government conducted a failed experiment with widespread corporate planning
(Boyne 2001). This, and other failures to implement rational planning are usually
attributed to technical and political problems. Recent evidence on planning among In this article
1/25/22, 11:53 AM Full article: Strategy Formulation, Strategy Content and Performance
https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/14719030802489989 5/59
attributed to technical and political problems. Recent evidence on planning among
local authorities in Wales, suggests that technical problems are more di�cult to
overcome than political factors (Boyne et al. 2004). Despite these challenges, rational
planning processes can provide a valuable framework for the formulation of objectives
and actions.
Evidence on the consequences of rational planning for organizational performance is,
however, mixed (Boyne 2001; Elbanna 2006). While the balance of the international
research results from the public, private and non-pro�t sectors leans towards a
positive relationship between planning and performance (Crittenden et al. 1988; Odom
and Boxx 1988; Siciliano 1997; Boyne and Gould-Williams 2003), ‘planning is neither a
necessary nor a su�cient condition for performance improvement’ (Boyne et al. 2004:
200).
Logical incrementalism, or ‘incrementalism with a purpose’ (Quinn 1980) emphasizes
the importance of setting broad organizational goals (Boyne et al. 2004). It suggests
that strategy formulation is a political process – actors within organizations may have
con�icting views on the most appropriate ways to meet organizational goals. How
these are reconciled is re�ected in the strategy-making process. Political con�icts may
be over resource allocation, policy goals or organizational power, inside or outside the
organization (Elbanna 2006). Internal politics may therefore be counterproductive for
the attainment of higher levels of organizational performance, as con�ict can result in
inopportune decision making, drift in seeking goal attainment, a lack of transparency
by decision-makers and a poor interpretation of the external organizational
environment (Eisenhardt and Bourgeois 1988; Dean and Sharfman 1996; Elbanna
2006). All of this suggests that logical incrementalism will have adverse e�ects on
organizational performance.
Not all public organizations will have clear strategy formulation processes. Inkpen and
Choudhury (1995) argue that strategy absence occurs when an organization is
undergoing a substantial change or a deliberate decision has been made to avoid
developing a clear and coherent strategy process. They claim that it is conceivable that
strategy absence can have bene�ts, but the empirical evidence on an absence of In this article
1/25/22, 11:53 AM Full article: Strategy Formulation, Strategy Content and Performance
https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/14719030802489989 6/59
strategy absence can have bene�ts, but the empirical evidence on an absence of
strategy content (discussed below) would suggest that an avoidance of strategic
management is typically associated with lower levels of organizational performance.
Our hypotheses on strategy formulation suggest one positive and two negative
relationships with organizational performance:
H1: Rational planning is positively related to organizational performance.
H2: Logical incrementalism is negatively related to organizational
performance.
H3: Strategy process absence is negatively related to organizational
performance.
Strategy content
Strategy content is how an organization interacts with its environment, and the way it
seeks to improve its performance. It is ‘a pattern of action through which
[organizations] propose to achieve desired goals, modify current circumstances and/or
realise latent opportunities’ (Rubin 1988: 88). We base our conceptualization of
strategy content on Miles and Snow's (1978) typology of organizational stances.
Prospectors are organizations that ‘almost continually search for market opportunities,
and … regularly experiment with potential responses to emerging environmental
trends’ (Miles and Snow 1978: 29). These organizations often pioneer the development
of new products and services. Defenders are organizations that take a conservative
view of new product development. They typically compete on price and quality rather
than on new products or markets and ‘devote primary attention to improving the
e�ciency of their existing operations’ (Miles and Snow 1978: 29); in short, they seek
better performance on a limited number of core products and services. Analysers
represent an intermediate category, sharing elements of both prospector and
defender. Analysers are rarely ‘�rst movers’ but, instead, ‘watch their competitors
closely for new ideas, and … rapidly adopt those which appear to be most promising’
(Miles and Snow 1978: 29). Reactors are organizations in which top managers
frequently perceive change and uncertainty in their organizational environments but In this article
1/25/22, 11:53 AM Full article: Strategy Formulation, Strategy Content and Performance
https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/14719030802489989 7/59
frequently perceive change and uncertainty in their organizational environments but
lack a consistent and stable strategy. A reactor ‘seldom makes adjustment of any sort
until forced to do so by environmental pressures’ (Miles and Snow 1978: 29). A reactor
stance is equivalent to strategy absence, because an organization largely responds to
external forces, and has no consistent or coherent strategy of its own (Inkpen and
Choudhury 1995).
As we note above, organizational strategies are messy and complex and it is unlikely
that organizations can be placed in mutually exclusive boxes that assume that each
organization has only a single strategic stance – for example, it is a prospector or a
reactor. If a mix of strategies is pursued at the same time, then the analyser category
becomes redundant because all organizations prospect and defend to some extent
(although the balance will vary with the relative priority attached to these stances, and
that attached to a reactor strategy).
This pared down model of strategy content has been tested on multipurpose English
local authorities (Andrews et al. 2006a). The measures of prospecting, defending and
reacting in their study are based on Likert-scale survey responses from senior and
middle managers in a sample of 120 organizations. The empirical results reveal a
hierarchy of e�ects on performance: prospecting is positively related to service
achievements, defending neutral and reacting negative. Thus, controlling for the
presence of other strategic stances in an organization, prospecting is the best option
and reacting is the worst. Findings from multipurpose private organizations also point
towards a hierarchy of strategic stances – Woodside et al. (1999) conclude that
prospectors outperform defenders who in turn outperform reactors. Other research,
controlling for other management variables such as representative bureaucracy
(Andrews et al. 2005) and sustainable management (Enticott and Walker forthcoming)
suggest slight variations to this theme, but con�rm the positive relationship between
prospecting and performance and the negative impact of reacting.
These �ndings are somewhat at odds with the central contention of Miles and Snow
(1978) who argued that prospectors and defenders would achieve equally high levels In this article
1/25/22, 11:53 AM Full article: Strategy Formulation, Strategy Content and Performance
https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/14719030802489989 8/59
(1978) who argued that prospectors and defenders would achieve equally high levels
of performance. This claim has been supported in a number of private sector studies
(e.g. Hawes and Crittenden 1984; Conant et al. 1990; Shortell and Zajac 1990). Other
empirical evaluations of the Miles and Snow (1978) framework do, however,
distinguish between the performance of prospectors and defenders. For example,
Evans and Green's (2000) study of Chapter 11 Bankruptcy notes that prospectors are
more likely than defenders to achieve business turnaround. Hambrick (1983)
concludes that prospectors outperform defenders on market share changes, although
this pattern is reversed for return on investment (see also Zajac and Shortell 1989).
