Victimization
Plmilano
WCJ4TheoreticalPerspectivesonoffending.pptx
Theoretical perspectives on female offending
Women, Crime and Justice Administration
WCJ4
Theory in general
Macro vs. micro theoretical explanations
Macro = large-scale social explanations for offending
Micro = individual differences between those who offend and those who obey the law
Understanding of female criminality somewhat prejudicial early on
Women criminals seen as abnormal and more egregious than male offenders for stepping outside socialized (approved) gender roles
Female = gentle, passive, nurturing
Historical theories – Women were seen as manipulative – Yes... “Were”… as in past tense
Lombroso and Ferrero (1895) – The Female Offender
Main premise – women were less evolved than men
Had fewer degenerative characteristics (in comparison to male offenders)
Biological predispositions and characteristics – irregularities in the orbital area, narrow foreheads, prominent cheekbones, “virile” type of face (meaning manly…attractive in a man)
Female criminals were considered to be more similar to men than women in their society (mentally and physically)
More evil; suppressed natural female instincts for child-bearing; not ladylike
Historical theories – Women were manipulative – and this is where it gets really crazy
Sheldon and Eleanor Glueck (1934) – studied 500 women and girl offenders in Massachusetts
Suggested that women criminals, especially those from disadvantaged backgrounds, couldn’t control their sexual impulses – thus leading to crime
Female criminals were pathetic creatures; a pathetic lot
Later analysis of the same data suggest that the following things were consistent for desisters:
Securing a good marriage (not necessarily a marriage to a conventional partner)
Acknowledging shame/guilt and a commitment to a conventional lifestyle (including marriage, kids, homemaking) upon release
Marriage reduced the likelihood that the women would engage in sexually motivated crimes (the crimes for which they were arrested and prosecuted most often)
Arrests from 1932
To give you a comparison
To arrests in contemporary
times
Historical theories – Women were manipulative – and this is where it gets really crazy
Otto Pollak (1950) – The Criminality of Women
Crime committed by women are underreported, mostly petty in nature, and when they are dealt with they are given preferential treatment by the justice system
Most common crimes were domestic theft, shoplifting, thefts by prostitutes (of johns), abortion and perjury
Easy to conceal these crimes (according to Pollak), victims were embarrassed to have been taken by a female, justice system was lenient
First to really discuss the combination of social environment and biological factors mixing
Stated importance of growing up in poverty, broken homes, crowded living situations, and delinquent companions as contributors to female offending
Women were inherently deceitful– “masked criminality of women” – passive role of women in intimacy with males, sexual playacting, faked sexual responses, and menstruation were all means by which women fooled the agents of the CJ system
Believed women were uniquely situated to take advantage of children and elderly because of their roles of homemaker, caretaker, and domestic worker
Biological Arguments
Acknowledged inherent differences between males and females and how those differences were exhibited within cultural norms
Testosterone levels – higher they are, more likely offender will commit a violent crime (males and females)
Female hormones…previous belief was that they made women “irrational”, in all aspects, not just crime
Ex. Women who were pregnant could not seek a divorce until after they gave birth as it was perceived that they were not in a right state of mind because of hormones during pregnancy
Addiction predispositions (self-medicating behavior; crime for drugs)
Psychological Explanations
Psychological disorders
Psychopathy (10-18% of women in prison diagnosed with it) – lack of remorse and empathy
Borderline personality disorder (15-30% of female inmates) – self-destructive behaviors
Samenow and Yochelson – suggest that criminals are constantly manipulating the environment for their benefit – solution is changing their way of thinking
Psychological Explanations
Psychological disorders
Depression found at higher rates in female offenders than general population of females
Psychological Explanations
Early traumatic events may lead to depression which can lead to spiraling of behavior into delinquency and criminality
Adverse Childhood Experiences
A 2017 study by Pflugradt, Allen & Zintmaster found that 82% of female homicide offenders had 4 or more ACEs – compared to 15% of females in the general population (next slide)
Substance abuse may follow as self-medication and may lead to delinquent and criminal behavior in a variety of ways
Traditional Theories on crime and gender
Theories of the mid 20th century focused on male criminality
Females commit a small amount of crime, thus inclusion was thought to be unnecessary
Some theories posited that they were gender-neutral, though their research was conducted and formulated on males only
Hirschi’s social bond theory (1969)
Attachment, commitment, involvement, belief
Attachment to parents and potential for shame and disappointment is stronger for girls than boys
Sutherland’s Differential Association Theory (1939)
Influence of peers is key; delinquency is learned behavior; associating with delinquent peers will influence one to engage in delinquent acts
