Research Essay: Portrayal of China in Western Media

COM304 Portrayal of China in Western Media

Module leader: Dr. Zhen Troy Chen

Office hours: HS323, Fridays @2-4pm

Housekeeping

• Assignment briefs uploaded • Essay sample uploaded, distinction (70+) • Assignment 2: Media project group allocation • No zoom this week (according to Uni policy, I will try to

stick to BBB. Again, the video does not work for me in BBB, I will reply on audio+text chat.)

Week 2 Agenda

• Part I: Key concepts • Hegemony, power and discourse • Orientalism • Representation: encoding and decoding • Methodology: Critical Discourse Analysis

(CDA)

• Part II: Historical review and critique • Seminar preparation

It all started with this chap

Dialectics 辩证法

The master– slave dialectic is

the common name for a

famous passage of Hegel’s

Phenomenology of Spirit.

For Hegel, human reality condenses into what we call universal history. What has marked this history is the

unequal relationship between human

beings.

Some are tyrants, while others are tyrannized.

That is what the master-slave dialectic is based on. What has moved history is the

conflicts between humans, which has

resulted in inequality.

The young Marx

• Marx joined the Doctor’s Club as an undergrad and later become known as the Young Hegelians.

• Critical of Hegel's metaphysical assumptions, but adopted his dialectical method in order to criticise established society, politics and religion from a leftist perspective.

• 1843 unpublished manuscript: Critique of Hegel‘s Philosophy of Right, gave birth to the concept of alienation.

Conflict Theory

• Marx argues that the dominant ideas and ideals of an age are reflections of the dominant way of life, specifically of a society's mode of production.

• Base (economic) determines superstructure (ideology). Misunderstanding: Marx and Engels warned against such determinism.

• “经济基础决定上层建筑”

Gramsci: hegemony and power

• 1891 – 1937 • an Italian Marxist philosopher

and communist politician.

• He wrote on political theory, sociology and linguistics.

• He attempted to break from the economic determinism and so is considered a key neo-Marxist.

Gramsci: hegemony and power

• Gramsci greatly expanded this concept, developing an analysis of how the ruling capitalist class – the bourgeoisie – establishes and maintains its control.

• Orthodox Marxism had predicted that socialist revolution was inevitable in capitalist societies. By the early 20th century, no such revolution had occurred in the most advanced nations.

• Capitalism, it seemed, was more entrenched than ever.

Gramsci: hegemony and power

• Capitalism, Gramsci suggested, maintained control not just through violence and political and economic coercion, but also through ideology.

• The bourgeoisie developed a hegemonic culture, which propagated its own values and norms so that they became the "common sense" values of all.

• People in the working-class (and other classes) identified their own good with the good of the bourgeoisie, and helped to maintain the status quo rather than revolting.

Gramsci: cultural hegemony

The Frankfurt School – a Marxist approach

• Adorno and Horkheimer’s 1944 essay “The Culture Industry”

12

Adorno and Horkheimer – the culture industries

• Adorno and Horkheimer’s essay “The culture industries” is critical of the commercialisation of culture

• They are critical of the mass reproduction of cultural artefacts – nothing is unique, everything is standardized

• An attempt at uniqueness is made with the ‘star system’ – the use of celebrities in various monetary exchanges

• These cultural artefacts are thus given a monetary value, or exchange value - they have lost their intrinsic worth

13

Activity 1. Hegemony

• Discuss in small groups (3 or more) what are the central “hegemonic” ideas in contemporary China in relation to any or all of the following:

• Family, Morality • Nation, Gender Roles • Chinese Identity

Edward Said: orientalism

• 1935-2003 • Palestinian American

academic, political activist, and literary critic

• Orientalism, 1979 • postcolonial studies

Orientalism

Orientalist discourse is “a Western style for dominating, restructuring, and having authority over the Orient”

by “making statements about it, authorizing views of it, describing it, by teaching it, settling it, ruling over it”

Said (1979, p3).

Orientalism

“Orientalism was ultimately a political vision of reality whose structure promoted the difference between the familiar (Europe, West, ‘us’) and the strange (the Orient, the East, ‘the other’).”

Representation and Orientalism

•Hall (1997) defines it as a process of constructing reality - a process that is clearly different across cultures and historical periods.

•He thinks that representation presents something that has already been there. The meaning given in a representation can sometimes distort its real meaning.

•Orientalism challenge representations and images of the other imposed from the outside: they clash with representations and images from inside.

