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Week 3

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Use of Locks in Physical Crime Prevention

Chapter 7

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Introduction

This chapter discusses the use of locks in physical crime prevention. The terminology of locks and lock components is detailed, as well as a way of critically looking at locks in terms of crime prevention and security.

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Lock Terminology and Components

Design

Manufacture

Installation

Maintenance

The effectiveness of any locking system depends on a combination of interrelated factors involved in the design, manufacture, installation, and maintenance of the system. A prevention specialist needs to understand the weaknesses and strengths of the various systems, and know how each must be used to achieve maximum benefit from its application.

Key-Operated Mechanisms

Tumbler Mechanisms

Disc or Wafer Tumbler Mechanisms

Pin Tumbler Mechanisms

Lever Tumbler Mechanisms

A key-operated mechanical lock uses some sort of arrangement of internal physical barriers (wards, tumblers) that prevent the lock from operating unless they are properly aligned.

Key-Operated Mechanisms

Tumbler Mechanisms

Disc or Wafer Tumbler Mechanisms

Pin Tumbler Mechanisms

Lever Tumbler Mechanisms

A tumbler mechanism is any lock mechanism having movable, variable elements (the tumblers) that depend on the proper key (or keys) to arrange these tumblers into a straight line, permitting the lock to operate.

Key-Operated Mechanisms

Tumbler Mechanisms

Disc or Wafer Tumbler Mechanisms

Pin Tumbler Mechanisms

Lever Tumbler Mechanisms

Disc tumbler mechanisms consist of three separate parts: the keys, the cylinder plug, and the cylinder shell (or housing; Fig. 7.4). The plug contains the tumblers, which are usually spring-loaded flat plates that move up and down in slots cut through the diameter of the plug. Variably dimensioned key slots are cut into each tumbler. When no key is inserted or an improper key is used, one or more tumblers will extend through the sides of the plug into the top or bottom locking grooves cut into the cylinder shell, firmly locking the plug to the shell.

Key-Operated Mechanisms

Tumbler Mechanisms

Disc or Wafer Tumbler Mechanisms

Pin Tumbler Mechanisms

Lever Tumbler Mechanisms

The pin tumbler mechanism is the most common type of key-operated mechanism used in architectural or builders’ (door) hardware in the United States. The security afforded by this mechanism ranges from fair in certain inexpensive cylinders with wide tolerances and a minimum of tumblers to excellent with several makes of high-security cylinders, including those that are listed by Underwriters Laboratories (UL) as manipulation- and pick-resistant.

Key-Operated Mechanisms

Tumbler Mechanisms

Disc or Wafer Tumbler Mechanisms

Pin Tumbler Mechanisms

Lever Tumbler Mechanisms

Although the lever lock operates on the same principles as the pin or disc tumbler mechanism, its appearance is very different. Fig. 7.11 illustrates a typical lever mechanism. Unlike pin or disc tumbler devices, the lever lock does not use a rotating core or plug, and the bolt is usually an integral part of the basic mechanism thrown directly by the key.

Combination Locks

Tumblers using numbers, letters or other symbols

Alignment

Fence retracts

Bolt released

Lock opened

In principle, a combination lock works in much the same way as a lever mechanism. When the tumblers are aligned, the slots in the tumblers permit a fence to retract, which releases the bolt so that the bolt can be opened. The difference is that where the lever mechanism uses a key to align the tumblers, the combination mechanism uses numbers, letters, or other symbols as reference points that enable an operator to align them manually.

Lock Bodies

Bolts

Latch Bolt

Dead Bolt

Most lever tumbler and warded mechanisms contain an integrated bolt as a part of the mechanism. The key operates directly to throw the bolt, thereby opening and locking the lock. This is not true of pin and disc tumbler locks. These consist of two major components. The cylinder plug, the shell, the tumblers, and springs are contained in an assembly known as the cylinder. The other major component is the lock body, which consists of the bolt assembly and case or housing. The bolt assembly consists of the bolt, a rollback, and a refractor.

Lock Bodies

Bolts

Latch Bolt

Dead Bolt

There are two types of bolts used for most door applications: the latch bolt and the dead bolt.

The latch bolt, which is sometimes called simply a latch, a locking latch (to distinguish it from nonlocking latches), or a spring bolt is always spring-loaded. When the door on which it is mounted is in the process of closing, the latch bolt is designed to automatically retract when its beveled face contacts the lip of the strike.

The dead bolt is a square-faced solid bolt that is not spring-loaded and must be turned by hand into the locked and unlocked position. When a dead bolt is incorporated into a locking mechanism, the result is usually known as deadlock.

