Analyze uses of your mobile phone that connect you to other people

new media & society 2016, Vol. 18(11) 2452 –2468

© The Author(s) 2015 Reprints and permissions:

sagepub.co.uk/journalsPermissions.nav DOI: 10.1177/1461444815592665

nms.sagepub.com

“I miss my mobile phone!”: Self-expansion via mobile phone and responses to phone loss

Cynthia A Hoffner, Sangmi Lee and Se Jung Park Georgia State University, USA

Abstract This article explores how mobile phones function as an affective technology for young adults, by adapting the self-expansion model to understand attachment to mobile phones. In an online survey, 272 smart phone users reported on their recalled responses to loss/separation from their mobile phone (not by choice), as well as their use of the mobile phone for self-expansion. Results show that self-expansion via mobile phone was associated with greater inclusion of the mobile phone in the self-concept and greater subjective well-being. Most respondents reported negative feelings, such as loneliness/disconnection, anxiety, and boredom, when without their mobile phone, but others felt relieved to be out of touch with others. The use of the mobile phone for self-expansion was associated with more negative emotion and less positive emotion (relief) in response to loss/separation from the phone. Interpretations of the findings are discussed.

Keywords Emotion, mobile phones, self-expansion, well-being

Mobile phones are everywhere and people use them for a wide range of purposes (Smith, 2011, 2013). The growing popularity of the smart phone means that an increasing array of options is available to mobile phone users (Anderson, 2013). According to the Pew Internet and American Life Project, as of August 2012, two thirds of young adults in the United States owned smart phones (Rainie, 2012). Research with people in many

Corresponding author: Cynthia A Hoffner, Department of Communication, Georgia State University, P.O. Box 5060, Atlanta, GA 30302-5060, USA. Email: [email protected]

592665NMS0010.1177/1461444815592665new media & societyHoffner et al. research-article2015

Article

Hoffner et al. 2453

countries around the world—for example, in the United States, Brazil, United Kingdom, Germany, Japan, and South Korea—has documented emotional aspects of mobile phone use. Evidence shows that people become emotionally attached to personal media devices (Fortunati and Vincent, 2009; Lee and Sundar, 2015; Silva, 2012; Vincent, 2006). Mobile phones are always in close proximity to users and connect them to others with whom they have emotional bonds. Many people feel disconnected if their mobile phone is not in their possession (Vincent, 2006; Weller et al., 2012). Scholarship on mobile technol- ogy has discussed benefits as well as drawbacks of always being connected to others and having continuous access to media for play and entertainment (Daliot-Bul, 2007; Hall and Baym, 2012; Katz, 2008).

Social and emotional aspects of mobile phone use

The most common use of mobile phones is to connect people, to provide immediate access to others via text or voice calls, from almost anywhere. People can remain in contact with friends and family even when separated by long distances (Katz, 2008; Rettie, 2008). Mobile phones can also be used to share experiences via social networking sites—for example, through updates and photos—and to reach out to others for compan- ionship. Other interpersonal uses include seeking to maintain safety and security, for example, by requesting help or assistance, and coordinating face-to-face meetings and gatherings (Hall and Baym, 2012). In addition, mobile phones offer access to content that may not involve social interaction, such as music, games, news and information, videos, television programs, and innumerable apps.

Several scholars have argued that the mobile phone is a type of “affective technology” that is deeply connected to the emotional lives of users (Fortunati and Vincent, 2009; Silva, 2012). People likely vary in the perceived needs that their mobile phone fulfills and in the aspects of mobile phone use that they value most (cf. Rubin, 2009). Studies indicate that calling and texting friends and family members can satisfy interpersonal needs such as affection, inclusion, and belonging (Jin and Park, 2010; Walsh et al., 2011). However, use of mobile phones, especially heavy use, also has been linked to mental health problems such as stress, anxiety, and sleep disturbance (Jenaro et al., 2007; Thomée et al., 2011). Being always connected and reachable by others can be a source of stress (Hall and Baym, 2012). Although mobile phone use has both benefits and draw- backs, the negatives seem to have received the most popular press (e.g. Fredrickson, 2013). Yet as with any type of technology, the way it is put to use is an important factor in determining consequences of use. The present study examines mobile phone use by exploring responses to loss or separation from the mobile phone, as well as how those responses relate to participants’ use of their phone for self-expansion (Leary, 2007).

Motivation for self-expansion

The self-expansion model (e.g. Aron and Aron, 1996; Aron et al., 2001) contends that people are motivated to expand the self, to know or become more, to move closer to a state of wholeness. Aron et al. (2001) stated that people seek to increase the “physical and social resources, perspectives, and identities that facilitate achievement of any goal

2454 new media & society 18(11)

that might arise” (p. 478). Furthermore, they argued that people seek to expand not only their material resources, but also their cognitive complexity, competence, self-efficacy, relatedness, and sense of place in the universe. The notion of self-expansion has been interpreted as expanding both personal capabilities (self-improvement) and self-concept (Leary, 2007; Ryan and Deci, 2000).

Aron and Aron (1996; Aron et al., 2001) developed the self-expansion model as a way of understanding love and close relationships. A new relationship offers the opportunity to expand oneself through the perspectives, opportunities, and new identities offered by the other person. Resources gained through relationship with close others become part of an individual’s mental representation of self. In other words, there is a cognitive merging of the self with aspects of the other. Aron and colleagues conceptualized this experience as the “inclusion of other in the self.” According to the model, the experience of self- expansion is rewarding, and this positive affect contributes to relationship satisfaction and motivates continuation of the relationship (Aron et al., 2001; Lewandowski et al., 2006). Moreover, self-expansion is psychologically healthy, leading to expansion and diversification of the self-concept, and a “broadened identity or awareness, which usu- ally leads to greater altruism” (Aron and Aron, 1996: 50).

