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Leadership in Desperate Times: An Analysis of Endurance: Shackleton’s Incredible Voyage through the Lens of Leadership Theory

Blair W. Browning

The problem and the solution. Ernest Shackleton led a crew on the Endurance that would attempt to be the first group of individuals to cross the Antarctic continent overland. Only one day’s sail away from the land, the Endurance became “iced in” and eventually sank, leaving the men with limited supplies. Shackleton’s new goal quickly became getting every man home alive. Alfred Lansing’s account of this amazing story, Endurance: Shackleton’s Incredible Voyage, shows actual photographs and utilizes vivid accounts from different crew members’ journals. Shackleton’s leadership is viewed as nothing short of spectacular during this journey, and this article highlights three leadership approaches/ theories he displayed in this remarkable story: the skills and the style approaches and the contingency theory. Finally, this article offers various exercises and teaching tools that may aid instructors as they use this story in the classroom.

Keywords: Shackleton; Endurance; leadership; skills approach; style approach; contingency theory

“For scientific leadership give me Scott; for swift and efficient travel, Amundsen; but when you are in a hopeless situation, when there seems no way out, get down on your knees and pray for Shackleton.”

Alfred Lansing (2002, p. 14)

Exemplars of strong leadership are in constant demand and are quickly written up and described in various forms and forums in modern culture. However, it would be naive to believe that these excellent examples of leadership can only come from the current day. Recently, there has been a renewed examination in both the academic and practitioner worlds of a story from early in the 20th century that points to one of the most amazing examples of leadership that the

world has experienced: Sir Ernest Shackleton and his voyage on the Endurance.

There have been multiple books and movies (including a recent IMAX film) that have told the story of Shackleton; this article focuses on Alfred Lansing’s epic account of the 1914-1916 Imperial Trans-Antarctic Expedition, entitled Endurance: Shackleton’s Incredible Voyage. This article utilizes this nonfiction piece of literature as an example of how one can teach or facilitate discussions about leadership theory using a historical event re-created through this text as a means to further our understanding of this pertinent aspect of organizational life.

This article provides a brief synopsis of the account that Shackleton and his men experienced but trusts that those reading it will have also read the book. Thus, details are provided but certainly not an in-depth, conclusive report of the book. The article provides learning opportunities as certain leadership theories/approaches are highlighted in conjunction with accounts from Endurance. In order to provide some practical steps for teachers and/or facil- itators, this article concludes with a table summarizing some potential activi- ties that can be utilized in conjunction with this nonfiction book in order to further our understanding of leadership.

Endurance is a remarkable real-life story of heroic leadership and unre- lenting perseverance through seemingly impossible odds. The 27-man crew of the Endurance, led by the famous British explorer Sir Ernest Shackleton, came to brilliantly exemplify the character reflected in the ship’s very name. The goal of the men on the Endurance was to be the first individuals to ever cross the Antarctic continent overland from west to east. However, as temperatures dropped, the Endurance froze and the men were shipwrecked in the vicious Antarctic with little hope of survival. Shackleton refused to allow his men to give up hope, even after the Endurance sank and they were left to riding ice floes and their small lifeboats. Rather, he led them effectively through a try- ing, perilous quest for survival, ultimately succeeding and leading them home despite facing nearly every hindrance imaginable. Upon the British crew’s arrival in Germany at the peak of World War I, they received a hero’s welcome despite their nationality, due to the awe the Germans felt at the unbelievable feat of surviving and returning home.

“Succeeding” may be a peculiar way to frame the expedition since it actu- ally failed, if measured solely by its stated goals. At a minimum, however, it must be considered an extremely successful failure. Shackleton’s crew never experienced the goal of the expedition—to actually cross the Antarctic overland—but through their unfortunate encounters in their journey one is able to see how Shackleton led his crew. Many of the men kept journals that recorded many uncertain encounters that allow us to vividly experience Shackleton’s leadership in action. His leadership would be tested throughout the journey in every context and situation imaginable, and some unimaginable, but he always came through as a shining example.

