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Volume I
Victor C.X. Wang Florida Atlantic University, USA
Encyclopedia of E-Leadership, Counseling and Training
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Encyclopedia of e-leadership, counseling, and training / Victor C.X. Wang, editor. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. Summary: “This book offers an in-depth description of key terms and concepts related to different themes, issues, and trends in educational leadership, counseling, and technology integration in modern universities and organizations world- wide” -- Provided by publisher. ISBN 978-1-61350-068-2 (hardcover) -- ISBN 978-1-61350-069-9 (ebook) -- ISBN 978-1-61350-070-5 (print & perpetual access) 1. Education, Higher--Computer-assisted instruction. 2. Educational technology--Management. 3. Educational leadership. I. Wang, Victor C. X. LB2395.7.E53 2011 371.33--dc23 2011025142
British Cataloguing in Publication Data A Cataloguing in Publication record for this book is available from the British Library.
All work contributed to this book is new, previously-unpublished material. The views expressed in this book are those of the authors, but not necessarily of the publisher.
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Published in the United States of America by Information Science Reference (an imprint of IGI Global) 701 E. Chocolate Avenue Hershey PA 17033 Tel: 717-533-8845 Fax: 717-533-8661 E-mail: [email protected] Web site: http://www.igi-global.com
Copyright © 2012 by IGI Global. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored or distributed in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, without written permission from the publisher. Product or company names used in this set are for identification purposes only. Inclusion of the names of the products or companies does not indicate a claim of ownership by IGI Global of the trademark or registered trademark.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
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List of Reviewers Jim Berger, Western Kentucky University, USA Valerie C. Bryan, Florida Atlantic University, USA Lesley Farmer, California State University, USA Lucy M. Guglielmino, Florida Atlantic University, USA Pamela M. Golubski, Carnegie Mellon University, USA Kerry Lee, University of Auckland, New Zealand Catherine McLoughlin, Australian Catholic University, Australia Vivian Mott, East Carolina University, USA Judith Parker, Columbia University, USA Thomas G. Reio Jr., Florida International University, USA Maria M. Witte, Auburn University, USA
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Table of Contents
Preface .................................................................................................................................................. xii
Acknowledgment ................................................................................................................................ xiv
Volume I
Chapter 1 Leading Pedagogical Change with Innovative Web Tools and Social Media......................................... 1
Catherine McLoughlin, Australian Catholic University, Canberra
Chapter 2 E-Leadership in the New Century ......................................................................................................... 12
Victor C. X. Wang, Florida Atlantic University, USA
Chapter 3 Person-Centered Online Education: What Carl Rogers Has to Say to Teachers in Computer-Mediated Environment ........................................................................................................ 23
Daniel J. Henry, Auburn University, USA
Chapter 4 Information Technology and Fair Use .................................................................................................. 35
Lesley Farmer, California State University, USA
Chapter 5 Learning and Performance Innovation .................................................................................................. 48
Jeff Allen, University of North Texas, USA Pamela Bracey, University of North Texas, USA Laura Pasquini, University of North Texas, USA
Chapter 6 Workplace Incivility in Schools ............................................................................................................ 65
Thomas G. Reio Jr., Florida International University, USA Stephanie M. Reio, Florida International University, USA
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Chapter 7 Play Therapy at a Crossroads: A Vision for Future Training and Research .......................................... 78
Hilda R. Glazer, Capella University, USA Constance E. Wanstreet, Ohio State University, USA David S. Stein, Ohio State University, USA
Chapter 8 Web 2.0 Technologies and Foreign Language Teaching ....................................................................... 89
Geraldine Blattner, Florida Atlantic University, USA
Chapter 9 Using an Online Discussion Board for Peer Review of Dissertation Writing for Ed.D. Students ..........108
Beth Kania-Gosche, Lindenwood University, USA
Chapter 10 Change Process ................................................................................................................................... 121
Lesley Farmer, California State University, USA
Chapter 11 Using Technology in Providing Effective Training ............................................................................ 138
Ernest W. Brewer, University of Tennessee, USA Stephen D. Stockton, University of Tennessee, USA Tammi M. Basile, University of Tennessee, USA
Chapter 12 Organizational Learning and Technology ........................................................................................... 154
Jia Wang, Texas A&M University, USA
Chapter 13 The Integrated Readiness Matrix: A New Model for Integrating Pedagogy and Technology into Higher Education Faculty Development ............................................................................................. 171
James A. Bernauer, Robert Morris University, USA Christopher T. Davis, Robert Morris University, USA Lawrence A. Tomei, Robert Morris University, USA
Chapter 14 A Critical Review of Learning Organizations in the 21st Century ...................................................... 188
Victor C. X. Wang, Florida Atlantic University, USA
Chapter 15 Case Study of a New Zealand School’s Use and Development of a Parent Portal ............................. 199
Julie Lynch, University of Auckland, New Zealand Kerry Lee, University of Auckland, New Zealand
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Chapter 16 Knowledge Sharing in Academic Medical Centers: Examining the Nexus of Higher Education and Workforce Development ..................................................................................................................... 212
Elisabeth E. Bennett, Tufts University, USA Rebecca D. Blanchard, Tufts University, USA Gladys L. Fernandez, Tufts University, USA
Chapter 17 Technology Integration and Graduate Health Management Education: A Review of Competency Models and Application to Electronic Medical Records .................................................................... 233
Grace Reynolds, California State University, USA Brenda Freshman, California State University, USA
Chapter 18 Engaging the Adult Learner Through Graduate Learning Communities ............................................ 247
Ellen Reames, Auburn University, USA Maria Martinez Witte, Auburn University, USA Marcus Howell, Auburn University, USA
Chapter 19 Web 2.0 Technology and Educational Leadership Communication ................................................... 266
Lesley Farmer, California State University, USA
Chapter 20 Global Leadership Training and Technology ...................................................................................... 278
Judith Parker, Columbia University, USA
Chapter 21 Multiple Factors of Workforce Development that Affect the Efficacy of Training Transfer to the On-the-Job Performance of Public Health Care Workers ................................................................... 288
Gregory C. Petty, University of Tennessee, USA Mark S. Farris, Y-12 National Security Complex, USA
Chapter 22 Fair Use, Copyright, and Academic Integrity in an Online Academic Environment ......................... 298
Kristine Holloway, California State University, USA
Chapter 23 Assessment Methods for Self-Development Goals of Executives ..................................................... 310
Käthe Schneider, Friedrich-Schiller University of Jena, Germany
Chapter 24 Closing the Leadership Gaps between Theory and Practice: A Glimpse of the Major Leadership Issues in Higher Education .................................................................................... 320
Victor C. X. Wang, Florida Atlantic University, USA
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Volume II
Chapter 25 Defining Technology Challenges to Growth of an International Non-Governmental Organization (NGO): A Case Study.......................................................................................................................... 330
Jules K. Beck, University of Arkansas, USA Kit Kacirek, University of Arkansas, USA
Chapter 26 Do-It-Yourself Media in U.S. Education: A Brief Overview of an Uneasy Relationship .................. 349
Quinn Burke, University of Pennsylvania, USA
Chapter 27 21st Century Leadership in the Nonprofit Sector ................................................................................. 363
Sharon G. Juozapavicius, CCHASM, USA
Chapter 28 Information Competency and E-Learning .......................................................................................... 373
Lesley Farmer, California State University, USA
Chapter 29 Human Resource Development and Technology Integration ............................................................. 391
Jia Wang, Texas A&M University, USA
Chapter 30 Technology, E-Leadership and Educational Administration in Schools: Integrating Standards with Context and Guiding Questions .......................................................................................................... 408
Jeremy Dickerson, Coastal Carolina University, USA Howard V. Coleman, University of North Carolina, USA
Chapter 31 Assuring Quality in Online Course Delivery ...................................................................................... 423
Julia M. Matuga, Bowling Green State University, USA Deborah G. Wooldridge, Bowling Green State University, USA Sandra Poirier, Middle Tennessee State University, USA
Chapter 32 Fishing for Quality Learning: KnowledgeNet a New Zealand Solution ............................................ 437
Julie Lynch, University of Auckland, New Zealand Kerry Lee, University of Auckland, New Zealand
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Chapter 33 The Efficacy of Continuing Education Technology for Public Health Physicians Practicing in Remote Areas ................................................................................................................................. 453
Gregory C. Petty, University of Tennessee, USA Deborah H. Joyner, East Tennessee State University, USA
Chapter 34 Dropout Prevention: Unpacking the Mentor-Mentee Relationship .................................................... 468
Tonya Balch, Indiana State University, USA
Chapter 35 Writing: The Neglected “R” in the Workplace ................................................................................... 479
Joanne Sanders-Reio, Florida International University, USA Thomas G. Reio Jr., Florida International University, USA
Chapter 36 Leadership in Higher Education in Adopting a Telecommuting Program .......................................... 491
P. J. Snodgrass, University of Tennessee, USA Ernest W. Brewer, University of Tennessee, USA
Chapter 37 The Role of Targeted E-Mail Messaging at the Worksite ................................................................... 504
Betsy B. Aumiller, Penn State College of Medicine, USA
Chapter 38 Sustaining Organizational Innovation ................................................................................................. 514
Jeff Allen, University of North Texas, USA Ashwini Joshua Gojer, University of North Texas, USA Mariya Gavrilova-Aguilar, University of North Texas, USA Denise Philpot, University of North Texas, USA
Chapter 39 How to Utilize an Online Community of Practice (CoP) to Enhance Innovation in Teaching and Learning .............................................................................................................................................. 532
Jacob Prisk, Takapuna Normal Intermediate School, New Zealand Kerry Lee, University of Auckland, New Zealand
Chapter 40 Learner-Centered Course Design ........................................................................................................ 545
Karen Weller Swanson, Mercer University, USA
Chapter 41 Traditional Educational Leadership: Instructional Leadership Revolving Around Ralph Tyler’s Four Fundamental Questions .............................................................................................................. 557
Victor C. X. Wang, Florida Atlantic University, USA
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Chapter 42 Counseling in an Andragogical Approach .......................................................................................... 569
John A. Henschke, Lindenwood University, USA
Chapter 43 Distance Education at University Settings .......................................................................................... 587
Harun Yilmaz, The Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey, Turkey
Volume III
Chapter 44 Criteria That Contribute to High Quality Teaching ............................................................................ 601
John Moran, University of Nevada, USA Leping Liu, University of Nevada, USA
Chapter 45 The Impact of Technology on Organizational Learning and Leadership ........................................... 616
Judith Parker, Columbia University, USA
Chapter 46 Leadership Characteristics of the Ideal School Superintendent ......................................................... 628
Ernest W. Brewer, University of Tennessee, USA
Chapter 47 Technology Enhanced Learning and Education.................................................................................. 642
James Spaulding, Penn State University, USA
Chapter 48 The Effects of the Instructional Video on Pre-Service Teachers’ Technology Learning in an Online Environment ........................................................................................................................................ 656
Wenzhen Li, University of Nevada, USA Leping Liu, University of Nevada, USA
Chapter 49 Play and Play Therapy ........................................................................................................................ 667
Debra Leigh Walls Rosenstein, Mercer University, USA
Chapter 50 Congruency in Higher Learning: Developing Sustainable Adult Education Program Policies for the Digital Age .......................................................................................................................................... 680
Karim A. Remtulla, OISE/University of Toronto, Canada
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Chapter 51 Virtual Compared to Traditional Academic Advising Satisfaction Rates of First-Year College Students: A Pair Study ........................................................................................................................ 698
Pamela M. Golubski, Carnegie Mellon University, USA
Chapter 52 A New Vision for Distance Learning: Learning to Teach in Second Life .......................................... 713
Maureen Ellis, East Carolina University, USA Patricia Anderson, East Carolina University, USA
Chapter 53 Challenges in International Consulting: A Leadership Case Study .................................................... 726
Kit Kacirek, University of Arkansas, USA Jules K. Beck, University of Arkansas, USA
Chapter 54 Leadership Development in Kazakhstan ............................................................................................ 746
Judith Parker, Columbia University, USA Gainiya Tazhina, University of International Business, Kazakhstan
Chapter 55 People, Technology and Human Resource Development (HRD) Philosophy .................................... 759
Claretha Hughes, University of Arkansas, USA Matthew W. Gosney, University of Arkansas, USA
Chapter 56 Teacher Directed Instruction for Student Engagement ....................................................................... 771
Karen Weller Swanson, Mercer University, USA Geri Collins, Mercer University, USA
Chapter 57 Learning Together: Reducing Distance in Distance Education .......................................................... 782
Kathleen M. Kevany, Saint Francis Xavier University, Canada
Chapter 58 Learner-Centered Technology Integration .......................................................................................... 797
Yun-Jo An, University of West Georgia, USA
Chapter 59 Time to Graduation of Three Different Master’s Degrees in Psychology at a Public University ...........808
Dennis G. Fisher, California State University - Long Beach, USA Grace L. Reynolds, California State University - Long Beach, USA
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Chapter 60 Standards-Based Educational Technology Professional Development .............................................. 819
Diana Stanfill, Lindenwood University, USA
Chapter 61 Building a Brand in Virtual Learning Spaces: Why Student Connections Matter .............................. 835
Hilda R. Glazer, Capella University, USA Constance E. Wanstreet, The Ohio State University, USA
Chapter 62 The Impact of Technology on School Leadership .............................................................................. 847
John Hope, University of Auckland, New Zealand
About the Contributors ...................................................................................................................... xv
Index ................................................................................................................................................ xxxiii
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xii
Preface
This encyclopedia is a collaborative project with other top researchers from numerous teaching and research universities from around the globe. The result is the publication of a cutting edge encyclopedia in the field of leadership, counseling, and training. Scholars and students from various universities in educational leadership and counseling will rely on this book for providing significant resources for teaching, learning, and research. The chapters, which use multiple research methods, have gone through a rigorous, blind review process, and were accepted for publication by a premier global publisher, IGI Global.
Technology, especially Web 2.0 technology, has become a new trend in the education and training of school, industry, and business leaders. Experts anticipate that many school principals, superintendents, and counselors will retire a few years in the near future. Leaders, managers, and supervisors in indus- tries and businesses will also retire in the near future. This means that both the private and public sec- tors will need new leaders to guide the world’s workforce. School or business leaders are educated and trained through traditional programs such as educational leadership and counseling or other educational programs, and accordingly, there is a core body of knowledge that new school, industry, and business leaders need to study in order to be well equipped to direct the nation’s workforce. To meet this need, many of the leadership and counseling programs are being delivered electronically in the 21st century, providing the needed convenience and flexibility while saving money.
