Business Simulation and Professional Development

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Topic Overview – Reflective Experiential Learning and Report Writing Guidance. Current Thinking

and Practice

Learning Outcome:

LO.1 explain the theory and practice of businesses (COI, CID, SID)

LO.3 critically evaluate research and theory to support decision-making and explain progress (COI, CID,

SID).

LO.6 undertake a critical audit of skills and capabilities for a professional career and identify areas

required for improvement (COI, CID, EID).

LO.7 developing and communicating critical evaluations of organization progress (CID, EID, SID)

1.Experiential Learning Theory (ELT)

ELT is an adult learning theory that highlights the critical role experience plays in affecting learning and

change. Kolb’s (1984) formulation of ELT draws on the work of prominent educational and organizational

scholars including John Dewey, Kurt Lewin, and Jean Piaget, who share the common view that learning

involves integrating experience with concepts and linking observations to actions. First, ELT emphasizes

learning as a process (Kolb, 1984), unlike traditional learning theories that focus on learning as

behavioral or cognitive outcomes. This process-oriented approach is consistent with our research

question to understand the intervening mechanisms that translate international work assignment

experiences into learning outcomes. Second, ELT views learning as a holistic process of adapting to the

world that requires the integrated functioning of the total person, which includes thinking, feeling,

perceiving, and behaving, as well as interactions between the person and the environment (Kolb, 1984).

The holistic nature of ELT fits well with the complexity of international assignments, given that leaders are

exposed to, and required to manage a multitude of demands and cues from their new environment. Third,

ELT views learning as a continuous process where new knowledge, changing existing ideas and

perspectives, relearning, and integrating old and new ideas are important aspects of learning (Kolb,

1984). This emphasis on a continuous and dynamic cycle of learning is particularly crucial for global

leaders given the uncertainties and complexities of culturally diverse business settings. Kolb’s (1984) 4-

stage learning cycle comprises two fundamental processes that enable learning from experience: (1)

grasping the experience, and (2) transforming the experience. The four learning stages are based on two

dialectically related modes of grasping experience: concrete experience versus abstract

conceptualization, and two dialectically related modes of transforming experience: reflective observation

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versus active experimentation. Concrete experience and abstract conceptualization are different ways of

grasping the experience. Concrete experience focuses on tangible elements of the immediate

experience, while abstract conceptualization relies on conceptual interpretation and symbolic

representation of the experience. In a similar way, reflective observation and active experimentation are

two different ways of acting upon the experience. Reflective observation relies on internal processing,

while active experimentation emphasizes actual manipulation of the external world. In essence, Kolb’s

ELT model prescribes a process of learning where the learner should undergo four bases—

experiencing, reflecting, thinking, and acting—in order to transform an experience effectively into learning

(Kolb & Kolb, 2005). Having (grasping) an experience without doing anything with it (transforming) is not

sufficient. Likewise, transformation cannot occur without an experience that can be acted upon. Hence,

the model argues that tangible episodes or events (concrete experiences) are the basis for descriptive

processing (reflective observations), which are then assimilated and distilled into conceptual

interpretations (abstract conceptualization), which then become the basis for action (active

experimentation). This fourth step (testing ideas in the real world) generates new experiences for the

learner and triggers another cycle of learning. To date, ELT has received widespread attention in the

management development literature (Kayes, 2002; Kolb & Kolb, 2005). Much of this research describes

preferred learning styles based on Kolb’s (1984) Learning Style Inventory. Acknowledging the importance

of this research and going beyond it, we adopt a prescriptive view of ELT and suggest that individuals

need to experience all four stages of learning to gain maximum developmental benefits from international

assignments. Thus, we conceptualize ELT as a process of learning involving conscious behaviors that

effective learners display in order to translate experience into learning outcomes that, in turn, should

enhance their global leadership effectiveness (Cassidy, 2004). This approach should offer important

insights into why individuals do not learn equally from their international experiences (Van Velsor,

Moxley, & Bunker, 2004). Although researchers have considered an assortment of individual differences

that affect ability to learn from international assignments, including cognitive abilities, self-esteem,

personality traits, such as openness and conscientiousness, and competencies, such as seeking and

using feedback, there is no systematic framework to explain previous inconsistent results where some

people seem to learn more than others from international work assignment experiences. Responding to

this gap, we propose that effective learning varies across individuals because only some individuals

engage in the entire experiential learning cycle when exposed to cultural experiences during their

international assignments. Thus, the process of ex periential learning, as explicated by ELT, provides a

theoretical basis for examining individual attributes that affect the extent of learning and leadership

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development during international assignments. We therefore build on and extend recent research that

has examined the competencies necessary for experiential learning (Kayes et al., 2005).