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Although there are many leadership theories and approaches that can be informed by this book, this article specifically teases out three leadership approaches or theories illustrated through this riveting story: the skills approach, the style approach, and the contingency theory. The skills approach was selected because it is a leader-centered approach and the primary focus of this book is on Shackleton’s ability to lead his men. Further, the book emphasizes technical and human skills that are not simply innate characteristics, such as personality; these skills can be learned and developed. Shackleton came by his skills through his past experience; part of the reason the men respected him so much was due to his superior knowledge. The style approach was selected because it emphasizes the behavior of the leader toward both tasks and inter- personal relationships. Shackleton frequently led his men by example, resolved interpersonal conflicts among the crew, and tackled the insurmountable task of survival—making the style approach a natural fit with this historic account. Finally, the contingency theory was selected because it attempts to match leaders to appropriate situations. The leader’s effectiveness is, in essence, how well the leader’s style fits the context. The unforeseen events that took place during this expedition would have caused a lesser person to stumble, but Shackleton’s style fit the unknown context— primarily because of his skills and his style. As a result, though there are many theories and approaches that could be highlighted, the skills and style approaches and contingency theory stood out as providing excellent material from which to examine this work of nonfiction.

The Leadership Link In order to understand the magnitude of this journey, Lansing (2002) noted,

“After Shackleton’s failure, the crossing of the continent remained untried [emphasis added] for fully forty-three years—until 1957-1958 . . . Even Fuchs (leader of that expedition), though his party was equipped with heated, tracked vehicles and powerful radios, and guided by reconnaissance planes and dog teams, was strongly urged to give up” (p. 9). Shackleton and his men obviously did not have these luxuries, which makes the story that much more intriguing. It was imperative that Shackleton had skills that would be necessary to not only succeed under optimal circumstances but also help in a treacherous situation.

Skills Approach

As mentioned above, the skills approach focuses on the competencies that a leader possesses and recognizes that these leadership skills are able to be learned. Mumford, Zaccaro, Harding, Jacobs, and Fleishman (2000) devel- oped a skills model of leadership that focuses on these competencies. However, Katz (1955) provided the impetus for examining leadership skills. Traditionally, leadership had been examined from a trait perspective or one that studied solely the leader’s personality. Katz believed leadership depended

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on three basic personal skills: technical, human, and conceptual, which were skills that were different from those that other leadership theories studied.

Katz (1955) stated, “Skills imply what leaders can accomplish whereas traits imply who leaders are” (as cited in Northouse, 2004, p. 36). Shackleton was obviously skilled in a specific, technical area and had been on the seas most of his life. One South Pole Web site noted:

Longing for the sea, Ernest at the age of sixteen in 1890 went to Liverpool and joined the full rigger Hoghton Tower, which would make up Ernest’s first experience at sea. Shackleton went on to spend five years sailing to and from the Far East and America. In 1896, without much difficulty, Shackleton passed for First Mate. In April 1898, he was certified as Master. At the age of twenty-four [emphasis added] he had qualified to command a British ship anywhere on the seven seas. (South-Pole.com)

There is certainly no argument that Shackleton possessed the technical skill necessary to command the Endurance, but an interesting note is that technical skills are typically less important the higher one’s position. However, in Shackleton’s case, his technical skills, as well as those of the crew that he hand selected, were of vital importance. Due to the hands-on nature of command- ing a ship and particularly as a result of the trials that lay ahead, Shackleton’s technical skills proved invaluable. Many individuals possess either technical or human skill, which are quite different from one another; Shackleton seemed to exude both.

Katz (1955) stated, “Human skill is having knowledge about and being able to work with people. It is quite different from technical skill, which has to do with working with things” (as cited in Northouse, 2004, p. 37). Northouse (2004) continued, “To be a leader with human skills means being sensitive to the needs and motivations of others, and taking into account others’ needs in one’s decision making” (p. 37). This process of being able to both lead people and yet also work alongside them is a struggle for some leaders, as many leaders today enjoy the hierarchical separation between themselves and lower- level employees. This separation was nonexistent for Shackleton, who lived, ate, slept, and worked up close with his “employees” on a daily basis.

Shackleton walked this delicate tightrope of being friendly with the crew while at the same time acknowledging his position as their superior. To the men, “he was addressed simply as ‘Boss’—by officers, scientists, and seamen alike. It was really more a title than a nickname. It had a pleasant ring of famil- iarity about it, but at the same time ‘Boss’ had the connotation of absolute authority” (Lansing, 2002, pp. 85-86). Shackleton was unafraid to seek coun- sel from a few of the men that he had past expedition history with, but in the end the decision making was done by him alone. However, those decisions always prioritized the crew’s well-being rather than what was simply best for him. For example, he recognized that Hurley “was also the sort of man who responded best to flattery” (Lansing, 2002, p. 73). Being aware of details like this enabled Shackleton to somewhat cater to these needs. At one point he even assigned Hurley to his own tent, “which appealed to Hurley’s snobbishness

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and also minimized his opportunities for gathering other latent malcontents around himself ” (p. 73). This episode reflects just one story of how Shackleton utilized the human skill portion of this approach. He frequently displayed an uncanny understanding of his men and what made them tick.