Door Lock Types

Mortise

Rim Mounted

Tubular

Cylindrical Lockset

Unit Locks

Cylinders

Padlocks

Five basic lock types are used on most doors in the United States: mortise, rim-mounted, tubular, cylindrical, and unit. Each of these has a number of advantages and disadvantages from the point of view of the protection offered. Each, however, with the single exception of the cylindrical lockset, can offer sound security when a good lock is properly installed.

Door Lock Types

Mortise

Rim Mounted

Tubular

Cylindrical Lockset

Unit Locks

Cylinders

Padlocks

It was but a few years ago that almost all residential and light commercial locks were mortise locks. A mortise lock, or lockset, is installed by hollowing out a portion of the door along the front or leading edge and inserting the mechanism into this cavity.

Door Lock Types

Mortise

Rim Mounted

Tubular

Cylindrical Lockset

Unit Locks

Cylinders

Padlocks

A rim-mounted mechanism is simply a lock that is installed on the surface (rim) of the door (Fig. 7.18B). Most are used on the inside surface, since outside installation requires a lock that is reinforced against direct attacks on the case.

Door Lock Types

Mortise

Rim Mounted

Tubular

Cylindrical Lockset

Unit Locks

Cylinders

Padlocks

A Tubular lock (sometimes called a bore-in) is installed by drilling a hole through the door to accommodate the cylinder (or cylinders) and a hole drilled from the front edge of the door to the cylinder for the bolt assembly (Fig. 7.18C).

Door Lock Types

Mortise

Rim Mounted

Tubular

Cylindrical Lockset

Unit Locks

Cylinders

Padlocks

The cylindrical lockset ordinarily uses a locking latch as its sole fastening element (Fig. 7.18D). It is installed like the tubular lock by drilling two holes in the door. The cylinders are mounted in the doorknobs, rather than in a case or inside the door, which makes them vulnerable to just about any attack (hammering, wrenching, etc.) that can knock or twist the knob off the door.

Door Lock Types

Mortise

Rim Mounted

Tubular

Cylindrical Lockset

Unit Locks

Cylinders

Padlocks

A unit lock is installed by making a U-shaped cutout in the front edge of the door and slipping the lock into this cutout (Fig. 7.18E). This type of lock usually has the advantage of having no exposed screws or bolts.

Door Lock Types

Mortise

Rim Mounted

Tubular

Cylindrical Lockset

Unit Locks

Cylinders

Padlocks

Cylinders are mounted in the lock body in a number of ways. Most mortise cylinders are threaded into the lock and secured with a small setscrew (Fig. 7.19). Tubular and rim locks use cylinder interlock screws inserted from the back of the lock. Better mechanisms use ¼-inch or larger diameter hardened steel screws for maximum resistance to pulling and wrenching attacks (Fig. 7.19). Better cylinders incorporate hardened inserts to resist drilling.

Door Lock Types

Mortise

Rim Mounted

Tubular

Cylindrical Lockset

Unit Locks

Cylinders

Padlocks

The distinguishing feature of padlocks is that they use a shackle rather than a bolt as the device that fastens two or more objects together (Fig. 7.21). The shackle is placed through a hasp, which is permanently affixed to the items to be fastened. Three methods are commonly used to secure the shackle inside the lock body.

Strikes

Strikes are an often overlooked but essential part of a good lock. A dead bolt must engage a solid, correctly installed strike, or its effectiveness is significantly reduced. The ordinary strike for residential use is mounted with two or three short (usually less than 1 inch) wood screws on a soft wood door frame. It can be easily pried off with a screwdriver. High-security strikes are wider and longer and often incorporate a lip that wraps around the door for added protection against jimmying and shimming (Fig. 7.23).

Attacks and Countermeasures

Surreptitious Attacks

Illicit Keys

Maintain Reasonable Key Security

Recombinate or Replace Compromised Locks

Circumvention of the Internal Barriers of the Lock

There are two basic methods of attacking locks: surreptitious techniques and force. There are also a number of ways of circumventing a lock by assaulting the objects to which it is fastened. This chapter will be concerned only with techniques used to defeat locks and the measures that can be used to forestall those techniques.

Attacks and Countermeasures

Surreptitious Attacks

Illicit Keys

Maintain Reasonable Key Security

Recombinate or Replace Compromised Locks

Circumvention of the Internal Barriers of the Lock

Four basic surreptitious approaches are used to breach locking devices: illicit keys, circumvention of the internal barriers of the lock, manipulation of the internal barriers, and shimming. The susceptibility of any locking device to these approaches cannot be eliminated but can be minimized through the use of commonsense countermeasures.

The easiest way of gaining entry through any lock is by using the proper key for that lock. Thousands of keys are lost and stolen every year. A potential intruder who can determine which lock a lost or stolen key fits has a simple and quick means of illicit entry.

