movie review

145.218

Development & Inequality

Lesson Week 3-5

Nicole Ashley School of People, Environment & Planning

Cadey Korson

School of People, Environment & Planning

2019

Acknowledgement

This course was originally written and taught by Regina Scheyvens, and she developed much of the course material.

Since 2012 the course has been updated and revised by Sharon McLennan.

This material is protected by copyright and has been copied by and solely for the educational purposes of the

University under licence. You may not sell, alter or further reproduce or distribute any part of this course

pack/material to any other person. Where provided to you in electronic format, you may only print from it for your

own private study and research. Failure to comply with the terms of this warning may expose you to legal action for

copyright infringement and/or disciplinary action by the University.

145.218 Study Guide Module 1 Ethnicity i

Contents Readings: .................................................................................................................................................................. iii

Week 3: Race, Ethnicity and Development ............................................................................................................. 1

Introduction............................................................................................................................................................... 1

Learning Outcomes ................................................................................................................................................... 2

Warm-up Exercise ..................................................................................................................................................... 3

Ethnic Inequality........................................................................................................................................................ 4

Why Are We Interested In Ethnicity In This Course? ........................................................................................... 4

Ethnicity and poverty ........................................................................................................................................... 4

Definitions Of Social Groupings ............................................................................................................................ 6

Week 3: Readings and Activities ............................................................................................................................... 7

Race and development......................................................................................................................................... 7

Ethnodevelopment ............................................................................................................................................. 10

Summary ................................................................................................................................................................. 11

Week 3 References .................................................................................................................................................. 12

Week 4: Indigenous Peoples & ‘The Development Project’ .................................................................................. 13

Learning Outcomes ................................................................................................................................................. 13

Who are indigenous peoples? ................................................................................................................................. 13

Issues at the root of conflicts between indigenous peoples and states .................................................................. 14

1. Definition, membership and legal status .................................................................................................. 14

2. Land, territory and resources ................................................................................................................... 15

3. Economic Development ............................................................................................................................ 18

4. Language, education and culture ............................................................................................................. 18

5. Indigenous law and social organisation .................................................................................................... 19

6. Self-government, autonomy and self-determination ............................................................................... 19

Week 4: Readings and Activities ............................................................................................................................. 19

Optional Videos .................................................................................................................................................. 23

Summary ................................................................................................................................................................. 24

Week 4 References .................................................................................................................................................. 25

Week 5: Ethnic Conflict and Separatist Movements .............................................................................................. 27

Learning Outcomes ................................................................................................................................................. 27

Ethnicity & Conflict .................................................................................................................................................. 27

ii 145.218 Study Guide Module 1 Ethnicity

Separatism & Secession ..................................................................................................................................... 28

Week 5: Readings and Activities ............................................................................................................................. 31

Internal Colonialism ........................................................................................................................................... 33

Optional case study West Papua ............................................................................................................................ 37

Summary ................................................................................................................................................................. 40

Week 5 References .................................................................................................................................................. 40

145.218 Study Guide Module 1 Ethnicity iii

Readings: WEEK 3 Kothari, U. (2006). An agenda for thinking about ‘race’ in development. Progress in Development Studies 6(1): 9–23. Willis, K. (2011). Ethnodevelopment. In Theories and Practices of Development (2nd ed. pp. 133- 138) New York: Routledge. Optional Chernela, J. (2012). Indigenous Rights and Ethno-Development: The Life of an Indigenous Organization in the Rio Negro of Brazil. Tipití: Journal of the Society for the Anthropology of Lowland South America, 9:2 WEEK 4 Bodley, J. H. (2008). Progress and indigenous peoples. In Victims of Progress (5th ed. pp. 15-36) Lanham: AltaMira Press. Briggs, J. (2005). The use of indigenous knowledge in development. Progress in Development Studies 5 (2): 99-114. Optional Poata-Smith (2013). Inequality and Māori. In Rashbrooke, M. (ed.) Inequality: A New Zealand Crisis (pp. 148-164). Wellington: Bridget Williams Books, WEEK 6 Handelman, H. (2013). The politics of cultural pluralism and ethnic conflict. In The Challenge of Third World Development (7th ed. pp. 106-141). Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Pearson Regan, A. (2013). Bougainville: Conflict Deferred? In R. Jeffrey, E. Aspinall & A. Regan (eds.) Diminishing conflicts in Asia and the Pacific: Why Some Subside and Others Don’t (pp. 119-136) New York: Routledge.

145.218 Study Guide Weeks 3-5 1

Week 3: Race, Ethnicity and Development

Introduction This module examines inequalities associated with ethnicity, where one group is disadvantaged in comparison to another because of its ethnic characteristics. I'm sure you have seen images such as the ones below1 - perhaps even in your own or a friend's travel photos. Although this module focuses on indigenous peoples and on land, resources and conflict, these images remind us how pervasive and normalised ethnic inequalities are. What do you think the cumulative impact of these types of representation might be?

We will explore the impact of this type of imagery, and the racialized discourses of development in the first topic of this module, ‘Race, Ethnicity and Development’. This topic gives an outline of some of the terminology (what is the difference between race, ethnicity,

1 Images from fashion magazines, posted on Sociological Images. http://thesocietypages.org/socimages/2008/09/04/privilege-and-poverty-in-vogue-india/ http://thesocietypages.org/socimages/2012/07/05/more-on-whiteness-in-fashion/

2 145.218 Study Guide: Introductory Module

indigeneity etc), and explores the continuing legacy of colonialism and the persistence of forms of racial difference in development. In the second topic of this module we look at 'Indigenous Peoples and the Development Project', and how in the past 'development' interventions sought to modernise indigenous peoples, and failed to recognise their land rights, value their culture, or seek to empower them. Thankfully, voices of indigenous peoples all around the world have led to changes in the practice of development. The third topic in this module looks at 'Ethnic Conflict'. This is a highly relevant topic in our region. Timor Leste separated (finally) from Indonesia in and became a sovereign state in 2002 after many years of oppression and conflict. They are still struggling to rebuild their state. In Bougainville, Papua New Guinea, a major conflict emerged related to claims of Bougainvilleans that they wished to separate from the state and have their own country. You can read more about this in the Study Guide. If you are interested, the novel 'Mr Pip' by Lloyd Jones will give additional insights into life during the conflict for ordinary Papua New Guineans (the movie version is one of the choices for the second assignment). Also, please watch the video in the supplimentary material, 'Blood and Treasure', which will update you on the Bougainvillean situation. Many of the current conflicts going on in the world are not between states (countries), but between ethnic groups or a between a state and an ethnic group which is not happy with their treatment by that state.