Due to the aforementioned trends, numerous universities in North America have begun to launch doctoral programs in educational leadership and counseling related to technology integration. Corpora- tions do not want to lag behind and have begun their own in-house leadership, counseling, and training programs, or they send their employees to university programs to receive further education and training to develop their 21st century skills. To accommodate the learning needs of traditional age and non- traditional age students, universities must deliver these programs via cutting edge technologies.
Innovation seems to be the buzz term in developing and launching such needed programs to update and upgrade the nation’s workforce. However, there is a void in the literature concerning e-leadership, counseling, and training. Such a reference source will serve as a premier resource for learning in this field. With so many programs being launched, we have a historic commitment to fill this much needed void in the literature. Once the void in the literature is filled, instructional/administrative leaders, coun- selors, corporate trainers, teacher-scholars, practitioners, theorists, and graduate students can all build on such a historic publication. The rise or fall of a nation depends on the education and training of its potential leaders. This publication will serve as an exhaustive compendium of this community’s exper- tise, research, skills, and experiences. Authors with a background in education, leadership, counseling, management, human resource development, or adult education have helped “plant” the education and training of potential leaders with their scholarly work.
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xiii
The Encyclopedia of E-Leadership, Counseling and Training will provide a compendium of terms, definitions and explanations of concepts, processes and acronyms. Additionally, this volume will feature full length articles (of ~ 5,000-7,500 words) authored by leading experts offering an in-depth descrip- tion of key terms and concepts related to different areas, issues, and trends in educational leadership, counseling, and technology integration in modern universities and organizations worldwide.
The project has included chapters that employ multiple-research methods. Quantitative, qualitative, and mixed methods research were included, written by many of our first rate scholars/researchers, including graduate students. Professors with strong backgrounds in evaluation and measurement were invited to serve as reviewers. Analysis of research data for this project included quantitative approaches using SPSS and SAS software; qualitative approaches will feature the use of various computer software packages for qualitative analysis, such as Nvivo and Atlas TI.
Victor C.X. Wang Florida Atlantic University, USA June 2, 2011
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xiv
Acknowledgment
Sincere thanks go to all of the authors for their insights and excellent contributions to this encyclopedia. These authors are truly first rate scholars and practitioners in the field. My heartfelt thanks also go to our reviewers. Some reviewers have even contributed chapters to this encyclopedia. Their constructive, critical, and comprehensive reviews have definitely helped with the quality of this book. Special thanks also go to the publishing team at IGI Global, whose contributions throughout the whole process from inception of the initial idea to final publication have been invaluable. In particular, I would like to thank Jan Travers and Kristin Klinger who accepted my proposal to publish this state-of-the-art encyclopedia. Joel Gamon from IGI Global has provided continued support throughout the whole process of publish- ing this book for our international audiences. Beth Kania-Gosche, PhD in writing, has always helped polish my writing as an editor/writer. My gratitude to Dr. Beth Kania-Gosche is boundless. And last but not least, my family, Katie Wang, Anni Wang and Anthony Wang, for their unfailing support and en- couragement during the many months it took to give birth to this book.
I thank all of our readers who have become consumers of this excellent book. This book will assist you in your educational and scholarly endeavors.
Victor C.X. Wang Florida Atlantic University, USA
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1
Copyright © 2012, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
Chapter 1
DOI: 10.4018/978-1-61350-068-2.ch001
INTRODUCTION
The development and uptake of digital tools and social software is bringing about massive societal and economic change. Yet, technology’s impact
on education, teaching, and learning has been rather limited. While expectations have run high about web-based instruction, personal computers, computer-based instruction, social media and the raft of “Web 2.0” tools, the impact on teaching and learning is not well documented. While there are cases of innovation and transformation of pedago-
Catherine McLoughlin Australian Catholic University, Canberra
Leading Pedagogical Change with Innovative Web
Tools and Social Media
ABSTRACT
Today, in a globalised, digital world, leadership challenges in the adoption and integration of emerging social software tools to supports for learning abound. Today’s students who have grown up in technology saturated environments have never known a world without the Internet, mobile phones, video on demand, and personal computers. Leaders and educators must therefore know their students, and cater for their diverse needs. Educational institutions in the 21st century must learn how to adopt social software tools and apply sound pedagogical strategies in order to add value to existing practices and to enhance the learning process. ICT supplements and enhances learning and student engagement through access to global learning communities and rich resources, and this requires educators to be conversant with the technology, able to lead by example and capable of creating authentic contexts and environments for learning. Educators in today’s media rich society must be ready to grapple with the significant pedagogic, cultural, and social changes associated with technological innovation.
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Leading Pedagogical Change with Innovative Web Tools and Social Media
gies, there remain many exemplars of outmoded, traditional curricula and didactic instruction that merely replicate face-to-face teaching rather than innovations that make best use of interactive tools and technologies (Schrum & Leven, 2009).
The chapter will focus on leadership chal- lenges that educators need to be fully aware of in the adoption of emerging social software tools, and the need for educators to embrace innova- tive pedagogies in order to capitalise on Web 2.0 applications to support teaching and assessment in meaningful and authentic ways. The adoption of social software tools need to be integrated into sound pedagogical strategies in order to add value to existing practices and to enhance the learning process. The chapter supports the no- tion that ICT supplements and enhances learning and student engagement through access to global learning communities and rich resources, thereby creating opportunities for dialogue with others, for broadening understanding and participation leading to improved social and learning outcomes. The realization of these benefits can only come through institutional leadership that is focused on adoption of appropriate pedagogies, learner cen- tred curricula and the design of effective learning environments and learning activities.
Challenges in the Digital Age: Students and Learning Environments in Transition
Worldwide, higher education institutions today are confronted by considerable change driven by a myriad of external factors. The current learning landscape is characterized by constant connectiv- ity, networked spaces, web-based tools and virtual learning environments. Mobile devices and social media abound, and the dramatic shift in learner characteristics and demands is evidenced by the emergence of “millennial students” who are digitally literate, always on, communicative, and experimental and community oriented (Oblinger & Oblinger, 2005). The terms “learner voice” and
“learner experience” are central to today’s tech- nology supported learning environments, and a number of studies have emphasized how ICT tools can facilitate learner engagement and participa- tion (Conole, 2008). Today’s students demand interactivity and thus there is a pressing need to meet t their needs and to rethink approaches to teaching and learning in order to replace outmoded didactic pedagogies, which place emphasis on the delivery of content from a textbook or website rather than being learner-centric and to allowing for self-paced flexible learning. Clearly, many popular learning management systems (LMS’s) and virtual learning environments (VLE’s) used by educational institutions to support e-learning perceive the student as “information consumer” thereby reinforcing instructor and content- centered approaches to teaching, learning, and cognition. Many commonly used learning management systems simply feed information or content to students and do not include social engagement, peer learning or creative inquiry by students. In the Web 2.0 era, such approaches no longer meet student needs. Tim Berners-Lee (2000, p. 216), the inventor of the World Wide Web, foreshadowed a more open, social raft of tools that are not simply about learners download- ing and consuming information when he stated, “I have always imagined the information space as something to which everyone has immediate and intuitive access, and not just to browse, but to create” (p. 169). These words foreshadowed the Web 2.0 era, with its raft of social tools (Flickr, Facebook, Twitter, and MySpace) which allow users expanded capacities for creative, collabora- tive and communicative responses, often leading to idea generation and knowledge creation. The rise of learner generated content is captured by Wheeler, Yeoman and Wheeler (2008) who state “The social network provides opportunities for the individual learner to create sound and viable knowledge syntheses from fractured and inchoate information’ (p. 989). For digital age learners, Web 2.0 tools are part of the learning landscape, and
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Leading Pedagogical Change with Innovative Web Tools and Social Media
are therefore worthy of consideration by educators and instructional designers.
Learning Paradigms in Transition: M-Learning, B-Learning, and Hybrid Learning
Learning paradigms are moving beyond offering prepackaged information to students, as mobile devices and social media allow for connectivity beyond the classroom and for engagement with global communities. Efforts aimed at moving the learning environment beyond the classroom seem to be gaining momentum on campuses world- wide, evidenced by the emerging paradigms on m-learning and b-learning (mobile learning and blended learning). The terms “hybrid learning” and “blended learning” have been found to represent many levels of meaning and many encompass multiple different perspectives (Sharpe, Benfield, Roberts, & Francis, 2006). Since the advent of e-learning, however, the focus in the literature has appeared to be predominantly focused on the combination of delivery modes, i.e. face-to-face (F2F) and web-based. Blended learning programs are designed to take advantage of the relative strengths of the various instructional modes - the really important factor is not the blend of online and face to face, but what that blend enables. The right “mix” should enable mass customization of the creation and use of learning resources, more flexibility in terms of learner participation and time-on-task, multimodalities of presentation and creation. The distinctions between hybrid learning and e-learning may become decreasingly sig- nificant or even irrelevant in a networked society (New Media Consortium, 2007) where ICT tools, including Web 2.0 and mobile technologies, are becoming increasingly pervasive. What we are seeing is the blending of all elements of a suc- cessful learning environment-the courses, time, mode of delivery, media, technologies, and all of this is to accommodate learner choice, lifestyle convenience, flexibility and cognitive style.
More recently, mobile devices have become commonplace tools used in teaching, learning, work and leisure, hence the word m-learning. At societal level we are also witnessing wider, societal shifts such as the merging of formal and informal learning as social network communities function as personal and personalisable spaces for online conversations and sharing of content. The current wave of ubiquitous computing and social software tools enable an expanded repertoire of learner-teacher interaction, distributed collabora- tion, and communication, and their transformative effects on society, learning, and networking are becoming increasingly visible. Social networking sites can be characterized as environments for democratic forms of self-expression and as they support interaction and exchange of ideas between users they are also spaces for informal learning.
Hybrid learning experiences offer great po- tential for enhancing the learning experience as they use multiple modalities and technologies. Institutions are offering significant variations on the blended and online learning paradigms models with many options for choice and participation. Leadership issues are still paramount and it is critical that institutions understand and respond to learner expectations and capabilities, while ensur- ing that staff have the skills to use the technology creatively, and to adopt innovative pedagogies that engage and retain students.
The Changing Teaching and Learning Landscape
Recent changes to the global adoption of informa- tion and communications technologies (ICT’s) place higher education institutions at the forefront of pedagogical practice and require them to con- stantly reevaluate their approaches to curriculum, student support and the creation of physical and virtual learning environments. The Horizon (2010) report offers insights into the major challenges facing higher education providers, and signals not only technological change, but also identifies
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Leading Pedagogical Change with Innovative Web Tools and Social Media
emerging trends relating to pedagogy, learner needs and design of learning technologies. A number of salient trends is identified below, and each is discussed each with issues for pedagogi- cal leadership.
Revisiting the Role of Educators in Teaching
There is now an abundance of resources and relationships which are easily accessible via the Internet the challenge for universities is to offer quality degrees and a unique learning experience. The Open Education movement allows person- alization, customization and re-use of learning resources, and reduces the cost of materials and texts. Initiatives such as MIT’s OpenCourseWare marked the start of the Open Educational Resource (OER) movement, a movement largely strategi- cally driven on institutional levels. With this move- ment good quality tools and educational materials are made freely available to educators and learners throughout the globe. During the past years many institutions followed this move indicating that there is a growing trend within traditional edu- cation to ‘open up’ (UNESCO, 2009). The Open Educational Resource movement has emerged as what might be seen as an alternative to traditional educational environments, aiming at broadening access to education for the next generation. The current OER movement is tackling perhaps one of the most crucial aspects for education: free and open access to educational resources being released under a commons license and thus the possibility to re-use those resources and to adapt them. This form of sharing and re-use gradually taking off and there is growing number of open access publishers where users can view books and monographs online for free. In the process, The OER movement creating a culture of lifelong learning that spans the distance between formal and informal education and opens pathways for development and innovation on a global scale. One of the challenges is that while universities
have always been seen as the gold standard for educational credentialing, there are now alterna- tive programs from other providers that are now competing for the same clients. The Open Educa- tion movement emphasises community building, participation and user generated content. Examples are The Open University (Open learn Labspace), Wikibooks and Wikiversity.
Changes to Pedagogy: Demands for Flexibility
Life in an increasingly busy world means that learners must balance demands from home, work, school, and family. Demands for professional growth pose a host of logistical challenges with which today’s ever more mobile students must cope. Informal learning in the workplace forms part of the lifelong learning policy in Europe and elsewhere (OECD, 2003). Increasingly the trend for consumption, creation and sharing of ideas and knowledge with Web 2.0 applications is set to continue (Shirky, 2003), in what O’Reilly called the architecture of participation. People want easy and timely access not only to the information on the network, but to their social networks that can help them to interpret it and maximize its value. The implications for informal learning are profound, as are the notions of “just-in-time” learning and “found” learning, both ways of maximizing the impact of learning by ensuring it is timely and efficient (2010, Horizon Report). For educational leaders, the challenge is now to develop more personalized learning environments that allow flexibility and choice, and that cater to the social and cultural needs of the students.
Learning Outcomes as a Portfolio of Literacies
Worldwide, universities now acknowledge that they have a key role in providing students with strategies and competences to allow them to be part of the current information society and
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to be able to graduate and take up a productive career. Learning outcomes now include what are known as digital or media literacies, a term that has a number of definitions (Beetham, McGill & Littlejohn). What constitutes new media litera- cies also known as transliteracies i.e. the notion that effective communication requires using, producing and interacting across multiple media and social platforms and contexts. The concept includes the kind of capabilities that are essential in self managing learning and in managing and choosing strategies to enable them to thrive in a networked world with ubiquitous, embedded digital technologies. Graduates from universities should be critical, evaluative, self-aware, confident and skilled individuals capable of using technolo- gies to work live and engage in lifelong learning. However, this trend is also impacting and bringing to the fore the importance on a growing range of other literacies. Two examples of this are: (i) civic literacies where participatory media coupled with the 21st century digital generation bring collective action and more openness/transparency to the civic arena (Jenkins, 2007), (ii) ecoliteracies- educa- tion and knowledge-based action for sustainable living. It has been claimed that universities have tended to dismiss the importance of this form of knowledge, preferring to focus upon attitudes/ values in the teaching of environmental education. More recently, there have been arguments that identify eco-literacy as the “missing paradigm” in education more broadly.