•Said looks at orientalism as a multifaceted discourse characterized by four major ideas, which he calls “dogmas of Orientalism”:

•Binary opposites: West/Orient are rational/ irrational developed/underdeveloped.

•Abstract language about the orient rather than direct •The Orient cannot define itself •It is something to be feared or controlled

Orientalism involved the feminization of the Orient:

• Weak, submissive • Seductive, alluring • Penetrated by the orientalist gaze: the veil conceals

oriental truth (a symbol of no-trespass), but in the European gaze the ‘oriental truth’ is insignificant.

• The repressed women is in need of rescue Orientalism is an “imaginative geography”.

Orientalism today

• A century of little change regarding the representation of the Islamic world. The UK and France had a direct colonial experience. In the case of US, the presentation is closely linked to terrorism.

• Said’s book “Covering the Islam” (1981): people waving their fists and black banners. Focusing on the negative and threatening aspect instead of reporting other Islamic realities.

• After the 9/11, this picture of the Islam as “full of terrorists” has become worst: the idea of the “empire of good” incarnated by America and the “empire of the evil” incarnated by Islamic terrorism: it is what now prevails, a sombre vision of globalization.

Said’s work articulates a persistent critique of power relations between West and East, the USA and the Muslim countries, and looks at the negative magnitude of these unequal power

relations from the eighteenth century until today.

Activity 2. Orientalism

• In your groups, select a film, TV show, newspaper report, magazine article, novel, non-fiction book, social media event (any example of media text) from the Europe/North America.

• (i) What stereotypes of China and Chinese people are presented in your selected media?

• (ii) Does your selected media text portray China in a positive or negative light?

• (iii) Are these portrayals racist? Prejudiced? Discriminating?

What is “Methodology” and “Method”?

Methodology is like a home and knowledge about the relationship among family members, while methods are like the rooms and the individual family members, for a right purpose there is a right room, and for a right person there may be a right room too.

The big picture and why you are using a certain family of methods is methodology, the details are the methods.

Method is a technique for gathering evidence. For example, social diaries, photovoice, semi-structured interviews, questionnaire, etc.

Methodology is a theory and analysis of how research does or should proceed.

What is qualitative research?

“The province of qualitative research ... Is the world of lived experience, for this is where

individual belief and action intersect with culture” Norman Denzin

More interested in studying behaviour, trends, and developing theories and concepts and

practices, rather than attempting to ‘measure’ the social world

Associated with the humanities and the social sciences

Media technologies

Mass media & Media effects

Media effects

• Walter Lippmann: Public Opinion, 1922

• We see the world as “pictures in our heads”

• Media shape perception of things we have not experienced personally

The Audience

Is the audience merely made up of passive receptors?

Hypodermic needle model or Magic Bullet Theory

Source: Katz & Lazarsfeld (1955)

The mathematical Theory of Communication Shannon-Weaver, 1949

Useful during conflict - war

Problems with the model

Audiences are active: ideologies and discourses and bodies

01 Meaning lies between the text & audience, not in the text per se.

02

Encoding and Decoding

Stuart Hall (born 3 February 1932, Kingston, Jamaica) is a cultural theorist and sociologist who has lived and worked in the United Kingdom since 1951.

Re-presentation • Encoding: process by which signs are

organized into codes • Decoding: process of reception; how readers

make sense of codes/ generate meaning from them

Ten minutes later… …

The mathematical Theory of Communication

Shannon-Weaver, 1949

Source: Katz & Lazarsfeld (1955)

The mathematical Theory of Communication

Shannon-Weaver, 1949

Source: Katz & Lazarsfeld (1955)

Why do we call all of those material objects 'apples'? They each represent something slightly

different yet we all use one word, 'apple,’ to represent each.

Translation: This is not an Apple.

Re-presentation

• What is the point of Magritte adding to his illustrations the statement, "This is not . . ."?

He is visually making a complex point: we live in a world of representations which we talk about as if they were the 'real' thing. His work increases your theoretical understanding of art and language and the human mind.

See more in https://msu.edu/course/ams/280/represent.html

• We are not uncovering TRUTH in this class. From within the discipline of cultural studies, media and communication

(sociology…etc), there is no objective truth humans can identify.

• This does not mean there is no truth. Personally, I believe, but be clear this is a belief, that truth exists out there;

however, humans do not have access to truth.