Humans have a fundamental need for belongingness or relatedness, and adverse psy- chological consequences are experienced in response to social deprivation or loss of social bonds (Baumeister and Leary, 1995; Ryan and Deci, 2000). According to Aron et al. (2004), loss of a relationship should “result in intense negative affect due to a rapid contraction of the self as the other’s resources, perspectives, and identities become less available to be included [in the self]” (p. 117). Recent research has examined the conse- quences of relationship loss from the perspective of the self-expansion model (Boelen and Van den Hout, 2010; Lewandowski et al., 2006). Generally, the more a relationship contributes to self-expansion, the more emotionally detrimental the effects of the loss of that relationship. Conversely, Lewandowski and Bizzoco (2007) found that the dissolu- tion of a low-quality relationship—one low in self-expansion—resulted in increased self-discovery and positive emotion.

The self-expansion model focuses on close personal relationships, but there are other avenues for self-expansion, such as identifying with in-groups, seeking novel experi- ences, or engaging in creative activities (Aron and Aron, 1996; Gordon and Luo, 2011; Leary, 2007). Reimann and Aron (2009) contend that self-expansion theory can help explain people’s relationships with brands, arguing that brand relationships offer con- sumers an opportunity to expand their self-concepts. Aron and Aron (1996) noted that the self-expansion model has been used to understand love for objects and experiences. Recent research has applied the concept of self-expansion to the ways that activity engagement can increase self-complexity and psychological integration (Stenseng et al., 2012). Work in this area has shown that engaging in activities for self-development (pro- motion motives), in ways that are self-controlled and fit harmoniously into one’s life, can lead to self-expansion and enhanced well-being. However, activities can be detrimental when engaged in obsessively or for purposes of avoidance (prevention motives; Stenseng et al., 2011; Vallerand et al., 2003).

Gordon and Luo (2011: 90) recently proposed that motivation for self-expansion can be conceptualized as a personal trait, which differs across individuals. They suggested

Hoffner et al. 2455

that personal expansion is a process by which an individual acquires “resources that can promote his or her well-being,” which can enrich close relationships. In general, research shows that self-expansion is a healthy motivation that contributes to mental health and well-being (cf. Diener et al., 2010; Ryan and Deci, 2001).

The present study

Self-expansion encompasses a variety of outcomes that can emerge through uses of the mobile phone (Aron et al., 2001), and this is ideal for understanding the potential bene- fits and adverse consequences of mobile phone use. Specifically, self-expansion broadly considers how people seek to incorporate perspectives, identities, and efficacies into the self through relationships, experiences, and activities (Aron et al., 2001; Stenseng et al., 2012). Smart phones can facilitate self-expansion through interpersonal communication, as well as by supporting self-expression, offering access to a range of activities, and providing opportunities for new experiences (e.g. by connecting people and assisting navigation through physical environments; e.g. Campbell and Kwak, 2011; Katz, 2008; Rettie, 2008; Silva, 2012).

Given the affordances of smart phones and young adults’ increasing attachment to their phones, it is surprising that prior research has not explored mobile phone use from the self-expansion perspective. However, studies have documented that mobile technol- ogy is used in ways that satisfy personal needs of users. For example, Hassenzahl et al. (2010) studied affective outcomes of using interactive technologies—including mobile phones—and found that these interactive experiences fulfilled a variety of perceived needs (e.g. competence, relatedness, popularity), which were associated with a positive affect. Leisure activities, including media use, have the potential for self-expansion, although such activities may also be used as a form of self-suppression (Stenseng et al., 2012). The use of the phone for self-expansion may be a way that mobile phone use can contribute to psychological health and well-being.

One way to examine the role of any activity or experience in people’s lives is to assess responses to loss of that activity/experience. Past studies have taken advantage of events such as strikes (e.g. newspaper strike, television writers’ strike) to infer how media use or parasocial relationships affect the lives of audience members (Elliott and Rosenberg, 1987; Lather and Moyer-Gusé, 2011; Walker, 1990). Similarly, interpersonal scholarship has been informed by studying relationship loss. As noted above, recent research has shown that responses to loss of a relationship vary based on the level of self-expansion experienced in the relationship. Greater distress was associated with loss of more self- expanding relationships whereas positive emotions tended to follow loss of relationships that restricted self-expansion (Boelen and Van den Hout, 2010; Lewandowski et al., 2006).

Following these studies, this research examined people’s responses when access to their mobile phone was disrupted—based on both a recalled experience and a hypo- thetical phone loss scenario—and examined how those responses were associated with use of the mobile phone for self-expansion. We began with a descriptive research ques- tion that addressed how respondents reacted when they were deprived of their mobile phone:

2456 new media & society 18(11)

RQ1. What responses will respondents report to loss of access to their mobile phone?

We then proposed research questions and hypotheses designed to examine the affec- tive consequences of using the mobile phone for self-expansion. Specifically, we exam- ined how self-expansion via mobile phone was associated with subjective well-being as well as with both negative and positive emotional responses to loss of the mobile phone. We reasoned that these associations would offer insight into the extent to which ordinary mobile phone use contributes to self-expansion. We proposed the following:

RQ2. How will use of the mobile phone for self-expansion be related to subjective well-being?