The leadership challenges are that institutions worldwide must consider the unique value that each form of literacy adds to student capability in a globalised world where information is abundant and the need for practical, ecological skills is be- coming more important. More than ever, digital literacy, ie sense-making and the ability to assess the credibility of information are paramount. Mentoring and preparing students for the world in which they will live, is at the forefront, and the goals of universities worldwide acknowledge that they have key role in this area.
Adoption of Social Media as a Classroom Resource is More Common
Students are already making friends and connect- ing via social spaces, and turning to the Web to navigate their academic lives. With expectations for greater ICT integrating and round the clock connectivity, students are the drivers of change in pedagogy, and social media are being hailed as essential to a 21st-century education. Teachers can become involved in professional or interest- based social communities using social networking tools, and thereby engage in professional learning online. The big challenge is that more teachers/ instructional designers have to understand how to effectively use social media as an engaging learn- ing resource rather than assuming they can simply upload content and facts and require learners to regurgitate content to earn grades. Merely graft- ing social media onto old paradigms of teaching/ testing leads to dismal failures and disengaged students. Social media and their affordances alert us to the poverty of old teaching paradigms that disrupt those traditional practices and offer students an opportunity to create knowledge and engage deeply with ideas, peers and the global learning community (Lee, McLoughlin & Chan, 2008). An example of changing practices is the new focus on engaging students by using Web 2.0 tools and social media, called Pedagogy 2.0 (McLoughlin & Lee, 2008).
Change to Teaching and Learning Roles: From Andragogy to Heutagogy
Pedagogy 2.0 is a framework that aims to focus on desired learning outcomes in order to exploit more fully the affordances and potential for con- nectivity enabled by Web 2.0 and social software tools. It is envisioned as an overarching concept for an emerging cluster of practices that advocates learner choice and self-direction, and engagement in flexible, relevant learning tasks and strategies. Though not intended a prescriptive framework,
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it distills a number of guidelines characterizing effective learning environments, such as choice of resources, tasks, learning supports, and com- munication modalities, as follows:
• Content: micro units of content that aug- ment thinking and cognition; may include a wide variety of learner-generated re- sources accruing from students creating, sharing, and revising ideas;
• Curriculum: dynamic, open to negotia- tion and learner input, consisting of “bite- sized” modules, inter-disciplinary in focus, and blending formal and informal learning;
• Communication: multiple opportunities for open, social, peer-to-peer, and multi- faceted forms of visual, verbal, and audi- tory communication, using multiple media types to achieve relevance, immediacy, and clarity;
• Learning processes: situated, contextu- alized, reflective, integrated with think- ing processes, iterative, dynamic, perfor- mance, and inquiry-based;
• Resources: multiple informal and formal sources that are media rich, interdisciplin- ary, and global in reach;
• Scaffolds: student support should come from a network of peers, teachers, experts, and communities;
• Learning tasks: authentic, personalized, experiential, and learner driven and de- signed, and enable the creation of content and innovative ideas by learners.
These principles represent the intersection be- tween established instructional design principles for the creation of constructivist, student-centered learning environments (e.g. open-ended learning, authentic learning, and inquiry-based learning) and emerging perspectives on cognition including connectionism. They are evident in and have been derived from the exemplary practices of a growing number of teachers in tertiary education who have
begun to demonstrate how social software tools offer rich possibilities for students to create and share ideas, connect, and participate in broader learning communities that are not confined to the spaces in which formal teaching and learn- ing activities take place. Nevertheless, the rapid social and socio-technical changes adoption of innovative practices presents universities with challenges. Universities have to prepare them- selves and not just their learners for an uncertain future. However, a cautionary note is needed: in some cases, staff may assume that students are more digitally capable than they really are, and therefore both academic support structures and training in learning technology are very important (Kennedy, Dalgarno, Bennett, Judd, et al. (2008).
Digital Age Learning: Formal and Informal
Globally we are witnessing the uptake of a rich and diverse set of digital tools that should be able to support many new ways to support learning. The devices include: smart personal phones, mo- bile devices supporting access to media such as music, tools to sense and capture activity, e-book readers, tablets, laptops, desktops, collaborative devices such as e-whiteboards and tabletops, with cloud and internet based integration of services. This array of tools appears to have the potential to support many new ways to learn, in formal and informal settings. Debate about some of the possibilities offered by mobile and social media tools for new visions of education and the chal- lenges, such as effective assessment, empowering the classroom teacher and enabling new forms of learner control.
This chapter has presented the major leadership challenges in higher education that are associated with fostering learning processes that encourage the production and use of student centred learn- ing, and curricula that integrate learner-generated content. Nevertheless, there is still a need for accountability and recognition of authoritative
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sources of information. Content supplied by teachers and textbook authors is but one of many resources available to assist students in developing knowledge and skills, and may have limitations, particularly if it pre-empts learner exploration and discovery, and active student involvement in the knowledge creation process. At the same time, in their desire to engage emerging forms of collaborative scholarship and self-expression, students must be made aware of the expectations from the point of view of academic integrity (Edson, 2007). There is also a need for quality as- surance mechanisms to maximise the validity and reliability of learner-generated content. Moving away from teacher-centred models of evaluation and assessment, the review, editing and quality assurance of content can be done collaboratively and in partnership with learners, while simultane- ously drawing on input from the wider community (i.e., “wisdom of crowds”).
Teachers who adopt social software tools need to integrate the tools into sound pedagogi- cal strategies in order to transform and improve existing courses, and facilitate authentic exchange and dialogue with and among students (Berg, Berquam, & Christoph, 2007). They need to convince their students’ that social networks and communities add value to the learning process, and ensure that social spaces and networks are use to support both formal and informal learning activities (Jenkins, 2007).
A Focus on Digital Skills: How to Meet the Challenge
It must be recognised that the implementation of new pedagogies that utilise web 2.0 tools is not without its issues and challenges. For example, although the advent of Web 2.0 and Web 3.0 and the open content movement significantly increases the volume of information available to students and exposes them to a raft of ideas and representations, many higher education students currently lack the competencies necessary to navi-
gate and use the overabundance of information available, including the skills required to locate quality sources and assess them for objectivity, reliability and currency (Windham, 2005; Katz & Macklin, 2007). In recently published reports it is recommended that students develop sound information literacy skills in effectively finding, evaluating, and creating information (Beetham et al 2009). Additionally, beyond search and retrieval, information is contextualised, analyzed, visualised and synthesised, which involves complex critical thinking skills and evaluation by learners.
The need is to balance the demands for these tools, which fall into the realm of Web 2.0 and are often user controlled, against the need for central IT leadership to assert an appropriate amount of control, reliability and security. This is often seen as the choice between using open source software as opposed to using a closed learning management system or “walled garden”. With the Open Education movement there is an emerging “open source leadership” style that university leaders must accommodate and learn to value the contributions of community rather than control them (Hilton, 2006).
There is a growing body of research that dem- onstrates that in combination with appropriate strategies, social software can also serve as levers for such critical thinking and meta-cognitive devel- opment (e.g., Sener, 2007b; Lee & McLoughlin, 2010). There is a growing willingness on the part of administrators to consider new approaches to combining face-to-face and technology-assisted instruction. Initiatives such as the Gates Founda- tion’s “Next Generation Learning Challenges” will likely move this trend forward in the near future. How universities balance the demands for these new tools with centralised administrative systems and learning management systems that do not allow students to personalise their learning experiences is a further challenge.
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FUTURE TRENDS
While there is a great deal of enthusiasm about the potential of new tools and social media, there are leadership challenges as higher education explores dozens of e-learning technologies to support learning (for example, electronic books, virtual worlds, text messaging, podcasting, wi- kis, blogs), with new ones seeming to emerge each week. Such innovative technologies con- front instructors and administrators at a time of continued budget retrenchments and rethinking of the role of the 21st century university. Add- ing to this, there is increase competition among universities for students and concerns that bored students may drop out of online classes as they are expecting and demanding richer and more engaging online learning experiences. Given the demand for e-Learning, the abundance of social media and Web 2.0 tools that are being grafted into teaching there are expanded opportunities for innovation. However, there are tensions between centralized, institution supported virtual learning environments and learner configured personalized spaces. Universities are therefore facing are a “perfect storm,” that threatens to shift pedagogy, learning spaces and the unique role of educational institutions.
A major report published by UNESCO (2009) signals the major changes that are occurring worldwide in higher education and mentions that internationalisation and catering to diversity are prominent challenges across the globe. The realties of the 21st century have magnified these challenges and there is a need to diversify stu- dent support and services to meet the needs of diversification and multiculturalism. Universi- ties may offer study abroad program, curriculum differentiation, or inter-institutional partnerships. Alongside these trends, Web 2.0 tools are giving students and academics access to wider, global communities, to tap into the affordances of social networking, where learners from multiple cultural backgrounds can share ideas, communicate and
generate new ideas. Technology can be seen as a driver of change, and a tool for empowerment at an individual level, but also at community and institutional level as globalisation has made inter- connectivity a focal point. Leadership in higher education, whether it is by individuals, teams or consortia must be systemic and transformational, that is it must have an outlook that considers how change in one area impacts on other areas.
Systemic changes leadership models hold promise for the future as they are complex and non-linear and involve all participants and players, and have quality improvement, progress and open communication as essential elements. Leadership in a Web 2.0 world needs these qualities and a vision of how to harness technology to improve learning and meet the needs of a diverse student population. Part of the 21st century leaders’ job will be to help change pedagogy and to ensure that university teaching is not about being “sage on the stage” but is about mentoring, coaching, personalising and facilitating lifelong learning, while allowing students to create and shape their own learning pathways.
CONCLUSION
Innovative practices supported by social media provide an opportunity for higher education in- stitutions to look at wider implementation issues around technical infrastructure, but they must also address pedagogical challenges such as the integration of informal learning experiences, the limitations of existing physical and virtual learning environments and the personalisation of learning experiences (Alexander, 2006). Student diversity, expectations for technology saturated environments and the demand for skills that offer potential for employment are the main agendas driving change in provision for pedagogical in- novation and teaching of digital literacy skills. Curricula are being revised and each individual has responsibility to respond to change and prog-
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ress by utilising current learning technologies to achieve the best outcomes. Worldwide, schools and universities are seeking to move into the 21st century, and needs models of leadership that em- brace change, quality improvement and progress.
Often, educators may be confronted with the expectation of working in unfamiliar environments and scenarios, and with tools with which they lack expertise and confidence. Leaders need to make time for professional learning, awareness raising, and discussion of what pedagogic approaches and tools best target the desired learning outcomes. The goal is to be flexible and to meet students’ expectations, be less prescriptive, and be open to new media, tools and strategies, while nurturing innovation and creativity, independent inquiry and digital literacy skills (Barnes & Tynan 2007). Overall, for the power and potential of innova- tive web tools and social media to be realised, institutional change combined with systemic leadership is needed.
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Berg, J., Berquam, L., & Christoph, K. (2007). Social networking technologies: A “poke” for cam- pus services. EDUCAUSE Review, 42(2), 32–44.
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Katz, I. R., & Macklin, A. S. (2007). Information and communication technology (ICT) literacy: Integration and assessment in higher education. Systemics, Cybernetics and Informatics, 5(4), 50- 55. Retrieved from http:// www.iiisci.org/ Journal/ CV$/ sci/ pdfs/ P890541.pdf
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KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS
Learning Technology: Learning technology (also called educational technology) is the study and ethical practice of facilitating learning and
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improving performance by creating, using and managing appropriate technological processes and resources.
Learner Voice/Learner Experience: This is a term that had come into use in recently years to describe research which is exploring the ‘learner voice’ or student experience. In particular it has been appropriated to refer to students’ use of and experience of technologies.
Pedagogy 2.0: Digital tools and social media call for a new conceptualization of teaching that is focused on participation in communities and networks for learning, personalization of learning tasks, and production of ideas and knowledge. Pedagogy 2.0 is a response to this call. It repre- sents a set of approaches and strategies that differs from teaching as a didactic practice of passing on information; instead, it advocates a model of learning in which students are empowered to participate, communicate, and create knowledge, exercising a high level of agency and control over the learning process.
VLE/LMS: Virtual Learning Environments/ Learner Management Systems are overarching learning and teaching systems that have become increasingly important in educational institutions in the last decade. The systems include a set of tools to support the delivery of online education. Tools include facilities for communication –such as chat, forums, etc., reflection and collaboration tools such as blogs and wikis, tools for assess- ment – such as drop boxes for assignments and e-portfolios for aggregating learning evidence. They include commercial products such as Black- board and open source systems such as Model.
Web 2.0: This is a term coined in 2005 by O’Rielly. It refers to the recent wave of technolo- gies and tools associated with the web, which emphasis the user-focused, collaborative aspects of these technologies. It contrast with the first phase of web technologies which were essentially information focused. Social networking is a term also used to describe many of these technologies.
This work was previously published in the International Journal of Adult Vocational Education and Technology, Volume 2, Issue 1, edited by Victor C. X. Wang, pp. 13-22, copyright 2010 by IGI Publishing (an imprint of IGI Global).
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Copyright © 2012, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
Chapter 2
INTRODUCTION
About 40 percent of the workforce in the United States telecommute from home to their workplaces (Chafkin, 2010), slightly more than 2% of the U.S. employee workforce (2.8 million people, not including the self employed or unpaid volunteers) considers home their primary place of work (Lister, 2010) and roughly one in six students enrolled in higher education — about 3.2 million people — took at least one online course last fall of 2005,
a sharp increase defying predictions that online learning growth is leveling off (Pope, 2006). What are the implications of these numbers? They make e-leadership important and necessary in the new century. They prompt researchers and scholars reexamine leadership and leadership styles in relation to e-leadership.
The literature about leadership and leadership styles has not changed much in the 21st century. Researchers and scholars have studied leadership and leadership styles for years. Leadership theories have been tested in varying situations in different countries. For example, leadership theories by
Victor C. X. Wang Florida Atlantic University, USA
E-Leadership in the New Century
ABSTRACT
This article argues that e-leadership emerged out of technological development among all other major developments in our society. In the virtual environment, leaders are required to lead followers by using totally different approaches. This is not to say that traditional leadership has no place in the new virtual environment characterized by the constant use of technology. Rather, traditional leadership and leader- ship style studied and conceptualized by researchers and scholars enhance e-leadership supported by Rogers’ facilitative leadership (1951, 1961, 1969, 1980). Leadership theories are meant to be applied to practice. Further, leadership theories can be applied in part or in whole. They are not ideologies that must be followed to the letter.