Another example regarding tent assignments was the fact that in addition to Hurley, Shackleton also put himself in a tent with Hudson and James. Lansing (2002) noted,

Hudson was just as he had always been, simple and a little irritating. His attempts at humor were often more foolish than funny because he lacked perception . . . he was quite self- centered and a poor listener. . . . Shackleton was not at all fond of Hudson, but he preferred putting up with him to inflicting him on others. (p. 74)

As one in charge, Shackleton could have very easily moved Hudson in with someone else because there were certainly enough things to be thinking about without being further bothered by a tent-mate. However, Shackleton never dis- counted the possibility of discontent or anger spreading among the other men. He wanted to either immediately defuse discontent as it arose or, as in this case, never give it a chance to spread in the first place by having Hudson within his own tent.

The third skill necessary for leaders within this approach are conceptual skills, which are believed to be vital for those in top management positions. Northouse (2004) stated that “conceptual skills involve the ability to work with ideas. . . . A leader with conceptual skills works easily with abstractions and hypothetical notions” (p. 36). There are numerous events that describe Shackleton being forced to deal not only with what had happened but also with what might happen, which shows his ability to exemplify these conceptual skills.

At one point on the journey, Shackleton called everyone together and explained that all excess weight had to be left behind, excluding two pounds of personal gear. Other than a few exceptions, such as the men who wanted to keep their journals, this was a strict policy and Shackleton provided leadership in action.

Speaking with the utmost conviction, Shackleton pointed out that no article was of any value when weighed against their ultimate survival, and he exhorted them to be ruthless of its value. After he had spoken, he reached under his parka and took out a gold cigarette case and several gold sov- ereigns and threw them into the snow at his feet. Then he opened the Bible Queen Alexandra had given them and ripped out the flyleaf and the page containing the Twenty-third Psalm. . . . Then he laid the Bible in the snow and walked away. It was a dramatic gesture, but that was the way Shackleton wanted it. From studying the outcome of past expeditions, he believed that those that burdened themselves with equipment to meet every contingency had fared much worse than those that had sacrificed total preparedness for speed. (Lansing, 2002, pp. 64-65)

Through Shackleton’s study of past expeditions, he understood that they would face challenges that they had not expected, and he was prepared to deal with the unknown. While it is impossible to prepare for every contingency, the men knew that Shackleton had wrestled with many of them in his mind before they had departed due to both his study of others’ expeditions and his knowledge that he had acquired through more than two decades of experience.

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Northouse (2004) noted, “The [skills] model is characterized as a capabil- ity model because it examines the relationship between a leader’s knowledge and skills (i.e., capabilities) and the leader’s performance. Leadership capabil- ities can be developed over time through education and experience” (p. 39). Table 1 summarizes some examples of how this work of nonfiction highlights the skills approach. Since there is a strong human element to the skills approach, it provides a nice segue into another approach that should be exam- ined within the context of this journey—the style approach.

Style Approach

Whereas the skills approach concerns a leader’s capabilities, the style approach focuses on what leaders do and how they act. Hackman and Johnson (2004) noted that “styles can be pared down to two primary models of communication: one model compares authoritarian, democratic, and laissez- faire styles of leadership communication; a second model contrasts task and interpersonal leadership communication” (p. 36). The style approach focuses on behavior and explains how leaders combine task and relationship behaviors to influence subordinates in their efforts to reach a goal. Due to the volume of literature, this section of the article focuses on one of the most prominently used models within the style approach. Blake and Mouton (1964) initially

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TABLE 1: Skills Approach as Identified through Endurance

Skills Approach as Defined by Katz (1955) Example from Endurance Text

Technical Skills: Knowledge and profi- Shackleton was certified as Master ciency in a specific type of work at age 22, and was qualified to or activity. Competencies in use command any British ship anywhere of appropriate tools or techniques. by age 24.

Human Skills: Knowledge about and Shackleton realized that Hurley responded being able to work with people. to flattery and was a bit of a malcontent. Working effectively with Thus, Shackleton shared his own tent subordinates, peers, and superiors with Hurley to both appeal to Hurley’s to successfully accomplish goals. snobbishness and to keep him away

from others where opportunities to spread discontent existed.

