equality and diversity in work place 1000worda

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Gender: The Current Situation

An ‘extreme’ example, but is this indicative of wider patterns and attitudes?

Do you think men and women have equal opportunities in organisations?

Do you think men and women are equally rewarded for the work that they do?

Who do you think of when you think of a leader or an individual in a position of power in an organisation or wider society? Describe the image in your head.

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Gender, Inequality and Power

Lecture Themes:

Vertical and horizontal gender segregation and the gender pay gap

Reasons behind gender issues

Inequality regimes in organisations

Bradley's 9 facets of power

Displays of gendered power and reinforcement of gender stereotypes in management literature-image based

Gender: The current situation….

At the current rate of change it will take over 70 years to achieve gender-balanced boardrooms in the UK

(Women on Boards – Feb 2011, UK Govt report)

‘Britain has one of the worst records on gender equality at work, according to a new report that highlighted the high pay gap for working mothers.

Researchers ranked Britain 11th out of 18 countries – behind the US, France, Spain and Sweden – in a league table that took into account pay, board level representation and the gap between male and female employment, among other factors’

(Monaghan, 2016)

Sex and Gender

Sex is the morphological and physiological differences of humankind that enable researchers to distinguish between women and men. (Stainton Rogers & Stainton Rogers, 2001) Assigned to a person on the basis of primary sex characteristics (genitalia) and reproductive functions. (Stonewall.org.uk/glossary of terms)

Men and women are expected to behave in certain ways, which are known as gender or social roles (Calas et al., 2014).

From a psychological perspective, gender is a product of internalising expected gender roles from social learning and cognitive development (Stainton Rogers & Stainton Rogers, 2001).

In terms of social learning, parents and other role models are used by children to develop perceptions of gender and this learning is passive (ibid).

Sex and Gender

Men and women are expected to behave in certain ways, which are known as gender or social roles (Calas et al., 2014).

From a psychological perspective, gender is a product of internalising expected gender roles from social learning and cognitive development (Stainton Rogers & Stainton Rogers, 2001).

In terms of social learning, parents and other role models are used by children to develop perceptions of gender and this learning is passive (ibid).

This learning may result in the development of gender stereotypes, which are shared beliefs (cultural knowledge) about how men and women should behave (Ridgeway, 2009).

Men, and masculinities

Great deal of excellent scholarship about how culturally prevalent views of men, masculinity, and how men should behave.

Primary wage earner, not involved in childcare, assertive, competitive, strong, un-emotional, rational/ scientific…

Not going to focus on this dimension of gender studies in this module due to the focus on equality, diversity and inclusion – men are generally the dominant players in the economy, politics and hold power

Further reading: Gender Work and Organization journal

"I'm not male or female,

I think I flow somewhere in between. It's all on the spectrum,"

Other terms in gender studies

GENDER IDENTITY

A person’s innate sense of their own gender, whether male, female or something else (see non-binary below), which may or may not correspond to the sex assigned at birth.

GENDER DYSPHORIA

Used to describe when a person experiences discomfort or distress because there is a mismatch between their sex assigned at birth and their gender identity.

GENDER REASSIGNMENT

Another way of describing a person’s transition. To undergo gender reassignment usually means to undergo medical intervention, but it can also mean changing names, pronouns, dressing differently and living in/as their self-identified gender.

Deal with some of these issues in the lecture on LGBTQ later in the module – again, see Gender, Work and Organization

Gender Dysphoria - This is also the clinical diagnosis for someone who doesn’t feel comfortable with the gender they were assigned at birth.

INTERSEX

A term used to describe a person who may have the biological attributes of both sexes or whose biological attributes do not fit with societal assumptions about what constitutes male or female. Intersex people may identify as male, female or non-binary.

NON-BINARY

An umbrella term for people whose gender identity doesn’t sit comfortably with ‘man’ or ‘woman’. Non-binary identities are varied and can include people who identify with some aspects of binary identities, while others reject them entirely.