H1. Greater use of the mobile phone for self-expansion will be associated with greater negative affect in response to loss of the mobile phone.

RQ3. Which negative emotions to loss will be most strongly associated with self-expansion?

H2. Greater use of the mobile phone for self-expansion will be associated with less positive affect in response to loss of the mobile phone.

Finally, to offer additional insight into the potential ways that mobile phone use may facilitate self-expansion, we also asked:

RQ4. Which missed uses/functions of the mobile phone will be associated with use of the phone for self-expansion?

Method

Participants and procedure

The sample included 272 university students (167 females, 105 males) whose ages ranged from 17 to 38 years (M = 20.16, SD = 3.19). A total of 43.8% of respondents were Black/African-American, 26.8% White/Caucasian, 13.6% Asian/Pacific Islander, 8.1% multiracial, 4.8% Hispanic/Latino/Latina, and 2.9% other or not reported. Over 45 dif- ferent majors were reported. Nearly half of the respondents (51.8%) used an iPhone, 43.0% had an Android, and 5.1% had another type of smart phone (e.g. Blackberry, Windows OS).

A convenience sample of undergraduates was recruited from general education classes at a large, urban university in the United States. An invitation and link to the survey (on surveymonkey.com) was shared with students via email by instructors. Most of the survey assessed how respondents felt, thought about, and used their mobile phone. Several meas- ures of personal characteristics and demographics were also obtained. Students received extra course credit for participating. The individuals in this study were smart phone users who reported having been without their phone for at least several hours, not by choice. Another paper from this same project appears elsewhere (Hoffner and Lee, in press).

Hoffner et al. 2457

Open-ended reports of responses to phone loss

Respondents were asked whether they had ever been without their mobile phone for more than a few hours, NOT by choice, and if so, to report what had happened: why they were without their phone, for how long, and their responses to being without their phone. Their open-ended responses were coded for references to emotional reactions and missed functions/uses of the phone. The coding categories were developed inductively, based on a review of the data. All responses were independently classified by two coders. Cohen’s Kappa ranged from .70 to 1.0. Disagreements were resolved by a third coder. The coding categories and reliabilities are reported in Table 1.

Rated measures

Means, standard deviations, and reliabilities of all rated measures are reported in Table 2.

Mobile phone use. Respondents rated how often (1, never; 2, rarely; 3, sometimes; 4, often) they used their mobile phone for various purposes, including voice calls (making and receiving), text messaging (sending and receiving), email use, social networking sites, the internet, music, games, videos or TV, and shopping for apps. These items were averaged for a single measure of mobile phone use.

Emotional responses to loss of mobile phone. Respondents also read a scenario describing the hypothetical loss of their phone for a period of 5 days.1 They then rated a series of emotional responses to this loss, by indicating how true each response would be for them, on a 5-point scale (1, not true at all; 5, very true). Four emotions that corresponded to open-ended reports were measured: lonely (2 items: lonely, isolated), anxious/

Table 1. Open-ended responses to being without the mobile phone (recalled experience).

Cohen’s Kappa Frequency Percent

Emotional responses Any negative emotion .93 189 69.5 Lonely/disconnected .96 75 27.6 Anxious/vulnerable .86 36 13.2 Bored 1.0 20 7.4 Angry/annoyed .96 11 4.0 Sad/depressed .95 10 3.7 Relieved/free from obligations .80 19 7.0 No emotion/not affected .78 47 17.3 Missed uses/functions of the mobile phone Communication with others .95 74 27.2 Ability to coordinate/plan/seek assistance .70 28 10.3 Access to information/content .70 19 7.0 N 272

Frequencies total to more than 272 because many respondents reported more than one response to loss of the mobile phone.

2458 new media & society 18(11)

vulnerable (5 items: anxious, scared, worried, vulnerable, insecure), sad (2 items: sad, depressed), and relieved (single item).

Self-expansion through mobile phone use. The extent to which the mobile phone facilitates self-expansion was measured with eight items adapted from the self-expansion scale developed by Lewandowski and Aron (2002).2 For example, “How much does your part- ner increase your knowledge?” became “How much does having your mobile phone increase your knowledge?” Items were rated on a 5-point scale (1, not at all; 5, a great deal), and scores were averaged. In some analyses, a median split (median = 3.13) was used to classify participants as low (n = 144) or high (n = 126) on the self-expansion scale.

As another indicator of self-expansion through mobile phone use, we explicitly asked respondents about their relationship to their mobile phone. Based on the idea that self- expansion through a relationship involves inclusion of the other in the self (Aron and Aron, 1996), a single item measured the extent to which participants included the mobile phone in their self-concept. The item (rated on a 5-point Likert scale) was adapted from Park et al. (2010): “My mobile phone is a part of me and who I am.”

Subjective well-being. To assess well-being, respondents completed an eight-item “flour- ishing” scale developed by Diener et al. (2010), who reported evidence of the scale’s validity and reliability (α = .87). Items were rated on 5-point Likert scales. Examples include “My social relationships are supportive and rewarding,” “I am engaged and interested in my daily activities,” and “I am optimistic about my future.”

Results

Recalled experience of being without a mobile phone

Reasons for being without the phone. Respondents reported on the most recent time they were without their mobile phone for at least several hours (not by choice). Most (57.0%)

Table 2. Means, standard deviations, and reliabilities of rated measures.