In sum, there is broad but mixed support for Miles and Snow's model of strategy and
performance, which leads us to propose the following hypotheses:
H4: A prospector and a defender stance are positively related to
organizational performance.
H5: Prospectors outperform defenders and reactors.
H6: A reactor stance is negatively related to organizational performance.
Methods
Units of analysis
Our units of analysis are departments in Welsh local government that have service
delivery responsibilities for education, social services, housing, highways, public
protection and bene�ts and revenues. The range of services represents a suitable
context for testing the relationship between strategy and performance across di�erent
public organizations and policy domains. The adoption of departments as our unit of
analysis also allows for research �ndings from this setting to be contrasted with our
other studies of multipurpose organizations (Andrews et al. 2003, 2005; Enticott and
Walker forthcoming). An additional bene�t of restricting our analysis to service
departments in Welsh councils is that other potential in�uences on performance, such
as the policies of higher tiers of government and legal constraints, are held constant. In this article
1/25/22, 11:53 AM Full article: Strategy Formulation, Strategy Content and Performance
https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/14719030802489989 9/59
as the policies of higher tiers of government and legal constraints, are held constant.
In this analysis forty-seven of these service departments are examined in order to
identify whether the relationships between strategy and performance are consistent
with our hypotheses.
Dependent variable
The dependent variable is derived from performance indicators set by Welsh local
authorities' most powerful stakeholder: the National Assembly for Wales, which
provides over eighty percent of their funding. The National Assembly for Wales
Performance Indicators (NAWPIs) are based on common de�nitions and data which
are obtained by councils for the same time period with uniform collection procedures
(National Assembly for Wales 2001). Local authorities in Wales are expected to collect
and collate these data in accordance with the Chartered Institute of Public Finance and
Accountancy ‘Best Value Accounting – Code of Practice’. The �gures are then
independently veri�ed, and the Audit Commission assesses whether ‘the management
systems in place are adequate for producing accurate information’ (National Assembly
for Wales 2001: 14).
The dependent variable is an index drawing upon twenty-nine of the 100 service
delivery NAWPIs available for �nancial year 2002/3 and 2003/4 that focus most closely
on e�ectiveness, examples of which include: the average General Certi�cate in
Secondary Education (GCSE) score, the percentage of rent arrears and the percentage
of welfare bene�t claims processed correctly (see Appendix 1 for the full list). To
standardize the NAWPIs for comparative analysis across di�erent service areas, we
�rst divided each of them by the mean score for Welsh authorities, inverting some (e.g.
the percentage of unquali�ed school-leavers) so scores above the mean always
indicated higher performance. This also allowed di�erent indicators within a service to
be combined to create composite measures of performance. Furthermore, taking
performance as a percentage of the Welsh mean also allows the data for di�erent
services to be pooled, because the measurement process removes service e�ects from
the scores on the indicators (Andrews et al. 2006b). 1 In this article
1/25/22, 11:53 AM Full article: Strategy Formulation, Strategy Content and Performance
https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/14719030802489989 10/59
the scores on the indicators (Andrews et al. 2006b). 1
Independent variables
Data for our measures of strategy were derived from an electronic survey of managers
in Welsh local authorities conducted in 2002. 2 Survey respondents were asked a
series of questions on strategy in their service. For each question, informants placed
their service on a seven-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (disagree with the proposed
statement) to 7 (agree with the proposed statement). Data were collected from
di�erent tiers of management. This ensured that our analysis took account of di�erent
perceptions of strategy within the service departments and overcomes the sample
bias problem associated with surveying informants from one organizational level.
Heads of service and middle managers were selected for the survey because research
has shown that attitudes di�er between hierarchical levels within organizations (Aiken
and Hage 1968; Payne and Mans�eld 1973; Walker and Enticott 2004). These are also
the types of informants who are likely to know most about organizational strategy.
Informants' responses within each service were aggregated to generate service level
data suitable for our analysis. The average score of these was then taken as
representative of that service.
The sampling frame consisted of 198 services and 830 informants in October 2002.
Responses were received from forty-six percent of services (ninety) and twenty-nine
percent of individual informants (237). 3 Some cases could not be matched when we
mapped the independent variables on to the dependent variable, due to missing data
within the NAWPI datasets. As a result, our statistical analysis of the relationship
between strategy formulation, strategy content and performance was �nally
conducted on forty-seven cases, comprising eight education departments, �ve social
services departments, seven housing departments, six highways departments, ten
public protection departments and eleven bene�ts and revenues departments. These
departments are representative of the diverse operating environments faced by Welsh
local authorities, including urban, rural, socio-economically deprived and
predominantly Welsh- or English-speaking areas. In this article
1/25/22, 11:53 AM Full article: Strategy Formulation, Strategy Content and Performance
https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/14719030802489989 11/59
predominantly Welsh or English speaking areas.
We attempted to develop reliable measures by creating indexes – our data permitted
this for all measures bar one. All our measures passed a face validity test in our pilot
survey. This was undertaken with senior managers from four major services in one
local authority. The survey was improved in line with respondents' recommendations
by adding a glossary of terms, including further questions about the nature of services,
and stressing the need for respondents to provide an ‘honest appraisal’. For the
majority of the questions posed we attained concurrent validity by using ‘other
people's measures’.
To explore processes of strategy formulation, informants were asked �ve questions
assessing the extent to which the approach to strategic decision making in their
service followed the principles of rational planning, two questions on logical
incrementalism and one on strategy absence. Table 1 lists these measures, all of which
are drawn from prior studies (Snow and Hrebiniak 1980; Stevens and McGowan 1983;
Miller 1986; Hart and Banbury 1994; Bailey et al. 2000). Our measures of rational
planning sought to capture the use of formal organizational processes to assess
service needs and evaluate strategy options, and the use of precise procedures to
achieve targets. Factor analytic results con�rmed that the data on Welsh local
government services contain one rational planning factor, which explained 65.3
percent of the variance (eigenvalue 3.266). The Cronbach alpha score of .862
demonstrates internal consistency of the factor.