Learning Outcomes At the end of this topic you will:

• be able to define the terms indigenous peoples, tribal peoples, ethnic groups, minorities,

nations, and states; and understand the roots and uses of the term ‘race’ and how it

applies to development.

• understand the legacy of notions of ‘race’ in development

• be able to describe ethnodevelopment and how it can address racial discrimination and

the remnants of colonialism, and enable ethnic groups to revive their culture.

145.218 Study Guide Weeks 3-5 3

Warm-up Exercise Think about what ethnicity means to you. What are your experiences of it?

Regina’s experience: The significance of ethnic identity and the potential for ethnic conflict to occur have become more obvious to me in recent years. As a child growing up I always told my friends that my mother was ‘Yugoslavian’. I always knew, however, that the language which she and her family spoke, Slovenian, was only spoken in the northern part of the country. Now I tell people that my mother is from Slovenia. Slovenia was the first state to successfully secede from the former Yugoslavia.

One reason why they seceded without the bloodshed experienced in Bosnia/Herzegovina was that Slovenia was made up predominantly of one ethnic group, a group with a shared sense of history, a shared language and a shared religion. There were no significant ‘pockets’ of other ethnic groups or religions who wished to question the split into a separate state. This is quite a different situation from that which exists in the other parts of the former Yugoslavia. Those over a certain age may recall the conflicts portrayed on our TV screens in the late 1990s showing opposition between the Kosovars and the Serbs and the Muslim Bosnians and the Serbs. Ethnic conflict will be discussed further in week 6.

4 145.218 Study Guide: Introductory Module

Ethnic Inequality Why Are We Interested In Ethnicity In This Course?

1. Because ethnic differences and the notion of race underpinned colonialism, which in

turn has had a long-lasting impact on global inequalities and on development.

2. Because development initiatives which fail to consider ethnic groups have had poor

results in the past and have often involved worsening the life conditions of minority

groups.

3. Because ethnic conflicts impact on the development potential of the countries in which

they occur, and in those which receive refugees as a result.

Ethnicity and poverty

Throughout the world poverty falls especially heavily on minority ethnic groups and indigenous populations. The following excerpt from Todaro and Smith (2015, p.255) emphasises the global nature of ethnic inequality and poverty:

Some 40% of the world's nation-states have more than five sizable ethnic populations, one or more of which faces serious economic, political, and social discrimination. In recent years, domestic conflicts and even civil wars have arisen out of ethnic groups' perceptions that they are losing out in the competition for limited resources and job opportunities. The poverty problem is even more serious for indigenous peoples, whose numbers exceed 300 million in over 5,000 different groups in more than 70 countries.

Although detailed data on the relative poverty of minority ethnic and indigenous peoples are difficult to obtain (for political reasons, few countries wish to highlight these problems), researchers have compiled data on the poverty of indigenous people in Latin America. The results clearly demonstrate that a majority of indigenous groups live in extreme poverty and that being indigenous greatly increases the chances that an individual will be illiterate, in poor health, and unemployed. For example, the research has shown that in Mexico, over 80% of the indigenous population is poor, compared to 18% of the nonindigenous population…. similar situations exist in countries such as Bolivia, Guatemala, and Peru (not to mention Native American populations in the United States and Canada). Moreover, a 2006 World Bank study confirmed that all too little progress had been made. Whether we speak of Tamils in Sri Lanka, Karens in Myanmar, Untouchables in India, or Tibetans in China, the poverty plight of minorities is as serious as that of indigenous peoples.

145.218 Study Guide Weeks 3-5 5

Todaro and Smith make a distinction here between indigenous peoples and minority ethnic groups. The next exercises explore the meaning of these, and related terms.

Before exploring the definitions, what do you think are important characteristics of ethnic groups?

After you have listed your ideas (come on, no cheating now!), consult the list below and ensure that all of these ideas were covered:

• shared culture and history (although outside influences such as state boundaries that

divide or religious conversion, for example, should be considered);

• agreement on land boundaries which it has traditionally occupied (there is usually oral

or written histories of ties to the area, sacred sites and customs regulating access to land

and other resources;

• shared language (although some conflicting groups, like Hutus and Tutsis, also share a

language); and

• a socio-political organisation which pre-dates the state and remains separate from the

state.

Write down the names of three tribes/minorities/ethnic groups/races and then note which of the following categories you think they are best described as:

• indigenous peoples

• tribal peoples

• ethnic groups

• minorities

• nations

• states

6 145.218 Study Guide: Introductory Module

Your group Category E.g. Māori indigenous peoples 1. 2. 3. Now read the definitions (in the box below) and see if you were correct in your judgements. Make corrections if needed. Definitions Of Social Groupings

Indigenous peoples Culturally distinct groups that have occupied a region longer than other immigrant groups or colonists. Tribal peoples A distinct cultural group that retains a strong sense of identity (with a separate language and culture), a territorial base, and a self-contained socio-political organisation that predates the creation of contemporary states. Ethnic groups May be minorities or majorities. They are culturally distinct groups within a state that retain their cultural identity while accepting and operating within the political, institutional framework of the state. They can be immigrant populations (Jews, overseas Chinese, South Asians in Britain) or assimilated peoples who have lost or abandoned their political autonomy to become participants in larger states. They have made an accommodation within the state and they do not seek autonomy. They accept the state’s authority on political issues BUT they may reassert their identity if states attempt to destroy their cultural/religious/economic base. Minorities Any identifiable group which does not constitute a majority within a state (may also be a racial, tribal, ethnic or religious group). The term minorities is often used to refer to groups that do not have political power and therefore have limited access to economic opportunities and social services. Thus majority groups which do not have access to

