FAMILY AND CHILD

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The Family and the Child: A Psychological View

UMass Boston Psych 441-01C Spring 2022 Peggy Vaughan Preview: The Contextual Model and Related Data and Theories

Week 3: February 15 � Discussion as foll0w-up to Week 2

� Looking at theories and the need for updated and reimagined

approaches to research and clinical/ psychosocial work.

� Intimate psychological contexts and family culture: Family

stories and family communication

� How we review data and record and understand lived

experiences.

� The Contextual Model

� Essential terms and aspects of family culture and diversity

including race, ethnicity, religion, gender and class

(Socioeconomic Status -SES).

Context and Culture � Broad understandings are important in the child and

family context. � Giving attention to all contextual inf luences is needed

for any work with families focused on child and family life and well-being.

� How and when does context either support or hinder growth and positive outcomes?

� Have we shifted or readjusted our thinking about family contexts over the last several years?

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Context � Thought Question

� Is it genetic code or postal code that influence a child's life chances? (See related reading.)

� Does a better address change a child’s future? � What is self-fulfilling prophecy?

� Home and homeland � Address and zip code

� Neighborhood spaces � Schools

� Community centers and places of worship � Workplaces

� Resources and transportation � Safety

� Belongingness, acceptance, diversity

Self-fulfilling Prophecy � self-fulfilling prophecy: a belief or expectation that

helps to bring about its own fulfillment, as, for example, when a person expects nervousness to impair his or her performance in a job interview or when a teacher’s preconceptions about a student’s ability inf luence the child’s achievement for better or worse.

Psygmalian Effect

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Thoughts � The author Wes Moore stated, in regards to the other

Wes Moore's declaration that “people will fail if people do not expect them to succeed”, "I sympathized with him, but I recoiled from his ability to shed responsibility seamlessly and drape it at the feet of others.”

� The book addresses what would have made a difference, but also examines personal responsibility.

Context of Family and Culture � “In every conceivable manner, the family is the link to our past and a bridge to our future.”

Alex Haley

� “What else do we all want, each one of us, except to love and be loved, in our families, in our work, in all our relationships?” Dorothy Day

� “If we are too busy, if we are carried away every day by our projects, our uncertainty, our craving, how can we have the time to stop and look deeply into the situation-our own situation, the situation of our beloved one, the situation of our family and of our community, and the situation of our nation and of the other nations?” Thich Nhat Hanh

� “Feelings of worth can f lourish only in an atmosphere where individual differences are appreciated, mistakes are tolerated, communication is open, and rules are f lexible -- the kind of atmosphere that is found in a nurturing family.” Virginia Satir

� “I sustain myself with the love of family.” Maya Angelou

http://www.betterworld.net/quotes/family-quotes.htm

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Contextual Model: Key Terms � Culture: A group of persons who share particular habits, custom s, rituals, concepts and

interpretations; based on geography, religion, language, shared history, etc.

� Broadly culture includes ethnicity, race, class, gender, language, sexual orientation, generational status, religion and m igration experiences (Walsh, 2016, p. 251).

� Race: To determ ine an individual's race, people m ay use on e or m ore an cestry or biological bases, phenotypic or physical characteristics, and cultural bases, such as ideolog y and language. The Census Bureau defines race as a person 's self-iden tification w ith on e or m ore social groups. A n individual can report as W hite, Black or A frican A m erican, A sian, A m erican Indian and A laska Native, Native H awaiian and O ther Pacific Islander, or som e other race. Survey respondents m ay report m ultiple races.

� Ethnicity: The characteristics of a unique subgroup w ithin a culture. The term ethnicities is m ore broadly defined as “large groups of people classed according to com m on racial, national, tribal, religious, linguistic, or cultural origin or background.”

� Gender: A social, sym bolic construction that often ref lects the m eanings society associates w ith biological sex. Gender is broader and varies across cultures and w ithin specific cultures (Wood, 2013, p.302). Gender requires a very full inclusive and in-depth definition. https://genderspectrum .org/articles/understanding-gender

Thoughts on Disparity � “Be safe, be smart, be kind”, said Dr. Tedros Adhanom Ghebreyesus, WHO Director

General, in the first months of the pandemic.

� “This pandemic has magnified every existing inequality in our society – like systemic racism, gender inequality, and poverty,” said Melinda Gates in an interview in September.