DOI: 10.4018/978-1-61350-068-2.ch002
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E-Leadership in the New Century
Karl Marx have been applied to countries such as the former Soviet Union, China, North Korea, and Cuba. Have these leadership theories worked for these countries? The answer is to a certain degree, yes. The answer can also be leadership theories are not ideologies that must be applied to the letter. Leadership theories can be applied in part or in whole, or they can be modified based on differing situations. Speaking of situations and circumstances, major economic developments from newly emerged nations and technological break-throughs coupled with the most recent wars in West Asia and in the Middle East have reshaped the world. They have changed the way people work, think, and, above all, react to lead- ership theories.
The situations and circumstances surrounding leadership and leadership styles have drastically changed in recent years. The business world has become more competitive and volatile, influenced by such factors as faster technology change, greater international competition, the deregula- tion of markets, overcapacity in capital-intensive industries, an unstable oil cartel, raiders with junk bonds, and the changing demographics of the work force (Kotter, 1998, p. 40). Due to the changes in situations and circumstances, nowa- days, there is downsizing, merging, restructuring and even more laying off of current employees if their leaders consider the skills of the employees as being obsolete. Most job descriptions for lead- ers specify that leaders must possess skills in the use of technology. Without the skills in the use of technology, leaders are not hired, or employees are not promoted to leadership positions.
Without a doubt, among all those other develop- ments in the new century, technology has played a major role in reshaping the world. Technology has permeated society in general, and major government and economic stakeholders have recognized the importance of incorporating tech- nology throughout education in order to prepare a competitive workforce in a global economy (Farmer, 2011, p. 230). The United States used
to have the largest number of Internet users. To date, the number of Internet users (179.7 million) in China has surpassed that of the United States (163.3 million) now (Schonfeld, 2009). What are the implications for the leadership and leadership styles? Should leaders change the way they see themselves, others, and everything (Cramer & Wasiak, 2006)? Leaders in the past did not depend on technology. Their secretaries may have done everything related to the use of technology. Now leaders are required to do everything themselves related to the use of technology. Does this shift require further changes in leadership and leader- ship styles? Although the basic tenets of leadership and leadership styles remain the same, regardless of the changes through the ages, our changing en- vironment requires further examination of today’s leadership and leadership styles. Nowadays, the term e-leadership has emerged in both business world and in higher education. In K-12 education, e-leadership has also emerged. The purpose of this article is to discuss what constitutes e-leadership in the new century and to reveal its far reaching implications in this fast changing environment.
BACKGROUND
There are many studies associated with leadership style. Most people are familiar with the Ohio State University study on leadership style (Northouse, 2007). Less attention has been paid to a class study by Lippit and White (1958) who examined the leadership styles of youth leaders. According to Jarvis (2002), Lippit and White (1958) highlighted a threefold typology: authoritarian, laissez-faire, and democratic. They found the following:
• Authoritarian leaders create a sense of group dependence on the leader. Their presence holds the group together, and no work was done in their absence;
• Laissez-faire leaders achieve little work whether they were present or absent;
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E-Leadership in the New Century
• Democratic leaders achieve group cohe- sion and harmonious working relationships whether they were present or not.
Since then, their finding has been applied to the business world, higher education etc. The threefold typology regarding leadership style seems to exist in every country as long as there are leaders and followers in any organizations. Authoritarian leaders exist in both authoritarian countries and democratic countries. It would be a mistake to claim that this kind of leadership style exists only in communist countries. Many leaders in democratic countries are more authoritarian than leaders in communist countries. Likewise, it is commonly argued that laissez-faire leaders are everywhere as long as we know their human nature. These leaders do not seem to make each day “count.” Perhaps, these leaders are not internally motivated to achieve much. Democratic leaders do strive to achieve group cohesion. Based on this leadership style, new terms have been created in especially higher education. Shared governance, transparency, job rotations are just a few terms to show that these terms have been derived from this particular leadership style.
Later, other studies broke down the three lead- ership styles and divided them into more detailed categories. Numerous studies (Badaracco, 1998; Farkas & Wetlaufer, 1998; Heifetz & Laurie, 1998; Mintzberg, 1998; Nohria & Berkley, 1998; Teal, 1998; Zaleznik, 1998) indicated that leadership should be viewed dialectically. On the one hand, it should be leader-centered. This is the so-called “follow me” approach. No diversity is encouraged in this kind of leadership. The advantage of this leadership is that it is an easier form of leadership because no novel ideas or innovations are required on the part of the followers. The disadvantage of this kind of leadership is that emergence of leader- ship from followers is not encouraged. Whatever goals leaders have, followers do not buy into them. The follow me approach is prone to creating dic- tatorship in any organizations. Because emergence
of leadership from followers is not encouraged, hard feelings may be created between leaders and followers. Turn-over rate among employees may be high. This type of leader may eventually alienate themselves from their followers. In real- ity, it is not surprising that followers may rise up against these leaders and cause these leaders to be removed from their positions. These leaders tend to hire followers that share the same philosophies with them. The followers may come from the same race as their leaders. Diversity to these leaders is not something that is on their priority list.
On the other hand, there is other-centered leadership. The obvious advantage of this kind of leadership is that people buy into something leaders try to promote. For example, leaders may help set goals collaboratively with their followers. Leaders involve followers in every step of their planning process. People take ownership. People assume responsibility for all their actions. Leaders help people get involved in tasks. Based on this kind of leadership style, leaders do their best to motivate their followers, align them and even set the direction and structure for their followers. This is not to say that leaders are “hands-off” type of leaders. Rather, their goal is to encourage change among followers by motivating followers to do a good job. The disadvantage of this kind of leader- ship is that it is not an easier form of leadership. For example, aligning followers may be the most difficult to accomplish because people do have differences, philosophies etc.
Starting in the 1960s and 1970s, people grew disillusioned with this dichotomy of leadership: leader-centered versus other-centered. They developed a new kind of leadership, facilitative leadership, from Rogers’s (1951, 1961, 1969, 1980) facilitative approach to teaching:
• Facilitative leadership allows for continu- ity of operation;
• Facilitative leadership recognizes that all people possess different values and beliefs;
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• Facilitative leadership encourages objec- tivity in program evaluation;
• Facilitative leadership leads to shared lead- ership, and the effect of shared leadership do have the potential to exceed the sum of effects generated by individual mem- bers with one status leader. (this is called synergism)
Facilitative leadership became popular sim- ply because people began to recognize human- ism (Wang & King, 2006) where every one has unlimited potential for learning. People have a propensity to become self-directed in learning (Knowles, Holton, & Swanson, 1998, 2005). Although this type of leadership is not the same as other-centered leadership, there are similarities between the two types of leadership. Regarding facilitative leadership, people are capable of taking control of their own learning. Above all, people are responsible for their own actions and are responsible for making decisions. A leader is not synonymous with a dictator. The role of a leader is that of a helper, a facilitator who makes things easier for their followers. It is this type of leadership that can be easily translated into e-leadership in the new century. Adult learning theory is firmly based on facilitative leadership. In every educational leadership program, a course titled Adult Learning Theory is taught simply to show that e-leadership is derived from facilita- tive leadership and that e-leadership will remain popular in the virtual teaching and learning envi- ronment as long as technology is used to achieve desired student learning outcomes.
One of the most authoritative studies was con- ducted by Hersey and Blanchard (1969) regarding leadership quadrants (as cited in Wang, 2006, p. 49). From Hersey and Blanchard’s (1969) study, Ohio State University, USA developed the fol- lowing leadership quadrants (Figure 1) that have been widely applied in the business world and higher education.
Other scholars refer to structure as “task” and consideration as “relationship.” Some leaders prefer high structure and high consideration. Once they focus on task instead of relationship, their leadership styles can be summarized as the fol- lowing:
• They are autocratic; • They are authoritarian; • They are production-oriented; • They prefer goal achievement; • They apply a theory X-hard approach to
leadership.
Other leaders prefer high consideration and low structure. Once they focus on relationship, their leadership styles can be summarized as the following:
• They are democratic; • They are equalitarian; • They are employee-oriented; • They enjoy group maintenance; • Their leadership approach is considered
soft.
The most recent research regarding leadership was conducted by Warren Bennis. He argued that transformational leadership is characterized by the ability of a person to reach the souls of others in a fashion, which raises human consciousness, builds
Figure 1. Leadership quadrants
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meanings, and inspires human intent that is the source of power (Bennis, 1989; Bennis & Nanus, 1997). Bennis (1989, 1997) defined leadership as being capable of achieving the following:
• Building a vision; • Establishing goals; • Providing intellectual stimulation; • Offering individualized support; • Modeling best practices and important or-
ganizational values; • Demonstrating high performance
expectations; • Creating a productive organizational
culture; • Developing structures to foster participa-
tion in organizational decisions.
A closer examination of Bennis’s definition of leadership reveals that his definition does not devi- ate much from structure (task) and consideration (relationship). What leaders do constantly revolves around these two basic factors. The current re- search focuses more on the effective leadership. Numerous studies show that the effective leader:
• Should provide direction and structure to the group;
• Should be a good planner; • Should organize the task/organize the
group; • Should use an agenda; • Should be a skillful communicator; • Have a tendency to talk more than the av-
erage member of a group does; • Should be able to adapt leadership styles to
meet the needs of the group; • Should be sensitive to the group’s current
situation and adapt to meet changing needs of followers. (as cited in Wang, 2006, p. 126)
Will the historical research about leadership and leadership styles apply to the new situations
and circumstances in new century? What are their educational implications? The following section addresses these questions in more detail.
Electronic Leadership in the New Century
The situation in the new century is such that “you think you understand the situation, but what you don’t understand is that the situation just changed (Toffler, 1971, 1980, 1990).” Leadership (Kot- ter, 1998) is about coping with change (p. 40). Although the situations in the new information age change faster than people can think, the basic tenets of leadership may take on some new mean- ings but basically remain the same. Scholars and researchers still research e-leadership revolving around the historical issues.
Leaders in the new information age are still required to lead an organization to constructive change by setting a direction. Setting the direction is the leader’s responsibility. Leaders are supposed to be more knowledgeable in a certain field. Lead- ers are supposed to have more technical skills in a certain field. Leaders are supposed to be more ethical. Leaders are supposed to have more human skills. Above all, leaders are supposed to have more conceptual skills. Followers are basically dependent in nature, although some followers perform much better without being told what to do. Leaders in any organization need to set the direction and structure to ensure that followers will perform based on their direction and struc- ture. In other words, leaders set the parameters, and followers should not cross the parameters. In the virtual environment, leaders apply facilitative leadership because leaders cannot “watch” their followers perform. This does not mean giving up the responsibility of setting the direction and structure. After setting the direction and structure, then leaders need to change their leadership roles from being directive to being facilitative due to the virtual environment. This is where e-leadership is
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needed, and e-leadership means a totally different leadership style needed in the virtual environment.
Leaders are supposed to develop a vision of the future along with strategies for producing the changes needed to achieve that vision. This is only a beginning for leaders. Then they need to communicate the new direction to those who can create coalitions that understand the vision and are committed to its achievement. In other words, a vision has to be realistic. If it is beyond the followers, there is no way to achieve it. To communicate a vision to followers requires mo- tivating and inspiring. Motivating and inspiring can keep followers moving in the right direction, despite obstacles to change, by appealing to basic but often untapped human needs, values, and emo- tions (Kotter, 1998). If leaders choose to control followers, they do not lead, they manage.
Effective leaders are not synonymous with ef- fective managers. Managers cope with day-to-day tasks, not change. Simple planning is a manage- ment process. Leaders use more data and look for patterns and themes and relationships and then create a vision and strategies. To motivate and inspire followers, e-leadership skills are needed. Again, facilitative leadership as emphasized by Rogers (1951, 1961, 1969, 1980) are useful and helpful. Leaders should forget about subjectiv- ity in program evaluation. Instead, objectivity in program evaluation is stressed. Leaders are com- mitted to shared leadership, which means leaders must delegate power to followers. Followers may be experts in the virtual environment. Followers may have prior experience. Leaders must tap into followers’ prior experience. Every follower should be allowed to voice his/her opinion and above all, leaders should respect and value dif- ferent values and beliefs. In other words, leaders should serve as “honest brokers” and allow for continuity of operation. The leader’s vision should be communicated constantly among followers via technological means such as the Internet.
People work in systems or hierarchies. Trying to get people to comprehend a vision of an alterna-
tive future is a communications challenge. Those who can motivate rather than control people are considered effective leaders. There is a variety of ways to motivate people. Articulating the orga- nization’s vision is of course number one. More importantly, the effective leaders involve people in deciding how to achieve the organization’s vision. Certainly, this gives people a sense of control so that people can take ownership of leadership. This is not to say that the effective leaders never coach, provide feedback, or model. Rather, people need leaders to do these when followers are dependent and do not have the expertise to achieve a goal. Finally, the effective leaders recognize and re- ward success. A simple paragraph via the Internet technology may mean a great deal to followers.
Effective leaders recognize and reward suc- cess by writing and posting accurate stories about employee success on the Internet. Email commu- nication should not be one way communication. In most organizations, leaders can email all followers, and followers are not supposed to write back if they have different opinions. These leaders do not possess e-leadership skills. The new century e-leadership requires leaders to allow followers to write back to them to voice their opinions and concerns. And these opinions and concerns should be addressed in a timely manner before they are escalated into big issues. Email communication system should be used as a multiple-way com- munication between leaders and followers.
Kotter (1998) pointed out that creating a culture of leadership can make people value strong leader- ship and strive to create it. In some authoritarian cultures, people may fear leadership. However, leadership is inherent in all social systems and in all human relationships. It is an aspect of any and all relationships among people. Hence, it is inescapable and neutral, neither good nor bad. No wonder some scholars argue that creating a culture of leadership is the ultimate act of lead- ership. Creating a culture of leadership does not mean that leaders bombard followers with their constant email messages. It is not surprising that
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employees receive multiple messages via email or other electronic means per day. All these messages may mean more or less the same things. When this happens, e-leadership may annoy employees more than motivate them to work harder. Being accurate and flexible in the virtual environment is more crucial to creating a culture of leadership. Followers need to change their view about leader- ship since it is inherent in all human relationships. It is neither good nor bad. There is nothing to fear about leadership. e-leadership requires leaders to possess not only facilitative leadership, but also a lot more other skills such as communication skills, writing skills, work ethics and working philosophies.
FUTURE TRENDS
Some people fear leadership while others think it is mystical and mysterious. Still others think that leadership has to do with charisma or other exotic personality traits. Really, leadership emerges out of a culture of leadership. This is not to say that leadership cannot emerge out of dismal environ- ment. Rather, great leadership has arisen out of extremely bad conditions. For example, the brilliant leadership by Winston Churchill arose in the United Kingdom after Britain was heavily bombed by Hitler. Mao developed highly success- ful guerrilla tactics after his army was repeatedly cornered by his chief opponent, Jiang.