Constructed ‘Truth’

Constructed ‘Truth’

• This is why virtually all religious traditions claim that it is not possible to know the truth, that only something we call god can know the truth. Indeed, the injunction against claiming absolute truth for human beings is explicit in some religious traditions.

• For ancient Judaism, Yaweh, was the being whose name should not even be spoken, so God's name was written in the unpronounceable letters YWH, a code for that which should not be spoken. To speak God's name was to take him in vain. Men should not try to call out to Him.

Constructed ‘Truth’

• The Tao Teh Ching begins with these words, • "The Tao which can be named is not the Tao." • You might imagine the Tao as The Force, a la "Star

Wars" for the time being.

• It is not possible to express the Tao, so the signifier "Tao" itself is negated in the very first line of the ancient text which is the founding text for Taoism.

Semiotics

• Semiotics is a science which studies the role of signs as part of social life.

• A sign is quite simply a thing - whether object, word, or picture - which has a particular meaning to a person or group of people. It is neither the thing nor the meaning alone, but the two together.

• The sign consists of the signifier, the material object, and the signified, which it is meaning.

• Semioticians engage in a search for 'deep structures' underlying the 'surface features' of phenomena. However, they also explore the use of signs in specific social situations. Modern semiotic theory stresses the role of ideology and discourse.

The 'value' of a sign depends on its relations with other signs within the system - a sign has no 'absolute' value independent of this context.

Consider a game of chess, noting that the value of each piece depends on its position on the chessboard.

First level is denotation

Second level is connotation: ideologies and discourses fill out the re- presentation e.g. terrorist and freedom fighter

All texts are constructed with signs in social contexts

Discourse is a system of representation: what are the rules and practices that produce meaningful statements and regulated discourse in different historical periods?

Discourse constructs the topic. It defines and produces the objects of our knowledge. It governs the way that a topic can be meaningfully talked about and reasoned about.

The critical approach to discourse aims to challenge social orders and practices that we accept as ‘natural’, but which are, in fact, ‘naturalized’; in other words, when one way of seeing and interpreting the world becomes so common (and so frequently constructed in discourses) that it is accepted as the only way.

Example: immigration

Critical Discourse Analysis

Immigration

Part II

• Contact between West and East over 8 centuries • Changing discourses around China • In Orientalism (1978) Edward Said linked Western

discourse on the Orient to projects of domination, arguing that for over two thousand years ‘the West’ had constructed ‘the East’ as an inferior and essentially unchanging ‘Other’.

Civilized Barbaric

Rational Irrational

Energetic Lethargic

Creative Lacking in creativity

Progressive Backward looking

Dynamic Static

Strong Weak

Superior Inferior

Binary oppositions superior vs inferior

• Complementary stereotypes like these have pervaded academic scholarship, high culture and popular culture.

• They have also been linked inextricably to projects of domination.

• “From the time of the Ancient Greeks they have been used to justify the West in struggles with the East; in the colonial era they were used to legitimate Western conquest and rule; and in the post-colonial era they are still invoked to support continued Western hegemony. They have also remained essentially unchanged, and they have maintained their hegemonic status despite isolated efforts by individual scholars to subvert them” (Ji, 2017: 325).

Construction of Western identity: an other is needed

Said’s understanding of discourse

• A discourse is an interrelated and frequently repeated set of statements, views or teachings, along with accompanying expressions in practices and material culture.

• In line with the Foucauldian discourse, it is always and intrinsically social, it is propagated through claims to authority and the exercise of power, and (in the hands of ruling groups) it is an instrument of domination.

Discourse vs Opinion

• Said’s focus on discourse distinguishes his work from books with titles like ‘Western views of China’ or ‘Western Representations of China’.

• These usually pay less attention to discourses, with their constant recurrence and their links to power, than to the colourful, evanescent and sometimes idiosyncratic observations of individual travellers, scholars, journalists or politicians.

• Most of these observations enjoyed only a fleeting currency because they were of no use to those with the organisational power to ensure that people heard them repeatedly and passed them on to others, transforming them from individual expressions of opinion into discourses (Ji, 2017: 326).

Discourse vs

Opinion

• Power is central in producing such discourses

• Ji identify and contextualize the wide range of groups that used their financial or organisational power to promote discourses that served their own (sometimes the same, at times, different) agendas.

• In Said’s analysis ‘ the West’ appears, not just as a geographical term, but as a focus of collective identity with a continuous existence since the time of the Ancient Greeks.

• This has been attacked widely in academia • However, in a relevant book chapter, he coins the term

‘imaginative geography’, a shared ‘identity’.