Conceptual Skills: Ability to work with Shackleton believed that speed was more ideas and concepts.Works easily important than total preparedness and with abstractions and speculation thus required his men to leave behind or conjecture. most personal belongings with few

exceptions—one of which was a man’s journal.

developed the managerial grid, which has since been refined and revised by Blake and McCanse (1991) and named the leadership grid.

The leadership grid was an effort to reflect the manner in which leaders reach their goals based upon their concern for production and concern for people. Northouse (2004) stated, “The style approach works not by telling leaders how to behave, but by describing the major components of their behavior. . . . It offers a means of assessing in a general way the behaviors of leaders” (pp. 73-74). This approach is intriguing because it states the leader’s style in fluid rather than absolute terms. Consequently, there is freedom for the leader to assess his or her style and adapt to exhibit more of either task or relationship behaviors.

The grid is divided into five distinct dimensions based upon the concern for production and concern for people. Thus, there is a range from a leader who is highly concerned with production with a very low concern for people—an “authority-compliance” leader—to the exact opposite type of leader who has low concerns for production and high concerns for people—the “country- club” leader. The “middle-of-the-road” manager has an equal balance, whereas the “impoverished management” leader actually lacks concern in both areas. Blake and McCanse (1991) believe that the ideal leadership style is categorized within the dimension called “team management,” which has a high concern for both people and production.

There were times in which Shackleton certainly showed an autocratic style, but one would be hard-pressed to subject him to the authoritarian-compliance dimension. There are multiple instances in Endurance that describe Shackleton placing the crew’s needs before his own. At the same time, he was extremely concerned that the men stayed on task. Although it is difficult to place Shackleton in a box or in a certain style, the team management approach aptly depicts his general style (see Table 2 for examples).

The label “team management” may initially cause some hesitation when one thinks of strong examples individual leadership. However, Northouse (2004) dis- cussed work accomplishment as coming from committed people, and asserted that “interdependence through a ‘common stake’ in organization purpose leads to relationships of trust and respect” (p. 70). The men on the Endurance shared an initial common stake that had to be adjusted along the way, but without the inter- dependence that the men showed in desperate times, their ultimate purpose of survival and a safe return never could have been accomplished.

All leaders are accountable to some extent for their followers and their actions, especially when the leader is the one that has assembled the group— as Shackleton did. As a result, Shackleton felt strongly that it was his duty to look after those under his command. Lansing (2002) said, “He felt he had got- ten them into their situation, and it was his responsibility to get them out” (p. 73). He continued, “He was simply emotionally incapable of forgetting— even for an instant—his position and the responsibility it entailed” (p. 86). Thus, the men were fully aware that they had a leader who was concerned for them and was fully committed to the task of getting them home safely. The men

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knew that he was the right man for the job and that his leadership ability fit the situation at hand, which leads to the final leadership theory to be examined.

Contingency Theory

Fiedler and Chemers (1974) said that contingency theory is a leader-match theory, which means it tries to match leaders to appropriate situations. Nort- house (2004) stated, “It is called contingency because it suggests that a leader’s effectiveness depends on how well the leader’s style fits the context” (p. 109). While other theories, such as the situation theory would argue that different situations demand different types of leadership, the contingency theory is more interested in finding a leader who has the correct style to match the existing situation. Gill (2006) said that Fiedler argues that “it is more dif- ficult for a leader to change his or her style to suit the situation than it is to change the leader according to the situation” (p. 47). Debate could ensue as to whether Shackleton’s leadership style would be effective in other contexts, but there is no question that he was a perfect situational match for those on the Endurance expedition.

There are three factors that make up contingency theory: leader-member relations, task structure, and position power. Examples from the book that

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TABLE 2: Team Management Style Approach as Identified through Endurance

Team Management Dimension of the Style Approach as Defined by

Blake and McCanse (1991) Example from Endurance Text

Team Management:This dimension Attempting to find a solid ice floe, shows an equal amount of Shackleton and his men had trekked importance and concern on 2.5 miles. However, he became uneasy production and on people, or as about the floe and while “the thought Northouse (2004) stated, “tasks and of quitting was abhorrent” and he interpersonal relationships” (p. 71). did not like retreating, “prudence

demands this course” (p. 96). Shackleton required production, but he also refused to place his men in any more danger than necessary.