This information age is characterized by high speed development of technology. The internet provides fertile ground for creativity. Human beings’ potential is extended beyond people’s imagination. Global economy is a given. In such an environment, will traditional leadership and leadership styles work for today’s organizations? The answer is yes and no. For the information age, traditional leadership does provide answers while in extreme circumstances, it does not. When it does not, we have to turn to future research for help.
One obvious future trend will be to examine what effective leaders really do in order to deter- mine whether they help achieve an organization’s vision. Common sense tells us that when leaders do not do their homework, an organization will collapse sooner rather than later. What leaders say may not have as much an impact as what they really do on today’s organizations.
Although ample research has been conducted, many people still confuse management with lead- ership. Some people think managers are leaders and leaders are managers. In fact, they are totally different. They have different roles. What manag- ers and leaders do have different impacts on today’s organizations. While management is about coping with complexity, leadership is about coping with change. They are two distinctive and complemen- tary systems of action. Both are important and necessary in today’s information age and business environment. One area of research in the future can be will technology make a leader’s job easy or a manager’s job easy? Profound comparison may be needed in order to determine whose job would be easier.
The same old argument regarding whether leadership emerges naturally or leadership can be taught will surface again in the new era. This has been an unsettling question for scholars and researchers. More research in this area will be conducted in the future. One enhancing research question can be will technology facilitate the emergence of e-leadership in the new century?
CONCLUSION
This article examined some of the old issues and some new issues regarding leadership and lead- ership styles. e-leadership did not grow out of vacuum. Instead, it emerged out of a totally new environment, the virtual environment which is characterized by faster technology change (King, 2005), greater international competition (Petty & Brewer, 2005), the deregulation of markets,
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overcapacity in capital-intensive industries, an unstable oil cartel, raiders with junk bonds, and the changing demographics of the work force. Lead- ership is geared to help an organization achieve its vision. Even though the times have changed, Bennis’s transformational leadership and Hersey and Blanchard’s situational leadership are not outmoded. In fact, both Bennis and Hersey and Blanchard addressed the same type of leadership. They just did it from different angles. The most successful leaders in today’s organizations are those who truly adapt to the current needs and future needs of their followers. The most successful leaders are those who change their roles according to different situations that may arise out of this virtual environment. No leadership is deemed successful unless it works for an organization. Numerous studies indicate that the best leadership is the one that can cope with change by changing its roles according to its relationship with followers and environments. In the new century, almost all leaders and followers are required to depend on technology for work. The implication may mean that leaders are required to apply e-leadership to practice in the virtual environment. Although the roles of today’s e-Leadership go beyond the four roles specified in the quadrants below (Figure 2), the quadrants are illustrative of what today’s leaders really need to do, depending on their fol-
lowers’ need for direction and need for support. In fact, the best leaders are those who are able to go in and out of those quadrants freely (Hersey & Blanchard, 1969; Wang, 2006).
This article also demonstrated that e-leadership is derived from the adult learning theory, which is derived from Rogers’ facilitative leadership. In the virtual environment, facilitative leadership is the best approach to leading followers. Is this approach different from the leadership quadrants? They support each other.
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Figure 2. Need for direction vs. need for support
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KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS
Charisma: It refers to the attractiveness of a person for others; charm and appeal. Followers may be willing to obey charismatic leaders’ order without their presence. However, when these
leaders make wrong decisions or when they die, chaos may appear.
e-Leadership: e means electronic in this article. e-leadership refers to leadership in the new era, namely the information age which is characterized by fast development of technology, a global economy where businesses constantly move across borders to wherever they can make a profit. Leadership is needed to fix many of the problems created by the information age.
Facilitative Leadership: This kind of leader- ship trust and respect followers. It believes that followers have unlimited resources to contribute to an organization. Therefore, followers’ values and beliefs should be respected and released. This kind of leadership involves followers in the planning process in order to bring out followers’ energy and expertise. It is used in the article to contrast with authoritarian leadership.
Leadership: The act of one person directing others. In this article, leadership is defined as cop- ing with change whereas management is defined as coping with complexity. Some people have the capacity to become good managers but not strong leaders. Likewise others have great leadership, but have difficulty becoming strong managers. Today’s organizations value both kinds of people and work hard to make them a part of their teams. Some scholars consider leadership an art while others consider it a science. According to this article, the effective and successful leadership is the one that copes with change based on follow- ers’ need for direction and need for support. The roles of leaders are such that they must change in order to meet the current and future needs of their followers. If leadership focuses on task only, it is no good; it leadership focuses on people only, it is no good. Good leadership always strives to strike a balance between structure and consideration as implied in the article.
Quadrants: A quadrant is a quarter of a circle. For example, a circle has four quadrants.
Synergism: It comes from the word, synergy which means the extra energy, power, or capability
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produced by combining two or more agents, opera- tions, or processes. Great leaders are interested in bringing out the synergies of their followers by setting a direction for followers and motivating their followers. The process of great leaders doing this is called synergism.
Tenets: A tenet is a principle, axiom in a set of beliefs. Setting direction and motivating followers are the basic tenets of leadership.
Theory X: Theory X refers to a set of assump- tions that theory X persons may possess. People who are considered theory X persons inherently dislike work and will avoid it if they can. Because
of this characteristically human dislike of work, most people must be coerced, controlled, threat- ened in the interest of organizational objectives. Leaders must change their roles when dealing with theory X persons. Now their roles should be that of directors or coaches. These two roles work best with theory X persons in today’s organizations.
Volatile: Originally, this word means “explo- sive.” However, in this article, it is used figura- tively, meaning unstable, likely to produce change or harm. In this context, global competition is often volatile. Leadership is needed to cope with change.
This work was previously published in the International Journal of Adult Vocational Education and Technology, Volume 2, Issue 1, edited by Victor C. X. Wang, pp. 50-59, copyright 2010 by IGI Publishing (an imprint of IGI Global).
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Copyright © 2012, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
Chapter 3
DOI: 10.4018/978-1-61350-068-2.ch003
INTRODUCTION
Carl Rogers and his person-centered psychologi- cal approach provided therapists, teachers, social workers, and instructional designers with an important set of tools to think about how human beings learn, and what the relationship is between the teacher and the student. His humanistic ap- proach to education (1969, 1983), which focused not only on the subject being learned, but also the potential of the human being to achieve lifelong benefit and move towards actualizing his or her full potential, represents an important way of
reframing the teaching and learning process, and suggests a useful and valid approach to thinking about new ways of delivering education.
As more teaching and learning move from traditional brick and mortar settings to other modes of content delivery, synchronous and asynchronous, podcasts, the use of social media in instruction, and other technologies yet to be developed, it is important to remember that all teaching, irrespective of the method of delivery, encompasses as a primary component the relation- ship of the instructor (teacher, professor, trainer) and the student (client, trainee, mentor, intern).
Daniel J. Henry Auburn University, USA
Person-Centered Online Education:
What Carl Rogers Has to Say to Teachers in Computer-Mediated Environment
ABSTRACT
The great psychologist Carl Rogers not only made major strides in psychotherapy by developing client- centered therapy, but also applied these humanistic principles to teaching and learning. As designers and teachers in the built environment of online learning and teaching seek to design educational experiences exemplifying practices in teaching and learning, an examination of Rogers’s person-centered learning can give instructional designers another lens through which to view student engagement and learning.
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As educators move towards models of instruc- tion that are increasingly taking place in non face-to-face settings, it is important to remember that an approach that intentionally emphasizes that relationship becomes more crucial the less time that teachers and students spend in the same physical space.
This chapter serves four primary purposes: The first is as a review of Rogers’s basic humanistic approach towards how humans grow and change. The second section of this chapter examines Rog- ers’s specific ideas about education, his Freedom to Learn (1969, 1983) series, and other writing and theoretical ideas. The third section of this chapter gives a brief outline of some of the most recom- mended practices in online learning, specifically in regard to the relationships between instructors and students, students and the classroom com- munity as a whole, and students and the material being studied. Finally, these best practices are compared and contrasted with the views of Rog- ers and recommendations for practice in online education will be presented.
BACKGROUND
Carl Rogers and Humanism
Carl Ransom Rogers (1902-1987) was born in Oak Park, Illinois. His father bought a “gentle- man’s farm” essentially to keep the children away from the influences of city life, and it was on this farm that Rogers became interested in scientific breeding of chickens and other farm animals that became the basis for his interest in research later in life (Rogers, 1961; Patterson, 1973). Although he considered a career in the ministry and attended Union Theological Seminary, Rogers eventu- ally became disenchanted with the ministry and decided to pursue psychology as a vocation and avocation.
It is interesting to note that Rogers’s first in- terests in psychology were kindled at Teacher’s
College, Columbia University, and although he became most well known as a psychologist, this interest in education and child development would be a theme he would return to throughout the rest of his academic career (Rogers, 1961; Patterson, 1973).
As Patterson (1973) reported, “It was during the years at Rochester that Rogers began to ques- tion the effectiveness of the traditional directive, or “the-therapist knows-best,” approach to coun- seling or psychotherapy” (np). The non-directive approach he developed earlier in his career came to fruition in one of the seminal volumes of psy- chology: Client-Centered Therapy: Its Current Practice, Implications and Theory (1951).
Human Personality and Development as Revealed in the Process of Therapy
The cornerstone of Rogers’s humanistic psychol- ogy is concerned with the relationship between the client (which Rogers used intentionally instead of the previously used “patient”) and the therapist. As Rogers studied Freud and other psychologists in his training, he became concerned with the idea that therapy seemed much more focused on the doctor rather than the patient. His 1951 classic (with Dorfman, Gordon, and Hobbs) Client- Centered Therapy proposes ideas Rogers clarified and focused in a 1959 article of the same name.
This relationship can be summarized as fol- lows:
“We have hypothesized that, if the therapist can provide three definable conditions in his relation- ship with the client and if the client can perceive to some degree the presence of these conditions, then therapeutic movement will ensue. These three conditions are the therapist’s congruence or genu- ineness, unconditional positive regard, a complete acceptance; and a sensitively accurate empathetic understanding” (Rogers, 1959, p. 185).
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These three conditions, congruence, uncondi- tional positive regard, and empathetic understand- ing are also the key to understanding Rogers’s understanding of the person-centered education, and to his ideas about how humans best learn.
In defining congruence, Rogers (1959) said it does not mean sharing everything that is part of the personal life of the therapist with a client (or a teacher with a student), “It mean(s)…that the therapist denies to himself none of the feelings he is experiencing and that he is willing to expe- rience transparently any persistent feelings that exist in the relationship…It means avoiding the temptation…to hide behind a mask” (p. 186). This genuineness of presentation is the key to building relationships, not only in the therapy room, but in learning environments as well.
Empathic understanding is another crucial ele- ment of person-centered theory. For Rogers (1959) “This means that the therapist communicates to his client a deep and genuine caring for him as a person with human potentialities” (p. 187). It is important that instructional designers and educa- tional facilitators do their best to understand who is being taught, what they are likely experiencing as a result of being our instructional environments, and to listen closely to suggestions and feedback that is offered about the experiences students have as result of their relationship within the courses being taught.
Finally, Rogers said that for successful inter- and intra-personal growth to occur, therapists and facilitators must accept and prize the human qualities and potential of those persons who they interact with either in therapeutic or learning en- vironments, respectively. Rogers (1959) posited that clients (and students) do not need to prove that they are worthy of our attention, esteem, and unconditional positive regard. It is only through unconditional positive acceptance of those humans with whom we interact that we can hope to find a true relationship that is mutually beneficial. As Rogers (1959) wrote, “The therapist experiences a warm acceptance of the client’s experience as
a part of that person and places no conditions on his acceptance and warmth. He prizes the client in a total, rather than conditional way” p. 187. This total acceptance is a key instrument through which Rogerean therapists are taught to effect change, but this same theoretical element has been shown to be valuable to teachers and learners in online environments (c.f. Sargeant, Curran, Allen, Jarvis-Selinger & Ho, 2005).
Humanistic Education
In 1957 Rogers recognized that his client-centered therapeutic approach could have educational implications as well: “Initially only considering [theories and practices] applicable in individual therapy with clinic clients, I began to recognize their relevance to the facilitation of learning in the classroom and developed a very different ap- proach with students” p. 197. As Patterson (1973) pointed out, Rogers, harking back to his first experiences in psychology at Teacher’s College, became increasingly interested in the application of his person-centered theories in education, an interest that became codified in his 1969 book Freedom to Learn. Although some of this volume, and his 1983 book Freedom to Learn for the 80’s are given to criticism of existing (and more traditionally teacher-based) forms of education, Rogers in these books (and other interviews and journal articles) puts forth a coherent view of an teaching and learning which puts the humanistic needs of the learner first.
The difference between traditional forms of teaching and person-centered education start with the relationship of the teacher to the student. As Rogers said,
Rogers (1983) meant his book to take a dif- ferent approach to education- to start, he said, with the belief in students, and that such a belief would foster respect, for students, for teachers, and for a belief in the power of learning. Rogers wanted students who had the skills, knowledge,
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and attitudes necessary for a fulfilled life and for an informed and educated citizenry.
In addition, Rogers (1983) pointed out that the primary task of the teacher in person-centered education is not to force-feed the student infor- mation, but to provide an atmosphere in which real learning can occur: “The primary task of the teacher is to permit the student to learn, to feed his or her own curiosity” (p. 18).
What are the tenets of person-centered educa- tion? They are of course based on Rogers’s three central ideas about human change: empathetic understanding on the part of the teacher, congru- ence on the part of the teacher in encountering and fostering relationships with the student, and unconditional positive regard for the students (Rogers, 1969). In a 1977 article for Educational Leadership, Rogers defined and operationalized the key components of a person-centered educa- tion. They were:
1. The facilitative teacher shares with other the responsibility for the learning process.
2. The facilitator provides learning resources from personal experiences, educational ma- terials or from experiences of the community of learners.
3. Each student develops his or her own learn- ing program.
4. A facilitative learning climate is provided. As the class evolves, the learning shifts from being provided by the teacher to the students learning on their own and from each other.
5. The focus of the class shifts from the im- mediate goals of instruction, to those of fostering continuing or lifelong learning by the student. As Rogers says, a class is a success “not when students ‘have learned all they need to know’ but when they have made significant progress in learning how to learn what they want to know” (p. 627, emphasis in the original).