2.Reflective Portfolio

A Reflective Portfolio is a set of writings that summarise the insights and experiences a student has

gained from practical assignments. It is used to assess the student’s engagement with their fieldwork,

and their ability to use theoretical knowledge in an applied setting. The portfolio itself can take many

forms, including an extended written piece, a notebook or binder of short writings and documentary

evidence (Rosângela Minardi, Glauce Dias, & Érica Toledo Mendonça, 2013).

The reflective portfolio is very different from traditional assignments because it allows students to explore

their own learning process. Whereas traditional academic projects expect students to be objective and

impersonal, a Reflective Portfolio asks students to highlight their own personal perspectives, opinions

and feelings. It provides an honest summary of the work undertaken and the skill sets that were

developed. The key to success is demonstrating genuine engagement with the course of study rather

than a simple ability to score highly on an exam or essay (Zubizarreta, 2009).

2.1 What Does a Reflective Portfolio Normally Contain?

As per Zubizarreta (2009), the contents of a Reflective Portfolio will vary according to the discipline, but in

general it contains short written pieces that summarise and reflect on the experiences of practical work

placements. It can include the following:

• Samples of students’ Work – This will vary according to your field of study. For example, Art

students might be asked to provide photographs or scans of some of their work, while trainee Teachers

might be required to include sample lesson plans. The important thing is to include samples that reflect

your best practice, and that demonstrate depth and diversity as a practitioner.

• Journal Entries – Students are often asked to keep an informal journal during their practical work.

This should contain a brief summary of the tasks you’ve completed, as well as critical reflection on the

skills they helped you to develop. You should also make note of any situations that you found difficult or

challenging, and any moments of professional insight.

• Critical Incidents Reports – These are typically short summaries of moments that significantly

enhanced student learning. Critical Incidents can be either positive or negative experiences which

provided strong opportunities for professional development. When writing about such incidents, students

should reflect on the ways that they prompted new skill development, or provided an enhanced

understanding of course material.

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• Evidence of Achievement – This part of a Reflective Portfolio provides written evidence of student

achievement. For example, students can show how they met course objectives through work placement

time sheets, mentor/employer feedback, client ratings, and more. This section can also be referred to in

your other portfolio writings to support your reflective statements.

• Personal Statement – The Personal Statement provides an opportunity for students to summarise

their newly developed skills and professional philosophies. Based on the experiences they have gained,

how they would describe themselves professionally, Has their practical learning led them to embrace a

particular philosophy related to their profession, or subscribe to a certain body of methods? In other

words, what kind of practitioner will they be, and how has this been shaped by their practical fieldwork?

Reflective portfolios are a collection of evidence that attests to achievement as well as personal and

professional development through critical analysis and self-reflection. Professional portfolios may be

required for purposes such as seeking promotion and documenting continuing professional development,

and for accreditation. In health professional education, portfolios have been used to support reflective

practice, summative assessment, critical thinking, self-growth, learning and professionalism. In addition,

they have been effective in aiding knowledge management processes and in bridging the gap between

learning and practice. Perceived benefits to students include greater learning autonomy and heightened

understanding of exit learning outcomes (Plaza, 2007).

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As per Jasper (2005), reflective writing is another essential component of active learning, which focuses

on the process of learning itself.

• Substantive writing, like essays or term papers, which focus on the topic of discussion or the subject

of the course and present an organized argument on learner’s perspective on that topic allowing for a

deeper understanding on the concepts and ideas

• Reflective writing explores the learning process and attempts to unravel the importance of the

learning experience and allows for monitoring the progress of meaning making processes, analyzing the

personal value of the experience and considers options for future learning potential. The value of

reflective writing lays on the construct of acquiring personal awareness on the process of creating

meaning and self-consciousness in regards to learning.