Attacks and Countermeasures

Surreptitious Attacks

Illicit Keys

Maintain Reasonable Key Security

Recombinate or Replace Compromised Locks

Circumvention of the Internal Barriers of the Lock

You need to maintain tight control over all or your keys. If keys are duplicated, you need to maintain tight control. If all these precautions fail and the owner reasonably believes that someone has obtained keys to her or his locks, the combinations of these locks should be changed immediately.

Circumvention is a technique used to directly operate the bolt completely bypassing the locking mechanism that generally remains in the locked position throughout this operation. A long, thin stiff tool is inserted into the keyway to bypass the internal barriers and reach the bolt assembly.

Attacks and Countermeasures

Manipulation

Picking

Impressioning

Decoding

Rapping

Shimming

Forceful Attacks

The term manipulation covers a large number of types of attacks. At least 50 discrete techniques of manipulating the mechanism of a lock without the proper key have been identified. Fortunately, however, they all fall rather neatly into four general categories: picking, impressioning, decoding, and rapping.

Attacks and Countermeasures

Manipulation

Picking

Impressioning

Decoding

Rapping

Shimming

Forceful Attacks

Lock picking is undoubtedly the best known method of manipulation. It requires skill developed by dedicated practice, the proper tools, time, and often a small dose of good luck. No lock is pick proof, but the high-security locks are so difficult to pick that it takes even an expert a long time to open them.

Attacks and Countermeasures

Manipulation

Picking

Impressioning

Decoding

Rapping

Shimming

Forceful Attacks

Impressioning is a technique used to make a key that will operate the lock. It cannot ordinarily be used against high-security mechanisms, but against the average lock it can be very successful.

Attacks and Countermeasures

Manipulation

Picking

Impressioning

Decoding

Rapping

Shimming

Forceful Attacks

Another method of making a key for a particular lock is through decoding. It was mentioned earlier that most disc tumbler mechanisms can be sight read fairly easily. Sight reading involves the manipulation of the tumblers with a thin wire while noting their relative positions in the keyway. Since each mechanism has only a limited number of possible tumbler increments, the correct alignment of these increments can be estimated with fair accuracy, permitting a key to be filed or cut on the spot to rotate the lock. This is one method of decoding.

Attacks and Countermeasures

Manipulation

Picking

Impressioning

Decoding

Rapping

Shimming

Forceful Attacks

This approach relies on the fact that pins in a tumbler mechanism can move freely in the pin chambers. Tension is applied to the plug, resulting in the usual misalignment between the core and shell pin bores. The lock is then struck with a sharp tap just above the tumblers. This causes the pins to jump in their bores. As each key pin reaches its shear line, it pushes the driver before it into the shell where it tends to bind, unable to drop back down into the plug because of the lip caused by the misalignment. Not all of the drivers will be pushed over the shear line by one rap. Several may be required.

Attacks and Countermeasures

Manipulation

Picking

Impressioning

Decoding

Rapping

Shimming

Forceful Attacks

Any part of a locking mechanism that relies on spring pressure to hold it in place is vulnerable to shimming unless it is protected. Spring-loaded latch bolts can be shimmed by a thin plastic or metal tool unless they are protected by antishim devices.

If a potential intruder does not have the skills necessary to decode, impression, or pick a lock, the only course is to find a key or use force against the lock to disable and breach it. Comparatively few intruders have developed manipulative skills, so it is not surprising that the large majority of attacks on locks employ force of one kind or another.

Attacks and Countermeasures

Attacks on Bolts

Jimmying and Prying

Punching

Sawing

Peeling

Bolts can be pried, punched, and sawed. The object of these attacks is to disengage the bolt from the strike.

A jimmy is by definition a short prying tool used by burglars. It is a traditional and well-known burglary tool, but other, more lawful, prying tools will work just as well if not better. These include pry bars, crowbars, nail pullers, and large screwdrivers.

Attacks and Countermeasures

Attacks on Bolts

Jimmying and Prying

Punching

Sawing

Peeling

The California Crime Technological Research Foundation (CCTRF) identified punching as a possible direct attack on a dead bolt (Fig. 7.32). The attacker would have to punch through the wall and framing members to reach the bolt.

Bolts can be sawed by inserting a hacksaw or hacksaw blade between the face plate and the strike. (A portion of the jamb will usually be removed or the jamb spread to allow easy access.)

Another way to expose the bolt in metal-framed doors is by peeling. Thin sheet steel and aluminum can be easily peeled.