Encourages employee/subordinate Shackleton would roll cigarettes for involvement and commitment by himself and Worsley and they spoke promoting participation. of many things. He would ask Worsley’s

opinion of things (pp. 220-221). Further, he would create shifts for the

men throughout the expedition in which each man would be counted on to perform his duties.

reflect these three factors can be found in Table 3. The type of group atmos- phere that the leader has created is one way to gauge leader-member relations and whether they are positive or negative. In other words, is the group atmos- phere one of trust and loyalty, among other things, or is it marked by friction within the group and an unfriendly environment? As mentioned previously, Shackleton was very intentional about stemming any possible discord among the crew and desired a positive atmosphere despite the enormous challenges they were faced with on a daily basis.

One of Shackleton’s reasons for quelling a potential dispute or a challenge to his authority was revealed in the book: “Shackleton felt that if dissension arose, the party as a whole might not put forth that added ounce of energy which could mean, at a time of crisis, the difference between survival and defeat. Thus he was prepared to go to almost any length to keep the party

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TABLE 3: Contingency Theory as Identified through Endurance

Contingency Theory as Defined by Northouse (2004) Example from Endurance Text

Leader-Member relations:The group Shackleton was prepared to go to almost atmosphere the leader has created, any length to keep the party close-knit as well as the degree of confidence, and under his control (p. 73). loyalty, and attraction that followers feel for their leader (p. 110)

One crew member, Macklin, said just to be in his presence was an experience. It was what made Shackleton so great a leader (p. 103).

Task Structure:The degree to which Even in the midst of an uncertain the requirements of a task are environment, Shackleton desired to clear and spelled out. Clearly keep the men on some type of a spelled-out tasks give more routine.When a situation arose, each control to the leader. man knew his task because it had been

well-rehearsed many times. Position Power: Refers to the amount McNeish briefly rebelled due to the fact

of authority a leader has to reward that he believed since they were off or punish followers. the ship, he was no longer under

Shackleton’s authority. However, Shackleton reminded him of the article that each man signed that read that they were “to perform any duty on board, in the boats, or on the shore as directed by the master and owner”— Shackleton.They were now, by Shackleton’s definition,“on shore” (p. 95).

close-knit and under his control” (Lansing, 2002, p. 73). Shackleton saw the value in leader-member relations and believed that the men would follow his lead. He maintained high self-confidence, and it took the form of optimism. One crew member, Macklin, said, “Just to be in his presence was an experience. It was what made Shackleton so great a leader” (p. 103).

The second factor of contingency theory is task structure. Obviously, an ideal situation for the leader is one in which the tasks are highly structured. Such tasks give more control to the leader because task clarity is apparent and task completion is typically measurable or clearly demonstrated. Despite the fact that the men were forced off of the Endurance and they were clearly in an unstructured environment, Shackleton still tried to keep a routine and a sem- blance of highly structured tasks. The men were at the mercy of many things beyond even Shackleton’s control, such as the weather and ice floes. The weather and floes could cause various problems such as a shift in the winds taking the floe (and the men) in the wrong direction, the floes breaking apart, or even the floes melting beneath the men thus forcing them to find another temporary place to reside.

When the men needed to take action because of an unforeseen event or a change in weather, Shackleton instantly began structuring tasks to fit their needs. For example, one day “ice jostled and badgered the ship until she was pinned up against two floes” (Lansing, 2002, p. 57). The ice tore into the Endurance and water poured in, requiring the men to pump water out of the ship. Lansing (2002) described the structured tasks that Shackleton ordered:

All night long they kept at it . . . fifteen minutes on the pumps, fifteen minutes off, then over the side or back to the engine room. Though they were lean and hard after a year’s tough work on the ship and on the sledges, ten hours at the pumps and saws left even the strongest so exhausted they stumbled as they walked. At dawn, Shackleton ordered an hour’s rest, and Green ladled out a bowl of porridge for each man. Then it was time to begin again. (p. 58)

The third factor within contingency theory is position power. Although the vast majority of the crew would have done anything at anytime for Shackleton, there were rare instances when Shackleton relied not on his commands but on the power that he held due to his position. One vivid example concerned the carpenter aboard the expedition, McNeish, who Shackleton would later recount in his diary: “I shall never forget him” (Lansing, 2002, p. 96); this was not written as a compliment.