145.218 Study Guide Weeks 3-5 7

power may be thought of as minority groups (e.g. Indians in Guatemala, Bolivia or Peru; Hutu in Burundi). Minorities can, therefore, be either numerical or sociological. Nations A group of people with a strong cultural and political identity that is both self-defined and acknowledged by others. They have exercised political control in the past and still have the institutions necessary to do this. State boundaries rarely reflect the areas traditionally occupied by nations (e.g. Kurds). States Commonly refers to a country, a political entity with clearly recognised boundaries. People within these boundaries are referred to by the name of the country, for example, Yugoslavs, even though in many countries people do not identify with the state. For example, in Indonesia certain groups would call themselves Timorese or West Papuans, rather than Indonesians. European colonisers created arbitrary boundaries. People were rarely consulted as to if they wished to belong to a state. Most states are multinational. When states refuse to acknowledge this, let alone to grant political or economic power to certain ethnic groups, the potential for ethnic conflict and separatist movements is high. Source: Clay, J.W. (1989)

Week 3: Readings and Activities Race and development

You might note that the term ‘race’ is not included in the list above. There are some very good reasons for this. Although often used interchangeably with ethnicity, race is a highly disputed term. It is the (mistaken) idea that “one or more genetic traits can be used to identify distinct and exclusive categories of people” (Greiner, 2014, p.164). It has its roots in colonialism, where physical and biological differences were used to explain cultural differences, and to justify classifying and ranking groups of the basis of those differences (Norton & Walton- Roberts, 2006, p.216). These days few, if any, scientists would support the view that there is any biological basis to the concept of race. Rather, we now understand that race is a social construction, which Greiner (2014, p.164) defines as “an idea or phenomenon that does not exist in nature but is created and given meaning by people”.

8 145.218 Study Guide: Introductory Module

Although race is a socially constructed term, it still holds considerable power, evident in the way in which it is widely used (think of the current ethnic tensions in the USA and how these are described in the media). As Kothari argues in Reading 3, the notion of race underpinned colonialism, which in turn has had a long-lasting impact on global inequalities and development. It is therefore important that we explore the legacy of colonialism and racial discrimination in development. Reading 5

Kothari, U. (2006). An agenda for thinking about ‘race’ in development. Progress in Development Studies 6(1): 9–23.

In this reading Kothari highlights the legacy of colonial meanings of ‘race’ in development theory and practice, noting that colonial rule was justified through a racialized discourse that “positioned an uncivilised other against a civilised white ‘self’” (p.11). Nineteenth century scientific racism, which suggested certain groups were biologically inferior, provided further legitimacy to conquest and exploitation, and the resulting hierarchical and exploitative colonial system. Although ideas of biological superiority disappeared in the mid-twentieth century, Kathari argues that ideas of cultural difference substituted in much the same form as earlier arguments about ‘race’, and that these inequalities persist in the development sphere.

On page 12, Kothari asks how have “colonial imageries and narratives been recycled and reformulated in contemporary discourses and practices of development”? She suggests

this occurs through the use of binaries, the process of othering, homogenisation, and through the resulting discourse and representations of development. What do these terms mean, and how do they contribute to inequalities in development? Add these to your glossary if they are new terms for you.

Binaries

145.218 Study Guide Weeks 3-5 9

othering homogenisation discourse and representations

Kothari argues that in development practice a key binary exists between “those who are thought to possess expertise and knowledge, and those to whom it should be

imparted” (p.15), and she describes her experience as a non-white development consultant. She also highlights White’s (p.16) statement that “my whiteness opened me doors, jumped me queues, filled me plates and invited me to speak”. Has your racial identity impacted on your work life, travel experiences and opportunities? If so, how?

10 145.218 Study Guide: Introductory Module

Ethnodevelopment

Reading 6

Willis, K. (2011). Ethnodevelopment. In Theories and Practices of Development (2nd ed. pp. 133-138) New York: Routledge.

The legacy of colonialism is undeniable and, as next week’s discussion of indigenous peoples will highlight, many ethnic groups continue to face considerable barriers to development and well-being. However this is increasingly recognised and is being addressed in newer approaches to development. This reading from Willis’ book Theories and Practices of Development highlights one such approach, ethno-development. This approach recognises the need to eliminate all forms of racial discrimination, ethnocide and the remnants of colonialism, and aims to enable ethnic groups to revive their culture and to resist further exploitation and oppression (King, 2015, p.209).

How does ethnodevelopment address Kothari’s criticisms of development? Reflect on this in relation to Hettne’s four main aspects of ethnodevelopment which Willis lists on

p. 134.

145.218 Study Guide Weeks 3-5 11

Optional reading Chernela, J. (2012). Indigenous Rights and Ethno-Development: The Life of an Indigenous Organization in the Rio Negro of Brazil. Tipití: Journal of the Society for the Anthropology of Lowland South America, 9:2

This (optional!) article provides some insights into the strengths and challenges of ethno- development. It describes an indigenous organization founded after a successful campaign to end the trafficking of indigenous Tukanoan women from the Upper Rio Negro in Brazil, in order to help women plan and manage their own development, including cultural heritage activities, institution building, revenue development, health and legal services, community, and other initiatives. It also provides a more in depth explanation of ethno-development:

In 2002 Davis enumerated the fundamental principles of indigenous development. He held that ethno-development must be “culturally appropriate;” it must be “based on full consideration of the options preferred by the indigenous peoples.” They should take into account “local patterns of social organization, religious beliefs and resource use;” and it “should support production systems that are well adapted to the needs and environment of the indigenous peoples.” Mechanisms should be included in such plans for the “participation by indigenous peoples in decision making throughout project planning, implementation and evaluation,” and where indigenous peoples have their own representative organizations these should be used as “channels for communicating local preferences”

Summary Ethnic inequality is the result of distinctions between ethnic groups in a society, often the result of perceived racial characteristics. Although there is no biological basis to the notion of race, the social construction of racial difference results in unequal treatment and opportunities between ethnic groups, particularly where some groups are considered superior to others. This is particularly problematic in development, which has roots in European colonialism, and where there continues to be a clear binary between development practitioners and experts and the recipients of development help – one which has strongly racial undertones. Recent development approaches such as ethno-development seek to address this, ensuring the control of development trajectories is returned to, and retained by, ethnic groups. As the next couple of topics will show, this is not without its own problems, however it is vital that ethnic and cultural diversity, self-determination, and mutual respect are embedded in any

12 145.218 Study Guide: Introductory Module

development endeavour if the devastating effects of ethnic inequality and conflict are to be avoided. The importance of ethnic control of development processes, and the critique of western, expert (and yes, white) – led development leaves us with a conundrum. What is the role of international development agencies and organisations? What is your role as an English- speaking, western-educated individual? This course doesn’t provide answers to these questions, rather we hope that the remainder of the course materials and readings will stimulate and challenge your thinking about the ways in which you can contribute to a better world.