Mean Standard deviation

Cronbach’s alpha

Mobile phone use variables Mobile phone use (11 items) 3.30 0.42 .72 Self-expansion via mobile phone (8 items) 3.23 1.03 .94 Inclusion of mobile phone in self-concept (1 item) 2.87 1.41 – Subjective well-being 4.10 .89 .94 Responses to (hypothetical) loss of mobile phone Lonely (2 items) 2.94 1.30 .76 Anxious/vulnerable (5 items) 2.56 1.17 .89 Sad (2 items) 2.49 1.17 .69 Relieved (1 item) 2.12 1.26 –

Ratings could range from 1 to 5, with the exception of mobile phone use, which could range from 1 to 4. Ns ranged from 269 to 272.

Hoffner et al. 2459

had forgotten their phone, 21.7% had lost or misplaced it, 11.4% said it had been stolen, 7.4% said it was not working (e.g. dead battery, malfunctioning), 1.8% gave other rea- sons (e.g. parents took it away), and 0.7% gave no reason.

Length of time without the phone. Respondents’ open-ended reports of how long they were without their phone were classified on a 6-point scale. Responses were distributed on the scale as follows: (1) 4 hours or less, 23.5%; (2) longer than 4 hours but less than 1 day, 22.4%; (3) 1–2 days, 27.6%; (4) more than 2 days but less than a week, 12.1%; (5) 1–2 weeks, 8.1%; and (6) 3 weeks or more, 5.1% (1.1% did not respond).

Recalled responses to mobile phone loss

Nearly all respondents (n = 269, 98.9%) provided a description of their responses to being without their phone. To address RQ1, the coded responses are reported in Table 1, and are discussed below.

Emotional responses. Overall, more than two thirds of the sample (69.5%) reported expe- riencing negative emotional responses to the loss of their phone. Some respondents reported generally negative reactions—one (Respondent 212) stated, “I felt terrible” and another (Respondent 39) said “empty”—and these were included in the broader category of “any negative emotion.” Over one quarter of respondents (27.6%) reported feeling disconnected from others, lonely, lost, or isolated. One respondent (Respondent 111) stated, “I felt disconnected to my world and it made me feel kind of sad and lonely.” Oth- ers reported feeling “more alone as a result of losing contact with friends” (Respondent 244) and “disconnected from a lot of friends that were not close by” (Respondent 194). Respondent 203 stated, “I felt lost and without connection from others.” Another (Respondent 269) wrote, “It was one of the most loneliest months of my life. It may sound like an exaggeration but that’s how I felt.”

Some respondents (13.2%) indicated that being out of contact with others lead to anxiety or a feeling of vulnerability. Respondent 28 stated, “Not being in constant reach of contact with my loved ones scares me.” Similarly, Respondent 49 reported feeling “scared to not be able to get ahold of people if something bad was to happen to me, like a car accident.” Another (Respondent 42) wrote, “i was anxious and it was all i could think about.”

Some people (7.4%) felt bored without access to their mobile phone. Respondent 235 wrote, “I was very bored the whole time. I kept looking at it hoping it would come back on. I feel sliding my finger down the screen to unlock it but it was dead.” For some, boredom was due to an inability to interact with others. For example, Respondent 52 reported being “extremely bored because I couldn’t talk to anyone” and another (Respondent 249) stated, “i couldn’t text my friends so i felt bored.” Others regarded the phone as a source of entertainment. Respondent 100 reported feeling “bored because i didnt have anything to keep me entertained,” and Respondent 170 wrote, “when I was bored there was nothing at my fingertips to entertain me.”

A few respondents reported feeling angry (4.0%) or sad (3.7%) as a result of being without their phone. They were angry because the phone was lost (Respondent 119

2460 new media & society 18(11)

stated, “I felt very angry about losing it”) or because they were unable to reach people (Respondent 201 reported, “I was mad, because I could not contact anybody when I needed to”). Similarly, sadness was experienced due to loss of the phone (Respondent 86 stated, “I was sad and depressed. I felt like I was missing a part of me”) or separation from others (Respondent 234 reported, “I felt sad with no one to talk to”).

Despite the preponderance of negative affect in response to being without a mobile phone, some respondents (7.0%) reported feeling relieved and glad to be out of touch with others. Respondent 217 stated that “it was a like a weight was lifted off of me because I wasn’t worried about checking my phone all the time. And I actually enjoyed my surroundings more.” Similarly, another respondent (Respondent 134) wrote, “It was a freeing experience. I enjoyed not feeling tied down and connected. I only connected with others when I wanted to.” Others reported similar reactions: “I felt liberated” (Respondent 43); “Free. I could do whatever I would like and not care” (Respondent 54); “Felt great, free spirited” (Respondent 55).

Finally, 17.3% of the sample indicated that they felt no emotion or were unaffected by being without their phone. Respondent 108 wrote, “I felt neutral about not having my phone. It was a little of an annoyance because I could not tell the time or text but it was not too big of a deal.” Similarly, another wrote, “I felt the same way that I always do” (Respondent 92). Other comments included, “I felt fine. I didn’t really notice an impact” (Respondent 53); “I wasn’t that affected” (Respondent 35); “Didn’t bother me much” (Respondent 205); and “Indifferent. It’s just a phone” (Respondent 208).

Missed uses/functions of the mobile phone. Respondents also described uses or functions of the phone that they missed. More than one quarter of the sample (27.2%) mentioned not being able to communicate with others or being unreachable. Respondent 98 stated,

Due to being at work without access to a computer for e-mail, I had no way to contact my significant other besides using a regular landline from the company. However, I do not memorize phone numbers these days, so it was quite difficult to remember the correct numbers.