Attacks and Countermeasures

Attacks on Cylinders

Cylinder Pulling

Lug Pulling

Wrenching, Twisting and Nipping

Drilling

Punching

Hammering

Like bolts, cylinders can be pried and punched. They also can be drilled, pulled, wrenched, or twisted. The usual objective of such attacks is to completely remove the cylinder from the lock. Once it has been removed, a tool can be inserted into the lock to quickly retract the bolt.

Attacks and Countermeasures

Attacks on Cylinders

Cylinder Pulling

Lug Pulling

Wrenching, Twisting and Nipping

Drilling

Punching

Hammering

The tool usually used for cylinder pulling is a slam hammer or dent puller—a common automobile body shop tool ordinarily used to remove dents from car bodies.

If the cylinder is protected against pulling, an attacker may turn to the cylinder plug. The plug is much harder to pull and requires a special tool that looks something like a gear puller.

Most cylinders project from the surface of the door sufficiently to be gripped by a pipe wrench or pliers. Twisting force is applied to the cylinder by the wrench, which is often sufficient to snap or shear the setscrews or bolts that hold the cylinder in the lock.

Attacks and Countermeasures

Attacks on Cylinders

Cylinder Pulling

Lug Pulling

Wrenching, Twisting and Nipping

Drilling

Punching

Hammering

Cylinder plugs can be drilled out using a fairly large drill bit, but the most common drilling attack is centered on the shear line between the plug and shell (Fig. 7.35).

Rim-mounted deadlocks are particularly vulnerable to punching. These are ordinarily mounted on the back of a door with wood screws. But, since most of the currently available doors are made with particle board cores under a thin veneer overlay, screws are seldom able to take much pressure. Several good blows with a hammer and punch on the face of the cylinder will often drive it through the door, pulling the screws out, so the entire lock body is dislodged.

Hammering, as well as pulling, wrenching, and twisting, is a quick and very effective way to disable cylindrical locksets.

Locks and the Systems Approach to Security

This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY-SA

Locks are an essential part of most security systems. They are, however, only one part. The effectiveness of a lock cannot be considered apart from the effectiveness of the entire system. A lock is no better than the door it is on, or the frame in which the door is mounted. The strongest lock available on a substandard door does not prevent the door from being defeated, even though the lock cannot be.

Like my Father always said: LOCKS KEEP HONEST PEOPLE OUT!!

Internal Threats and Countermeasures

Chapter 8

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Introduction

A threat is a serious, impending or recurring event that can result in loss, and it must be dealt with immediately. Internal loss prevention focuses on threats from inside an organization. Crimes, fires, and accidents are major internal loss problems. Insiders or trusted employees may betray their allegiance to their employer and commit workplace theft, violence, sabotage, espionage, and other harmful acts. The workplace can be subject to infiltration by spies, gangs, organized crime, and terrorists. Losses can result from full-time, part-time, and temporary employees; contractors; vendors; and other groups who have access to the worksite both physically and remotely.

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Internal Theft

How Serious is the Problem

Why Do Employees Steal?

Motivation + Opportunity + Rationalization = Theft

How Do Employees Steal

Possible Indicators of Theft

Internal theft also is referred to as employee theft, pilferage, embezzlement, fraud, stealing, peculation, and defalcation. Employee theft is stealing by employees from their employers. Pilferage is stealing in small quantities. Embezzlement occurs when a person takes money or property that has been entrusted to his or her care; a breach of trust occurs. Peculation and defalcation are synonyms for embezzlement. Whatever term is used, this problem is an insidious menace to the survival of businesses, institutions, and organizations. This threat is so severe in many workplaces that employees steal anything that is not “nailed down.”

Internal Theft

How Serious is the Problem

Why Do Employees Steal?

Motivation + Opportunity + Rationalization = Theft

How Do Employees Steal

Possible Indicators of Theft

Two major causes of employee theft are employee personal problems and the environment. Employee personal problems often affect behavior on the job. Financial troubles, domestic discord, drug abuse, and excessive gambling can contribute to theft.

The environment also affects internal theft (Fig. 8.1). Blades ([8]: 35) writes that an individual’s differences (e.g., ethnicity, accent, or hobbies) can result in bullying or tormenting by coworkers that can lead to alienation and thoughts of revenge, such as theft and violence. Management must ensure that the corporate culture facilitates respect for individual difference. A system of policies, procedures, awareness, and training are essential. Otherwise, litigation can result, besides other losses.

Internal Theft

How Serious is the Problem

Why Do Employees Steal?

Motivation + Opportunity + Rationalization = Theft

How Do Employees Steal

Possible Indicators of Theft

Donald R. Cressey [18], in his classic study, analyzed thousands of offenders to ascertain common factors associated with inside thievery. He found three characteristics that must be present before theft would be committed. Cressey’s employee theft formula is:

Motivation + Opportunity + Rationalization = Theft

Internal Theft

How Serious is the Problem

Why Do Employees Steal?