Week 3 References Clay, J.W. (1989). Epilogue: The Ethnic Future of Nations. Third World Quarterly. 11:4, 223-33. Greiner, A.L. (2014) Race and racism. In Visualizing Human Geography (pp.164-167). Danvers, MA: Wiley King, E. (2015). International approaches to governing ethnic diversity: Can development aid be a tool in this toolkit?. In Boulden, J., & Kymlicka, W. (Eds.). International Approaches to Governing Ethnic Diversity. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Kothari, U. (2006). An agenda for thinking about ‘race’ in development. Progress in Development Studies 6(1): 9–23. Norton, W. & Walton-Roberts, M. (2006). Power, identity, global landscapes. In Cultural Geography: Environments, Landscapes, Identities, Inequalities (pp. 213-245). Oxford: Oxford University Press. Todaro, M. & Smith, S. (2015). Ethnic minorities, indigenous populations, and poverty. In Economic Development (12th ed., p.255). Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Pearson Education Ltd. Willis, K. (2011). Ethnodevelopment. In Theories and Practices of Development (2nd ed. pp. 133-138) New York: Routledge.

145.218 Study Guide Weeks 3-5 13

Week 4: Indigenous Peoples & ‘The Development Project’

Learning Outcomes At the end of this topic you will:

• realise why indigenous peoples have often responded negatively to attempts at

‘development’ or ‘progress’.

• be able to provide examples of effective ways in which indigenous peoples have

managed their resources.

• understand why social movements emerge and their value to indigenous people.

• know what ‘alternative development options’ may constitute and why they may provide

a more appropriate form of development for indigenous peoples than conventional

development efforts.

Who are indigenous peoples? There is no formal, universal definition for ‘indigenous peoples’, although there have been many attempts to define them. The most commonly accepted definition, used by the United Nations amongst others, is by Martínez Cobo (cited in United Nations, 2009, p4):

Indigenous communities, peoples and nations are those which, having a historical continuity with pre-invasion and pre-colonial societies that developed on their territories, consider themselves distinct from other sectors of the societies now prevailing on those territories, or parts of them. They form at present non-dominant sectors of their societies and are determined to preserve, develop and transmit to future generations their ancestral territories, and their ethnic identity, as the basis of their continued existance as peoples with their own cultural patterns, social institutions and legal system.

There are some limitations to this definition. In particular it is focused on the original inhabitants of the land and may exclude other marginalised groups. However it marks a significant change in the way in which indigenous people are understood. Dominant groups

14 145.218 Study Guide: Introductory Module

have often represented indigenous peoples in paternalistic or evolutionary ways. Thus in 1957 the International Labour Organisation2 described indigenous peoples in the following way: Members of a tribal and semi-tribal population in independent countries whose social and economic conditions are at a less advanced stage than the stage reached by other sections of the national community. While this definition makes a generalised statement about the position of indigenous groups within society (what do you think is meant by ‘less advanced’?) and as such is no longer considered appropriate, many indigenous groups continue to:

• Be on the bottom rungs of the socio-economic scale. • Make up a large number of the unemployed. • Be over-represented in menial occupations. • Lack political power. • Be less educated than most. • Be in poorer health than most.

This week’s topic explores the inequality experienced by indigenous peoples, first defining and explaining the concept of indigeneity, the looking at concerns related to land, economic development, language, education and indigenous law and society.

Issues at the root of conflicts between indigenous peoples and states From Stavenhagen (1990: Ch.8)

1. Definition, membership and legal status

Conflict can occur when the enjoyment of rights and privileges (such as the right to vote or hold a passport) or, conversely, the limitation of rights, is linked to membership of a particular ethnic group. For example, where preferential employment is given to members of a particular indigenous group.

2 http://www.ilo.org/ilolex/cgi-lex/convde.pl?R104

145.218 Study Guide Weeks 3-5 15

2. Land, territory and resources

The land issue has become the principal claim of indigenous peoples in recent times. This issue has been at the forefront of conflicts between states and indigenous peoples ever since European expansion in the 15th and 16th centuries. The European explorers considered that the ‘newly discovered’ territories lacked owners or inhabitants and thus they claimed vast areas of land for themselves, their rationale being either that this was their right as discovers of the land or that they could make productive use of ‘idle’ land. For example Burger (1987:2) quotes the governor of Roraima in Brazil who was irate at protests about the taking of Yanomami Indian lands: An area as rich as this, with gold, diamonds and uranium, cannot afford the luxury of preserving half a dozen Indian tribes which are holding up development.

Land is very important to indigenous peoples because it is typically their source of sustenance: of food, medicine and materials for shelter. It is also the basis of cultural identity, being home to ancestors, containing their history and having spiritual significance. Planners and government officials have ignored such significance and therefore cannot understand why monetary compensation cannot make up for loss of the land.

Indigenous peoples often find it difficult to protect their land because they do not have legal tenure of the land, despite the fact that their occupation of such land may predate its declaration as forest reserve or crown land. The government may even say that they are illegally occupying the land. This allows the government to go ahead with, or to grant concessions to companies for, logging operations, mining exploration, resettlement programmes or dam construction. For example, most governments claim that subsoil resources belong to the state so indigenous peoples are powerless to stop activities such as mining. Because mining destroys landscapes, it can be seen by indigenous peoples as a physical assault on the land. It often destroys sacred sites. For example, in Australia an entire sacred mountain was mined and shipped out in the form of iron ore without any consultation with its Aboriginal owners. Displacement can have devastating effects on indigenous communities. At stake is an entire cultural heritage which is often closely intertwined with a unique environment.

Another form of invasion of land occurs when indigenous people occupy border lands which are considered strategic, or sensitive areas. In these cases, the military will often set up bases among people who have lived in the area peacefully for generations.

16 145.218 Study Guide: Introductory Module

What Does Land Mean To Indigenous Peoples? (From Burger, 1987:13-16)

• contains their history and sense of identity

• ensures their viability as an independent people

• provides a means for their sustenance (food, medicine, building materials)

• sacred quality

The Earth is the foundation of Indigenous Peoples. It is the seat of spirituality, the foundation from which our cultures and languages flourish. The Earth is our historian, the keeper of events and the bones of our forefathers. Earth provides us food, medicine, shelter and clothing. It is the source of our independence; it is our Mother. We do not dominate Her: we must harmonize with Her. Next to shooting Indigenous Peoples, the surest way to kill us is to separate us from our part of the Earth. (World Council of Indigenous Peoples, quoted in Stavenhagen, 1990:101).