The key characteristics of logical incrementalism are ongoing processes of adjustment
to new circumstances and negotiation with key stakeholders. These concepts were
Table 1: Survey items, means, standard deviations and factor analytic results for measures of strategy formulation
CSV Display Table
In this article
1/25/22, 11:53 AM Full article: Strategy Formulation, Strategy Content and Performance
https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/14719030802489989 12/59
to new circumstances and negotiation with key stakeholders. These concepts were
separately captured in the questions we posed on logical incrementalism. The two
measures loaded onto one factor (eigenvalue 1.427) with a satisfactory reliability
coe�cient (Cronbach alpha .586). 4 Table 2 shows the relevant factor loadings for the
rational planning and logical incrementalism factors, all of which are above 0.5,
indicating that they are important determinants of the variance attributable to the
factors (Hair et al. 1998). Finally, to tap the extent to which there was an absence of
strategy formulation we turned directly to Inkpen and Choudhury's (1995) work and
posed the statement: ‘There is no discernible strategy process’ (mean 2.131).
Our measures of strategy content are listed in Table 2. A prospecting strategy was
operationalized through four measures of innovation and market exploration, as these
are central to Miles and Snow's (1978) de�nition of this orientation. The speci�c
measures are derived from Snow and Hrebiniak (1980) and Stevens and McGowan
(1983). To explore the extent to which Welsh local authorities displayed defending
characteristics, informants were asked three questions assessing whether their
approach to service delivery was focused on core activities and achieving e�ciency
(Snow and Hrebiniak 1980; Stevens and McGowan 1983; Miller 1986). A reacting
strategy means that organizations are largely driven by external rather than internal
forces. We therefore asked our informants �ve questions about the extent to which
their behaviour was determined by external pressures – these measures were again
based on prior work (Snow and Hrebiniak 1980).
Underlying strategic stances among Welsh local government services were revealed by
factor analysing the twelve survey items for all the service departments involved in the
survey. This produced three statistically signi�cant and clear factors that explained
73.3 percent of the variance in those items. These results indicated that the measures
Table 2: Descriptive measures and factor-analytic results of Miles and Snow's strategy archetypes
CSV Display Table
In this article
1/25/22, 11:53 AM Full article: Strategy Formulation, Strategy Content and Performance
https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/14719030802489989 13/59
73.3 percent of the variance in those items. These results indicated that the measures
of prospecting, defending and reacting load on one common factor each. The
eigenvalues for all three factors are high, suggesting that the services sampled in this
study display distinctive strategies. The factor loadings are all above 0.5, indicating that
they are important determinants of the variance explained by the factors (Hair et al.
1998). The reliability of these factors was assessed using Cronbach's alpha coe�cient
of internal consistency based on the average inter-item correlation between the
variables that make up a factor. The prospecting and reacting factors have excellent
Cronbach's alpha scores of .833 and .928 respectively, while the defending factor has
an adequate score of .612 (George and Mallery 2003).
Controls
Public organizations are widely viewed as autoregressive systems that change
incrementally over time (O'Toole and Meier 1999, 2003). This implies that performance
in one period is a strong in�uence on performance in the next. This means that in any
model of public management it is important to control for prior performance. If this is
not done, it is likely that the coe�cients for the variables in the statistical models may
be biased. Another important reason for its inclusion is that past performance
captures the potential e�ects of environmental constraints. The �rst control variable,
prior performance, was constructed in the same way as the dependent variable, and
we entered performance in 2001/2 in our analysis of service standards.
Performance may vary not only because of the characteristics of organizational
strategies, but also because of the �nancial resources expended on services.
Di�erences in spending across services may arise for a variety of reasons (the level of
central government support, the size of the local tax base and departmental shares of
an authority's total budget). At the extreme, a prosperous service in one authority may
be able to buy success while a poor one in another area can a�ord only mediocrity.
Prior research supports the contention that public expenditure levels have a signi�cant
positive impact on performance (Boyne 2003). Expenditure data were drawn from the
2000/1 NAWPIs. 5 To make them suitable for analysis, the service expenditure
indicators were divided by the mean score for Welsh authorities. Aggregated measures In this article
1/25/22, 11:53 AM Full article: Strategy Formulation, Strategy Content and Performance
https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/14719030802489989 14/59
indicators were divided by the mean score for Welsh authorities. Aggregated measures
of expenditure for each service were then created by adding groups of relevant
indicators together and taking the mean. So, for instance, we added together the
scores for four indicators of education expenditure (expenditure per nursery and
primary pupil under 5, expenditure per primary pupil over 5, expenditure per
secondary pupil under 16 and expenditure per secondary pupil over 16) and divided
the aggregate score in each local authority service by the mean score. We then
repeated this method for expenditure indicators in social services, housing, highways,
public protection and bene�ts and revenues, thereby deriving a single measure of
expenditure that is comparable across the six service areas. The indicators used for
our expenditure measure are shown in Appendix 2.
Statistical Results
The results for the statistical tests of strategy formulation and strategy content on
service performance are presented in Table 3. The model, which controls for service
expenditure and past performance, explains over two-thirds of the variation in the
service performance measure and is highly statistically signi�cant. 6
Past performance and service expenditure are both positively associated with service
performance as anticipated. Performance is indeed autoregressive – the relative
success of service departments tends to be stable from one year to the next.
Nevertheless, performance shifts in response to other variables. One of these is
service expenditure, which, as expected, also has a signi�cant positive impact on
service standards.
Table 3: Regression results for strategy formulation, content and public service performance (dependent variable)
CSV Display Table
In this article
1/25/22, 11:53 AM Full article: Strategy Formulation, Strategy Content and Performance
https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/14719030802489989 15/59
service standards.
The statistical results provide mixed results for the hypotheses on strategy formulation
and performance. The coe�cient for the rational planning variable is positive as
anticipated but it is not signi�cant; H1 is therefore rejected. The results for both the
logical incremental and strategy absence variables are statistically signi�cant and
negative. These results support hypotheses H2 and H3, indicating that logical
incrementalism and strategy process absence are detrimental to the achievement of
higher levels of organizational performance. The results provide support for H4 on
strategy content and performance. The coe�cients for prospecting and defending are
statistically signi�cant and have a positive sign. H5 is not supported: while prospecting
out-performs reacting, the coe�cient for defending is also statistically signi�cant and
positive. The results for reacting do not support H6: although the coe�cient on the
reactor variable is negative, it is statistically insigni�cant in this model.