Motivation + Opportunity + Rationalization = Theft

How Do Employees Steal

Possible Indicators of Theft

The methods used to steal from employers are limited by employee imagination. Employees often pilfer items by hiding them under their clothing before leaving the workplace. Methods that are more sophisticated may involve the careful manipulation of computerized accounting records. Collusion among employees (and outsiders) may occur. Research by the Association of Certified Fraud Examiners noted that asset misappropriation schemes were the most common form of fraud by employees.

Internal Theft

How Serious is the Problem

Why Do Employees Steal?

Motivation + Opportunity + Rationalization = Theft

How Do Employees Steal

Possible Indicators of Theft

Certain factors may indicate that theft has occurred:

1. Inventory records and physical counts that differ

2. Inaccurate accounting records

3. Mistakes in the shipping and receiving of goods

4. Increasing amounts of raw materials needed to produce a specific quantity of goods

5. Merchandise missing from boxes (e.g., every pallet of 20 boxes of finished goods has at least two boxes short a few items)

6. Merchandise at inappropriate locations (e.g., finished goods hidden near exits)

7. Security devices found to be damaged or inoperable

8. Windows or doors unlocked when they should be locked

9. Workers (e.g., employees, truck drivers, repair personnel) in unauthorized areas

10. Employees who come in early and leave late

11. Employees who eat lunch at their desks and refuse to take vacations

12. Complaints by customers about not having their previous payments credited to their accounts

13. Customers who absolutely have to be served by a particular employee

14. An unsupervised, after-hours cleaning crew with their own keys

15. Employees who are sensitive about routine questions concerning their jobs

16. An employee who is living beyond his or her income level

17. Expense accounts that are outside the norm

Management Countermeasures

Management Support

Effective Planning and Budgeting

Internal and External Relations

Job Applicant Screening and Employee Socialization

Accountability, Accounting, and Auditing

Policy and Procedural Controls

Signs

Loss Reporting and Reward System

Investigations

Property Losses and Theft Detection

Insurance, Bonding

Confronting the Employee Suspect

Prosecution

Without management support, efforts to reduce losses are doomed.

Before measures are implemented against internal theft, a thorough analysis of the problem is essential.

Good internal and external relations can play a role in preventing employee theft.

The screening of job applicants is a major theft-prevention technique

Accountability defines a responsibility for and a description of something. Accounting is concerned with recording, sorting, summarizing, reporting, and interpreting business data. Auditing is an examination or check of a system to uncover deviations.

Policy and procedural controls coincide with accountability, accounting, and auditing. In each of these three functions, policies and procedures are communicated to employees through manuals and memos.

Placing messages about loss prevention on the premises is another method.

Numerous organizations have established loss reporting through such avenues as a toll-free number, suggestion box, website, or intranet.

Management Countermeasures

Management Support

Effective Planning and Budgeting

Internal and External Relations

Job Applicant Screening and Employee Socialization

Accountability, Accounting, and Auditing

Policy and Procedural Controls

Signs

Loss Reporting and Reward System

Investigations

Property Losses and Theft Detection

Insurance, Bonding

Confronting the Employee Suspect

Prosecution

Numerous organizations have established loss reporting through such avenues as a toll-free number, suggestion box, website, or intranet.

Consequently, an undercover investigation is an effective method to outwit and expose crafty employee thieves and

their conspirators.

To remedy property losses within an organization, several strategies are applicable. CCTV, both overt and covert, and radio frequency identification (RFID) are popular methods discussed in other parts of this book.

insurance is best utilized as a supplement to other methods of loss prevention that may fail. Fidelity bonding is a type of employee honesty insurance for employees who handle cash and perform other financial activities.

Care must be exercised when confronting an employee suspect. Maintain professionalism and confidentiality. Follow the recommendations in the text, in conjunction with good legal assistance, can produce a strong case.

Many feel strongly that prosecution is a deterrent, whereas others maintain that it hurts morale and public relations and is not cost-effective. Whatever management decides, it is imperative that an incident of theft be given considerable attention so that employees realize that a serious act has taken place. Establish a written policy that is fair and applied uniformly.

Physical Security Countermeasures

Integration and Convergence

Access Controls

Controlling Employee Traffic

Searching Employees

Visitors

Controlling the Movement of Packages and Property

The physical security strategies covered in subsequent pages are being increasingly combined into what is called integrated systems. “An integrated system is the control and operation by a single operator of multiple systems whose perception is that only a single system is performing all functions.” These computer-based systems include access controls, alarm monitoring, CCTV, electronic article surveillance, fire protection and safety systems, HVAC, environmental monitoring, radio and video media, intercom, point-of-sale transactions, and inventory control.