TRANS

An umbrella term to describe people whose gender is not the same as, or does not sit comfortably with, the sex they were assigned at birth. Trans people may describe themselves using one or more of a wide variety of terms, including (but not limited to) transgender, transsexual, gender-queer (GQ), gender-fluid, non-binary, gender-variant, crossdresser, genderless, agender, nongender, third gender, two-spirit, bi-gender, trans man, trans woman,trans masculine, trans feminine and neutrois.

Vertical and Horizontal Gender Segregation

Women have been and continue to be disadvantaged by horizontal, vertical and pay segregation. Women are increasing in the workforce overall; HOWEVER-

Horizontal segregation- under-/overrepresentation of women and men in occupations, professions or sectors

Vertical segregation- under-/overrepresentation of women and men in hierarchical levels (across org. hierarchy), men are disproportionately represented in management positions across sectors

‘Women are underrepresented in economic decision-making positions in the EU-27 and in the United Kingdom’ European Commission, 2013)

‘In 2012, 16% of British corporate board members were female compared to 14% in the EU-27’ (ibid.,)

Types of Discrimination

Direct

Because of their sex, someone is treated worse than someone of the opposite sex who is in a similar situation.

Indirect

When an organisation applies a particular policy, or criteria, or way of working, that applies in the same way to both sexes but which puts an individual at a disadvantage because of their sex.

Direct - a nightclub offers free entry to women but charges men to get in

Indirect - an employer decides to change shift patterns for staff so that they finish at 5pm instead of 3pm. Female employees with caring responsibilities could be at a disadvantage if the new shift pattern means they cannot collect their children from school or childcare

Types of Discrimination

Harassment

when someone is made to feel humiliated, offended or degraded;

when someone is made to feel humiliated, offended or degraded because they are treated in a sexual way (known as ‘unwanted conduct of a sexual nature’);

when someone is treated unfairly because they refused to put up with sexual harassment.

Victimisation

When someone is treated unfairly because they have made a complaint of sex related discrimination under the Equality Act.

It can also occur if you are supporting someone who has made a complaint of sex discrimination.

Harassment

a manager makes comments that there is no point promoting women because they go off to have children. Even though he doesn't direct these comments at a particular female employee, one of his staff is very upset by this and worries about her career.

a university lecturer makes sexual jokes to one of his female students and implies that she will pass her exams if she sleeps with him

a manager invites one of his female employees home after they have been out for a drink. She declines. A couple of weeks later she is turned down for a promotion. She believes this is because she turned down her boss's proposition

Men made up 76% of all festival acts in 2019 (female:pressure FACTS survey)

Women only represent 2% of music producers (Smith et al. 2021)

Every single woman I have interviewed for my project (40) told me of some harassment or micro-aggression they have encountered during their career

The term ‘female DJ’

Why gender inequality is also a men’s issue

The relative exclusion of women from paid employment is associated with a widespread model of the man as "breadwinner." Social and economic pressures on men to compete in the workplace, to increase their hours of paid work are among the most powerful constraints on gender reform. (Connell, 2005)

Men are subject to stereotypes – normative masculinities that are difficult to attain; old patterns of masculinity are changing. (Anderson, 2009)

Some men are sole parents & care givers. (Connell, 2003)

Many of the men who become active in gender reform do so because gender equality follows from political or ethical principles that are important to them. (Connell, 2014)

The first EU study on the role and position of men in gender equality issues was released in December 2012 and is entitled: “The role of men in gender equality – European strategies & insights”.

The Gender Pay Gap-it’s real!

Women are paid less simply because they are women, not because of the the choices they make. Current pay gap for F/T workers is 13.9%

‘Despite the Equal Pay Act 45 years ago, women still earn less than men in Britain today. The difference in pay between men and women remains the clearest and most dramatic example of inequality for women’ Fawcett (2016)

Women effectively stop earning relative to men this year on 10th November.