Discussion and Implications
The results of this research imply that strategic management in public organizations
has clear consequences for service performance. This suggests that organizations may
need to consider carefully the ways they make strategies and their content. The results
show that (when we control for strategy content) logical incremental strategy
formulation and an absence of clear strategy processes are harmful for organizational
performance. They also indicate that (when controlling for formulation) there is
support for Miles and Snow's contention that the strategy content approaches of
prospecting and defending are associated with better results.
Strategy formulation
The non-signi�cant result for the rational planning variable is not as hypothesized. As
we noted earlier, other studies have only on balance indicated that rational planning
has a positive e�ect on organizational performance – a number of studies o�er
alternative �ndings. In the model presented in this article we did not explicitly explore In this article
1/25/22, 11:53 AM Full article: Strategy Formulation, Strategy Content and Performance
https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/14719030802489989 16/59
alternative �ndings. In the model presented in this article we did not explicitly explore
variations in di�erent aspects of the external environment, but instead we controlled
for it by the inclusion of our prior performance variable and service expenditure. It is,
however, possible that the extent to which the environment is uncertain, changing or
complex will have a bearing on the impact of planning: the majority of prior research
found that rational planning was more e�ective when the external environment was
unstable (Miller and Friesen 1983; Priem et al. 1995). However, other studies point
towards a positive relationship between stable environments, planning and
performance improvement (e.g. Fredrickson 1984; Capon et al. 1987). Further research
is required to explore the e�ect of di�erent aspects of the external environment on
the relationship between rational planning and performance.
It is also possible that the policy context may be in�uencing the �ndings in this article.
Just prior to our research instrument being distributed to local authorities in Wales, a
service improvement regime called Best Value had been abandoned. This was one of
the �rst examples of policy divergence between England and Wales following
devolution of responsibility for health and local government to the Welsh Assembly
(Andrews et al. 2003). The Best Value regime focused heavily on many of the facets of
rational planning: environmental scanning; collection of data on management
arrangements in other organizations; systematic assessment of internal capacities;
option appraisal; and target setting. This planning regime also included an action plan
that was laden with targets and required an annual process of monitoring and
reporting against achievements (Boyne et al. 2004). Best Value was deeply unpopular
in Welsh local government and many services had stopped implementing the regime
some time prior to its formal abolition in 2001. The Wales Programme for
Improvement replaced it – a regime that placed less emphasis on rational planning. It
is possible that the services surveyed in this research had (or were in the process of)
jettisoning rigorous planning processes. Limitations of research design and context
mean that we are not able to explore these possible contextual reasons for the non-
signi�cant result for rational planning. Though we have run lagged models,
longitudinal studies of the relationship between strategy and service performance will
be able to examine the impacts of changing policy contexts more carefully. Such In this article
1/25/22, 11:53 AM Full article: Strategy Formulation, Strategy Content and Performance
https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/14719030802489989 17/59
be able to examine the impacts of changing policy contexts more carefully. Such
studies could combine quantitative and qualitative methodologies to tease out some
of the more nuanced aspects of strategy in public agencies.
The �ndings on the impact of logical incrementalism on service performance were as
anticipated and con�rm the majority of the evidence on this topic to date. This
suggests that organizations that emphasize the political aspects of strategy making
and continually review decisions are not likely to achieve higher levels of
organizational performance. Organizations operating with broad goals rely upon
complex processes of negotiation with stakeholders and may therefore struggle to
meet the requirements of certain key actors in their environment. This result is likely
to be generalizable beyond the immediate context of Welsh local government. Many
performance management regimes adopted by governments have precise and
accurate targets. This research suggests that logical incremental approaches to
strategy formulation may not enable public organizations to achieve such targets. It is
possible that logical incrementalism may be a more appropriate response to
performance regimes, which are less tightly speci�ed. Research testing the impact of
logical incrementalism on di�erent types of performance measures, indicators and
regimes would provide useful additional information on the consequences of this
approach to strategy formulation.
A perceived absence of strategy processes is also associated with lower levels of
service performance. Inkpen and Choudhury (1995) argue that strategy absence is a
legitimate choice by an organization, but it is not a choice that will produce higher
levels of organizational performance, according to our results. Much of the research
literature identi�es reacting as the ‘lemon’ of strategy content; similarly an absence of
a clear approach to formulation would appear to be the lemon of strategy processes.
The lack of positive �ndings here does, however, beg the question about the types of
strategy formulation that may lead to better service performance. It may be that future
studies should explore alternative and more nuanced approaches to strategy
formulation – including, for example, the symbolic, command and generative types
suggested by Hart (1992) or the cultural, political or enforced choice models proposed In this article
1/25/22, 11:53 AM Full article: Strategy Formulation, Strategy Content and Performance
https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/14719030802489989 18/59
suggested by Hart (1992) or the cultural, political or enforced choice models proposed
and validated by Bailey et al. (2000).
Strategy content
Our evidence suggests that prospecting and defending are associated with higher
levels of performance. These results re�ect the propositions of Miles and Snow (1978)
who argued that prospectors and defenders should outperform reactors. However,
they vary slightly from �ndings reported in other quantitative studies of public
agencies in the UK, which have typically reported a statistically signi�cant and negative
coe�cient for reacting (Andrews et al. 2005, 2006a). Nonetheless, we have again
con�rmed that reacting is not likely to be a successful route to higher levels of service
performance.
Our results show that defending has a positive relationship with organizational
performance. As we noted above, this supports one of Miles and Snow's central
propositions. Other research from studies of private sector �rms has corroborated this
argument (Zahra and Pearce 1990). The results presented here, however, vary from
other studies of multipurpose organizations that have been published (Andrews et al.