Physical Security Countermeasures

Integration and Convergence

Access Controls

Controlling Employee Traffic

Searching Employees

Visitors

Controlling the Movement of Packages and Property

Access controls regulate people, vehicles, and items during movement into, out of, and within a building or facility.

Access control varies from simple to complex. A simple setup for employees includes locks and keys, officers checking identification badges, and written or digital logs of entries and exits. Systems that are more complex use a “smart card” containing computer memory that interacts with a reader for a host of functions and records; biometrics are used to deny or grant access.

Physical Security Countermeasures

Integration and Convergence

Access Controls

Controlling Employee Traffic

Searching Employees

Visitors

Controlling the Movement of Packages and Property

Management can provide in the contract of employment that reasonable detentions are permissible; that reasonable searches may be made to protect people and company assets; and that searches may be made at any time of desks, lockers, containers carried by employees, and vehicles.

When visitors arrive without an appointment, the person at reception should lead him or her to a waiting room. A record or log of visits is wise.

The movement of packages and property also must be subject to access controls. Some locations require precautions against packaged bombs, letter bombs, and other hazards.

Physical Security Countermeasures

Integration and Convergence

Access Controls

Employee Identification System

Automatic Access Control

Biometric Technologies

The use of an employee identification (card or badge) system will depend on the number of employees that must be accounted for and recognized by other employees.

Traditionally, access control systems have been at the center of electronic security systems at buildings that include access control, ID badges, alarm systems, and CCTV.

Biometric security systems have been praised as a major advance in access control because such systems link the event to a particular individual, whereas an unauthorized individual may use a key, card, PIN, or password. Biometrics can be defined as “the automated use of physiological or behavioral characteristics to determine or verify identity.”

Physical Security Countermeasures

Locks and Keys

Intrusion Detection System

Internal Sensors

Trends

Operational Zoning

Alarm Monitoring

Closed-Circuit Television

We talked a good deal about physical Locks and Keys in the previous chapter so I refer you to review that chapter. The basic purpose of a lock-and-key system is to hinder unauthorized entry.

An intrusion detection system detects and reports an event or stimulus within its detection area. A response to resolve the reported problem is essential.

In the electronics field, a “switch” is a component that can interrupt an electrical circuit (e.g., as with a light switch). A balanced magnetic switch consists of a switch mounted to a door (or window) frame and a magnet mounted to a moveable door or window. When the door is closed, the magnet holds the switch closed to complete an electrical circuit. An alarm is triggered when the door is opened and the circuit is interrupted.

Two types of sensor technologies often are applied to a location to reduce false alarms, prevent defeat techniques, or fill unique needs. The combination of microwave and Passive IR (PIR) sensors is a popular example of applying dual technologies.

Physical Security Countermeasures

Locks and Keys

Intrusion Detection System

Internal Sensors

Trends

Operational Zoning

Alarm Monitoring

Closed-Circuit Television

Operational zoning means that the building being protected has a segmented alarm system, whereby the alarm can be turned on and off within particular zones depending on usage.

Today, many entities have an alarm system that is monitored by an in-house station (e.g., a console at a secure location) or from a central station (contract service) located off the premises.

Physical Security Countermeasures

Locks and Keys

Intrusion Detection System

Internal Sensors

Trends

Operational Zoning

Alarm Monitoring

Closed-Circuit Television

CCTV (Fig. 8.18) assists in deterrence, surveillance, apprehension, and prosecution. This technology is also helpful in civil cases to protect an organization’s interests. The applications go beyond security and justice. For instance, CCTV can yield a greater ROI by serving as a tool to understand production problems or customer behavior. Although it may be costly initially, CCTV reduces personnel costs because it allows the viewing of multiple locations by one person.

Security Officers

Safes, Vaults, and File Cabinets

Safes

Attacks

Vaults

File Cabinets

Security officers play an important role in countering internal losses. They must be integrated with technology, and this entails quality training and supervision.

Protective containers (Fig. 8.19) secure valuable items (e.g., cash, confidential information). These devices generally are designed to withstand losses from fire or burglary.

Before a skilled burglar attacks a safe, he or she studies the methods used to protect it. Inside information (e.g., a safe’s combination) is valuable, and scores of employees and former employees of attacked firms have been implicated in burglaries.

A walk-in vault is actually a large safe; it is subject to similar vulnerabilities from fire and attack.

File cabinets that are insulated and lockable can provide fair protection against fire and burglary.