Western perceptions of land

• land that is not owned by title deed is regarded as unclaimed and is seized

• natural resources left untouched by indigenous peoples are considered to be

wasted

• economic activities which do not extract the greatest commercial benefit

(e.g. growing foodstuffs rather than cash crops such as coffee) are judged as

inefficient and primitive.

Because of the material greed of Westerners, and their scathing attitude towards activities which do not extract the maximum gain from the land, indigenous people across the world are struggling to protect their land.

145.218 Study Guide Weeks 3-5 17

18 145.218 Study Guide: Introductory Module

3. Economic Development

Once again, because they occupy the last large, unexploited tracts of land on the planet, indigenous people have been increasingly subject to the effects of economic development projects such as dams, mines and forestry. These projects, designed to benefit the local elites or city dwellers, often result in displacement of local peoples, desecration of sacred sites, disruption of social systems and destruction of habitats.

4. Language, education and culture

Language identifies many indigenous groups of people-groups use language to express their identity. However in the process of colonisation, the languages of indigenous people were downplayed, being said to be ‘dialects’. A dominant group can thus impose its language on subordinate groups. Government policies have been designed to help the languages of minorities to disappear; they do not receive legal recognition, they are not taught in schools, they cannot be used in official dealings, and those who speak only these languages are seen as being primitive. Because women have less opportunities to learn the new language of the dominant group, they become marginalised.

Perhaps the worst cumulative effect of such treatment is to make indigenous people ashamed of their own language, which essentially means to be ashamed of their identity.

Complaints have been made about:

• the denigration of tribal cultures for tourism purposes, with complete disregard for

authenticity

• the violation of sacred sites with, for example, stolen artefacts ending up in

museums and private collections around the world

• lack of respect for traditional dress or names (e.g. in 1988 a Brazilian judge said he

would not deal with Indians who were dressed in ethnic attire; they replied to the

judge that they would not deal with him either unless he were dressed in ethnic

attire too)

Because of this language rights have become an important issue among indigenous groups in recent times. They will often demand that teaching at schools takes place in their own language, or for the development of schools which teach in indigenous languages – the kohunga reo movement is one such example.

145.218 Study Guide Weeks 3-5 19

5. Indigenous law and social organisation

The maintenance of traditional laws, customs and political structures enables indigenous peoples to retain their identity in the face of assaults by outsiders.

Most national legal systems do not, however, recognise indigenous legal and political institutions, claiming there must be one law for all of the people. Human rights activists, on the other hand, argue that equality before one law does not exist for indigenous peoples and that one of the best ways in which they can defend their human rights is by using their own institutions.

6. Self-government, autonomy and self-determination

Most governments have been reluctant to grant any form of political autonomy to indigenous peoples. It has even been a struggle for indigenous peoples to get governments to honour the treaties which were signed during colonial times.

Because of a long history of exploitation and denial of rights, many indigenous peoples are now becoming increasingly resistant to outside manipulation. They have demanded new kinds of policies of their states: policies which have demanded self-reliance and autonomy for indigenous peoples.

Conflicts between the state and indigenous peoples are often a case of a clash of two unequal societies: one is politically and economically powerful, is tied into the world economy, while the other is marginal to international scheming, has a self-reliant economy with simple technology and low levels of production, and political organisations do not extend much beyond the community. The weakest is the loser (Burger, 1987:3).

Week 4: Readings and Activities Consider the situation of indigenous people you are familiar with. You may like to look at the Maori of New Zealand. How has the group you are looking at been marginalised, politically, economically, socially and culturally?

20 145.218 Study Guide: Introductory Module

Reading 7

Reading 5: Bodley, J. H. (2008). Progress and indigenous peoples. In Victims of Progress (5th ed. pp. 15-36) Lanham: AltaMira Press.

Describe the genocide faced by inhabitants of the Chittagong Hill Tracts in Bangladesh.

Define Ethnocentrism.

145.218 Study Guide Weeks 3-5 21

Provide examples of how ‘ethnocentrism’ can threaten the well-being of indigenous people.

Why is western-style ‘progress’ not necessarily desired by tribal peoples?

Optional reading Poata-Smith (2013) Inequality and Māori. In Rashbrooke, M. Inequality: A New Zealand Crisis. Bridget Williams Books

While this reading is not compulsory, it is highly recommended, bringing together many of the ideas and concerns we have discussed so far in this course. As you read it, think about the impact 'progress' has had on Māori communities over the past two centuries, and consider the solutions offered by NZ governments (previous and current). Do you think current policy and practise will lead to greater equality? If not, what do you think could work?

22 145.218 Study Guide: Introductory Module

Reading 8

Reading 6: Briggs, J. (2005). The use of indigenous knowledge in development. Progress in Development Studies 5(2): 99-114.

What factors have led to renewed interest in the place of indigenous knowledge in development?

Provide examples of useful indigenous knowledge relating to farming (pp. 101-102, p. 105).

Briggs suggests that indigenous knowledge and western scientific knowledge systems need not be seen as polar opposites, or binaries. How can community development benefit from drawing on both systems of knowledge?

145.218 Study Guide Weeks 3-5 23

Optional Videos

One of the most shocking examples of ethnic inequality and indigenous peoples is very close to home. The treatment of the Aboriginal people of Australia has been shocking, and it continues to be problematic. The optional videos here will help give you an insight into the injustice faced by the

indigenous peoples of Australia, and the reasons why decreasing inequality is so important yet such a challenge. Utopia

In this recent documentary, award-winning Australian journalist John Pilger draws on his long association with Aboriginal people to present an "epic portrayal of the oldest continuous human culture, and an investigation into a suppressed colonial past and rapacious present". Pilger explores the injustices faced by the indigenous peoples of Utopia, a region of northern Australia,

Examples of strategies that can sustain the development of indigenous peoples and their environments

• Governments can establish processes for monitoring environmental destruction

in areas where local people rely on the environment; they can legislate to restrict

potentially damaging activities, e.g. restricting logging companies to removing

10% of the logs in an area.

• Local protests (blocking roads used by logging companies; petitioning

government).

• International protests (trade boycotts; political pressure).

• Establishing protected areas (national parks, wildlife sanctuaries).