2005, 2006a). We believe the variations in these �ndings to be a product of the unit of
analysis; in this article we examine single purpose organizations. Other public sector
studies focusing on single purpose organizations have also identi�ed a positive
relationship between defending and organizational performance. For example, Meier
et al. (2007) undertake a study of strategy content in school education districts in the
USA, and �nd that defending is the strategy most associated with success. Both US
school districts and local government service departments are single purpose
organizations, with a mission based in one policy domain. Similarly, �ndings from
health services research suggest that when a hospital changes to a defender strategy it
has positive consequences for performance (Zajec and Shortell 1989). While these
separate public policy domains are intrinsically complex (for example, social services
are delivered to a wide range of vulnerable groups, such as children, families and the
elderly) they comprise a comparatively limited number of goals when contrasted with
large multipurpose organizations, such as local authorities. Evidence to date In this article
1/25/22, 11:53 AM Full article: Strategy Formulation, Strategy Content and Performance
https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/14719030802489989 19/59
large multipurpose organizations, such as local authorities. Evidence to date
suggesting that defending has a neutral impact on organizational performance has
come from this more complex setting of multipurpose organizations. It is possible to
speculate that the results for defending found here and in the Meier et al. (2007) study
arise from a focus on single purpose organizations. More research is clearly needed to
corroborate this argument.
Positive coe�cients for prospecting and defending suggest we may have uncovered
evidence for the in�uence of a strategy of analysing on organizational performance.
Analysers combine characteristics of both defenders and prospectors (Miles and Snow
1978: 29). Additional research could examine the extent to which public organizations
simultaneously take risks and innovate (prospecting) while focusing upon their core
business (defending).
Conclusion
The evidence in this article leads us to conclude that strategic management has rightly
been singled out as one of the critical areas of public management research. In this
article, we have provided a more comprehensive assessment of the strategic
determinants of organizational performance by considering formulation and content
in one model. Further research is required to con�rm whether the �ndings reported
here hold in other national, institutional and organizational contexts. Other aspects of
the impact of strategic management clearly remain to be investigated. What are the
performance e�ects of di�erent combinations of strategy formulation and content?
For example, does prospecting work best when it is combined with rational or
incremental processes? Also, what are the consequences of di�erent approaches to
strategy implementation, and is performance enhanced if formulation and
implementation processes ‘�t’ with each other? For the present, however, our
empirical evidence suggests that both strategy processes and strategy content make a
di�erence to the performance of public organizations. In this article
1/25/22, 11:53 AM Full article: Strategy Formulation, Strategy Content and Performance
https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/14719030802489989 20/59
di�erence to the performance of public organizations.
Acknowledgement
The research reported in this article was funded by the ESRC under grant R000239249.
Notes
1 Skewness tests revealed that the performance score for 2002/3 was not normally
distributed (test result of –2.868). Log transformation of a variable is the standard
technique for reducing the e�ect of positive skew. To correct for negative skew it is
usual to square-transform a variable (Field 2005). Thus a squared version of our auto-
regressive term was used in the statistical analysis.
2 E-mail addresses were collected from participating authorities and questionnaires
were delivered as an Excel �le attached to an e-mail. The electronic questionnaires
were self-coding and converted to SPSS format for analysis.
3 Time-trend extrapolation tests for non-respondent bias (Armstrong and Overton
1977) revealed no signi�cant di�erences in the views of early and late respondents.
4 A Cronbach alpha of .60 is usually considered adequate to con�rm internal
consistency. However, for new scales and those with a small number of items, a lower
alpha is permissible (see for example, Nunnally 1978), and such measures have been
used in public management research (e.g. Damanpour and Schneider 2006; Pandey
and Garnett 2006).
5 Coverage of service expenditure data is less comprehensive in the NAWPIs following
this year. Research has shown that relative levels of spending in local authority
departments vary little year on year (Danziger 1978; Sharpe and Newton 1984). In this article
1/25/22, 11:53 AM Full article: Strategy Formulation, Strategy Content and Performance
https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/14719030802489989 21/59
6 The average Variance In�ation Factor (VIF) score is less than 2 for all the independent
variables. The results are therefore not distorted by multicollinearity (Bowerman and
O'Connell 1990).
References
1. Aiken, M. and Hage, J. 1968. Organizational Interdependence and Intra-
Organizational Structure. American Sociological Review, 33(4): 912–930.
[Google Scholar]
2. Amburgey, T. L., Kelly, D. and Barnett, W. P. 1990. Resetting the Clock: The Dynamics
of Organizational Change and Failure. Administrative Science Quarterly, 38(1): 51–73.
[Google Scholar]
3. Andrews, R., Boyne, G. A., Law, J. and Walker, R. M. 2003. Myths, Measures and
Modernisation: A Comparative Analysis of Local Authority Performance in England
and Wales. Local Government Studies, 29(4): 54–78.
[Taylor & Francis Online], [Web of Science ®], [Google Scholar]
4. Andrews, R., Boyne, G. A., Meier, K. J., O'Toole, L. J. Jr and Walker, R. M. 2005.
Representative Bureaucracy, Organizational Strategy, and Public Service
Performance: An Empirical Analysis of English Local Government. Journal of Public
Administration Research and Theory, 15(3): 489–504. [Crossref], [Google Scholar]
5. Andrews, R., Boyne, G. A. and Walker, R. M. 2006a. Strategy Content and
Organizational Performance: An Empirical Analysis. Public Administration Review,
66(1): 52–63. [Crossref], [Web of Science ®], [Google Scholar] In this article
1/25/22, 11:53 AM Full article: Strategy Formulation, Strategy Content and Performance
https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/14719030802489989 22/59
6. Andrews, R., Boyne, G. A. and Walker, R. M. 2006b. “‘Subjective and Objective
Measures of Organizational Performance: An Empirical Exploration’”. In Public Service
Performance: Perspectives on Measurement and Management, Edited by: Boyne, G. A.,
Meier, K. J., O'Toole, L. J. and Walker, R. M. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
[Google Scholar]
7. Armstrong, S. and Overton, T. S. 1977. Estimating Non-Response Bias in Mail
Surveys. Journal of Marketing, 14(3): 396–402. [Crossref], [Web of Science ®],
[Google Scholar]
8. Audit Commission. 2001. 2000/2001 Local Authority Performance Indicators in England
and Wales, London: HMSO. [Google Scholar]
9. Bailey, A., Johnson, G. and Daniels, K. 2000. Validation of a Multi-Dimensional
Measure of Strategy Development Processes. British Journal of Management, 11(1):
151–162. [Google Scholar]
10. Bowerman, B. L. and O'Connell, R. T. 1990. Linear Statistical Models: An Applied
Approach , (2 edn), Belmont, CA: Duxbury. [Google Scholar]
11. Boyne, G. A. 2001. Planning, Performance and Public Services. Public Administration,
79(1): 73–88. [Crossref], [Web of Science ®], [Google Scholar]
12. Boyne, G. A. 2003. Sources of Public Service Improvement: A Critical Review and
Research Agenda. Journal of Public Administration Research and Theory, 13(3): 367–
394. [Crossref], [Web of Science ®], [Google Scholar]
13. Boyne, G. A. and Gould-Williams, J. S. 2003. Strategic Planning and the Performance
of Public Organizations: An Empirical Analysis. Public Management Review, 5(1): 115–
nd
In this article
1/25/22, 11:53 AM Full article: Strategy Formulation, Strategy Content and Performance
https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/14719030802489989 23/59
of Public Organizations: An Empirical Analysis. Public Management Review, 5(1): 115
132. [Taylor & Francis Online], [Google Scholar]
14. Boyne, G. A., Gould-Williams, J. S., Law, J. and Walker, R. M. 2004. Problems of
Rational Planning in Public Organisations: An Empirical Assessment of the
Conventional Wisdom. Administration and Society, 36(3): 328–350.