Women right now are effectively no longer being paid compared to men, Fawcett (2016)

University example: Average pay for females was around 15% behind that of their male colleagues over the decade from 1996 to 2006’ (UCU, 2007). Gender pay gap remains static in 2016-is this fair?

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Causes of the Gender Pay Gap (1)

Discrimination and stereotyping

Unequal caring responsibilities

Divisions in the labour market (vertical gender segregation) 82% of part-time workers are women

‘Men continue to make up the majority of those in the highest paid and most senior roles – for example, there are just five female Chief Executives in the FTSE 100’ Fawcett, (2016)

Causes of the Gender Pay Gap (2)

Stereotypical notions of women’s work

Structural and systematic organisational discrimination- (Acker, 2006)

Informal aspects and negotiations e.g. Pay

Mean earnings are lower because women’s employment is concentrated in lower paid occupations. (Horizontal seg)

Reasons behind gender issues/segregation

[Are] Women are inherently different from men (?) What do you think?

Societal bias and discrimination-(cultural differences will play a role

Discrimination in organisational policies, practices and processes

Socialisation:

Women have been socialised to give primacy to nurturing roles which leads to restriction of options & lack of career planning.

Notion of ‘double day’ (Hochschild 1989)-women disproportionately burdened with caring responsibilities, work and work

Argued that any attempt to explore and explain gender inequality & gender differences may imbue essentialist arguments.

Essentialist assertions attribute certain social differences to men and women as well as activities, status, gender roles. Rigidity and fixity are an issue

Importance of intersectionality (Crenshaw, 1991)

Intersection of social categories such as gender, race, class, sexual orientation, religion, age….

Hence, multidimensional inequalities ; seminar term to investigate ‘intersectionality’

Inequality Regimes in Organisations (Acker, 2006)

‘Inequality regimes are the interlocked practices and processes that result in continuing inequalities in all work organizations’ Acker, (2006:p.441)

Barriers to equality in organisations

e.g. Recruitment and selection, workplace processes, textual materials

Holistic analytical approach to understanding the creation and maintenance of inequalities in organisations

Aids the understanding of where inequalities in the organisation may be produced, reproduced and further entrenched

Inequality Regimes in Organisations (Acker, 2006)

‘Inequality regimes are the interlocked practices and processes that result in continuing inequalities in all work organizations’ Acker, (2006:p.441)

Barriers to equality in organisations

e.g. Recruitment and selection, workplace processes, textual materials

Holistic analytical approach to understanding the creation and maintenance of inequalities in organisations

Aids the understanding of where inequalities in the organisation may be produced, reproduced and further entrenched

Mechanisms of control and compliance-aimed at maintaining managerial power and getting workers to accept inequalities, gendered organisation of work

Organisational impediments to change-belief in legitimacy of bureaucratic structures, merit, stereotypes, notions of the unencumbered worker

Impacts of informal interactions-gendered networks, nepotism,

Inequality Regimes in Organisations (Acker, 2006)

Bradley’s 9 Facets of [Gendered] Power (Bradley, 1999)

Economic power

Access to, and control of economic resources such as income and other rewards from work. Bradley argues that men ‘have characteristically earned the greater share of income’ (1999, p.34).

Positional power

Power that is gained through an individual’s position in an organisation, for example through a management or supervisory position. Bradley asserts that ‘men have historically dominated in authority positions in the workplace’ (1999, p.34).

Technical power

The use of technical expertise, knowledge and skills to assert dominance.

Bradley’s 9 Facets of [Gendered] Power (Bradley, 1999)

Physical power

The use of physical strength and presence to assert dominance.

Symbolic power

‘Relates to the ability to impose one’s own definitions, meanings, values and rules on a situation, to give one’s own experience primacy’ (1999, p.34)

Collective power

The organisation of a group to gain power synergies. Examples may include trade unions, women’s groups and social networks.