� “We cannot make up for all the lives lost and dreams snatched, for all the suffering endured. But we can atone for it. We can acknowledge the crime. And we can do something to try to set things right, to ease the hardship and hurt of so many of our fellow Americans.” ― Nikole Hannah-Jones, The 1619 Project: Born on the Water

� “We need immediate and long-term solutions to address structural racism and health- related social needs that are among the root causes of health disparities. It is crucial for us to get outside our meeting rooms. If we have seen certain disparities, let’s talk to patients who are experiencing them and understand the root causes. Then we can get into prioritizing interventions we can co-develop with the community.” — Vivian Anugwom, health equity manager for Minneapolis-based Allina Health

Contextual Model Cultural Diversity and Family Diversity � Cultural Diversity: Broad and encompassing term that

considers � race, ethnicity, class (SES), religion, gender, sexual orientation,

education, family structure and life stage.

� Family Cultural Diversity: includes all of the above plus greater elaboration based on family structure and themes.

� Gendering Theories explored in Fine and Fincham (2013) � Social Learning Theory � Cognitive Theory � Performance Theory � Standpoint Theory

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Aspects of Gender Theory � Relational versus instrumental orientation

� Links to expression and communication linked to gender in relational contexts

� Concept of “relationship expert” � Parental and relational investment

� Contributions to sustaining families � Gender variation

� Gender construction in cultural context � Variation in cultures as far as gender patterns as

illustrated by Margaret Mead’s pioneering and debated work in New Guinea (1930’s).

Gender and Social Learning Theory

� Role of observation and reinforcement in learning � Key theorists and scholars: Mischel, Rotter & Bandura

� Parent role in gender construction � Children observing parents � Children imitating parental behaviors � Consequences: Parents’ rewards and punishments � Gender scripts

� Peer and media inf luences in gender construction � Children observing peers � Media exposure

Gender Theories (Fine and Fincham, 2013) � Cognitive Developmental Theory

� Link to social learning theory

� Gender constancy (Kohlberg) � Competence in roles; motivation to learn about and enact roles

� Performance Theory � Gender as something we do rather than have (Butler) � Dress, gestures and other practices

� Standpoint Theory � Gender and identity based on membership in groups including race

and class as well as gender. Link to consciousness; identity based on work and social or “lived” perspective.

� Social location and how experiences are learned and interpreted

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Broader Contexts � Socioeconomic status (SES)

� Poverty: federal poverty guideline lines; poverty level/index � Food insecure families

� Biological/Social/Environmental � Neurons to neighborhoods: children’s environments � Social, environmental, developmental circumstances; levels

of support and exposure to stress. � Considerations for viewing of video on school-aged children in

America � Family types and family experiences

� Diverse families; Transnational families

Broader Contexts � Acculturation and Assimilation: Interrelated Terms

� Assimilation � The process by which a minority group gradually adopts the

customs and attitudes of the dominant culture. � Acculturation

� The process of learning about a new culture and deciding what aspects are to be retained or sacrificed from the culture of origin.

Culture, Immigration & Cultural Change (Fine & Fincham, 2013) � Migration:

� Variations: Levels of education and immigration opportunities � Assimilation:

� Role of the dominant or mainstream culture and the experience of immigration

� Acculturation: � Changes at both individual and societal levels

� Adaptation: Notions of change and adjustment � May be either positive or negative

� Immigration paradox � Strengths and uniqueness of individuals and families that are linked

to culture; helpfulness when dealing with new and challenging situations.

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Acculturation (Fine & Fincham, 2013) � Ecological Perspectives (Examples: Bronfenbrenner and Berry)

� Bronfenbrenner � Levels within the system such as the micro and macro

� Berry � Focused on human activity, adjustment and accommodation; linked to

ecological, cultural and sociopolitical forces � Family as a vehicle for cultural transmission

� Multidimensional Perspectives (Examples; Marin and Berry) � Marin

� Acculturation occurs at various levels and is a complex process � Levels: Superficial, intermediate and significant levels

� Berry � Dual action framework for acculturation

� Individual and group level

Links to Family Studies � Family experiences in terms of Acculturation/Assimilation � Heterogeneity (differences) within family groups and

family members in terms of levels of acculturation and assimilation.