[Crossref], [Web of Science ®], [Google Scholar]
15. Boyne, G. A., Martin, S. J. and Walker, R. M. 2004. Explicit Reforms, Implicit Theories
and Public Service Improvement. Public Management Review, 6(2): 189–210.
[Taylor & Francis Online], [Google Scholar]
16. Boyne G. A. Meier K. J. O'Toole L. J. Jr Walker R. M. 2006 Public Service Performance:
Perspectives on Measurement and Management Cambridge Cambridge University
Press [Crossref], [Google Scholar]
17. Boyne, G. A. and Walker, R. M. 2004. Strategy Content and Public Service
Organizations. Journal of Public Administration Research and Theory, 14(2): 231–252.
[Crossref], [Web of Science ®], [Google Scholar]
18. Conant, J. S., Mokwa, M. P. and Varadarajan, P. R. 1990. Strategic Types, Distinctive
Marketing Competencies and Organizational Performance: A Multiple Measures-
Based Study. Strategic Management Journal, 11(4): 365–383. [Google Scholar]
19. Capon, N., Farley, J. and Hulbert, J. 1987. Corporate Strategic Planning, New York:
Columbia University Press. [Google Scholar]
20. Crittenden, W., Crittenden, V. and Hunt, T. 1988. Planning and Stakeholder
Satisfaction in Religious Organization. Journal of Voluntary Action Research, 17(1): 60–
73. [Google Scholar] In this article
1/25/22, 11:53 AM Full article: Strategy Formulation, Strategy Content and Performance
https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/14719030802489989 24/59
21. Damanpour, F. and Schneider, M. 2006. Phases of Adoption of Innovation in
Organizations: E�ects of Environmental, Organizational and Top Managers. British
Journal of Management, 17(3): 215–236. [Crossref], [Web of Science ®],
[Google Scholar]
22. Danziger, J. 1978. Making Budgets, London: Sage. [Google Scholar]
23. Dean, J. W. and Sharfman, M. P. 1996. Does Decision Process Matter? A Study of
Strategic Decision Making E�ectiveness. Academy of Management Journal, 39(4): 368–
396. [Google Scholar]
24. Dror, Y. 1973. Public Policy Making Re-Examined, Bedfordshire: Leonard Hill.
[Google Scholar]
25. Eisenhardt, K. M. and Bourgeois, L. J. I. 1988. Politics of Strategy Decision Making in
High-Velocity Environments: Towards a Midrange Theory. Academy of Management
Journal, 31(4): 737–770. [Crossref], [Web of Science ®], [Google Scholar]
26. Elbanna, S. 2006. Strategic Decision-Making: Process Perspectives. International
Journal of Management Reviews, 8(1): 1–20. [Crossref], [Web of Science ®],
[Google Scholar]
27. Enticott, G. and Walker, R. M. forthcoming. Sustainability, Performance and
Organizational Strategy: An Empirical Analysis of Public Organizations. Business
Strategy and the Environment, [Google Scholar]
28. Evans, J. D. and Green, C. L. 2000. Marketing Strategy, Constituent In�uence, and
Resource Allocation: An Application of the Miles and Snow Typology to Closely Held
Firms in Chapter 11 Bankruptcy. Journal of Business Research, 50(2): 2225–2231.
[Google Scholar] In this article
1/25/22, 11:53 AM Full article: Strategy Formulation, Strategy Content and Performance
https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/14719030802489989 25/59
[Google Scholar]
29. Field, A. 2005. Discovering Statistics Using SPSS , (2 edn), London: Sage.
[Google Scholar]
30. Fredrickson, J. 1984. The Comprehensiveness of Strategic Decision Processes.
Academy of Management Journal, 27(3): 445–466. [Crossref], [Web of Science ®],
[Google Scholar]
31. George, D. and Mallery, P. 2003. SPSS for Windows Step by Step: A Simple Guide and
Reference, 11.0 update (4 edn), Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon. [Google Scholar]
32. Hambrick, D. C. 1983. Some Tests of the E�ectiveness and Functional Attributes of
Miles and Snow's Strategic Types. Academy of Management Journal, 26(1): 5–26.
[Crossref], [PubMed], [Web of Science ®], [Google Scholar]
33. Hair, J. F. Jr, Anderson, R. E., Tatham, R. L. and Black, W. C. 1998. Multivariate Data
Analysis , (5 edn), Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall. [Google Scholar]
34. Hart, S. 1992. An Integrated Framework for Strategy-Making Processes. Academy of
Management Review, 17(2): 327–351. [Web of Science ®], [Google Scholar]
35. Hart, S. and Banbury, C. 1994. How Strategy-Making Processes Can Make a
Di�erence. Strategic Management Journal, 15(3): 251–269. [Crossref],
[Google Scholar]
36. Hawes, J. M. and Crittenden, W. F. 1984. A Taxonomy of Competitive Retailing
Strategies. Strategic Management Journal, 5(3): 275–287.
[Crossref], [Web of Science ®], [Google Scholar]
37. Inkpen, A. and Choudhury, N. 1995. The Seeking of Strategy Where It Is Not:
Towards a Theory of Strategy Absence. Strategic Management Journal, 16(4): 313–323.
nd
th
th
In this article
1/25/22, 11:53 AM Full article: Strategy Formulation, Strategy Content and Performance
https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/14719030802489989 26/59
Towards a Theory of Strategy Absence. Strategic Management Journal, 16(4): 313 323.