• The East/Orient was focused on the Middle East and later extended to ‘every known Asiatic and North African civilization’, including India and China (countries had direct colonization experience in history).

West and East, Who?

• 1300: Venetian traveller Marco Polo • The China that he depicted was not static, weak or inferior, but a

land of almost unimaginable grandeur, luxury and refinement. It was exotic, intriguing and in many ways admirable.

• Individual opinions: Sinophilia, not charged by imperialist ambition but fed the curiosity of literate Westerners who were beginning to look outward in an era of growing long distance trade and exploration.

• Members of this literate elite admired China because its scale and exotic luxuries fired their imagination, and because they were attracted to China’s social hierarchy, its stability, and its reliance on a set of pre-modern values that had a lot in common with their own.

1. Early Western discourses on China

• Consolidated since 1582: Jesuit missionaries arrived • The Jesuits aimed to convert China by winning over the

Emperor and the Confucian elite, so they learned Chinese, translated the works of Confucius, treated local customs with respect, played down aspects of Chinese culture that they did not like and emphasised points of compatibility between Confucianism and Christianity.

• We are almost the same, hence, easy to be converted. • Critical discourse 1: Compromised ‘pagan practices’ such as

Confucianist rituals faced challenges from other Catholics.

1. Early Western discourses on China

• The writings of the Jesuits were turned to very different purposes by Enlightenment intellectuals like Voltaire, who were campaigning against the power of the church, working to end religious persecution and promoting themselves as advisors to rulers and architects of reform – to advance the modernity project

• Critical discourse 2: intellectuals like Rousseau concern the attempts by European monarchs to impose absolute rule might be defeated, forcing them to share power under a ‘balanced constitution’.

• These intellectuals transformed China into a warning of the dangers of absolutism, casting its ‘philosopher king’ in the role of an Oriental despot who used religion and intimidation to enforce his rule. At first the discourse gained only minority support, but in the second half of the eighteenth century it became increasingly important.

1. Early Western discourses on China 他山之石可以攻玉

• Early 19c, discourse against Oriental despotism became hostile.

• Why? Transformed West after 1750’s Modernisation • “We are better and we are different”: The scientific

revolution, technological breakthroughs, commercial development and imperialist expansion all seemed to show that Europe had surpassed not only ancient Greece and Rome, but also contemporary empires like the Ottoman Empire, India and China.

2. Critical discourses gain prominence

• In this context, the once-admired stability of the Chinese empire was reinterpreted as evidence of stagnation, inertia and resistance to change.

• The country was dismissed, in the words of J. G. Herder, as ‘an embalmed mummy painted with hieroglyphics and embalmed in silk’, as a society with an internal life ‘like that of animals in hibernation’ (Martinez-Robles, 2008, p. 10).

• 裹着蚕丝布涂着象形文字的木乃伊+冬眠中的动物

2. Critical discourses gain prominence

• Progressive view of history • Its past greatness was still acknowledged, but to most it

seemed increasingly obvious that the future belonged to Europe and to those who followed in its footsteps.

• Even G Hegel states, ‘The History of the World travels from East to West; for Europe is absolutely the end of history, Asia is the beginning’ (Martinez-Robles, 2008, p. 10).

• The unchanged, inflexible, isolated, indifferent – thus backward China.

2. Critical discourses gain prominence

• ‘Chinese backwardness” focused on ‘culture’ – thus ‘culturalist’ until the mid-19c

• It was shared by imperialists or Chinese nationalists. • It was not yet ‘racist’ as it did not assume that the Chinese people

were unalterably inferior. • Instead, it suggested that the Chinese could overcome their

backwardness and moral shortcomings by adopting Western institutions and culture.

• From the 1850s, however, culturalist discourses were challenged by racist discourses that explained culture as the product of race.

3. The rise of racist discourse

3. The rise of racist discourse

• The first significant Chinese immigration to North America began with the California Gold Rush of 1848– 1855 and it continued with subsequent large labor projects, such as the building of the First Transcontinental Railroad.

• Racist discourses gained its earliest and greatest traction in the white settler societies of the Pacific borderlands – the United States, Canada, New Zealand and Australia – where the Chinese competed for jobs and profits with gold miners, workers and small producers.

Political cartoon: Uncle Sam kicks out the

Chinaman, referring to the 1882 Chinese Exclusion Act.

Published in 19c.