• Finding alternative ways of making money from the natural resource base (e.g.

butterfly farming; exporting resins and gums; walkabout sawmills; rattan; edible

nuts; plants with pharmaceutical applications).

• Nature tourism.

• Theatre groups which increase awareness of development issues can encourage

local people to initiate their own strategies to protect the environment.

24 145.218 Study Guide: Introductory Module

alerting viewers to a "very modern, very current apartheid-like situation – one that is taking place in one of the richest and most developed countries of the 21st century" (The London Film Review3). For a range of commentaries on this hard-hitting documentary see this Sydney Morning Herald article4. Rabbit proof fence

Alternatively, watch the film ‘Rabbit-Proof Fence. This 2003 movie portrays the racist imperialism that characterized the treatment of Aborigines by successive white governments. As recently as 1970, the practice of removing half-caste children from their parents and then re-educating them in the ways of white society was commonplace in Australia. Many of the policy makers behind this process saw that they were doing good by ‘enlightening’ the Aborigines and improving their health and educational opportunities, when in

reality they were hoping for the eventual demise of Aboriginal culture. Set in 1931, ‘Rabbit- Proof Fence’ tells the story of three brave young Aborigine girls as they seek to find their way home across 1500 miles of desert after being taken away from their families to a government- run ‘training camp’.

Summary Indigenous people are often marginalised communities within Third World countries, both ethnically, economically and politically. They are often geographically marginal too, occupying highland, forested areas or barren, desert environments. It is important, however, not to romanticise the plight of indigenous peoples, as some do when they suggest that indigenous societies were without fault or problem before contacted, or when they suggest that indigenous peoples would wish to return entirely to the ways of the past. Contact situations typically lead to indigenous groups wishing to add dimensions of the contact culture to their lives, and perhaps discarding some of their old practices. Meanwhile, there will be important aspects of their culture and heritage which they wish to retain. As an example, Melanesian peoples are often said to live in a state of ‘subsistence affluence’. While they typically own few material possessions and earn little income, the strong subsistence base to the economy (including fishing, agriculture and hunting) means that few people go hungry. In recent times, however, Melanesian peoples have been keen to earn some

3 http://www.thelondonfilmreview.com/film-review/review-utopia-pilger-2013/ 4 http://www.smh.com.au/national/with-utopia-john-pilger-wrings-the-heart-but-objectivity-is-not-his-forte-20140208-328wr.html

145.218 Study Guide Weeks 3-5 25

money to supplement their lifestyles, particularly so that they can send their children to school, buy western medicines and acquire consumer goods, such as an outboard motor, clothing or a sewing machine. With rural people having few accessible means of earning an income, they often decide to sell their trees to loggers or to lease their land to mining prospectors, even though they know the land provides the livelihood on which their survival is based. Those people who choose not to sell off their natural resources are often put under much pressure from local politicians and from developers who say that they are standing in the way of ‘development’. The pressures and dilemmas facing indigenous peoples are numerous. Successful development can occur, however, if: • local communities have a decisive voice in planning; • resources are subject to local control; and • innovative community organisations exist.

Week 4 References Bodley, J. H. (2008). Victims of Progress. AltaMira Press, Lanham. Briggs, J. (2005). The use of indigenous knowledge in development. Progress in Development Studies. 5 (2): 99-114. Clay, J. (1989). Epilogue: The Ethnic Future of Nations. Third World Quarterly 11 (4): 223- 233. Cleary, M. (1994). Timber and Tribes: Logging the Forests of Borneo. Geography Review. 8 (1): 38-41. Colchester, M. (1994). Sustaining the Forests: The Community-based Approach in South and Southeast Asia. Development and Change 25: 60-100. Coriaa, J., & Calfucura, E. (2012). Ecotourism and the development of indigenous communities: The good, the bad, and the ugly. Ecological Economics. 73: 47-55 Dwyer, D. & Drakakis-Smith, D. (1996). Ethnicity and Development: Geographical Perspectives. Wiley, Chichester.

26 145.218 Study Guide: Introductory Module

Engle, K. (2010). The Elusive Promise of Indigenous Development. Duke University Press, Durham. Greiner, A.L. (2014) What is Ethnicity? In Visualizing Human Geography. Wiley, Danver, MA. 172-173 Kampe, K. (1992). Development, Bureaucracy and Life on the Margins. Pacific Viewpoint 33 (2): 159-64. Poata-Smith (2013) Inequality and Māori. In Rashbrooke, M. Inequality: A New Zealand Crisis. Bridget Williams Books Reed, R. (2009). Forest Dwellers, Forest Protectors: Indigenous Models for International Development. Prentice Hall, NJ. Shaw, W. S., Herman, R. D. K., & Dobbs, G. R. (2006). Encountering indigeneity: Re‐ imagining and decolonizing geography. Geografiska Annaler: Series B, Human Geography, 88(3), 267-276. Stavenhagen, R. (1990). Indigenous and Tribal Peoples: A Special Case. In The Ethnic Question. United Nations University Press, Chapter 8. Stasiulis, D. and Yuval-Davis, N. (eds) (1995). Unsettling Settler Societies: Articulations of Gender, Race, Ethnicity and Class. Sage, London United Nations. (2009). State of the World’s Indigenous Peoples. UN Department of Economic and Social Affairs, New York

145.218 Study Guide Weeks 3-5 27

Week 5: Ethnic Conflict and Separatist Movements Learning Outcomes At the end of this topic you will:

• be able to see in what circumstances ethnic conflicts are likely to emerge

• know the meaning of cultural pluralism, secession and internal colonialism

• realise the importance of the state’s role in either overcoming, or aggravating, ethnic

dissent.

• Understand the complexity of external intervention in ethnic conflict.

Ethnicity & Conflict

Read the Foreign Policy article 10 wars to watch in 20165, or browse the Guardian's Conflict and Development page6 or the world news page of a newspaper to familiarise yourself with conflicts currently in the news. Think about the ethnic dimensions of these conflicts. What proportion of conflicts in the news today are partially or fully linked to ethnic tension and inequality?

There are a number of reasons why ethnic groups, particularly indigenous peoples, are frequently involved in conflict in the 21st century:

1. Because they are descendants of the original inhabitants of a land which has been

overtaken - with some struggle involved. Most have a history of violence at the hands

of settlers or invaders. Thus they have grievances which they may wish the state to

remedy. Governments, however, have typically responded to indigenous demands with

assimilation.