� How are family strategies embedded in culture over time? � What culturally-based knowledge is helpful for

understanding families? � How do we avoid too broad a use of cultural knowledge, in

terms of patterns of culture and generalizations? What are the dangers of assumptions and stereotypes?

Transnational Families

� Transnational families adopt separate living arrangements in two or more countries but retain close links with their homeland.

� This type of family arrangement has become increasingly common around the world. Reasons vary, but many reasons are economic-based.

� Research has focused on well-being of child and caregivers who may be separated.

� Given various arrangements research can be challenging.

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Living Arrangements � Families adopt transnational living arrangements for

diverse reasons such as � Work and Study

� Some families are separated because an adult family member is working or studying in the United States.

� Immigration and Asylum Seeking � Some families are separated during the immigration process. � This is not always voluntary and forced separations are a

monumental humanitarian concern.

Reasons for Separations � Reasons: Some families are separated by choice; others

by forces beyond their control � Political reasons: as with refugee families; need for

asylum and safety � Economic factors: Overseas work; migrant families � Educational factors: Family member pursuit of

education and study in another country � Relevant in today’s sociopolitical climate, given in U.S

this is a time of shifting policies and views toward immigration.

Separations and Reunions � Some families are reunited in a matter of months;

others not for years. � Some children are separated from one parent; others

are separated from both. � A key factor in recent years: Some families are

separated by choice; others by forces beyond their control. Safety can be compromised and young children are quite vulnerable in these cases. � Examples and data will be reviewed here and in later

classes.

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Week 3 Contextual Model

Defining Spirituality � Your ideas? � Spirituality is a broad overarching construct. This

construct refers to transcendent beliefs and practices lived out in daily life and relationships.

� “Spirituality is ‘the heart and soul’ of religion (Pargament, 2007), and can also be experienced outside religious structures through active investment in personal faith and in humanistic values by those who are not religious.” Source: F. Walsh, Ed. (2015, p. 348).

Spirituality, Culture, Family � Spirituality is a dimension of human experience.

� An expansion of systems theory, research, and practice to include the biopsychosocial– spiritual influences and their interplay in well-being and in suffering, healing, and resilience (Marks, 2005).

� “Like culture or ethnicity, spirituality involves streams of experience that flow through all aspects of life, from multigenerational heritage to shared belief systems and their expression in ongoing transactions, spiritual practices, and responses to adversity. It ebbs and surges in significance over the life course.” F. Walsh, Ed. (2015, p. 348.)

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Spirituality � Spirituality has neurobiological linkages and involves the most

genuine connection within the self. � Can be thought of as one’s inner spirit, center of being, or soul. � It connects to ethical values to consciousness, to responsibility

for and beyond oneself, with awareness of our interdependency. � Spirituality transcends the self as It fosters a sense of meaning,

wholeness, harmony, and connection. � This perspective is at the core of spiritual belief systems of ancient

indigenous peoples worldwide, as in Asian, African, Aboriginal, and Native American visions of the unity of all creation.”

From Walsh, 2015, Chapter 15, p. 348

Multi-faith Families

Religious Affiliation

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Religious Trends by Gender

Atheism by Gender

Religion and Gender

� http://www.pewforum.org/interactives/religion- gender-world/

� http://www.pewforum.org/2016/03/22/the-gender- gap-in-religion-around-the-world/

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Socioeconomic Status (SES): A factor in understanding family context � Socioeconomic status is the social standing or class of an individual or group. It

is often measured as a combination of education, income and occupation.(apa.org)Examinations of socioeconomic status often reveal inequities in access to resources, plus issues related to privilege, power and control.

� SES has often been used as a continuous research variable based on the subject’s education, income and occupation.

� Poverty has many definitions: In terms of income status in the United States: Poverty is the status or condition when an individual’s or a family’s income falls below the established poverty guidelines for a given year.

� Poverty line or level: least amount of income needed for a family to purchase minimally adequate food, clothing and shelter throughout the year.

� The United States measures poverty by an outdated standard developed in the 1960s – a poverty line or level/index http://www.nccp.org/faq.html#question2

Is a Poverty-level Income Enough to Support a Family?

Research suggests that, on average, families need an income equal to about two times the federal poverty threshold to meet their most basic needs.

In 2019, families with incomes below this level are referred to as low income: •$51,852 for a family of four with two children •$41,156 for a family of three with one child •$35,244 for a family of two with one child

These dollar amounts approximate the average minimum income families need to make ends meet, but actual expenses vary greatly by locality.