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2.3 The reflection cycle

Reflective portfolios can be used as fundamental methods to monitor students’ progress over a period of

time. John Dewey (1910) argues that reflective engagement can be very powerful for learning, since it is

an “active, persistent, and careful consideration of any belief or supposed from of knowledge in the light

of the grounds that support it , and the further conclusions to which it tends”. Students who engage in

reflective writing consciously inquire about the origins, the conditions and the context of the issue at

hand. Therefore, in every reflective engagement, students may be in an state of “perplexity, hesitation,

doubt”, which then leads them to directly investigate and unravel the facts and factors of the challenge

they encounter. There are four stages through which progress can be captured (Shui, 2019). The image

below illustrates these stages:

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Record:

Some of the prompts and questions that can be used to help students reflect at this stage are:

• Describe the incident, concept, issue, course, context

• What happened? Who was involved and in what ways?

Reflect:

• What are your thoughts in regards to the way you reacted, addressed or thought about the incident?

• How did you feel?

• What are the pros and cons of the situation?

• What was learned from the situation?

Analyze:

• How would you explain the reasons behind the situation?

• How could you integrate theory to explain concepts and ideas?

• How can you provide evidence of your learning awareness and progress of thinking?

Action:

• How do the situation and the conclusions you generated inform your future decisions, actions,

thinking processes?

• What is your action plan on how to address such incidents?

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3.Kolb’s learning cycle

Kolb proposes that learning is the process of creating knowledge through the transformation of

experience. There are two forms of experience, concrete and abstract, and two ways of transforming that

experience into knowledge, reflective observation and active experimentation. The cycle connects all four

of these aspects, involving the “integrated functioning of the total person - thinking, feeling, perceiving

and behaving” (Kolb and Kolb, 2005:194). In some quarters, Kolb’s learning cycle has attained a kind of

‘taken for granted’ status (Beard and Wilson, 2006).

The Experiential Learning theory involves studying in four phases connected with doing, sensing,

observing, reflecting, thinking and planning. An important characteristic of the theories is that different

phases are connected with particular learning styles. People differ in their own learning styles. Accepting

this is an important premise that enables the students to realise the possible alternative approaches and

to become more flexible in different learning situations. Studying can suffer if there is an underlined

discrepancy between the style of the students and the style of the teacher (Beard & Wilson, 2006). Kolb’s

theory is affirmed as a learning theory that confirms all main aspects of active learning. It provides

theoretical argument of independent learning, learning by doing, work-based learning, and problem-

based learning. The theory has a vast range of application, including helping students realise themselves,

helping teachers become reflexive teachers, identifying learning styles of students, and development of

key teacher’s skills. It also helps in development of group project work and deciding how information and

communication technologies can aid the process of learning (Kolb, 1984).

3.1 The advantages of Kolb’s theory can be summarised in the following ways:

• Provides ready directions for application.

• Gives directions for the necessary range of education methods.

• Provides effective connection between theory and practice. Offers a theoretical argument of things that

many teachers apply and need advice on how to improve their practice.

• Clearly formulates the importance of students to reflect and the importance of providing feedback in

order to stimulate their studying.

• Helps to rationalise the way of combining learning styles so that learning can become more effective.

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• Without any effort, can be used in all subject areas.

• Can be used by an individual, by teams, or by whole organisations.

• Can be used in a particular lesson, session, or long course of study

The essence of Kolb’s model is just a description of the learning process, which is pictured as a cycle

made of four phases. In the model it is shown how experience is transformed through reflection in ideas

and concepts, which in turn are used for active experimenting and choice for new experience. Kolb

connects with those four phases the Concrete Experience (CE) -doing, Reflexive Observation (RO) -

observing, Abstract Conceptualising (АC) – thinking, and Active Experimenting (АE) – planning (Beard

and Wilson, 2006).

As per Healey & Jenkins (2000), the cycle can be entered at any point, but the phases must be followed

consecutively. In that way the learning cycle provides feedback that is the base of a new action and

evaluating the consequences of the action. The students must pass through the cycle a couple of times.