5 6 http://www.theguardian.com/global-development/conflict-and-development

28 145.218 Study Guide: Introductory Module

2. Because they inhabit ‘frontier lands’ such as deserts, mountains, forests and oceans.

Either they have always occupied these areas or they have been forced to retreat to them

because of invasion by outsiders. These areas have since gained the interest of:

• states, who wish to integrate them for national security purposes

• companies or states which wish to exploit their resources

3. Review the Foreign Policy article and Guardian page for some further ideas.

Separatism & Secession

Separatism is the desire to break away and form a separate nation-state, usually based on ethnonationalism. This can range from strong resistance to integration into another society or culture and desire for regional autonomy, to full formal separation from a state and the establishment of an independent country (Kuby, Harner & Gober, 2013, p.383). The formal separation of a region from a nation state is called secession. This occurs when the separatist movement is successful and the breakaway region becomes a state in its own right, with its own constitution and recognized in international law (Smith, 1996, p.270). A geographical perspective on separatist movements can be helpful because:

1. Where separatist movements occur there is typically a degree of spatial segregation in

the population. Figure 1 (below) shows the difference between multinational and plural

societies. Separatist movements are more likely to occur in the former because there is

spatial segregation coinciding with ethnic categories.

2. Because distance from state power can be a strong mobilising force resulting in greater

uniqueness and a greater chance of separating.

The map to follow (figure 2) shows Papua New Guinea, the red flag indicating the

location of Bougainville, where a separatist movement has existed, on and off, since

1975 although a fragile peace agreement has been brokered. Note especially

Bougainville’s geographical location and specifically its physical isolation from the

country’s capital, Port Moresby and proximity to the Solomon Islands (remember this

for later).

145.218 Study Guide Weeks 3-5 29

3. Spatial inequalities (e.g. in wealth or services provided by the government) may

facilitate growth of separatist movements.

Figure 1: Hypothetical Multinational State and Plural Society

Figure 2: Papua New Guinea Map

The flag marks the location of Bougainville Island.

Source: Google Maps (https://www.google.co.nz/maps/place/Bougainville+Island,+Papua+New+Guinea/@-

6.4195652,150.7522586,6z/data=!4m2!3m1!1s0x68cedd368a18f199:0x99cab5ed068067c)

30 145.218 Study Guide: Introductory Module

Some examples of separatist movements are listed below. Can you add any others to the list?

Kurds (in Iraq, Iran and Turkey) Croatians & Slovenians (in the former Yugoslavia) Palestinians Lithuanians, Estonians, Latvians, Georgians and Ukrainians (in the former USSR) Tamils (in Sri Lanka) Shans and Karens (in Myanmar/Burma) Acehenese West Papuans (in Indonesia)

Four different ethnic scenarios are listed below (based on May, 1990). Below each, write the name of the appropriate country from the following list: Fiji, New Zealand, Indonesia, Papua New Guinea

a. One or more ethnic communities are incorporated within a larger state but they retain a

sense of separate ethnic identity. As ethnic minorities feel themselves becoming

marginalised, separatist movements are likely to emerge.

Country where this occurs: ___________________________

b. Immigrant populations come to a country as imported labour or settlers and remain to

become an integral part of the population. While the immigrant groups make demands

on the state to secure citizenship, voting rights, equal opportunity and recognition of

their culture, the indigenous group seeks to protect itself by restricting the transfer of

land, reserving places for indigenous people in the public service, and safeguarding

their political dominance. Separatism is not seen as an option as they are not usually

concentrated within any one area (territory) which they can lay claim to. Instead, they

make demands for equal participation in the society.

Country where this occurs: ___________________________

145.218 Study Guide Weeks 3-5 31

c. An indigenous population is heavily outnumbered by an immigrant settler population

and is pushed out to the social, economic and political periphery of its own homeland.

The concern is usually one of getting the dominant settler population to acknowledge

indigenous rights, especially land rights, and to recognise indigenous cultural values

while allowing the indigenous people equal access to the social, political and economic

goods of the larger society.

Country where this occurs: ___________________________

d. A large number of small groups incorporated within a state develop a sense of ethnicity

at several, overlapping, levels and use ethnicity as a means of mobilising groups of

people to compete for political power. Ethnicity may be a unifying force on one level

in terms of bringing groups together within a larger community, but it may be divisive

in terms of an emerging sense of national identity

Country where this occurs: ___________________________

(NB Answers are provided in the summary to this topic)

Week 5: Readings and Activities Reading 9

Handelman, H. (2013). The politics of cultural pluralism and ethnic conflict. In The Challenge of Third World Development (7th ed. pp. 106-141). Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Pearson

This reading is a little long, but work persevering with as it gives a good overview of the nature of ethnic conflict, and of some of the conflicts that continue to this day (how many of the conflict regions identified in the articles you reviewed at the beginning of this topic are ongoing today?)

This reading introduces lots of terms, some you have come across, and others that may be new to you. Make sure you are familiar with these – add the definitions below and/or to your glossary.

32 145.218 Study Guide: Introductory Module

Cultural Pluralism Communal Strife Enforced hierarchy (ethnic dominance) Federalism Consociationalism Secession

145.218 Study Guide Weeks 3-5 33

How do modernisation and economic development contribute to ethnic conflict? (p.125)

What are the challenges associated with outside intervention? When might outside intervention be appropriate / not appropriate? (pp.134-137)

Internal Colonialism

Internal colonialism is a term that refers to the exploitation of one racial or ethnic group by another, within a nation state. It differs from colonialism, which refers the system whereby a Western industrial country colonised a semi-peripheral or peripheral country and exploited its people and resources. Internal colonialism occurs when a dominant ethnic minority exploits another group within its own borders, often forcing them from their land, and relegating them to low prestige and low income work. It also involves cultural discrimination, whereby groups are stereotyped as inferior, backward, uncivilised or dangerous (Smith, 1996, p.280). This creates a match between race and class, as a person’s racial status becomes the basis on their class and socio-economic status. The effect of internal colonialism is to create a racially-based underclass, and the internally colonized minority usually live in poverty. Pinderhughes (2011:236) defines ‘internal colonialism’ as “a geographically-based pattern of subordination of a differentiated population, located within the dominant power or country”. He reminds us that groups such as Aboriginals in Australia, African and native Americans in the USA, and Maori in NZ can be considered to be negatively impacted by internal colonialism, as seen in their (often) lower socio-economic outcomes.