[Crossref], [Web of Science ®], [Google Scholar]
38. Joyce, P. 1999. Strategic Management for the Public Services, Buckingham: Open
University Press. [Google Scholar]
39. Ketchen, D. J. Jr, Thomas, J. B. and McDaniel, R. R. Jr. 1996. Process, Content and
Context: Synergistic E�ects on Organizational Performance. Journal of Management,
22(2): 231–257. [Crossref], [Web of Science ®], [Google Scholar]
40. Meier, K. J., O'Toole, L. J. Jr, Boyne, G. A. and Walker, R. M. 2007. Strategic
Management and Organizational Performance: Venerable Ideas and New Theories.
Journal of Public Administration Research and Theory, 17(3): 357–377.
[Crossref], [Web of Science ®], [Google Scholar]
41. Miles, R. E. and Snow, C. C. 1978. Organizational Strategy, Structure and Process, New
York: McGraw-Hill. [Google Scholar]
42. Miller, D. 1986. Con�gurations of Strategy and Structure: Towards a Synthesis.
Strategic Management Journal, 7(3): 233–249. [Crossref], [Web of Science ®],
[Google Scholar]
43. Miller, D. and Friesen, P. H. 1983. Strategy Making and Environment: The Third Link.
Strategic Management Journal, 4(3): 221–235. [Web of Science ®], [Google Scholar]
44. Mintzberg, H. 1994. The Rise and Fall of Strategic Planning, New York: Prentice-Hall.
[Google Scholar]
45. Moore, M. H. 1995. Creating Public Value: Strategic Management in Government,
Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. [Google Scholar] In this article
1/25/22, 11:53 AM Full article: Strategy Formulation, Strategy Content and Performance
https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/14719030802489989 27/59
Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. [Google Scholar]
46. National Assembly for Wales. 2001. Circular 8/2001, Local Government Act: Guidance
on Best Value Performance Indicators 2001–2002, Cardi�: National Assembly.
[Google Scholar]
47. Nunnally, J. C. 1978. Psychometric Theory, New York: McGraw-Hill. [Google Scholar]
48. Odom, R. and Boxx, W. 1988. Environment, Planning Processes and Organizational
Performance of Churches. Strategic Management Journal, 9(2): 197–205.
[Google Scholar]
49. O�ce of Public Service Reform. 2002. Reforming Our Public Services: Principles into
Practice, London: O�ce of Public Service Reform. [Google Scholar]
50. O�ce of Public Service Reform. 2003. Leading from the Front-Line, London: O�ce of
Public Service Reform. [Google Scholar]
51. O'Toole, L. J. Jr and Meier, K. J. 1999. Modelling the Impact of Public Management:
Implications of Structural Context. Journal of Public Administration Research and
Theory, 9(4): 505–526. [Crossref], [Google Scholar]
52. O'Toole, L. J. Jr and Meier, K. J. 2003. Plus ça Change: Public Management, Personnel
Stability, and Organizational Performance. Journal of Public Administration Research
and Theory, 13(1): 43–64. [Crossref], [Web of Science ®], [Google Scholar]
53. Pandey, S. K. and Garnett, J. L. 2006. Exploring Public Communications Performance:
Testing a Model and Drawing Implications. Public Administration Review, 66(1): 37–51.
[Crossref], [Web of Science ®], [Google Scholar]
54. Payne, R. and Mans�eld, R. 1973. Relationships of Perception of Organizational
Climate to Organizational Structure, Context and Hierarchical Position. Administrative In this article
1/25/22, 11:53 AM Full article: Strategy Formulation, Strategy Content and Performance
https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/14719030802489989 28/59
Climate to Organizational Structure, Context and Hierarchical Position. Administrative
Science Quarterly, 18(3): 515–526. [Google Scholar]
55. Pollitt, C. and Bouckaert, G. 2004. Public Management Reform, Oxford: Oxford
University Press. [Google Scholar]
56. Priem, R., Rasheed, A. and Kotulic, A. 1995. Rationality in Strategic Decision
Processes, Environmental Dynamism and Firm Performance. Journal of Management,
21(6): 913–929. [Google Scholar]
57. Quinn, J. 1980. Logical Incrementalism, Homewood, IL: Richard D. Irwin.
[Google Scholar]
58. Rubin, M. 1988. “‘Sagas, Ventures, Quests and Parlays: A Typology of Strategies in
the Public Sector’”. In Strategic Planning, Edited by: Bryson, J. and Einsweiler, R.
Chicago, IL: Planners Press. [Google Scholar]
59. Sharpe, J. and Newton, K. 1984. Does Politics Matter?, Oxford: Clarendon.
[Google Scholar]
60. Shortell, S. M. and Zajac, E. J. 1990. Perceptual and Archival Measures of Miles and
Snow's Strategic Types: A Comprehensive Assessment of Reliability and Validity.
Academy of Management Journal, 33(5): 817–832. [Google Scholar]
61. Siciliano, J. 1997. The Relationship between Formal Planning and Performance in
Nonpro�t Organizations. Nonpro�t Management and Leadership, 7(4): 387–403.
[Crossref], [Google Scholar]
62. Snow, C. C. and Hrebiniak, L. G. 1980. Strategy, Distinctive Competence, and
Organizational Performance. Administrative Science Quarterly, 25(2): 317–336. In this article
1/25/22, 11:53 AM Full article: Strategy Formulation, Strategy Content and Performance
https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/14719030802489989 29/59
Organizational Performance. Administrative Science Quarterly, 25(2): 317 336.
[Crossref], [Web of Science ®], [Google Scholar]
63. Stevens, J. M. and McGowan, R. P. 1983. Managerial Strategies in Municipal
Government Organizations. Academy of Management Journal, 26(3): 527–534.
[Crossref], [Web of Science ®], [Google Scholar]
64. Walker, R. M. and Boyne, G. A. 2006. Public Management Reform and Organizational
Performance: An Empirical Assessment of the U.K. Labour Government's Service
Improvement Strategy. Journal of Policy Analysis and Management, 25(2): 371–393.