6. The student develops the necessary internal locus of control to accomplish his/her goals.
As Rogers said, “The discipline necessary to reach the student’s goals is a self-discipline” (p. 627).
7. If the necessary and sufficient conditions (Rogers, 1957) of learning are established, “the learning tends to be deeper, proceeds at a more rapid rate, and is more pervasive in the life and behavior of the student than learning acquired in the traditional classroom.
Rogers (1977) also said that teachers who wanted to be a facilitator in a person-centered educational setting needed to ask themselves a set of difficult questions:
1. To what extent do I, in my deepest feelings, trust students, in a facilitative climate, to be self-directing? What do I do with the ambivalence I often feel in this respect?
2. Where do I find my rewards? Do I need a great deal of direct satisfaction for my hungry ego? Or can I find equally great ego rewards in being facilitative of the development of others?
3. How do I prevent myself from becoming a rigid, dogmatic “true believer” in humanistic education? Do I believe I have the final, best way in education? If so, how can I move beyond that?
4. How can I maintain my integrity and yet hold a position in a system that is philosophically opposed to what I am doing? (p. 624).
Huitt (2009) showed other operationalized aspects of Rogers’s ideas. He said that teach- ers who were more highly facilitative tended to provide more:
1. Response to student feeling; 2. Use of student ideas in ongoing instructional
interactions; 3. Discussion with students (dialogue); 4. Praise of students; 5. Congruent teacher talk (less ritualistic);
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6. Tailoring of contents to the individual student’s frame of reference (explanations created to fit the immediate needs of the learners); and smiling with students. (n.p.)
As Smith (2004) said, the student has respon- sibilities in a person-centered educational setting as well. As well as participating completely in the learning process and being inner-directed as stated above, the student must directly it is primarily based upon direct confront practical, social, personal or research problems, and in the end it is the student’s self-evaluation of the learning process that will determine whether the experience was a success.
Smith (2004) pointed out that like the thera- peutic change Rogers talked about in much of his work, change in the teaching/learning dynamic focused on the relationship between the student and the teacher. It in this relationship that Rog- ers’s (1969) key ideas about empathetic under- standing (students feel appreciated, students feel understood), congruence of the teacher (which Smith calls realness on the part of the teacher), and unconditional positive regard (which Smith calls prizing, acceptance and trust) are apparent. As Smith said, “The educational situation which most effectively promotes significant learning is one in which 1) threat to the self of the learner is reduced a minimum, and 2) differentiated per- ception of the field of experience is facilitated” (2009, n.p.).
Rogers said in 1968, trying to predict what the future of learning and teaching would be, said changes would have to take place in both student goals for teaching and learning as well as in the perceived relationship between student and teacher:
Education will not be a preparation for living. It will be, in itself, an experience in living. Feelings of inadequacy, hatred, a desire for power, feelings of love and awe and respect, feelings of fear, dread,
unhappiness with parents or with other children- -all these will be an open part of [the student’s] curriculum, as worthy of exploration as history or mathematics. In fact this openness to feelings will enable him to learn content materials more readily. His will be an education in becoming whole being, and the learning will involve him deeply, openly, exploringly, in an awareness of his relationships to the world of others, as well as an awareness of the world of abstract knowledge (p. 274-75).
Finally, as Patterson (1973) pointed out, a strong internal locus of control, and the develop- ment of fully functioning or self-actualizing per- sons is the ultimate goal of education. In Rogers’s view, according to Patterson, “Only such persons can survive and thus make possible the survival of the human race…The fully functioning person is adaptable and has learned how to learn”(n.p.).
Efficacy of Person-Centered Education
Teachers and instructional designers interested in the ideas of person-centered education should, at this point, be asking the question Rogers (1977) asked, “Is There Any Evidence?” (p. 627) to sup- port the contention that person-centered education is effective in the classroom? Rogers then cites and interprets Aspy and Roebuck’s 1973 article on their series of studies based on the concepts of person-centered education. Rogers says Aspy and Roebuck (1973) found that there were clear correlations between conditions provided by a facilitative teacher and the raised academic lev- els of students, a finding, he said, that “has been repeatedly confirmed” (Rogers, 1977, p. 627).
In addition, Rogers says, teachers who had the best results were those who supported by principals and other curricular leaders who supported them in person-centered educational methodologies and who shared their beliefs in how children learn best. Rogers (1977) lists these other benefits of
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person-centered education: Students used higher- level thinking skills such as problem solving, they had a more positive self-concept, they were more likely to take a leadership role in the classroom, and they exhibited better attendance and fewer behavior problems. In addition, one study cited by Aspy and Roebuck (1973) showed an increase in IQs of students who had facilitative teachers.
What are the characteristics of teachers whose students showed these positive results? Rogers (1977) reports that they had positive self-concepts, they were more self-disclosing to their students, responded more quickly to student’s feelings and gave more praise. Finally, teachers who more person-centered lectured less and elicited student responses more often (Rogers 1977; Aspy & Roebuck, 1973).
Rogers (1977) said about research outcomes, “I am not so bold as to predict the future of this new mode of promoting learning, except to say that the future is likely to be multi-faceted, exciting, controversial, and revolutionary in its implications” (p. 628). A 2007 review of 119 studies based on a person-centered education approach by Cornelius-White found that there were a number of important positive correlations between effective learning and a person-centered approach. He found “positive relationships, non- directivity, empathy, warmth and encouraging thinking and learning” (p. 134) were to be found in person-centered classrooms and learning environments. In addition, echoing the findings of Aspy and Roebuck (1973) were positive cor- relations for “participation, critical thinking… drop-out prevention, self-esteem, verbal achieve- ment, positive motivation, social connection, IQ, grades, reduction in disruptive behavior, (and) attendance” (p. 134). These findings were taken across studies involving more than 350,000 stu- dents and they extend and highlight the efficacy of person-centered education, and lend credence to its usefulness as a model not only worthy of being applied in face-to-face settings, but also computer-mediated settings as well.
PRESENT PERSPECTIVES
Studies with Person-Centered Education and Online Learning
Morgan and McKenzie (2003) wrote about one of the challenges of online learning and teaching: It can be isolating and lack the human qualities students prefer in face-to-face classrooms. In many ways, the humanistic approach of Rogers dovetails perfectly with best practices in CME. Rogers said, “I feel that conventional education from primary school through graduate school is probably the most outdated, incompetent, and bureaucratic institution in our culture.” (Evans, 1975, p. 37). He goes on to say that educational practices had become “quite out of touch with the modern world.” (p. 38). In addition to the work of Cornelius-White (2007) mentioned above, this section of the chapter will present some select recent studies years based in person-centered educational theory.
In a dialogue with Evans (1975), Rogers was specific about his criticism of (then) current practice in education:
I think my biggest distrust of the educational system…is that it’s all based on a distrust of the student. Don’t trust him to follow his own leads; guide him; tell him what to do; tell him what he should think; tell him what he should learn. Consequently at the very age when he should be developing adult characteristics of choice and decision making, when he should be trusted on some of those things, trusted to make mistakes and to learn fro those mistakes, he is, instead, regimented and shoved into a curriculum, whether it fits him or not” (p. 39).
Rogers’s concepts of student empowerment, just-in-time learning, internal locus of control, shared decision making, and student-based in- dividual evaluation of the worth of lessons is echoed in several current studies. Breton, Doak, Lundström, McMaster, Miller, Rauch, Reid, Scott, Wang, & Wisenthal in their 2005 paper
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used pedagogy based in the humanistic tradition as well as teaching techniques drawn from Friere, Rogers and others to determine whether mixed- mode learning could be a valuable tool to teach pedagogy. They concluded that they could teach in a hybrid manner and be as effective as they were in exclusive face-to-face settings. Furthermore, they found many advantages to mediated learning in a humanistic tradition because it encouraged knowledge creation and made the process of learning more transparent, and thus they felt it was uniquely suited to the kind of lifelong learn- ing which Rogers himself (1983) thought was crucial to developing in the student.
In fact, one of the key goals of person-centered education is to create learners who learn for and because of the self, and who become lifelong, self- directed learners whose true aim is for actualization of their human potential (Rogers, 1983, 1969).
In a 2006 study, Sargeant, Curran, Allen, Jarvis-Selinger, & Ho found that physicians who received training through computer-mediated en- vironments paralleling Rogers’s person-centered educational ideas found that Rogers’s goals, deeper learning, facilitated learning through interaction, a conscious effort to provide a comfortable envi- ronment where personal interaction between the facilitator and learners occurred, and a continuing dialog about the purposes and goals of the training led to increased learning and satisfaction with the training being provided.
Specific humanistic techniques employed by this group included the following:
1. Facilitating learners getting to know each other (using introductions and specific per- sonal experiences)
2. Addressing participants by name and encour- aging and recognizing their contributions
3. Ensuring that individual learning needs were being met by the program (asking questions about the affect of the training on their prac- tices). (2006).
In line with Rogers’s theory of person-centered education, Sargeant et al. (2006) also found that physicians in online educational programs valued “learning through interpersonal interaction” (p. 135) and that the comfort level of the learners in- fluenced how valuable they perceived the training to be. The study pointed to the role of facilitators in making the online environment facilitative to learning. The researchers were able to identify as crucial to the success of the study the conscious employment of person-centered educational learn- ing techniques in facilitating computer-mediated learning environments.
Morgan and McKenzie (2003) considered the fact that courses taught in online environments often leave the student feeling isolated. They speculated that the dropout rates for classes taught online were higher for this reason. However, they concluded that this did not have to be the case. As in person-centered education, the researchers examined the relationship between the instructor, fellow students, and in part the institution.
The study found that students who developed a relationship with the instructor found that interac- tion motivating. They said,
Some commented that because of the rela- tionship that they developed with their lecturer, they made time for their study, even when they did not think they had any time available. They reported that regular contact kept them on task and prompted them to maintain their study as a high priority among competing obligations” (n.p.).
Students in the study also said that such a rela- tionship had kept them in the course and had been important in battling the isolation they had felt in other online courses. Students also said that the experience, crucially, removed the loneliness as- sociated with online learning, and made them feel that they belonged to a learning community rather than just taking a class as an isolated individual.
The congruent, empathetic, and accepting relationship employed by Rogers in therapy and then in person-centered education was a powerful tool to students in the study.
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Finally, Drennan, Kennedy and Pisarsky (2005) employed humanistic techniques to an online business management class. In particular, they emphasized student control over their own learn- ing as a key element, and theorized that students who had a strong internal locus of control would be more satisfied with the course. In fact, their findings showed exactly that, “As hypothesized, locus of control had a direct effect on course satisfaction. Those students who had an internal locus of control reported higher levels of course satisfaction than did those who had an external locus of control” (p. 337). That finding may apply to students in any course, regardless of how it is offered, but it is more likely in a course in which independent study is required.
Rogers’s (1977, 1984) ideas about students taking responsibility for their own learning out- comes, learning self-discipline, and internalizing control over their learning environments were borne out by the study’s findings. In addition, students reported course satisfaction because they were able to choose their own paths of learn- ing, and the times in which such learning would occur. Such student-directed, flexible learning was more valuable “because it offered a range of materials and learning options, which placed the onus on students to use them as they deemed suitable. The students attempted to use all the material and therefore become more aware of its benefits” (p. 337).
A Best Practices Example
The Sloan Consortium, funded by the Alfred P. Sloan Foundation, has achieved an international reputation in the last decade for producing studies accurately reflecting the current state of online teaching and learning, and recognizing and pub- lishing examples of research showing best prac- tices in such learning. In one such award-winning example, the practice (and subsequent writings about the practice) of Bill Pelz, a Professor of Psychology at a community college illustrates
how closely recognized current best practice aligns with person-centered educational ideas.
Pelz‘s (2004) first principle was to let the students do as much of the work as possible. This closely aligns with Rogers’s (1977, 1983) ideas about student determinism and student-centered learning. To illustrate this concept, Pelz said student-led discussions, students finding and posting web resources, assisting each other in learning, grading their own assignments and par- ticipating in case study analyses. Rogers’s (1977) statements about the facilitators of learning allow- ing students to become deeply involved in their own work, and having “learning from each other (become) as important as learning from books… or the facilitator” (p. 626) find direct parallels in Pelz’s practice of student centered and student responsible learning.
Pelz’s second principle involves the concept that “interactivity is the heart and soul of asyn- chronous learning” (p. 8). As in Rogers’s writing (1969, 1977, 1984), Pelz finds a crucial element in the community built by the students, in the relationships with the facilitator, and in deep interaction with the subject being studied. Pelz said that students who go beyond simple discus- sion learn more deeply and make more choices about how and when they learn. Pelz said that any course can be designed to foster such interactivity if it designed that way initially.
Pelz’s final principle is to try to achieve what he calls “presence” (2004, p. 10). Tobin (Pelz broke presence into three main categories:
• Social presence: Participants in an online community present themselves as “real” people through affective, interactive, and cohesive practices (an obvious echo or Rogers’s 1957 concept of congruence and empathetic understanding).
• Cognitive presence: A direct and real re- sponse to what is being learned and taught, another obvious link to the Rogerean
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concept of deep student engagement in learning.
• Teaching presence: Pelz (2004) defines teaching presence as “the facilitation and direction of cognitive and social process for the realization of personally meaning- ful and educationally worthwhile learning outcomes” (n.p.). Here are more echoes of Rogers. Person-centered education also want to make learning personally mean- ingful (for Rogers, meaningful learning comes about “because the direction is self- chosen, the learning is self-initiated, and the whole person with feelings and pas- sions as well as intellect is invested in the process” (p. 627).
The Sloan Consortium publishes detailed ex- amples of best practices, and has a well-researched philosophy which it calls “The Five Pillars of Quality” (see Moore, 2005) for judging such prac- tices. Pelz’s selection as a teacher who provides an excellent illustration of person-centered education shows a close tie between such principles and outstanding online education.
FUTURE TRENDS
In 1967, Rogers was invited to be part of sympo- sium that looked forward to the turn of the millen- nium. Although this was more than 40 years ago, Rogers proved prescient in pointing out what can easily be seen as advantages of online learning: “It seems likely that schools will be deemphasized in favor of a much boarder, thoughtfully devised environment for learning where the experiences of the student will be challenging, rewarding, af- firmative, and pleasurable” (Rogers, 1968, p. 274).
Although one can find more recent predic- tions of trends than those provided by Rogers, it is difficult to find up to date empirical research predicting future trends in online education which is also tied to rapidly changing technologies. For
example, a paper discussing the use of technol- ogy written even a few years ago would not have recognized Twitter, Facebook, the iPad, or many other technologies as occupying a central place in future (or current) classrooms because those technologies either didn’t exist or were in nascent form.