Similarly, Respondent 117 wrote, “i felt like i was disconnected from my friends and people i cared about because i had no way of contacting them regularly.” Another (Respondent 77) stated, “I felt as if communication with those I care about was very dif- ficult. Hard to keep in touch with people.” Respondent 204 mentioned both the difficulty of contacting others and concern about missing calls or texts from others: “I felt so wor- ried because i couldn’t contact any one and they couldn’t get in touch with me.” Others were similarly concerned about being “unreachable.” For example: “Basically just wor- ried that I was missing calls or text from people” (Respondent 38); “I felt like I was missing important calls and texts messages from my loved ones” (Respondent 218).

Other respondents (10.3%) described difficulties or concerns about coordinating with others, accomplishing things, or seeking assistance. Respondent 143 stated, “I couldn’t contact friends to meet up and was partially out-of-the-loop because of it.” Another person (Respondent 152) reported being “unable to communicate or accomplish things.” Similar comments were made by others: “It was frustrating trying to organize plans with friends and work” (Respondent 197); “I felt like I wouldn’t be able to get around town or call when i needed a ride. Without a phone, no one will know where i am!” (Respondent 17).

Hoffner et al. 2461

Finally, 7.0% of the respondents said they missed using the phone for information or content. Respondent 26 stated, “I just felt, well, weird about not being able to find out any give[n] piece of information of which I could think.” Another (Respondent 58) wrote, “I use my phone very often to google things that interest me … so I missed it.” Others reported missing access to content on the phone: “I would want to look up things such as addresses and couldn’t” (Respondent 15); “I felt lost without my phone with all my information and dates and captured memories” (Respondent 215).

Self-expansion and well-being

Participants reported a moderate level of self-expansion via their mobile phone (mean = 3.38 on a scale of 1 to 5). Self-expansion was positively correlated with mobile phone use (controlling for age and gender), r = .35, p < .001. After adding mobile phone use as an additional control variable, greater self-expansion via mobile phone was asso- ciated with greater inclusion of the mobile phone in the self-concept, r = .44, p < .001.

Regarding RQ2, self-expansion via mobile phone was positively correlated with sub- jective well-being (controlling for age, gender, and mobile phone use), r = .24, p < .001. In other words, use of the phone for self-expansion was associated with greater psycho- logical health.

Self-expansion via mobile phone and responses to phone loss

To examine how self-expansion via mobile phone was related to emotional responses to loss of the phone (H1, RQ3, and H2), two types of analyses were conducted. First, chi- square analyses examined the association between self-expansion (recoded low or high based on a median split) and each open-ended emotional response to recalled loss of the phone (coded as absent/present).3 These analyses appear in the upper portion of Table 3. Second, a regression analysis predicting self-expansion via mobile phone was conducted, with background variables entered in the first step as controls, and rated emotions in response to the hypothetical phone loss scenario entered in the second step. This analysis appears in Table 4.

As predicted by H1, Table 3 shows that respondents who scored high on the self- expansion scale were more likely than those who scored low to recall experiencing nega- tive emotion to phone loss. An examination of specific negative emotions (RQ3) revealed that feelings of loneliness/disconnection, anxiety, sadness, and boredom (but not anger) in response to phone loss were more common among those who tended to use their phone for self-expansion. For the hypothetical loss scenario, the regression analysis (see Table 4) revealed that the more respondents used their mobile phone for self-expansion, the more they expected to experience loneliness and anxiety (but not sadness) if without their phone.

H2 predicted that greater use of the mobile phone for self-expansion would be associ- ated with less positive affect in response to loss of the mobile phone. This hypothesis was supported for the recalled experience of phone loss, but not by responses to the hypo- thetical scenario. Specifically, Table 3 shows that respondents who tended to use their phone for self-expansion were less likely to feel relieved to be without their phone—and

2462 new media & society 18(11)

also were less likely to report feeling no emotion at all. However, Table 4 shows that the single-item scale assessing anticipated relief in the hypothetical loss scenario was not a significant predictor of self-expansion via mobile phone.

Finally, RQ4 asked how self-expansion via mobile phone would be related to the missed uses/function of the mobile phone. To address this question, chi-square analyses

Table 3. Relationships between self-expansion via mobile phone (low/high) and open-ended reports of responses to loss of mobile phone.

Open-ended responses to loss of mobile phone Low self-expansion

High self-expansion

Chi-square

Emotional responses All negative emotions 56.9% 84.1% 23.48*** Lonely/disconnected 22.2 34.1 4.75* Anxious/vulnerable 8.3 19.0 6.68** Sad/depressed 0.7 6.3 6.67** Angry/annoyed 4.9 3.2 0.49 Bored 4.2 11.1 4.23* Relieved/free from obligations 11.1 2.4 7.83** No emotion/not affected 25.7 7.1 16.36*** Missed uses/functions of the mobile phone Communication with others 29.2% 25.4% 0.48 Ability to coordinate/plan/seek assistance 6.9 14.3 3.90* Access to information/content 4.9 9.5 2.23 n 144 126

Low versus high self-expansion was based on a median split. The percentages refer to the respondents in each group who mentioned each response to loss of the mobile phone. *p < .05. **p < .01. ***p < .001.

Table 4. Hierarchical regression analysis predicting self-expansion via mobile phone.