34 145.218 Study Guide: Introductory Module

The theory of internal colonialism provides an interesting explanation as to why separatist movements occur. Can you think of any other examples of internal colonialism? Have another look at the list of separatist movements above, or the

articles you accessed at the beginning of this topic. Reading 10

Regan, A. (2013). Bougainville: Conflict Deferred? In R. Jeffrey, E. Aspinall & A. Regan (eds.) Diminishing conflicts in Asia and the Pacific: Why Some Subsite and Others Don’t (pp. 119-136) New York: Routledge.

As previously noted a separatist movement has existed in Bougainville, on and off, since 1975. This reading outlines the background to the crisis, the impacts on development in Bougainville, and the peace process. As you read, think about what you now know about ethnic conflict, and what factors are evident here.

Regan identifies resources revenue disputes, state violence and the complexity of the conflict as contributing factors to the conflict. There was a clear ethnic component to these. How did ethnic differences contribute to the conflict?

145.218 Study Guide Weeks 3-5 35

What role did cultural factors play in the resolution of the conflict? (pp. 127-128) How did New Zealand contribute to this?

What are Regan’s lessons from this conflict? (pp. 131-132)

The Bougainville Civil War caused incredible devastation and loss, including this picture

taken at the ruins of Arawa Hospital in 1997. Photo: AFP 7

Consequences of the conflict The article over the page, published at the time of the conflict, gives some insight into the consequences for Bougainvillians. As you read it, reflect on what the long-term consequences of this suffering might be for communities, and for Bougainville.

7 http://www.radionz.co.nz/international/pacific-news/283179/20-years-on,-bougainville-families-haunted-by-missing

36 145.218 Study Guide: Introductory Module

(Pacific Islands Monthly, 1992: August.)

145.218 Study Guide Weeks 3-5 37

Optional case study West Papua

Optional reading Reading 10: Smith, A. L. and Ng, A. (2002). Papua: Moving Beyond Internal Colonialism? New Zealand Journal of Asian Studies 4(2) (December): 90-114.

This optional extra reading examines the case of West Papua in more detail, an ongoing conflict in our region which involves internal colonialism, but one that is largely unnoticed by the rest of the world. The map below is from a 2002 feature by the New Internationalist, profiling West Papua. Look at the map overleaf and read the information surrounding it (New Internationalist April 2002:12-13). OPTIONAL: Browse the Guardian's West Papua page8 for updates on the current situation. As you read, think about:

• How, through history, the Indonesians managed to gain control of Papua.

• What strategies have been applied by the Indonesian government in its occupation of

Papua?

• What is the value of the mineral, forest and gas reserves in Papua? What is the

relationship between natural resource wealth and internal colonialism?

• What is the long-term impact on Papuans?

8 http://www.theguardian.com/world/west-papua

38 145.218 Study Guide: Introductory Module

145.218 Study Guide Weeks 3-5 39

40 145.218 Study Guide: Introductory Module

Summary Many ethnic problems have emerged largely because states which have been created are not congruent with nations. The way in which a state deals with separatist movements is crucial. It can either treat them as:

• irrational outbursts among disorganised groups.

• normal political behaviour which establishes collective identity and attains goals.

Governments can curb secessionist tendencies by devolving power and resources. They can fuel secessionist tendencies by ignoring, or suppressing, the stated concerns of ethnic groups. The following quote on ethnic conflict in relation to Asia could just as easily be applied to other regions of the world: It is not ethnicity per se that constitutes the problem since, as a whole, Southeast Asia is composed of hundreds of ethno-linguistic groups. It becomes an issue only when a dominant ethnic group takes control of the state apparatus and proceeds to impose its will on the rest of the population (Encarnacion and Tadem, 1993:161). Modernisation theory suggested that ethnic identity and ethnic conflicts would disappear in the years of post-colonial nation-building. Instead, they became stronger in many cases. Ethnic mobilisation can no longer be considered a pre-modern or non-rational form of social action-it occurs in the West and the East, the North and the South, and it is a legitimate social and political force (Stavenhagen, 1990:17). Answers to exercise: a) Indonesia, b) Fiji, c) New Zealand, d) PNG

Week 5 References Encarnacion, T. S. and Tadem, E. C. (1993). Ethnicity and Separatist Movements in Southeast Asia. In P. Wignaraja (ed.) New Social Movements in the South. Zed, London, 149-164. Handelman, H. (2013). The politics of cultural pluralism and ethnic conflict. In The Challenge of Third World Development (7th ed. pp. 106-141). Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Pearson

145.218 Study Guide Weeks 3-5 41

Hisada, T. (2008). Indigenous Development and Self-Determination in West Papua. VDM Verlay, Saarbrucken. Kuby, M., Harner, J. & Gober, P. (2013) Chapter 13. Breaking up is hard to do: Nations, States, and Nation-States. In Human Geography in Action. John Wiley & Sons, Danvers MA. 350-389 May, R. J. (1990). Ethnic Separatism in Southeast Asia. Pacific Viewpoint. 31 (2): 28-59. Pinderhughes, C. (2011). Toward a new theory of internal colonialism. Socialism & Democracy 25(1): 235-256. Regan, A. (2013). Bougainville: Conflict Deferred? In R. Jeffrey, E. Aspinall & A. Regan (eds.) Diminishing conflicts in Asia and the Pacific: Why Some Subsite and Others Don’t (pp. 119-136) New York: Routledge. Regan, A. J. (2014). Bougainville: Large-scale Mining and Risks of Conflict Recurrence. Security Challenges, 10(2), 71-96. Smith, A. L. and Ng, A. (2002). Papua: Moving Beyond Internal Colonialism? New Zealand Journal of Asian Studies 4(2) (December): 90-114. Saha, S. (2006). Perspectives on Contemporary Ethnic Conflict. Lexington Books, Lanham. Smith, B.C. (1996). ‘Nationalism and Secession’, in Understanding Third World Politics. Macmillan, Basingstoke, 269-296. Stavenhagen, R. (1990). The Ethnic Question Today. In The Ethnic Question. United Nations University Press, Tokyo, 1-18. Wolff, S. (2006). Ethnic Conflict: A Global Perspective. Oxford University Press, Oxford. Icons in this study guide are by Christian Burprich: http://findicons.com/pack/1742/ecqlipse

(Creative Commons licence)