[Crossref], [Web of Science ®], [Google Scholar]
65. Walker, R. M. and Enticott, G. 2004. Using Multiple Informants in Public
Administration: Revisiting the Managerial Values and Actions Debate. Journal of
Public Administration Research and Theory, 14(3): 417–434.
[Crossref], [Web of Science ®], [Google Scholar]
66. Woodside, A. G., Sullivan, D. P. and Trappey, R. J. 1999. Assessing Relationships
among Strategic Types, Distinctive Marketing Competencies, and Organizational
Performance. Journal of Business Research, 45(1): 135–146. [Google Scholar]
67. Zahra, S. A. and Pearce, J. A. 1990. Research Evidence on the Miles–Snow Typology.
Journal of Management, 16(4): 751–758. [Crossref], [Web of Science ®],
[Google Scholar]
68. Zajac, E. J. and Shortell, S. M. 1989. Changing Generic Strategies: Likelihood,
Direction and Performance Implications. Strategic Management Journal, 10(5): 413–
430. [Crossref], [Web of Science ®], [Google Scholar]
Appendix 1: Service performance measures 2001–3
In this article
1/25/22, 11:53 AM Full article: Strategy Formulation, Strategy Content and Performance
https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/14719030802489989 30/59
CSV Display Table
Appendix 2: Service expenditure measures 2000–1
CSV Display Table
Related research
Recommended articles Cited by 82
Getting strategic about strategic planning research
John M. Bryson et al. Public Management Review Published online: 15 Feb 2017
Strategic Management in the Public Sector: How Tools Enable and Constrain Strategy Making
Linda Höglund et al. International Public Management Journal Published online: 1 Mar 2018
Understanding Strategic Planning and the Formulation and Implementation of Strategic Plans as a Way of Knowing: The Contributions of Actor-Network Theory
John M. Bryson et al. International Public Management Journal Published online: 19 May 2009
View more
People also read
In this article
1/25/22, 11:53 AM Full article: Strategy Formulation, Strategy Content and Performance
https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/14719030802489989 31/59
View more
In this article
1/25/22, 11:53 AM Full article: Strategy Formulation, Strategy Content and Performance
https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/14719030802489989 32/59
In this article
1/25/22, 11:53 AM Full article: Strategy Formulation, Strategy Content and Performance
https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/14719030802489989 33/59
In this article
1/25/22, 11:53 AM Full article: Strategy Formulation, Strategy Content and Performance
https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/14719030802489989 34/59
In this article
1/25/22, 11:53 AM Full article: Strategy Formulation, Strategy Content and Performance
https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/14719030802489989 35/59
In this article
1/25/22, 11:53 AM Full article: Strategy Formulation, Strategy Content and Performance
https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/14719030802489989 36/59
In this article
1/25/22, 11:53 AM Full article: Strategy Formulation, Strategy Content and Performance
https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/14719030802489989 37/59
In this article
1/25/22, 11:53 AM Full article: Strategy Formulation, Strategy Content and Performance
https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/14719030802489989 38/59
In this article
1/25/22, 11:53 AM Full article: Strategy Formulation, Strategy Content and Performance
https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/14719030802489989 39/59
In this article
1/25/22, 11:53 AM Full article: Strategy Formulation, Strategy Content and Performance
https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/14719030802489989 40/59
In this article
1/25/22, 11:53 AM Full article: Strategy Formulation, Strategy Content and Performance
https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/14719030802489989 41/59
In this article
1/25/22, 11:53 AM Full article: Strategy Formulation, Strategy Content and Performance
https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/14719030802489989 42/59
In this article
1/25/22, 11:53 AM Full article: Strategy Formulation, Strategy Content and Performance
https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/14719030802489989 43/59
In this article
1/25/22, 11:53 AM Full article: Strategy Formulation, Strategy Content and Performance
https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/14719030802489989 44/59
In this article
1/25/22, 11:53 AM Full article: Strategy Formulation, Strategy Content and Performance
https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/14719030802489989 45/59
In this article
1/25/22, 11:53 AM Full article: Strategy Formulation, Strategy Content and Performance
https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/14719030802489989 46/59
In this article
1/25/22, 11:53 AM Full article: Strategy Formulation, Strategy Content and Performance
https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/14719030802489989 47/59
In this article
1/25/22, 11:53 AM Full article: Strategy Formulation, Strategy Content and Performance
https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/14719030802489989 48/59
In this article
1/25/22, 11:53 AM Full article: Strategy Formulation, Strategy Content and Performance
https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/14719030802489989 49/59
In this article
1/25/22, 11:53 AM Full article: Strategy Formulation, Strategy Content and Performance
https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/14719030802489989 50/59
In this article
1/25/22, 11:53 AM Full article: Strategy Formulation, Strategy Content and Performance
https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/14719030802489989 51/59
In this article
1/25/22, 11:53 AM Full article: Strategy Formulation, Strategy Content and Performance
https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/14719030802489989 52/59
In this article
1/25/22, 11:53 AM Full article: Strategy Formulation, Strategy Content and Performance
https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/14719030802489989 53/59
In this article
1/25/22, 11:53 AM Full article: Strategy Formulation, Strategy Content and Performance
https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/14719030802489989 54/59
In this article
1/25/22, 11:53 AM Full article: Strategy Formulation, Strategy Content and Performance
https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/14719030802489989 55/59
In this article
1/25/22, 11:53 AM Full article: Strategy Formulation, Strategy Content and Performance
https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/14719030802489989 56/59
In this article
1/25/22, 11:53 AM Full article: Strategy Formulation, Strategy Content and Performance
https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/14719030802489989 57/59
In this article
1/25/22, 11:53 AM Full article: Strategy Formulation, Strategy Content and Performance
https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/14719030802489989 58/59
In this article
1/25/22, 11:53 AM Full article: Strategy Formulation, Strategy Content and Performance
https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/14719030802489989 59/59
Information for
Authors
Corporate partners
Editors
Librarians
Societies
Open access
Overview
Open journals
Open Select
Dove Medical Press
F1000Research
Opportunities
Reprints and e-prints
Advertising solutions
Accelerated publication
Corporate access solutions
Help and information
Help and contact
Newsroom
All journals
Books
Sign me up
Keep up to date
Register to receive personalised research and resources by email
Copyright © 2022 Informa UK Limited Privacy policy Cookies Terms & conditions
Accessibility
Registered in England & Wales No. 3099067 5 Howick Place | London | SW1P 1WG
In this article