Prior to departing for the expedition, crew members signed papers that obliged them to obey orders from their superiors. Typically, these articles are automatically terminated if the ship sinks. However, Shackleton had inserted a special clause (again showing rare conceptual skills of possible outcomes prior to departing), which was signed by all crew members aboard the Endurance. It read that they were “to perform any duty on board, in the boats, or on the shore as directed by the master and owner”—Shackleton. They were

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now, by Shackleton’s definition, “on shore.” (Lansing, 2002, p. 95). One day as the crew trudged along an ice floe, McNeish apparently forgot about this clause and proclaimed that he believed that his obligation to obey authority had ended when the ship had sunk.

Shackleton “took McNeish aside and told him ‘very strongly’ what his duty was” (Lansing, 2002, p. 95). This reliance on position power was necessary at times during the long, tedious time the men were stranded. Each time Shackleton utilized his position power, the men respected the authority of the position that Shackleton held and fell in line with his wishes.

Application This article provides specific examples from the book Endurance that

reflect aspects of three leadership approaches/theories: skills, style, and con- tingency. Like most topics, when absorbed in smaller quantities the material is more easily understood. Thus, in the classroom an instructor may choose to have quizzes or discussions that cover each section rather than cover the entire book. This article only scratches the surface of both leadership shown through- out this book and the leadership theories that could be applied.

A salient point to remember when using a text, movie, or any other medium to communicate a message is that the medium not only offers an example of the topic one is trying to teach but also serves as an impetus for further dis- cussion. Upon hearing these examples and their connection to leadership theory, learners should be prompted to offer their own insights and examples of these theories that may or may not come from the book. Thus, a few poten- tial discussion questions may be:

1. The skills approach notes that technical skills are less important the higher one reaches in the organization; yet having technical skill is what greatly aided Shackleton in his leadership on this expedition. Discuss the importance of having technical, human, and conceptual skills as a leader.

2. What are some examples that favor one skill over another? Do you believe leaders at different levels on a hierarchy require different skills? Why or why not?

3. What is your preferred leadership style? What style would you like your leader or superior to display? Are they the same? Would you pre- fer to work for someone that has a similar leadership style to yours? Why or why not?

4. The contingency model is a situational model based on matching up a leader to appropriate situations. There have certainly been times when a leader’s style does not fit the situation. What are some examples you can recall of a poor fit? What about examples of a time in which the leader’s style and situation were a perfect match?

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l pl

an s

be gi

n th

e ac

ti vi

ty ,t

be hi

nd i nv

al ua

bl e

lo o k

go o d,

th ey

m us

t be

le s

ch an

ge .T

hi s

co ul

d m

at er

ia ls

t ha

t co

ul d

re ad

y fo

r ci

rc um

st an

ce s

be s

o m

et hi

ng a

s si

m pl

e ha

ve h

el pe

d th

e m

en in

an ge

.T hi

s ac

ti vi

ty c

an le

as t

ak in

g th

ei r

ce ll

th ei

r su

rv iv

al .

to d

is cu

ss io

ns o

f ho

194

ph o ne

s o r

th ei

r ca

r le

ad er

sh ip

i s

af fe

ct ed

b y

a ke

ys f ro

m t

he m

a nd

ch an

ge i n

si tu

at io

n o r

as ki

ng t

he m

t o e

xp la

co nt

ex t.

ho w

t he

y w

ill

co m

m un

ic at

e o r

ge t

ho m

e o r

so m

et hi

el se

t ha

t se

em s

tr iv

ia l

bu t

ac tu

al ly

d is

pl ay

s co

nt in

ge nc

y th

eo ry

. B

ui ld

in g

B lo

D iv

id e

cl as

s in

to g

ro up

s –

St yl

e ap

pr o ac

h, T

he e

xp ed

it io

n cr

ew f ed

t hi

s ex

er ci

se ,t

he re

i s

a Ex

er ci

se o f fo

ur .A

s et

o f

sp ec

ifi ca

lly t

he t

ea m

o ff

o f Sh

ac kl

et o n’

s si

m ila

r gr

o up

o f w

ill in

g bu

ild in

g bl

o ck

s/ Le

go s

m an

ag em

en t

st yl

e in

ad er

sh ip

a nd

t he

y in

di vi

du al

s w

ho a

re a

w ai

ti ng

e de

liv er

ed t

o e

ac h

w hi

ch m

em be

rs a

w er

e ac

ti ve

ly i nv

o lv

ed in

st ru

ct io

n. Ea

ch m

em be

r is

o up

.O ne

p er

so n

pa rt

ic ip

at iv

e an

d in

t he

ir f at

es a

s he

g av

e ne

ed ed

f o r

su cc

es sf

ul t

as k

fr o m

e ac

h gr

o up

m us

t ac

ti ve

a s

th e

gr o up

em r

es po

ns ib

ili ti es

m pl

et io

n an

d th

e le

ad er

m e

fo rw

ar d

an d

co lle

ct iv

el y

en ga

ge s

th ro

ug ho

ut t

he t

ex t.

m us

t re

al iz

e th

at in

o rd

er t

ex am

in e

th e

de si

in t

he t

as k.