Beta Δ R2

1. Background .11*** Gender (0 = male) −.04 Age −.07 Mobile phone use .34*** 2. Emotions in response to mobile phone loss (hypothetical scenario) .21*** Lonely .22** Anxious/vulnerable .23* Sad .06 Relieved −.02 Adjusted R2 = .30 F(7, 260) = 17.16***

Betas in the table are standardized betas at entry. *p < .05 **p < .01 ***p < .001.

Hoffner et al. 2463

examined the association between self-expansion (low/high) and open-ended reports of missed uses/functions of the phone. As shown in the lower portion of Table 3, respond- ents who tended to use their phone for self-expansion were more likely to miss using the phone for coordinating, planning, or seeking assistance. However, self-expansion was unrelated to missing use of the phone for communication with others or for access to information and other content.

Discussion

This study contributes to the small but growing body of research on emotional aspects of mobile phone use (Fortunati and Vincent, 2009; Silva, 2012). Overall, the findings sug- gest that mobile phone use can facilitate self-expansion, potentially leading to greater psychological health and well-being. In response to loss or separation from the mobile phone, more than two thirds of the sample recalled experiencing negative emotional responses. The most frequently reported feeling was loneliness or disconnection, mainly due to lack of connection to others. Respondents also reported feeling anxious and vul- nerable, bored (due to lack of access to both people and entertaining content), angry, and sad. However, a small number of respondents (7%) felt relieved to be out of touch with others, and about one-fifth of the sample recalled being emotionally unaffected by loss of their phone.

Some evidence suggests that being in constant electronic contact with others or with mobile content may be psychologically unhealthy (Hall and Baym, 2012; Jenaro et al., 2007; Thomée et al., 2011), but consequences of mobile phone use undoubtedly depend on how the phone is used. Participants in this study reported a moderate level of self- expansion through use of their mobile phone. Self-expansion via mobile phone was asso- ciated with greater inclusion of the mobile phone in the self-concept and greater subjective well-being, suggesting that use of the phone to develop and expand the self leads to psychological benefits. People who were more inclined to use their mobile phone for self-expansion reported more negative emotion in response to phone loss, and were less likely to recall feeling relieved when separated from their phone. In other words, the more people used their phones in ways perceived as contributing to self- expansion (a psychologically healthy motivation), the more distressed they were to lose access to the functions provided by the phone. This finding is consistent with prior work on emotional responses to the loss of self-expanding relationships, which results in a diminished self-concept and associated negative affect (Aron et al., 2001, 2004; Lewandowski et al., 2006). Extrapolating from Aron et al.’s (2004) discussion of rela- tionship loss, it seems likely that negative emotion to phone loss arises (in part) from the lost ability to expand one’s resources, perspectives, or identities through use of the mobile phone.

How can mobile phone use contribute to self-expansion? Although the responses to phone loss examined in this study are intriguing, they offer only indirect evidence. Self- expansion was associated with missing the ability to coordinate, plan, and seek assis- tance using the mobile phone, but not the ability to contact others or to access information or content. However, we did not probe for detailed uses of the phone that might have revealed specifically what aspects of phone use were perceived as contributing to

2464 new media & society 18(11)

self-expansion. Other research has shown that mobile phones are heavily used for brief exchanges and notifications (Hall and Baym, 2012), which are unlikely to contribute to self-expansion. Thus, it seems likely that more complex instrumental uses of the phone may be key factors in expanding oneself and one’s experiences. As noted earlier, self- expansion can occur in a variety of ways other than through close relationships, such as by seeking novel experiences, acquiring knowledge or expertise, engaging in creative activities, and expanding one’s personal capabilities (Aron and Aron, 1996; Leary, 2007). Experiences facilitated by mobile phone use, such as access to resources, group involve- ment, or participation in activities, may contribute to the expansion of the self-concept. For example, Campbell and Kwak (2011) found that mobile phone use for coordination in public spaces facilitated interaction with others, which may open opportunities for new experiences.

The finding that self-expansion via mobile phone was not related to the ability to contact others or access information/content may be due to differences in the ways that people used their mobile phones. Mobile connections with friends and family can satisfy inclusion needs and support independence and exploration, or they can result in overde- pendence and restricted freedom (e.g. Hall and Baym, 2012). Similarly, becoming absorbed in activities via the mobile phone may lead to different outcomes depending on the underlying motivations, for example, to learn and grow (leading to self-expansion) versus to avoid facing difficult life situations (leading to self-suppression; Stenseng et al., 2011, 2012). In other words, for some people—but not others—the mobile phone may be used as a tool to enhance personal development, mental health, and well-being (cf. Diener et al., 2010). This suggestion is consistent with the idea that motivation for self-expansion may vary as a personal trait (Gordon and Luo, 2011).

This study addressed emotional aspects of mobile phone use, a topic that has received limited research attention. Despite new insights offered by this research, however, many aspects of the issue need further investigation. Responses to loss can be informative regarding the uses and functions of activities and experiences (cf. Elliott and Rosenberg, 1987; Lather and Moyer-Gusé, 2011; Lewandowski et al., 2006), but more information is needed about how and to what extent mobile phone use contributes to self-expansion. Measuring recall of past experiences, especially via self-administered questionnaires, is undoubtedly limited by memory and by the challenges of written expression. Future research should use other methods, including in-depth interviews and experience-sam- pling. Although people may have difficulty self-reporting about typical or habitual uses of their mobile phone, efforts are needed to learn more about the aspects of mobile phone use that are viewed as contributing to self-expansion. Another limitation of this study is the use of a convenience sample of college students. It is likely that uses of mobile phones are different for people with other backgrounds or in different life contexts, but college students are heavy users of mobile phones and thus are worthy of study on this topic. It also should be noted that inclusion of the mobile phone in the self-concept was measured with a single item that does not directly tap self-expansion, and which could reflect other aspects of mobile phone attachment.

