Pricing and Revenue management
Week 08 – Psychology of Pricing
https://www.abc.net.au/news/2019‐09‐18/car‐makers‐costing‐consumers‐1‐billion‐in‐mechanics‐bills/11525002
• Economic view of pricing looks at the Stimulus‐Response Relationship • Basic assumption: Consumers are well informed and behave rationally
Economic view of pricing
Demand and Price reaction
Price
Quantity
Price
Quantity
Price
Quantity
Price
Quantity
The Law of Demand
Reality
• Psychological view of pricing looks at the Stimulus‐Organism‐ Response relationship
• Reactions towards prices may be affected by perceptions, emotions, etc.
Psychological view of pricing
• How should we communicate prices? • Should we use price promotions? • Should we offer flat rates? • Should we offer price bundles? • …
Related questions
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Purchase phase and Psychological Aspects
Pre‐purchase Purchase Post‐purchase
‐ Price search ‐ Price perception ‐ Price judgment
‐ Willingness to pay ‐ Price preference ‐ Price satisfaction ‐ Price confidence ‐ Price fairness
‐ Price learning ‐ Price knowledge
• Consumers’ search for product related information, including price, before deciding to purchase a product
• Prices can stimulate emotions, which lead to consumer activation (i.e., stimulate perception of need), e.g., special sales
• Consideration of different alternatives or level of prices
Pre‐purchase Phase: Price search
• Consumers transform objective price information into subjectively perceived prices via cognitive processing
Pre‐purchase phase: Price Perception
Categorial Encoding
Subjective Price
Sensory & Lexical Encoding
Objective Price
Physical perception of stimulus and interpretation as price
Categorization of price based on past experience, product features, reference points, gain-loss framing, odd-pricing, …
That’s too expensive!!!
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• When you go and buy a product, what is your expected price for…
Reference Prices
Internal vs External?
• Adaptation Level Theory: Reference prices can be viewed as adaptation levels, i.e. reference prices adapt due to:
• Focal stimuli (i.e. actual prices encountered) • Background stimuli (e.g., physical surroundings, buyer’s budget,…)
• Assimilation‐Contrast Theory: Customers assimilate and contrast prices based on the latitude of acceptance and rejection
Psychological Theories and their Implications for Reference Prices
Any implications?
• State a manufacturer’s suggested price, a higher price previously charged (“Was $999, Now $799), or a higher price charged by competitors (“Their price $999, our price $799)
• Present higher priced products first (“top‐down selling”) or place them at eye level in stores
• Increase prices in small steps (so that higher prices are assimilated) • Decrease prices in big steps (so that lower prices are not assimilated, but consumer take notice of them)
• Use promotional deals infrequently; explicitly declare them as deals (so that they are contrasted and don’t influence the reference price)
Implications: Reference Price
• Would you switch the store because your coke costs $3 less? • Would you switch the store because your car costs $3 less? Consumers evaluate price differences proportionally Psychologists call this effect the Weber‐Fechner effect
Impact of proportional price evaluations on price perception
Any implications?
• Choose wisely between dollar rebates and percent rebates (e.g., offer a coke with 10% instead of $0.10 discount and offer a car with $300 instead of 1% discount)
• Offer, e.g., “free breakfast” or “free internet access” instead of a slightly lower price (i.e., 100% rebate versus $10 rebate)
Implication: Proportional Price
• Which gasoline station would you be more willing to patronize? • Station A sells gasoline for $1.10 per liter, but gives a $10 per liter discount if the buyer pays with cash
• Station B sells gasoline for $1.00 per liter, but charges a $0.10 per liter surcharge if the buyer pays with credit card
Impact of Gain‐Loss Framing on Price Perception
Most people prefer station A Psychological reasons behind:
‐Prospect Theory: People place more importance on avoiding “losses” than on capturing equal size “gains” This phenomenon is called “loss‐aversion”
Any implications?
• Make prices opportunity costs (gains foregone) rather than out‐of‐ pocket costs (loss)
• E.g., banks waive fees for checking accounts in return for maintaining a minimum balance
• When your product is priced differently to different customers and at different times, set the list price at the highest level and give most people discounts
• E.g., pricing in gyms, in theatres, etc • Unbundle gains and bundle losses
• Unbundle gains: “This package gets you x, y, z” Emphasize each component • Bundle losses: “You get all of this for only $$” Emphasize the one‐time loss
Implication: Gain‐Loss framing (Prospect Theory)
Example
Cross category reference price effects
Category 1
Category 2
Time
Building reference point
Loss
Loss
Gain
What if Category 1 and 2 are
substitutes?
What if Category 1 and 2 are
complements?
Loss: Actual price > Reference Price
Gain: Actual price Reference Price
• In some situations it is more difficult to compare prices and thus to build up reference prices, e.g.,
• Incumbent/new entrant rivalry: Incumbents can purposely design their pricing to be difficult to compare which increases information gathering costs
• Brands vs generics: brands provide emotional security and trust • Size changes: different prices for different sizes make comparison difficult
Impact of Difficult Comparison Effect on Price Perception
• Odd‐pricing: prices end in an odd amount, just below the nearest round number
• Advantages • More difficult to remember • Perceived as discount • Underestimation effect • Very often used in practice, thus perceived as ‘normal’ by consumers (an ending in 5 is ‘normal’ for Polish, and ending 8 is ‘normal’ for Asian)
• Disadvantages • Perceived a being cheap
Impact of Odd‐Pricing on Price perception
Any implication for cheap vs. expensive products?
Price
Quantity
• How do you choose, when you… • … need to have your car fixed? • … want to invite someone to an unknown restaurant? • … need to find a hairdresser in your new town?
• Higher prices can lead to an increase in demand if consumers infer quality from price, this may be due to the fact that…
• Experience has shown that higher priced products are of better quality • Price is sometimes the only product feature that allows to compare products objectively • Consumers think that there is a price‐cost relationship
Price Judgment: Price‐Quality relationship
Price
Quantity
• Factors that lead to a stronger price‐quality relationship can be attributed to
Price Judgment: Price‐Quality relationship
… the product … the situation … the customers
Quality is difficult to judge objectively (e.g. experience goods)
High time‐pressure at purchase
High buying power
Last purchase is long time ago High complexity of purchase decision task
High wish to have a fast and convenient shopping experience
Differences in quality can be huge
Low price transparency High desire to reduce cognitive dissonance
• Share cost effect: higher WTP if spending someone else’s money
• Switching costs: • Psychological: loosing brand loyalty • Fiscal: invest time to learn new technology; buy new complementary products
Purchase Phase: Willingness‐To‐Pay
• Consumers ignore much of the price information they perceive • Can you recall the price of…
• Your last coffee? • You last hair cut? • Your rent?
• Price recall is usually low and depends on factors such as… • Income level • Purchase frequency • Involvement • Private labels versus branded items • Share of household’s budget
Post‐purchase phase: Price Recall
• Consumers place more value in something once they possess it than they otherwise would.
• E.g., sell your used mobile phone online
Post‐purchase phase: Endowment Effect
$800
$500
Endowment effect
The price you want for your mobile
The price everyone else would pay