Ea ch

c re

w m

em be

r at

ta in

t he

g ro

up ’s g

o al

, cr

ea te

d by

t he

rv ed

a n

im po

rt an

t he

/s he

m us

t le

ad w

el l (b

y in

st ru

ct o r.

Ea ch

g ro

pu rp

o se

t hr

o ug

ho ut

o bs

er vi

ng a

nd r

et ai

ni ng

t he

us t

re pl

ic at

e th

ei r

ti m

e an

d as

t he

in fo

rm at

io n

w el

l) a

nd t

he n

o bs

er ve

d m

o de

l, bu

t le

ad er

,S ha

ck le

to n

kn ew

co m

m un

ic at

e w

el l w

it h

hi s/

th e

o bs

er ve

rs m

ay n

o t

ho w

t o n

o t

o nl

y m

ai nt

ai n

he r

gr o up

m em

be rs

. to

uc h

an y

pi ec

es .T

he y

th e

cr ew

’s c

o nf

id en

ce i n

ar e

o nl

y al

lo w

ed t

o hi

s le

ad er

sh ip

b ut

a ls

ex pl

ai n

to t

he b

ui ld

er s

to k

ee p

th em

i nv

o lv

ho w

t o p

ro ce

ed .

so t

he y

w o ul

d fe

O th

er m

em be

rs a

sk im

po rt

an t

in t

he ir

es ti o ns

a s

th e

re sp

ec ti ve

r o le

(C on

tin ue

195

T A

B L

E 4

: S

u g ge

st e d

T ra

in in

g A

ct iv

it ie

s (C

o n ti

n u ed

)

E n d u ra

n ce

R e fe

re n

ce (s

) T

yp e o

f A ct

iv it

y D

e sc

ri p

ti o

n o

f A ct

iv it

y L

e a d

e rs

h ip

C o

n ce

p t

(i f

ap p

li ca

b le

) O

b je

ct iv

e o

f A ct

iv it

bu ild

er s.

T he

o bs

er ve

m ay

e xa

m in

e th

e m

o de

l th

re e

ti m

w it h

o ne

o th

er g

ro up

em be

r be

in g

al lo

w ed

t o l o o k

o nc

e. Jo

ha ri

W in

do w

o vi

de J o ha

ri W

in do

Sk ill

s ap

pr o ac

h M

ul ti pl

e En

ab le

s tu

de nt

s to

p ro

ce ss

Ex er

ci se

m o de

l fo

r a

cl as

s to

l ea

de rs

hi p

th e

te xt

b y

an al

yz in

g th

e di

sc us

si o n,

o r

di vi

(t ec

hn ic

al ,h

um an

, di

ffe re

nt s

ki lls

t ha

t cl

as s

in to

g ro

up s

an d

co nc

ep tu

al )

Sh ac

kl et

o n

ex ud

ed t

hr o ug

h- ha

ve e

ac h

gr o up

w o rk

o ut

E nd

ur an

ce an

d bu

ild th

ro ug

h th

e m

o de

l. kn

o w

le dg

e o f bo

th t

he s

ki lls

B y

an al

yz in

g w

hi ch

pr o ac

h as

w el

l as

t he

ill s

(t ec

hn ic

al ,h

um an

, Jo

ha ri

W in

do w

t hr

o ug

h th

is an

d co

nc ep

tu al

) w

er e

ex er

ci se

. kn

o w

n to

S ha

ck le

to n

an d

kn o w

n to

o th

er s,

kn o w

n to

S ha

ck le

to n

an d

un kn

o w

n to

o th

er s,

, an

d so

f o rt

h, a

de ep

un de

rs ta

nd in

g o f

Sh ac

kl et

o n’

s sk

ill s

de ve

lo ps

196

R o un

dt ab

le D

iv id

e cl

as s

in to

g ro

up s

St yl

e ap

pr o ac

h to

ul ti pl

e B

ui ld

s a

de ep

er u

nd er

st an

di ng

o f fiv

e an

d as

si gn

ad er

sh ip

( th

e fiv

e o f Sh

ac kl

et o n

an d

ho w

h e

ea ch

p er

so n

o ne

o f

st yl

es p

o si

te d

al lo

w ed

h im

se lf

to v

ar y

B la

ke a

nd M

o ut

o n’

s B

la ke

a nd

M o ut

o n

st yl

e at

t im

es a

lo ng

t he

fiv

e le

ad er

sh ip

s ty

le s,

(1 96

4) .