External Threats and Countermeasures

Chapter 9

Read slide

Introduction

External loss prevention focuses on threats from outside an organization. This chapter concentrates on countermeasures to impede unauthorized access from outsiders. If unauthorized access is successful, numerous losses are possible from such crimes as assault, burglary, robbery, vandalism, arson, and espionage. Naturally, employees as well as outsiders or a conspiracy of both may commit these offenses. Furthermore, outsiders can gain legitimate access if they are customers, repair technicians, and so on.

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Methods of Unauthorized Entry

This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY

One avenue to begin thinking about how to prevent unauthorized entry is to study the methods used by offenders. Both management (to hinder penetration) and offenders (to succeed in gaining access) study the characteristics of patrols, fences, sensors, locks, windows, doors, and the like.

Countermeasures

Deter

Detect

Delay

Deny

Destroy

This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY-SA

Deter: The mere presence of physical security can dissuade offenders from committing criminal acts.

Detect: Offenders should be detected and their location pinpointed as soon as they step onto the premises or commit a violation on the premises.

Delay: Security is often measured by the time it takes to get through it. Redundant security refers to two or more similar security methods (e.g., two fences; two types of intrusion sensors). Layered security refers to multiple security methods that follow one another and are dissimilar (e.g., perimeter fence, strong doors, a safe). Both redundant and layered securities create a time delay.

Deny: Strong physical security, often called target hardening, can deny access.

Destroy: When you believe your life or another will be taken, you are legally permitted to use deadly force. An asset (e.g., proprietary information) may require destruction before it falls into the wrong hands.

Countermeasures

Environmental Security Design

Perimeter Security

Barriers

Protecting Buildings Against Terrorism.

Mitigation for Explosive Blasts

Glazing

Window Protection

Window Locks

Electronic Protection for Windows

When a new facility is planned, the need for a coordinated effort by architects, fire protection and safety engineers, loss prevention practitioners, local police and fire officials, and other specialists cannot be overstated. Furthermore, money is saved when security and safety are planned before actual construction rather than accomplished by modifying the building later.

Perimeter means outer boundary, and it is often the property line and the first line of defense against unauthorized access (Fig. 9.1).

Countermeasures

Protecting Buildings Against Terrorism.

Read the slide

Countermeasures

Environmental Security Design

Perimeter Security

Barriers

Protecting Buildings Against Terrorism.

Mitigation for Explosive Blasts

Glazing

Window Protection

Window Locks

Electronic Protection for Windows

Annealed glass, also called plate glass, is commonly used in buildings. It has low strength, and upon failure, it fractures into razor sharp pieces. Fully thermally tempered glass (TTG) is four to five times stronger than annealed glass, and upon failure, it will fracture into small cube-shaped fragments. Building codes generally require TTG anywhere the public can touch (e.g., entrance doors). Wire-reinforced glass is made of annealed glass with an embedded layer of wire mesh. It is applied as a fire-resistant and forced entry barrier. All three types of glass present a dangerous hazard from a blast.

Countermeasures

Environmental Security Design

Perimeter Security

Barriers

Protecting Buildings Against Terrorism.

Mitigation for Explosive Blasts

Glazing

Window Protection

Window Locks

Electronic Protection for Windows

Covering windows with grating or security screens is an additional step to impede entrance by an intruder or items being thrown out by a dishonest employee.

Countermeasures

Environmental Security Design

Perimeter Security

Barriers

Protecting Buildings Against Terrorism.

Mitigation for Explosive Blasts

Glazing

Window Protection

Window Locks

Electronic Protection for Windows

Businesses and institutions often contain windows that do not open. For windows that do open, a latch or lock on the inside provides some protection.

Countermeasures

Environmental Security Design

Perimeter Security

Barriers

Protecting Buildings Against Terrorism.

Mitigation for Explosive Blasts

Glazing

Window Protection

Window Locks

Electronic Protection for Windows

Four categories of electronic protection for windows are foil, vibration, glass-breakage, and contact-switch sensors.

Window foil, which has lost much of its popularity, consists of lead foil tape less than 1-inch wide and paper thin that is applied directly on the glass near the edges of a window.

Vibration sensors respond to vibration or shock. They are attached directly on the glass or window frame.

Glass-breakage sensors react to glass breaking. A sensor the size of a large coin is placed directly on the glass and can detect glass breakage several feet away.

Contact switches activate an alarm when opening the window interrupts the contact. In Fig. 9.7, this sensor protects a door and roof opening.

Countermeasures

Doors

Intrusion Detection Systems

Applications

Alarm Signaling Systems

Closed-Circuit Television

Lighting

Illumination

Lamps

Lighting Equipment

Many standards apply to doors, from the AAMA, ANSI, ASTM, BHMA, National Association of Architectural Metal Manufacturers (NAAMM), NFPA, Steel Door Institute (SDI), UL, and ISO. In addition, other countries have standards.