From a broader perspective, this research did not address a number of issues related to the potentially unique role of mobile phones in emotional well-being. The mobile phone is available at any time and from nearly any location (Katz, 2008), and offers a

Hoffner et al. 2465

wide variety of options that might be used to interact with others, accomplish goals, and regulate emotions. People can choose among texting, calling, using SNSs, playing games, watching videos, and so on. This raises the question: Is constant availability of the mobile phone beneficial or harmful for well-being over the long term, and does this differ based on the social and psychological characteristics of users?

In sum, the results of this study offer a fresh perspective on ways that mobile phone use may contribute to psychological health and well-being, specifically by facilitating self-expansion. Despite evidence that mobile phone use can lead to adverse conse- quences, the outcomes clearly depend on how mobile phones are used. In this study, self-expansion via mobile phone was associated with greater subjective well-being, and with greater negative emotion (and less relief) in response to loss or separation from the phone. Future research needs to explore in more depth the ways that mobile phone use can contribute to self-expansion, as well as the factors that impact the ways that people choose to use their mobile phones.

Funding

This research received no specific grant from any funding agency in the public, commercial or not-for-profit sectors.

Notes

1. Imagine the following situation happens to you (whether or not you have actually experienced something similar): One morning while you are out shopping, you realize you have lost your mobile phone. You retrace your steps but cannot locate it. You decide to wait a couple of days to see if it turns up, but eventually you realize you will need to get a new one, so you order one online. You are without a mobile phone for 5 days.

2. Lewandowski and Aron’s (2002) original scale included 14 items (α = .90), but these were reduced to 8 in this study due to questionnaire length: (1) How much does using your mobile phone result in your having new experiences? (2) When you have your mobile phone with you, do you feel a greater awareness of things because of this? (3) How much does your mobile phone increase your ability to accomplish new things? (4) How much do you see your mobile phone as a way to expand your own capabilities? (5) Do you often learn new things because of your mobile phone? (6) How much does your mobile phone provide a source of exciting experiences? (7) How much do you feel that you have a larger perspective on things because of your mobile phone? (8) How much does having your mobile phone increase your knowledge?

3. Associations between the self-expansion scale and each response to phone loss (present/ absent) also were examined using point-biserial correlations, controlling for gender, age, mobile phone use, and length of time without the mobile phone. The results of these analyses were identical to those reported in the upper and lower portions of Table 3.

References

Anderson TD (2013) Tweens and their in-betweens: giving voice to young people when exploring emerging information practices associated with smart devices. Information Research 18(1): Paper 565. Available at: http://InformationR.net/ir/18-1/paper565.html

Aron A, Aron EN and Norman C (2001) Self-expansion model of motivation and cognition in close relationships and beyond. In: Clark M and Fletcher G (eds) Blackwell Handbook of Social Psychology: Interpersonal Processes. Malden, MA: Blackwell, pp. 478–501.

2466 new media & society 18(11)

Aron A, McLaughlin-Volpe T, Mashek D, et al. (2004) Including others in the self. European Review of Social Psychology 15: 101–132.

Aron EN and Aron A (1996) Love and expansion of the self: the state of the model. Personal Relationships 3: 45–58.

Baumeister RF and Leary MR (1995) The need to belong: desire for interpersonal attachments as a fundamental human motivation. Psychological Bulletin 117: 497–529.

Boelen PA and Van den Hout MA (2010) Inclusion of other in the self and breakup-related grief following relationship dissolution. Journal of Loss and Trauma 15: 534–547.

Campbell SW and Kwak N (2011) Mobile communication and civil society: linking patterns and places of use to engagement with others in public. Human Communication Research 37: 207–222.

Daliot-Bul M (2007) Japan’s mobile technoculture: the production of a cellular playscape and its cultural implications. Media, Culture & Society 29: 954–971.

Diener E, Wirtz D, Tov W, et al. (2010) New well-being measures: short scales to assess flourish- ing and positive and negative feelings. Social Indicators Research 97: 143–156.

Elliott WR and Rosenberg WL (1987) The 1985 Philadelphia newspaper strike: a uses and gratifi- cations study. Journalism Quarterly 64: 679–687.

Fortunati L and Vincent J (2009) Introduction. In: Fortunati L and Vincent J (eds) Electronic Emotion: The Mediation of Emotion via Information and Communication Technologies. Oxford: Peter Lang, pp. 1–31.

Fredrickson BL (2013) Your phone vs. your heart. New York Times, 24 March, p. SR14. Available at: http://www.nytimes.com/2013/03/24/opinion/sunday/your-phone-vs-your-heart.html?smid= fb-shareand_r=0

Gordon CL and Luo S (2011) The Personal Expansion Questionnaire: measuring one’s tendency to expand through novelty and augmentation. Personality and Individual Differences 51: 89–94.

Hall JA and Baym NK (2012) Calling and texting (too much): mobile maintenance expecta- tions, (over)dependence, entrapment, and friendship satisfaction. New Media & Society 14: 316–331.

Hassenzahl M, Diefenbach S and Göritz A (2010) Needs, affect, and interactive products—facets of user experience. Interacting with Computers 22: 353–362.