Then it can be called a spiral of cycle. Kolb briefly conceptualises the process of research as a spiral of

action and examinations consisting of four general moments: plan, action, observation, and reflection.

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3.3 The description of all the learning cycle phases is:

First phase. Concrete Experience /trying or involving in “doing”. The individual, the team, or the

organisation just does the task. During that time, they do not reflect on it but have intention to reflect on it.

Second phase. Reflexive observing. The reflection includes returning to the beginning point of the task

and review what is done and tried. Listening skills, paying attention, distinguishing the differences, and

applying ideas help finding results and sharing them with the others. Adjustments, values, and beliefs

influence on the definition of particular results. The vocabulary is important for the verbalising and

discussing the perceiving and comprehending of the experience.

Third phase. Abstract conceptualising. The conceptualising includes interpretation of the marked results

and understanding the connections between them. Theory can be useful as a base of shaping and

explaining the results. In that phase the adjustments, values, and beliefs also have influence on the

interpretation of the results. During the critical reflection questions are asked from the perspective of the

previous experience, while during the phase of conceptualising an attempt to find answers is done.

Generalisation and conclusions are made; hypotheses for experience are formed. About the abstract

conceptualising, Kolb says, “In that phase learning involves more logic and ideas than feelings of

understanding the problems or the situations. It is typical to follow systematic planning and development

of theories and ideas for solving problems’’ (Kolb, 1984).

Fourth phase. Active experimenting (planning). The planning (active experimenting) gives an opportunity

to master the new understanding and its carrying to predicting which is likely to happen later, or what

other actions must be taken for improving the way that we treat the task. About the active experimenting,

Kolb thinks, “Learning during that phase has an active form – experimenting, influence or change of the

situation.

The Kolb’s experiential learning theory has a vast range of application, including helping students realise

themselves, helping teachers become reflexive teachers, identifying learning styles of students, and

development of key teacher’s skills. The logic of the cycle is to do very little and increasing improvements

that, when done by many people, lead to significant improvements later (Healey & Jenkins, 2000).

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References

Beard, C & Wilson, J,P. (2006). Experiential Learning: A Best Practice Handbook for Educators and

Trainers. London: Kogan Page.

Healey, M. & Jenkins, A. (2000). Kolb's Experiential Learning Theory and Its Application in Geography in

Higher Education, Journal of Geography, 99, pp.185-195

Jasper, M. A. (2005). Using reflective writing within research. Journal of research in nursing, 10(3), 247-

260.

Kayes, D. C. (2002). Experiential learning and its critics: Preserving the role of experience in

management learning and education. Academy of Management Learning and Education, 1: 137–149.

Cassidy, S. (2004). Learning styles: An overview of theories, models, and measures. Educational

Psychology, 24: 419 – 444.

Kolb DA. (1984). Experiential learning: Experience as the source of learning and development. New

Jersey: Prentice Hall.

Kolb AY & Kolb DA (2005) Learning Styles and Learning Spaces: Enhancing Experiential Learning in

Higher Education. Academy of Management Learning and Education 4(2):193- 212.

Plaza, C. M., Draugalis, J. R., Slack, M. K., Skrepnek, G. H., & Sauer, K. A. (2007). Use of reflective

portfolios in health sciences education. American Journal of Pharmaceutical Education, 71(2).

Rosângela Minardi, M. C., Glauce Dias, d. C., & Érica Toledo Mendonça. (2013). Reflective portfolio: A

proposal for teaching and learning geared on competencies. Ciência & Saúde Coletiva, 18(6), 1847-

1856.

Shui, K. C. (2019). Innovative experiential learning experience: Pedagogical adopting Kolb’s learning

cycle at higher education in hong kong. Cogent Education, 6(1)

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Van Velsor, E., Moxley, R. S., & Bunker, K. A. (2004). The leader development process. In C. D.

McCauley & E. Van Velsor (Eds.), Handbook of leadership development (2nd ed.): 204 – 233. CA: Wiley.

Zubizarreta, J. (2009). The learning portfolio: Reflective practice for improving student learning. John

Wiley & Sons.