Standards for intrusion detection systems are from UL, the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE), and ISO, plus other groups in the United States and overseas. UL, for example, “lists” installation companies that are authorized to issue UL Certificates on each installation. This means that the installer conforms to maintenance and testing as required by UL, which conducts unannounced inspections.

Countermeasures

Doors

Intrusion Detection Systems

Applications

Alarm Signaling Systems

Closed-Circuit Television

Lighting

Illumination

Lamps

Lighting Equipment

Intrusion detection systems can be classified according to the kind of protection provided.

There are three basic kinds of protection: point, area, and perimeter.

Point protection (Fig. 9.9) signals an alarm when an intrusion is made at a special location.

Area protection (Fig. 9.10) detects an intruder in a selected area such as a main aisle in a building or at a strategic passageway.

Perimeter protection (Fig. 9.11) focuses on the outer boundary of the premises. If doors and windows are part of the perimeter, then contact switches, vibration detectors, and other devices are applicable.

Countermeasures

Doors

Intrusion Detection Systems

Applications

Alarm Signaling Systems

Closed-Circuit Television

Lighting

Illumination

Lamps

Lighting Equipment

Alarm signaling systems transmit data from a protected area to an annunciation system. Local ordinances and codes provide guidelines and restrictions on these systems.

Countermeasures

Doors

Intrusion Detection Systems

Applications

Alarm Signaling Systems

Closed-Circuit Television

Lighting

Illumination

Lamps

Lighting Equipment

CCTV allows one person to view several locations (Fig. 9.12). This is a distinct advantage when protecting the boundaries of a facility, because it reduces personnel costs.

Countermeasures

Doors

Intrusion Detection Systems

Applications

Alarm Signaling Systems

Closed-Circuit Television

Lighting

Illumination

Lamps

Lighting Equipment

From a security perspective, three major purposes of lighting are to create a psychological deterrent to intrusion, to enable detection, and to enhance the capabilities of CCTV systems. Good lighting is considered such an effective crime control method that the law, in many locales, requires buildings to maintain adequate lighting.

You can refer back to chapter 5 for more detail on lighting.

Countermeasures

Parking Lot and Vehicle Controls

Security Officers

Armed verses Unarmed Officers

Monitoring Officers

Contraband Detection

Protective Dogs

Communications and the Control Center

Employee access control at a building is easier when the parking lot is on one side of a building rather than surrounding the building. Vehicles should be parked away from shipping and receiving docks, garbage dumpsters, and other crime-prone locations.

Officers normally are assigned to stationary (fixed) posts or to patrol, foot or vehicle.

The question of whether to arm officers is controversial. Probably the best way to answer this question is to study the nature of the particular officer’s assignment.

Lower burglary and fire insurance premiums result from monitored patrols and insurance personnel subject the records to inspection.

Countermeasures

Parking Lot and Vehicle Controls

Security Officers

Armed verses Unarmed Officers

Monitoring Officers

Contraband Detection

Protective Dogs

Communications and the Control Center

Contraband is an item that is illegal to possess or prohibited from being brought into a specific area.

Various types of devices detect contraband. Metal detectors transmit a magnetic field that is disturbed by a metallic object, which sets off a light or audio signal. Two types of metal detectors are handheld and walkthrough. X-ray scanners use pulsed energy to penetrate objects that are shown on a color monitor.

Countermeasures

Parking Lot and Vehicle Controls

Security Officers

Armed verses Unarmed Officers

Monitoring Officers

Contraband Detection

Protective Dogs

Communications and the Control Center

Besides serving to detect contraband and protect people, canine (K-9) is classified as an animal barrier that can strengthen security at a protected site. An alarm dog patrols inside a fenced area or building and barks at the approach of a stranger but does not attempt to attack. These dogs retreat when threatened but continue to bark. Such barking may become so alarming to an intruder that he or she will flee. A guard or attack dog is similar to an alarm dog, with an added feature of attacking an intruder.

Countermeasures

Parking Lot and Vehicle Controls

Security Officers

Armed verses Unarmed Officers

Monitoring Officers

Contraband Detection

Protective Dogs

Communications and the Control Center

As emergency personnel know, the ability to communicate over distance is indispensable. Every officer should be equipped with a portable two-way radio; this communication aid permits officers to summon assistance and notify superiors about hazards and impending disasters. Usually, officers on assignment communicate with a control center that is the hub of the loss prevention program. FEMA 426:3–45 recommends redundant communications. The control center is the appropriate site for a console containing alarm indicators, CCTV monitors, door controls, the public address system, and an assortment of other components for communication and loss prevention (Fig. 9.15).