Inconclusive findings for application to females
Race/ethnicity and Time are key elements (Hispanic girls engaged in delinquency when relationship among delinquent peers was stronger than other relationships; for Caucasian girls the amount of time spent with delinquent peers influenced participation in delinquency)
Others have found that peers influence boys much more than girls
Sociological Theories
Anomie (Merton - 1938) – societal goal in the U.S. for economic success
When blocked, people seek alternative means to gain that success
Women traditionally blocked from legitimate pathways…hence, criminal behavior as an alternative pathway
Opportunity theories – access/exposure to opportunities coupled with denial of legitimate means to meet needs may lead to delinquency/crim behavior
Traditional theories on crime and gender
Agnew (1992) – General Strain Theory
Failure in achieving positive goals
Loss of positive influences
Introduction of negative influences or stimuli
Source of strain differs for boys and girls
Girls = violence in the home; Strain = anger, which for girls is often turned inward; boys more likely to experience higher levels of traditional strain (lack in achieving positive goals), whereas girls experience negative life events more often than boys (including conflict with parents)
Gottfredson and Hirschi (1990) – General Theory of Crime
Low self-control – parents are the ones who are able to guide kids when they see them stepping out of line
Early intervention is only solution
Not a lot of support that this is an effective theory for females – other factors, in addition to self-control issues, seem to better explain female criminality
Sociological Theories
Labelling theory
Labelled as a “bad girl” leads to more delinquency or criminal behavior
Females often associated with labels based on stepping outside of traditional gender role
modern theories on crime and gender
Adler (1975) – emancipation of women/liberation hypothesis – women’s entrance into the work force would increase women’s propensity towards violence (and thus account for more violent crime)
Not a lot of support for this – though exposure to work environments did allow for more female engagement in white collar crime
Simon (1975) – women will engage in more property crime as they add work role to their lives
Some critiques:
Small increases may look larger than their actual impact (add 20 to 100 you have 20% increase; add 150 to 1000 you have 15% increase…but 150 acts is much greater than 20 acts…)
Approach to female offenders in 1970s changed by criminal justice system…which may also affect the perception of criminality of females
Hagan (1989) – Power Control Theory
Effects of patriarchy within family
Patriarchal home will limit girls opportunities to engage in activities that might increase delinquency
Egalitarian homes will offer more opportunities to girls that could lead to engagement in delinquent acts
Role of two-parent families is assumed in Hagan’s theory; found that single-parent male headed households exhibited similar levels of control over children as two-parent families; single-parent female headed households exhibited lower amounts of control
Inability of any single parent to exert same level of supervision as two-parent home
Modern theories on crime and gender
Sampson and Laub’s Life Course Theory (1993)
Events over the course of one’s life will influence their participation in delinquency
Ties to conventional adult activities will limit participation in delinquency
Significant life events may be different for males and females
Ex. Marriage itself limits male criminality, while the strength of that relationship is what influences whether women will engage in crime and/or deviant behavior, such as substance abuse
Integrated Theory of Women and Crime
Pathways to crime – biopsychosocial
May be a good understanding of female criminality – understanding influence of internal and external factors
Path from trauma and abuse to substance abuse to bad relationships
Feminist criminology
Base belief that females were virtually invisible in discussions of criminology (or afterthoughts)
Believe that specific studies of female delinquents and criminals were necessary to understand female criminality overall
When discussing “femaleness” it also addresses “maleness” as natural comparisons are necessary to understanding similarities and differences
Change in methodological approach – acknowledging influence and role of researcher
Methodological activism – purpose is understanding and change…research is not just research – it is active research meaning it will be applied in the field
Recognition that the place of females in society influences their role in criminality over their lives
Feminist criminology (3 keys – very important)
Victimization histories of women found to be very influential on female criminality
Violence/victimization normalized part of female life
Sexuality could be used to manipulate and gain control
3-4 times more likely to be victimized than male offenders
9 of 10 girls in California system reported some type of abuse
Running away and failure in school primary results of violence and abuse in the home
Subsequent substance use/abuse and mental health issues
Crime as survival
Relationships very significant factor in female criminality
Intersectionality between gender, race and class
Different perceptions, different treatment