But why? Connolly,

2013

• A rising political force sought to justify exclusion of the Chinese by ‘racialising’ existing cultural objections to them – linking those objections to unalterable features of the Chinese as a race.

• They asserted that the moral failings of the Chinese could never be overcome, and that the lack of democracy in Chinese society showed that the Chinese people were inherently servile 奴性的.

• Racist discourses enabled them to argue that if the Chinese were allowed into Western societies they would form a non-assimilable underclass whose presence would not only be morally damaging, but would also prevent the emergence of a society based on the principles of equality, democracy and fair rewards for labour.

• This line of argument transparently suited their interests as representatives of society’s lower and middle orders.

• However, it also gave them the moral high ground because it enabled them to claim that they were not just serving their own interests, but defending morality, democracy, fairness and the common good.

A political cartoon from 1882, showing a

Chinese man being barred entry to the "Golden Gate of

Liberty". The caption reads, "We

must draw the line somewhere, you

know."

Domestic interest in democratizing settlers of the Pacific Rim

• In the process of becoming democracies, the votes of domestic miners, workers and small producers carried a lot of weight.

• Anti-Chinese rallies, make racist speeches and pledge support for legislation to exclude the Chinese – worked very well. And few politicians and interest groups would like or dare to challenge (becoming a hegemonic discourse).

New Imperialism in Africa 1880 and 1914

• As rival imperialist elites fought to bring non- Europeans under their control, they found it increasingly useful to justify their policies by promoting discourses of racial competition and white racial superiority.

• Gobineau: four-volume An essay on the inequality of the human races 1853-1855

• Central argument “race was the driving force of history” was not well received.

• 1882, after his death, become popular with finally a second edition, followed by the 1884 Sino-French War

• Imperialist ideologues worked them into discourses that justified land grabs as an essential survival strategy in a worldwide ‘struggle of the races’ (Think about Said’s theory)

Japan’s victory over China 1894–1895 甲午海战

• Gobineau had prophesied that China would invade and conquer Europe via Russia, and fears of an invasion spread in the decades after his death.

• New fear: the ‘yellow race’ were capable of modernising and carrying out a military campaign as effectively as any Western country. The modernised Japan + China’s vast scale

• In 1895, the German Kaiser, a rabid racist heavily influenced by Gobineau, told his cousin, the Russian Tsar, that it was his responsibility ‘to cultivate the Asian continent and to defend Europe from the inroads of the Great Yellow Race’ (Blue, 1999b, p. 122).

Japan’s victory over China 1894–1895 甲午海战

• The Kaiser then presented all European heads of state with a propaganda lithograph, depicting Germany as the Archangel Michael leading the nations of Europe into battle to defend European women against the Japanese Buddha and the Chinese dragon.

• Having thus installed Germany as leader of the white race, the Kaiser is also reputed to have coined the phrase die gelbe Gefahr (‘The Yellow Peril’ 黄祸), which was translated into the languages of other imperialist powers and became a stock reference to the threatening hordes of China and Japan.

Kaiser Wilhelm II used the allegorical lithograph Peoples of Europe, Guard Your Most Sacred Possessions (1895), by Hermann Knackfuss, to promote Yellow Peril ideology as geopolitical justification for European colonialism in China.

1898 China imperialism cartoon: A Mandarin official helplessly looks on as China, depicted as a pie, is about to be carved up by Queen Victoria (Britain), Wilhelm II (Germany), Nicholas II(Russia), Marianne (France), and a samurai (Japan).

• Attempts to whip up racist hysteria got ignored, as people interact tolerantly with the Chinese market gardeners, traders, launderers, cooks and workers who played a useful role in their communities.

• Groups avoid racist discourse: • churchmen with missionary connections, • radical socialists influenced by Karl Marx, • people with personal, scholarly or professional links to China.

4. The survival of culturalist discourses

• Donations to fund mission stations that would convert Chinese into virtuous Christians. “再试试吧中国人还能救 活”

• Marxian socialists were wedded to a very different sort of culturalist analysis – one that linked the world’s evils to a single underlying cause: the inequalities and injustices of class society.

• Westerners with deep personal, scholarly or professional links to China often knew too much to be taken in by the crude stereotypes of racist discourse. While they assumed that the West was in the vanguard of progress and that China would have to change, they often had great respect for aspects of Chinese culture.