Bradley’s 9 Facets of [Gendered] Power (Bradley, 1999)

Personal power

‘Involves the utilisation of a multitude of personal resources, such as strength of character, knowledge, ability to get one with people, charisma, experience, articulacy, the range of stratagems which people use in handling interpersonal relations’ (1999, p.35)

Sexual power

An element of personal power, but can be used by both men and women to gain leverage in the organisation, ‘either as a weapon of self-advancement or a way to intimidate and exclude others’ (1999, p.35)

Domestic power

The control, use of and expertise in domestic and household resources and skills.

Power and Gender Stereotypes in Management-imagery plays a powerful role

Imagery used in textbooks, and other learning resources can serve to further entrench stereotypes.

Googling for example ‘manager explaining’ will primarily bring up images of a white man, often explaining to a woman concept of ‘mansplaining’-(colloq.)

Power and Gender Stereotypes in Management Literature

Important to consider how images and the status quo of the ‘white male manager’ can proliferate stereotypes through what is taught, why might this need to be problematised & critiqued?

Gender stereotypes prevent women’s ascent up the management ladder (Heilman, 2001)

We have already seen how entrenched social stereotypes are by a young age – how much of this is down to the imagery that surrounds us?

Responses to Gender Inequality

Policy and policy instruments – positive action; positive discrimination

Diversity & equality training, education & development

Coaching & mentoring programmes

Speaking out; reporting abuse & harassment

Anti-discrimination legislation

Challenging norms – heterosexual, able-bodied, middle-class, white male

Challenging meanings attached to gender – identity politics that destabilises the ‘natural’ appearance of gender at work

Summary

Gender remains a source of discrimination and inequality in contemporary society

Gender stereotypes and associated power connotations are proliferated through the wider media, literature and further entrenched as a result on an ongoing basis.

Gender pay gap remain static and an ongoing issue in the UK context; women are still paid less than men for the same work

Gender inequalities are a facet of organisational life all of you will be affected (positively or negatively) by, and may need to manage and change.

Further Interesting Reading…

Kark, R. (2004). The transformational leader: who is (s) he? A feminist perspective. Journal of Organizational Change Management, 17(2), 160-176.

Butler, J. (2006). Gender trouble : Feminism and the subversion of identity (Routledge classics). New York, [N.Y.] ; London: Routledge.

Alvesson, M., & Due, B. (2009). Understanding gender and organizations (Second ed.). Los Angeles ; London: SAGE.

Hooks, bell. (1983). Ain't I a woman : Black women and feminism (Second ed.). London: Pluto.

Healey, G. (2012). Equality, Inequalities and Diversity: Contemporary Challenges and Strategies. Strategic Direction, 28(7), Strategic Direction, 05/18/2012, Vol.28(7).

Acker, J. (2009). From glass ceiling to inequality regimes. Sociologie Du Travail, 51(2), 199-217.

References

Acker, J. (2006). Inequality Regimes Gender, Class, and Race in Organizations. Gender & Society, 20(4), 441-464.

Bradley, H. (1999). Gender and power in the workplace: Analysing the impact of economic change. Basingstoke: Macmillan.

Crenshaw, K. (1991). Mapping the margins: Intersectionality, identity politics, and violence against women of color. Stanford Law Review, 43(6), 1241.

European Commission (2016), The current situation of gender equality

in the United Kingdom – Country Profile. Source: http://ec.europa.eu/justice/gender-equality/files/epo_campaign/130911_country-profile_united_kingdom.pdf (accessed: 11/11/2016)

Fawcett Society (2016), The Gender Pay Gap. Source: http://www.fawcettsociety.org.uk/policy-research/the-gender-pay-gap/ (accessed: 09/11/2016)

Heilman, M.E., 2001. Description and prescription: How gender stereotypes prevent women's ascent up the organizational ladder. Journal of social issues, 57(4), pp.657-674.

Monaghan, A., (2016) UK has one of worst records for gender equality at work – report. The Guardian, Wednesday 18th May, 2016. Source: https://www.theguardian.com/society/2016/may/18/uk-has-one-of-worst-records-for-gender-equality-at-work-report (accessed: 11/11/2016)