Hoffner CA and Lee S (in press) Mobile phone use, emotion regulation, and well-being. Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking.

Jenaro C, Flores N, Gómez-Vela M, et al. (2007) Problematic internet and cell-phone use: psy- chological behavioral, and health correlates. Addiction Research and Theory 15: 309–320.

Jin B and Park N (2010) In-person contact begets calling and texting: interpersonal motives for cell phone use, face-to-face interaction, and loneliness. Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking 13: 611–618.

Katz JE (2008) Mainstreamed mobiles in daily life: perspectives and prospects. In: Katz JE (ed.) Handbook of Mobile Communication Studies. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, pp. 443–446.

Lather J and Moyer-Gusé E (2011) How do we react when our favorite characters are taken away? An examination of a temporary parasocial breakup. Mass Communication and Society 14: 196–215.

Leary MR (2007) Motivational and emotional aspects of the self. Annual Review of Psychology 58: 317–344.

Lee S and Sundar SS (2015) Cosmetic customization of mobile phones: cultural antecedents, psy- chological correlates. Media Psychology 18: 1–23.

Lewandowski GW Jr and Aron A (2002) The self-expansion scale: construction and validation. In: Paper presented at the annual meeting of the Society for Personality and Social Psychology, Savannah, GA, 31 January–2 February.

Hoffner et al. 2467

Lewandowski GW Jr, Aron A, Bassis S, et al. (2006) Losing a self-expanding relationship: impli- cations for the self-concept. Personal Relationships 13: 317–331.

Lewandowski GW Jr and Bizzoco N (2007) Addition through subtraction: positive outcomes fol- lowing the dissolution of a low quality relationship. Journal of Positive Psychology 2: 40–54.

Park C, MacInnis DJ, Priester J, et al. (2010) Brand attachment and brand attitude strength: concep- tual and empirical differentiation of two critical brand equity drivers. Journal of Marketing 74(6): 1–17.

Rainie L (2012) Two-thirds of young adults and those with higher income are smartphone owners. Report of the Pew Internet and American Life Project. Available at: http://pewinternet.org/ Reports/2012/Smartphone-Update-Sept-2012.aspx

Reimann M and Aron A (2009) Self-expansion motivation and inclusion of brands in self: toward a theory of brand relationships. In: MacInnis DJ, Park C and Priester JR (eds) Handbook of Brand Relationships. Armonk, NY: M. E. Sharpe, pp. 65–81.

Rettie R (2008) Mobile phones as network capital: facilitating connections. Mobilities 3: 291–311. Rubin AM (2009) The uses-and-gratifications perspective on media effects. In: Bryant J and Oliver

MB (eds) Media Effects: Advances in Theory and Research. 3rd ed. New York: Routledge, pp. 165–184.

Ryan RM and Deci EL (2000) Self-determination theory and the facilitation of intrinsic motiva- tion, social development, and well-being. American Psychologist 55: 68–78.

Ryan RM and Deci EL (2001) On happiness and human potentials: a review of research on hedonic and eudaimonic well-being. Annual Review of Psychology 52: 141–166.

Silva S (2012) On emotion and memories: the consumption of mobile phones as “affective tech- nology.” International Review of Social Research 2: 157–172.

Smith A (2011) Smartphone adoption and usage. Report of the Pew Internet and American Life Project. Available at: http://pewinternet.org/Reports/2011/Smartphones.aspx

Smith A (2013) Smartphone ownership 2013. Report of the Pew Internet and American Life Project. Available at: http://www.pewinternet.org/2013/06/05/smartphone-ownership-2013/

Stenseng F, Rise J and Kraft P (2011) The dark side of leisure: obsessive passion and its covariates and outcomes. Leisure Studies 30: 49–62.

Stenseng F, Rise J and Kraft P (2012) Activity engagement as escape from the self: the role of self- suppression and self-expansion. Leisure Sciences: An Interdisciplinary Journal 34: 19–38.

Thomée S, Härenstam A and Hagberg M (2011) Mobile phone use and stress, sleep disturbances, and symptoms of depression among young adults—a prospective cohort study. BMC Public Health 11: Article 66.

Vallerand RJ, Blanchard CM, Mageau GA, et al. (2003) Les passions de l’âme: on obsessive and harmonious passion. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 85: 756–767.

Vincent J (2006) Emotional attachment and mobile phones. Knowledge, Technology & Policy 19: 39–44.

Walker JR (1990) Time out: viewing gratifications and reactions to the 1987 NFL players’ strike. Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media 34: 335–350.

Walsh SP, White KM, Cox S, et al. (2011) Keeping in constant touch: the predictors of young Australians’ mobile phone involvement. Computers in Human Behavior 27: 333–342.

Weller JA, Shackleford C, Dieckmann N, et al. (2012) Possession attachment predicts cell phone use while driving. Health Psychology 32: 379–387.

Author biographies

Cynthia A Hoffner (PhD, University of Wisconsin—Madison, USA) is Professor in the Department of Communication, Georgia State University. Her research focuses on emotional aspects of media

2468 new media & society 18(11)

use, media and mental health, and connections between mediated communication and social relations.

Sangmi Lee (PhD, Georgia State University, USA) recently completed her doctorate in the Department of Communication. Her research interests include mobile TV, entertainment-educa- tion, and user involvement in personal media environments.

Se Jung Park (MA, Yeungnam University, South Korea) is a doctoral candidate in the Department of Communication, Georgia State University. Her research interests include social networks, infor- mation diffusion, and environmental communication.