One such source is the Sloan Consortium, a think tank devoted to gathering and analyzing data about online trends and best practices. As Allen and Searmen, (2007) in research produced by the Sloan Consortium found, even though online education had produced huge growth spurts of over twenty percent annually, such grown was not sustainable. They posited that growth would come from institutions of higher learning as more programs and courses were added. In addition, their report found that although much growth in online learning had occurred through new institutions entering the market, such a transition was coming to a close, and that most major new institutions were already offering online courses. However, they pointed out that a large majority of leaders in academe supported online learning and believed their institutions would be offering more online courses in the future. As they said, “Future growth in online enrollments will most likely come from those institutions that are cur- rently the most engaged; they enroll the most online learning students and have the highest expectations for growth” (n.p.).
Rogerson-Revell (2007) said that such trends are very difficult to predict. She cited growth in hybrid classes, modularity of lesson delivery, and the increased involvement of traditional distance education providers such as corporations and for- profit entities to increasingly convert to online delivery of instruction. In addition, she wrote that social networks and other emerging technologies, especially those employing increasing bandwidth may also become more important, especially in the delivery of distance language education.
In examining the implications for librarians for online instruction, Hartman (2009) reported
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that two trends will emerge: First the rapid growth in online learning environments experienced in higher education will move down to K-12 educa- tion. He reported on the growing trend of some states to require high school students to take at least one distance education course. Additionally, Hartman said librarians will take an increasing role in helping teachers migrate existing face-to-face courses to the online environment.
Clayton (2010) showed the need for school administrators to be prepared for increased use of online environments for instructional delivery. He said that teachers will need to be trained (Rogers, 1977, pointed out that to train teachers in person- centered education can be accomplished in as little as 15 hours, effectively, two staff-development days) to utilize the tools of online learning, and if teachers are shown how to utilize such tools, it is unlikely that they will teach with them. In addition, Clayton commented that almost no pre-service teachers (only four percent) received training in how to teach online, a number he found disturb- ing. Pre-service education is “where the change needs to occur. Teachers need to know how to use the technology and collaborative tools to ask stimulating questions online” (p. 21). In addition, Clayton said that the largest single reason as the reason district administrators cite as a reason for providing online courses is linked to the dearth of local and state funding specifically directed towards such courses.
CONCLUSION
Teaching and learning online can be an isolating experience or as Morgan and McKenzie, 2003, put it, computer-mediated environments can bring about “the loneliness of the long distance learner”. Barbour and Plough (2009) also described this isolation in homeschoolers whose principal way of learning was online. How can teachers in these environments move towards the ultimate goal
of the actualization of human potential and of students learning how to learn championed by Carl Rogers?
As Cornelius-White (2007) reports in his meta- analysis of teachers who are learner-centered, “Re- searchers, policy makers, teachers, administrators, students, parents, and others involved in schooling can advocate for increasing the awareness and practice of positive learner-centered relationships” (p. 134). Indeed, the natural fit between person- centered education and computer-mediated learn- ing environments makes a strong case for more research in this area, and for an increased emphasis on paying attention to environment that is being built as such environments take on increased importance in the delivery of courses, training, and opportunities for lifelong learning. By paying attention to the relationship being built between the facilitator and the student, the possibility exists for deep thinking, for increased levels of student engagement and responsibility-taking, and for a more satisfying and valuable learning experience.
Best practice criteria and research presented within this chapter highlight the possibility that a person-centered environment can help overcome some of the potential isolation of online learn- ers As Rogers foresaw in 1968, new theories of learning (and new applications of older theories) really can lead to more rewarding educational experiences and to an increased awareness of our own humanity and our potential for growth.
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Aspy, D., & Roebuck, F. (1974). From humane ideas to human technology and back again many times. Education, 95(2), 163–171.
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Barbour, M., & Plough, C. (2009). Helping to make online learning less isolating. TechTrends, 53(4), 57.
Breton, R., Doak, W., Lundström, D., McMas- ter, L., Miller, J., & Rauch, U. (2005). Online learning and intellectual liberty: A mixed-mode experiment in the humanities. College Teaching, 53(3), 102–109. doi:10.3200/CTCH.53.3.102-109
Clayton, E. A. (2010). Getting in line for online education. District Administration, 46(7), 21–21.
Cornelius-White, J. (2007) Learner-centered teacher-student relationships are effective: A meta-analysis. Review of Educational Research, 77(1), 113–143. doi: 10.3102/ 003465430298563
Drennan, J., Kennedy, J., & Pisarski, A. (2005). Factors affecting student attitudes toward flexible online learning in management education. The Journal of Educational Research, 98(6), 331–338. doi:10.3200/JOER.98.6.331-338
Evans, R. (1975). Carl Rogers: The man and his ideas. New York, NY: Dutton Adult.
Hartmen, K. (2009). From a distance. American Libraries, (October): 48–51.
Heppner, P. P., Rogers, M. E., & Lee, L. A. (1984). Carl Rogers: Reflections on his life. Journal of Counseling and Development, 63(1), 14–21.
Huitt, W. (2009). Humanism and open education. Educational Psychology Interactive. Retrieved October 30, 2010, from http:// www.edpsycinter- active.org/ topics/ affsys/ humed.html
Keengwe, J., & Kidd, T. (2010). Towards best practices in online learning and teaching in higher education. MERLOT Journal of Online Learning and Teaching, 6(2).
Lorenzo, G., & Moore, J. (2002). Five pillars of quality online education. The Sloan Consortium Report to the Nation. Newburyport, MA: Sloan Consortium.
Moore, J. (2005). The Sloan Consortium quality framework and the five pillars. Newburyport, MA: Sloan.
Morgan, C., & McKenzie, A. (2003). Is enough too much? The dilemma for online distant learner supporters. International Review of Research in Open and Distance Learning, 4(1).
Patterson, C. (1973). Humanistic education. New York, NY: Prentice Hall.
Pelz, B. (2004). (My) three principles of effec- tive online pedagogy. Journal of Asynchronous Learning Networks, 8(3).
Rogers, C. R. (1957). The necessary and sufficient conditions of therapeutic personality change. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 21, 95–103.
Rogers, C. R. (1959). Client-centered therapy. In Arietis, S. (Ed.), American handbook of psychiatry (Vol. 3, pp. 183–200). New York, NY: Basic Books.
Rogers, C. R. (1961). On becoming a person: A therapist’s view of psychotherapy. Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin.
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Rogers, C. R. (1969). Freedom to learn: A view of what education might become. New York, NY: Merrill Publishing Company.
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Rogerson-Revell, P. (2007). Directions in e-learn- ing tools and technologies and their relevance to on- line distance language education. Open Learning, 22(1), 57–74..doi:10.1080/02680510601100168
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KEY TERMS AND DEFINTIONS
Computer-Mediated Learning: Learning that takes place through the utilization of online, multi-media, web-based, and other forms of in- struction provided by computers.
Congruence: This term refers to a facilitator of learning having access to and being aware of his or her own feelings continuously as they experience interactions with students or others.
Empathetic Understanding: This is a state of a teacher or facilitator of learning listening to and feeling the emotions of a student in a person- centered educational experience.
Humanistic Education: A movement in edu- cation based on the work of Carl Rogers, Abraham Maslow, and others which seeks to educate and involve the whole person in learning. Humanistic education is often contrasted with behavioral or cognitive education.
Locus of Control: In psychology, this term, used by a wide variety of theorists in explaining topics ranging from behavior, to motivation in learning examines the extent to which the subject (student, client, etc.) believes that events occurring in his or her life are under their personal control. Strong internal loci of control have been strongly linked to success in careers and education.
Person-Centered Education: Education that has as its central premise the importance of start- ing with the person and giving that person control over his or her learning. Person-centered educa- tion is based on Rogers’s concept of client- and person-centered growth.
Unconditional Positive Regard: A state in which one human (often a teacher or therapist) holds another human (often a student or client) in a positive light and without judgement.
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Copyright © 2012, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
Chapter 4
DOI: 10.4018/978-1-61350-068-2.ch004
INTRODUCTION
In today’s digital world, leaders and other educa- tors can manipulate a wide variety of information for authentic projects. In the process, everyone needs to acknowledge the idea creators and their intellectual property.
As technologies have expanded, and their pro- duction has become more sophisticated, the legal regulations surrounding their use have become
more complex. With the advent of the interactive web 2.0 and increased resource sharing, as well as growth in distance learning opportunities, comply- ing with the legal use of information technology can be daunting. In any case, leaders and other educators should be aware of the more important aspects of technology-related copyright laws and regulations. This chapter provides an overview of copyright law and fair use for educational research purposes.
Lesley Farmer California State University, USA
Information Technology and Fair Use
ABSTRACT
Intellectual pursuit and the recognition of ideas is a central concept. Copyright attempts to protect the rights of intellectual creators while balancing those rights with the needs for access. As technologies have expanded, and their production has become more sophisticated, the legal regulations surrounding their use have become more complex. With the advent of the interactive Web 2.0 and increased resource sharing, as well as growth in distance learning opportunities, complying with the legal use of Information Technology can be daunting. In any case, leaders and other educators should be aware of the more important aspects of technology-related copyright laws and regulations. This article provides an over- view of copyright law and fair use for educational research purposes. It explains different options for intellectual production and sharing, and notes administrative actions to support copyright compliance.
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Legal Background
A central aspect of education is intellectual pursuit and the recognition of great minds. Yet teachers bemoan the rise in cheating, which technology facilitates. On their part, students have a more lax attitude about intellectual property. Particularly with Web 2.0, which fosters collaborate knowledge generation, identifying the originator of an idea can be difficult to ascertain.
The publishing world further complicates the intellectual property picture. Reporters are demanding personal credit and remuneration for their contributions. Publishers create copyright agreements to cover authorship rights based on format. Multimedia copyright laws can be very specific: restricting resizing or other image manipulation, stipulating the length of music or video that can be copied legitimately. Fortunately, education falls under the umbrella of Fair Use, so restrictions are loosened up a bit in order to support personal research.
Although intellectual property is sometimes used interchangeably with copyright, the former is a broader concept. Copyright protects creative and original ideas that are recorded in tangible form. Other U. S. intellectual property deals with trademarks, patents, trade secretes, and licenses.
Copyright laws seek solutions to give authors fair compensation for sharing their work. Begun as a way to give scientists and inventors lead time to prevent others from using their work without permission, copyright laws in the United States have become more far-ranging. For example, in- house writers such as newspaper reporters now demand personal credit and remuneration for their contributions. In this digital age, copyright laws have become more complex.
The chief statute driving copyright law is the Copyright Act of 1976, which become effective in 1978. Several factors were included for the first time in this piece of legislation: a codification of fair use, the right for an author to receive copy- right for an unpublished work, and the divisibility
of authors’ rights. The Act includes definitions, delineates what is copyrightable, and describes copyright rights and limitations.
The Digital Millennium Copyright Act (DMCA) was added to the Act in 1998, largely to conform to international treaties (note that no international copyright law exists) that dealt with technological issues, particularly online material. DMCA limits database company liability, and addresses digital preservation.
Educators and leaders also need to know about the 2002 Technology, Education, and Copyright Harmonization (TEACH) Act, which impacts copyright usage in distance education or in cases where digital information is transmitted as a supplement face-to-face instruction. Displays and performances can be disseminated only for the period of the course and only to those students who are enrolled in the course. Likewise, if teachers copy an article for a face-to-face class, then they can link to the same article online, depending on the magazine database license agreement. A better solution is for the teacher to provide the citation, and ask the students to access the article themselves from the library’s database collection. However, the teacher should not download the whole magazine issue just because it is technically possible; that action probably does not comply with copyright law.
Further complicating matters, different coun- tries have different copyright guidelines, so infor- mation accessed from around the world may be subject to conflicting laws; when in doubt, users should be overly conservative.
Particularly with the advent of Web 2.0 in which students can produce and disseminate information publicly, copyright applications are stricter. A few examples of technology-relevant copyright practices follow.
• Images should not be resized, cropped, or changed in context without explicit permission.
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• Photos of recognizable people require writ- ten permission if they are to be broadcast.
• Scanning or digitizing work is considered reproducing it, and requires prior permis- sion if shared publicly. Other rights may be covered by patent law, such as copying code.
• Music and video downloads can be very problematic. It is wisest to use pre-ap- proved sites such as iTunes.
• Computer program appearance, graphics and sound may be protected from copy- ing, depending on the company’s licensing agreements.
• Slander and libel can occur on social networking sites such as MySpace and Facebook; students might not realize that they can be held legally responsible for their comments, and even arrested and prosecuted.
• Information about health and legal issues should include a disclaimer so the author is not held legally responsible in case the reader uses that information and experi- ences negative results.
• Each database aggregator and dissemina- tor (such as video streaming) has a unique licensing agreement that covers copyright issues. A good rule of thumb is to apply the most conservative guidelines in order to avoid case-by-case decisions.
Just as technology changes, so too does the law relative to copyright. Bills continue to be put forth to amend codes, such as 2009 H.R. 801 Fair Copyright in Research Works Act. Ques- tions continue to arise about the status of orphan works, those copyrighted works whose authors are difficult or impossible to find. Other laws also exist to support copyright law such as anti- piracy, codified as the Family and Entertainment Copyright Act of 2005.
Fair Use
Fortunately, educational institutions enjoy more freedom in the use of copyrighted materials because of the intent of that use: teaching and personal research without market compensation. These fair use exemptions are listed in Section 107 of 17 United States Code 106:
1. the purpose and character of the use, includ- ing whether such use is of commercial nature or is for nonprofit educational purposes
2. the nature of the copyrighted work 3. amount and substantiality of the portion
used in relation to the copyrighted work as a whole
4. the effect of the use upon the potential market for or value of the copyrighted work
The expansion of digital resource has further complicated copyright laws and Fair Use. The ease and speed of digital duplication can tempt the most honest user. Especially when software “suites” facilitate repurposing of information (such as turning a PowerPoint into an outline word processed document), it can be difficult to explain how to use digital materials within copy- right limits. How does format define information? How does multimedia incorporation change the nature and intellectual property of each informa- tion element? These issues can lead to valuable learning moments during which students can understand the nuanced nature of digital informa- tion. The National Council of Teachers of English has developed a code of best practices in fair use for media literacy education, which can serve as a useful set of guidelines (http://www.ncte.org/ positions/statements/fairusemedialiteracy).