NCCP: National Center on Children in Poverty

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The 2022 Federal Poverty Guidelines Family Size • $18,310 for a family of two • $27,750 for a family of four • $37,190 for a family of six • $46,630 for a family of eight

• For families/households with more than 8 persons, add $4,720 for each additional person. • In 2020, there were 37.2 million people in poverty,

approximately 3.3 million more than in 2019. • https://aspe.hhs.gov/topics/poverty-economic-

mobility/poverty-guidelines

Poverty Data (National Center for Children Poverty, 2021) � Among all children under 18 years in the US, 38 percent live

in low- income families and 17 percent— approximately one in five—are poor. This means that children are overrepresented among our nation’s poor; they represent 23 percent of the population but comprise 32 percent of all people in poverty. Many more children live in families with incomes just above the poverty threshold

� The percentage of low-income children (both poor and near poor) decreased from 45 percent in 2010 to 38 percent in 2019 and has decreased from a high of 46 percent in 2012 (See next slide).

� Source: NCCP 2021 Poverty Fact Sheet: https://www.nccp.org/wp- content/uploads/2021/03/NCCP_FactSheets_All- Kids_FINAL-2.pdf

NCCP Data � Percentage of Children in Low-Income and Poor

Families by Age, 2019

Percent (%)

Low income

Poo r

Deep poverty

40 40%

4.3 m il 40%

4.6 m il 39%

9.2 m il

30 35%

8.6 m il

20 18%

1.9 m il 18% 2 m il

17% 4 m il

10 15%

3.6 m il 9%

933,14 8

8% 931,45

10 Under 3

Ages 3- 5

7% 1.7 m il

Ages 6-11

6% 1.5 m il

Ages 12–17

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Children by Family Income

Near Poor 21%

Above low

income 62%

Lowincome 38%

Poor 17%

Note: Above low income is defined as at or above 200 percent of the federal poverty threshold (FPT), poor is defined as below 100 percentof FPT, and near poor is between 100 percent and 199 percent of the FPT. The low- income category includes both the poor and thenear poor.

Child Poverty 2010-2019 � Figure 2: Children Living in Low-Income and Poor

Families, 2010–2019 Percent (%)

50

40 Near poor 100–200%

FPL30

20 Poor 50–100% FPL10 Deep poverty

Less than 50% FPL0’10 ’11 ’12 ’13 ’14 ’15 ’16 ’17 ’18 ’19

Low Income by Nativity

45% 8.1 million children with immigrant parents live in low-income families.

35% 18.8 million children with US-born parents live in low-income families.

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Poverty by Race and Ethnicity � Percentages of low-income and poor children varies by

race and ethnicity Percent (%)

80

Lowincome Poor Deeppoverty

70

60 58%

50 53% 55%

40

30 36%

30% 31%

20 26% 23% 25%

10 14% 15% 16%

10% 10% 9% 7%

0 4% 3% White Black Latino Asian Native

American Other

Poverty and the Impacts � People and families are considered poor when they lack the economic

resources necessary to experience a minimal living standard. � Official U.S. Census Bureau statistics estimate that 40 million persons,

12.3 percent of the total population, were poor in the United States in 2017.

� The topic of poverty is widely considered a cause for national action because poor families often encounter material hardships and reduced well-being and because children who grow up in poor households are less likely to thrive as adults.

*Source: http://aspe.hhs.gov/poverty

Related data on poverty

http://nccp.org/topics/measuringpoverty.html

u Federal programs to address poverty include Head Start and Early Head Start, WIC (Supplemental Nutritional Program for Women, Infants and Children), and TANF (Transitional Assistance for Needy Families).

Resources � State by State Data via NCCP

Massachusetts Profile: https://www.nccp.org/ecprofile/?state=MA

� International Data via UNICEF:

Across the world, about 1 billion children are multidimensionally poor, meaning they lack necessities as basic as nutrition or clean water. Some 150 million additional children have been plunged into multidimensional poverty due to COVID-19.

https://www.nccp.org/ecprofile/?state=MA

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Thought Questions: Family Diversity � Questions

� How is family context and diversity defined and understood in disciplines such as psychology, sociology, medicine, social policy, etc.?

� What impacts the framing and meanings related to the scope of family context and diversity?