4. The survival of culturalist discourses

• ‘A dual function of representation’ (Martinez-Robles, 2008:11) • ‘the authorised ambassadors in the West of Chinese civilisation,

spokespersons and often defenders of the cultural principles that they [took] from the Chinese world’;

• clung ‘to their own almost pedagogical stance as standards of Western enlightened ideals’

• By early 20c, even people with only a cursory knowledge of China knew that the country was being transformed, with the Revolution of 1911 and the spectacular rise of Shanghai being only the most obvious symptoms (Knüsel, 2012, pp. 51–62).

• A new discourse of China-in-transformation began to take hold, and the old discourse of ‘unchanging China’ was confined increasingly to accounts of the Chinese past.

4. The survival of culturalist discourses

• More favourable image between the two world wars • Imperialist expansion waned and China is going toward the

right direction

• It was now more profitable to accommodate China’s nationalist sensitivities than to trample on them, so the privileges granted to foreigners under the treaty system were allowed slowly to decay (Gregory, 2003, pp. 137–153).

• Overwhelmingly, too, Western journalists, travellers and writers began to write sympathetically about the Chinese people, their lives, and the problems that they faced.

5. The decline of racist discourse

• Outside academic circles, racist forms of anti-Chinese discourse had become far less common, although self-serving groups made occasional attempts to revive it.

• It was then completely suspended when the Japanese attacked Pearl harbour in 1941, bringing China and the Western democracies together as wartime allies with a flood of pro-Chinese propaganda.

• The new discourse worked, because a survey in 1942 revealed that Americans most commonly described the Chinese as ‘hardworking, honest, brave, religious, and intelligent, in that order’ (Mackerras, 1999, p. 87).

• Racist discourse against the Chinese never made a full comeback after the war because the changing international situation was making it a liability. Allied propaganda had attacked the Nazis for their racism. In 1948, most of the world’s states summed up the new consensus by condemning racism in the International Declaration of Human Rights.

5. The decline of racist discourse

• PRC in 1949 – new discourse • Discourses that viewed China through the lens of its

traditions suddenly became irrelevant as CCP attacked those traditions.

• A new political and social order in China demanded a new discourse – the Communist Other. (the BBC clip)

• This discourse described China, along with the Soviet Union, as communist, unfree, dictatorial, and totalitarian – the polar opposite of the free, democratic, pluralist and human-rights-loving West.

6. Rival discourses during the Cold War

• Cold War: just as a good many intellectuals in the 17th - early 18th c had invented a China that offered an attractive alternative to their own society, some critics of Western society in the 1960s-1970s constructed an idealised China of Mao Zedong.

• They were convinced that talk of freedom and democracy in Cold War rhetoric was a sham that masked the ugly realities of Western capitalism and wars of aggression in countries like Vietnam.

• In this discourse, China was presented as an attractive alternative both to Western capitalism and the bureaucratic socialism of the Soviet Union.

6. Rival discourses during the Cold War

• The Cold War discourse of the West was a tool of government policy designed to consolidate public and international support, so it could easily be discontinued.

• This happened in 1972, when it was revealed that China and the United States were coming together to meet the threat posed by the Soviet Union, and that President Nixon was going to visit Beijing.

• A poll in 1972 revealed that the dominant images had become completely positive: not just as hardworking, but also as intelligent, progressive, practical, and artistic (Mackerras, 1999, pp. 194–195).

6. Rival discourses during the Cold War

• Reform Era after 1978 – China’s opening up reform • Transition to a socialist market economy • Globalisation: China become westernized aka

Americanized, becoming increasingly interdependent. • ‘Becoming like us’ but ‘not yet like us’ – power

relationship

• China ranked 2nd in terms of GDP – China Threat • Economic and military power

7. Discourses in the Reform Era

• Two response from Madame FU Ying, Spokesperson of the People’s Congress

• https://www.bilibili.com/video/av8711860?from=search &seid=5432557498206697205

• https://www.bilibili.com/video/av8661782/?spm_id_fro m=333.788.videocard.1

• On ‘double standard’ and Western conceptualization of ‘Control’

7. Discourses in the Reform Era

Ten minutes later……

• The reading guideline has been uploaded in ICE • The overview of the changing discourses on China will also

help you comprehend the central thesis, but also show you how discourse analysis can be conducted.

• You can start planning for the Research Essay (ICE) • Thank you and See you later in the BBB virtual classroom! • Key reference: Ji, Fengyuan. (2017) The West and China:

discourses, agendas and change, Critical Discourse Studies, 14:4, 325-340, DOI: 10.1080/17405904.2017.1292931

Assignment for Week 2