ex pe

di ti o n,

an d

sh o w

s th

e (c

o un

tr y

cl ub

,t ea

cl as

s th

at t

he s

ty le

s ar

e no

t m

an ag

em en

t, m

id dl

e o f

m ut

ua lly

e xc

lu si

ve .I

t al

th e

ro ad

,i m

po ve

ri sh

fo rc

es t

he c

la ss

t o b

e m

an ag

em en

t, an

d cr

ea ti ve

a s

th ey

r ep

re se

au th

o ri

ta ri

an -

hy po

th et

ic al

s ce

na ri

o s

o f

co m

pl ia

nc e)

.E ac

h Sh

ac kl

et o n

us in

g a

di ffe

re nt

rs o n

th en

e it he

r st

yl e

an d

w ha

t th

at r

es ul

t pr

es en

ts a

n ex

am pl

e co

ul d

ha ve

l o o ke

d lik

e. T

hi s

fr o m

t he

t ex

t in

w hi

ex er

ci se

l ea

ds t

o a

ct iv

e th

ei r

st yl

e w

as u

se d

di sc

us si

o n

w it hi

n th

e gr

o up

s o r

pr o vi

de s

an e

xa m

pl e

as t

he y

en ga

ge t

he m

at er

ia l.

o f ho

w h

is o

r he

r st

yl e

co ul

d ha

ve b

ee n

us ed

S ha

ck le

to n

in a

en ar

io f ro

m t

he t

ex t.

T he

g ro

up m

em be

th en

d is

cu ss

t he

o pi

ni o ns

o f ea

re pr

es en

ta ti o n

o f th

e st

yl es

197

These are just a few broad discussion questions that could spark conversation and dialogue in the classroom. Other types of activities and their objectives are summarized in Table 4.

Conclusion Shackleton eventually led his entire crew back to safety after a staggering two

years of facing nearly impossible odds. If one dogmatically sticks to the original desired outcome of the trip, the Endurance crew failed to meet their stated goal. However, most would simply consider their safe return one of the most amazing success stories ever accomplished. In fact, Shackleton and his men accomplished something even greater than they had set out to do. He and all 27 of his men sur- vived the harshest conditions known to man and returned home safely.

This article reflected the skills and style approaches and the contingency theory through the backdrop of Alfred Lansing’s book Endurance: Shackleton’s Incredible Voyage. Future writings could certainly engage this account by ana- lyzing Shackleton through additional leadership theories. His leadership ability in the face of crisis is undisputed and is probably told best through the words from a diary of one of his crew members. He wrote that Shackleton was “the greatest leader that ever came on God’s earth, bar none” (Lansing, 2002, p. 12).

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leader match concept (2nd ed.). New York: John Wiley. Gill, R. (2006). Theory and practice of leadership. London: Sage. Hackman, M. Z., & Johnson, C. E. (2004). Leadership: A communication perspective

(4th ed.). Long Grove, IL: Waveland Press. Katz, R. L. (1955). “Skills of an effective administrator”, Harvard Business Review.

33(1), 33–42. Lansing, A. (2002). Endurance: Shackleton’s incredible voyage. New York: Carroll &

Graf. Mumford, M.D., Zaccaro, S.J., Harding, F.D., Owen Jacobs, T., & Fleishman, E.A.

(2000). Leadership skills for a changing world: Solving complex social problems. Leadership Quarterly, 11(1), 11-35.

Northouse, P. G. (2004). Leadership: Theory and practice (3rd ed.). London: Sage. South-Pole.com, Ernest H. Shackleton. Retrieved November 2006 from http://www

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Blair Browning is currently a Senior Lecturer in the Communication Studies depart- ment at Baylor University. He is completing his dissertation in the Organizational Communication program for his PhD at Texas A&M University.

Advances in Developing Human Resources May 2007198

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