Certainly, students and teachers alike need to cite sources accurate to credit the original creators, but it is no substitute for asking permission. Basi- cally, asking permission requires finding the author
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of the work, identifying the specific information to be used (full citation, including which section of the document), the purpose of the use, and the extent of use (e.g., how, where and frequency). Copyright clearinghouses (e.g., http://www.copy- right.com) can also help users obtain permission.
Fortunately, user-friendly guidelines about fair use are available. The American Library Association for Information Technology Policy has developed two online copyright educational tools that focus on fair use (http://www.wo.ala. org/districtdispatch/?p=3207). The Copyright Advisory Office of Columbia University Librar- ies’ Information Services has developed a useful fair use checklist that can help the education community respect intellectual property while researching and generating ideas: http://www. copyright.columbia.edu/fair-use-checklist#.
Project Checklist
As multimedia and digital resources are incor- porated into presentations, particularly as these products are broadcast online, the school com- munity needs to follow more stringent copyright guidelines. The Washington State Library (2008) has developed a checklist of factors to consider when thinking about using and publishing informa- tion. Their first point is probably the most salient: ownership of physical and digital objects doesn’t guarantee use rights.
• Who owns the material? Have you made a good faith effort to find the owner? Who controls access to the physical items? Who will control access to the digital items?
• Are there written agreements as to con- struction, ownership, and access to the digital collections?
• Determine copyright and permissions sta- tus; are the materials owned outright? Can the rights to publish the materials digitally be obtained?
• What percentage of the materials will need research or requests for permissions? What will be the added cost of devoting staff time to obtaining permissions?
• Is the material in the public domain or cov- ered by copyright that your organization has legally obtained?
• Remember, any original student work can- not be digitized or published without a signed permission form from the student or their guardian if they are a minor.
• Address copyright, permission to copy on your own digital site. Post a statement to guide use of materials on your digital Web site.
• Provide contact information for users of your Web site.
The Creative Commons
A growing interest in the creative “information commons” reflects a philosophy that “information yearns to be free” and that accessible information leads to expanded discourse, knowledge and prog- ress. Public domain documents have exemplified this philosophy for over a century, and government publications carry on this tradition in the spirit of civic engagement.
A welcome alternative is the Creative Com- mons (http://www.creativecommons.org), which enables people to upload and share data with the understanding that any use requires cited ac- knowledgment, and any changes to the data also need to be uploaded and cited within the Creative Commons. This proactive strategy recognizes the benefits of collaborative knowledge building. In 2005 the International Federation of Library As- sociations and Institutions (IFLA) called upon the World Summit on the Information Society Summit to promote a global Information Commons where all people could access and disseminate informa- tion without restrictions. Two main approaches to the creative commons have emerged: 1) contribut-
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ing and modifying original information, and 2) facilitating the sharing of information.
The idea of a creative commons can be ex- panded across systems, disciplines, even national boundaries. Creative Commons provides an ex- tensive directory of federated repositories (http:// wiki.creativecommons.org/Content_Directories). One of the advantages of federated collaborations is that each site typically controls copyright and licensing issues. Nevertheless, these consortia initiatives require careful, thorough planning, not only in terms of technical requirements but also in terms of fiscal and governance issues.
A recent development related to the Creative Commons is the Open Textbook Initiative. In an effort to the make textbooks more affordable, the Higher Educational Opportunity Act of 2008 supported the development of open textbooks. Textbook publishers, such as Flat World Knowl- edge, offer free online access to textbooks under a Creative Commons license, and low-cost fees for printing copies. In addition, these textbooks are often repurposed so that instructors can es- sentially create customized texts for their courses. While this option certainly attracts students and instructors, some authors are not so keen on this practice because they get little or no fiscal remu- neration for the materials they create. Instead, they must be satisfied with possible increase in visibility and reputation, and derive satisfaction from contributing to the field in a timely manner.
Similarly, “open source” is a growing ap- proach to software development, which impacts intellectual property rights, mainly in the areas of patents and licensing. The term emerged with Netscape’s code, which was openly released in 2006 for others to use freely. At this point, the largest repository of open source code, Source- Forge, has over a million registered users. Open source code has been the basis for many social networking applications such as wikis and blogs.
Technology-Based Information Packages
Individuals and institutions routinely “package” information together as a way to synthesize the best resources for their clientele. For instance, course “readers” have been a mainstay for years. Copyright permission has always been a part of that production process. Several general copyright issues loom when dealing with technology aspects of packaged information.
Content
Does the entity have permission to copy, download, digitize, modify, excerpt, or package informa- tion? What limitations exist on such practices: e.g., length of time to keep the copy, number of copies (sometimes within a specified timeframe), extent of copying (such as percentage of the entire worm), access rights, purpose limitations (such as referral vs. personal research vs. resale), format.
Format
Packaging information, such as software installa- tion instructions, for internal use, is a much differ- ent issue than scanning published cartoons for a public website. Even if the entity gets permission to copy an image, that permission might not ex- tend to resizing or cropping the image. Copyright owners might not permit content to be reformat- ted or repurposed with reason, since changing context can result in different interpretations of the information. Likewise, pinning up candid student pictures in the faculty mail room requires a different level of permission than broadcasting those same pictures on the Internet, particularly if any under-age students are shown. Indeed, because of stalking and other criminal behaviors, few institutions show captioned pictures of their staff, particularly in online environments.
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Liability
Entities need to read licensing agreements care- fully to make sure that their packaging efforts comply with the legal language. Users need equitable access, proper authorization, and con- fidentiality; moreover, no profits can be incurred (Farb & Riggio, 2004). Once entities start to extract and synthesize information, even with permission, they stand to risk being sued. For instance, health information might be followed by some user with unpleasant results. Especially in the areas of law and health, entities need to make sure that they post a disclaimer that they are not legal or health professionals (unless so licensed). Even the software used to package information is likely to entail legal right for its use, particularly if the product is web-based and disseminated externally. The North Carolina State Library Web Portal Collection Development Policy addresses a number of these issues (http://www.ncecho.org/ dig/digguidelines.shtml).
In addition, specific types of information packages have unique copyright implications, as detailed here.
Linking Sources
The naïve user would like a single-stop searching tool that would link all relevant material: primary sources, secondary sources, print, web-based, audiovisual. While a one-stop tool is probably not feasible in the near future (despite Google’s inten- tion), smaller-scale reference linking has become an attractive way to add value to information, and facilitate information services. There are several ways to link sources:
• between citations (e.g. databases) • within sources (e.g. hyperlinks) • between sources and applications (e.g.
course management systems) • between sources and services (e.g.
e-reserves).
Usually, metadata provides the basis for these actions. More recently, Digital Object Identifiers (DOI) provide an international standards-based “system for persistent and actionable identification and interoperable exchange of managed informa- tion on digital networks” (http://www.doi.org).
Links may be categorized as either static (cre- ated as a permanent link) or dynamic (created in response to user action). Normally, information packagers pursue dynamic solutions where linking can occur without full control of the resources. This approach is attractive in theory, but may threaten vendors who are less comfortable about open ac- cess. Furthermore, as entities create documents that include links, be it at the citation or source level, they need to consider how the source infor- mation is captured and authenticated, processing between links, and hosting services. All entities and related protocols need to be interoperable as well as legally compliant (Van de Sompel and Hochstenbach, 1999). Certainly, links within the same website are permissible, but sometimes links to a different website may require permission from the owner of that site; the law is not clear about that issue.
Repositories
Increasingly, institutions and organizations are developing digital repositories, either storing data or storing the documents themselves. In both cases, these services manage and disseminate digital resources. The scope of repositories can range from a single program to international consortia. The value of repositories lies in the quality of use of their content, so identifying desired kinds of documents and collecting high-quality materials are key functions. Key technology management issues of a repository follow:
• maintaining the data without damage or al- teration: storage and security requirements
• providing “physical” access to the data, in- cluding extracting of it from the archive:
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authentification, verification, identifica- tion, metadata harvesting software
• ensuring that the user can understand and interpret the data: display/rendering soft- ware and preservation planning
• ensuring long-term stability: technology planning and data maintenance (Wheatley, 2004).
In structuring repositories, entities need to consider three layers: storage, database, and ap- plication, each of which may have copyright im- plications. The Academic and Research Libraries of the American Library Association developed an institutional repository SPEC toolkit to help librarians with policies and procedures (http:// www.arl.org/sc/models/repositories/index.shtml).
One promising practice in digitizing materials is systemwide technology initiatives, usually in the form of federated repositories of archival materi- als. DSpace (http://www.DSpace.org) is an Open Archive Initiative that provides guidelines for digitizing, cataloging, storing, and disseminating unique digital sources. This open source solution emphasizes the need for technical expertise and planning. Nevertheless, the content within the repository still needs copyright oversight.
Knowledge management (KM) consists of managing the knowledge of an organization, usu- ally collecting, storing, organizing, and dissemi- nating explicit information such as documents with the intent that others will use that information: an internal repository. Particularly in today’s society where in-house knowledge may be proprietary and employees may leave after a short time, mak- ing tacit knowledge explicit through the use of a knowledge management system offers an effec- tive way to coalesce expertise. Because they are internal, such KM repositories normally do not require copyright permission, although institutions should set up policies and procedures that delineate levels of access and authorization protocols. As some of the documents may be permitted to be access externally, dealing with copyright permis- sions from the start is a good practice.
E-Publishing
For decades, in order to inform their constituents, institutions and organizations have created docu- ments for their own members and for the public. These might be as simple as a guide to the library or as sophisticated as a peer-reviewed journal. In the digital world, these entities need to be aware of copyright for e-publishing.
Stanford University Library’s HighWire Press, which publishes almost a thousand e-journals. The press prides itself in its efforts to incorporate multimedia, hyperlinks, interactivity, and power- ful search engines. Although they publish some free online articles, the press hosts digital content on behalf of many publishers, each of which has specific terms of use. HighWire’s notice states: ”Unless explicitly stated otherwise, content on HighWire’s publishing platform, including content accessible without charge, cannot be copied, re- purposed, displayed on other websites, reprinted, redistributed, entered into a database, modified, used to create derivative works or otherwise re-used without the specific permission of its publisher” (http://highwire.stanford.edu/about/ terms-of-use.dtl).
Since 2004, the E-Press has operated as a separate department within the Swedish Linköping University Library. It publishes digital conference proceedings, databases, journals, series, theses, and reports. The press states that it will maintain availability of their publications for 25 years, and their authors retain individual copyrights.
In a few cases, one of the impetuses is financial gain, but for the majority of e-publishers the goal is dissemination of information on topics of interest to their clientele. To this end, open access journals have become quite attractive: they are relatively inexpensive to create (except for labor costs of editing and layout) and disseminate, can include digital features not available in print format such as sound, and may be more timely to publish than print versions. The Budapest Open Access Initia- tive (2002) asserts that
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Removing access barriers to this literature will accelerate research, enrich education, share the learning of the rich with the poor and the poor with the rich, make this literature as useful as it can be, and lay the foundation for uniting humanity in a common intellectual conversation and quest for knowledge.
On the other hand, copyright issues connected with maintaining a permanent collection of the e-publications may be overlooked. Furthermore, if indexing services do not receive a copy of the journal, then access to the information will become even more limited. The best guide to scholarly e-publishing is Bailey’s Open access bibliography: Liberating scholarly literature with e-prints and open access journals (http://www. digital-scholarship.com/oab/oab.htm).
Web 2.0/Social Network
Web 2.0 signals a new level of complexity in copy- right. Web 2.0 essentially covers social network- ing: the interactive Internet. It fosters collaborative work, which results in collective intelligence. Determining the author and ways to recompense the use of web 2.0 works presents a real challenge legally. Furthermore, these documents are often dynamic in nature so that the content may change moment to moment. What, indeed, is the basis of copyright? At best, it would need to be based on a time-stamped version that acknowledges both the time of the creation as well as the time that someone accessed it to use it.
Some people assume that all document on the Internet are free, which assumption is clearly wrong, as discussed above. In some cases, the document creators function on a creative com- mons agreement, or publish a statement of use. Wikipedia is a good example. It has what it calls a “copyleft” agreement, which states: “Wikipedia content can be copied, modified, and redistributed so long as the new version grants the same free- doms to others and acknowledges the authors of the Wikipedia article used” (http://en.wikipedia.
org/wiki/Wikipedia:Copyrights). Most of Wiki- pedia’s articles are co-licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Unported License and the GNU Free Documentation Li- cense. Wikipedia states that each image notes its legal usage basis.
Blogs are usually the work of a person or group, and are in a recorded form, so they follow normal copyright laws by default. That argument would then also apply to comments that followers make. Of course, the blogger can provide further guidance, be it a statement about being in public domain or a explicit clause that bars anyone from reproducing any of the material in any format.
Podcasts and videocasts consist of compressed audio and video files that are then broadcast by the creator or an aggregator such as iTunes. Again, these are recorded documents so are assumed to fall within copyright laws. ‘Casts can be easily downloaded and shared, so it is wise to contact the originator or from a reputable Internet site. Difficulties tend to arise when someone uses copy- righted sources (particularly commercial music and videos) to create a mash-up or other kind of derivative work. It can be as simple as videotaping a toddler dancing to a Bruce Springsteen song, and then uploading it to YouTube. Unless the video- taper got written permission from Sesame Street to use that song, the broadcasting that that video constitutes illegal usage if for no other reason than that the song writer and producer should be paid royalties every time the video with the music is played. If the videotaper wants to avoid legal ac- tion, he or she should either get permission or not upload or broadcast the video; instead, that video can be recorded for home use, and friends can come over to see the bouncing baby bopper. The Podcasting legal guide (http://wiki.creativecom- mons.org/Podcasting_Legal_Guide) by Vogel, Marlick and the Berman Center provides current in-depth information on legal uses of these media.
Social bookmarking sites, such as Delicious and LibraryThing, provide a means to store and describe (“tag”) URLs for later retrieval and use.
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Similar to a bibliography, a list of lists falls under copyright law. Therefore, the creator of each list has the right to determine who can use it and the conditions of its use. To some degree, that can be controlled through the settings that the originator chooses. Usually, each overarching social book- marking site has a policy about the use of the site as a whole and the use of individual bookmark collections.
RSS means “really simple syndication,” and an RSS feed is a means to gather information from other websites to a central location. Every single website that offers an RSS service has its own copyright policy about legal use. Of course, if the originating news is in the public domain and is copied from an open source or creative com- mons/copyleft site, then that information can be used freely. One can even broadcast that informa- tion via his or her own RSS feed; however, it is usually safer to keep one’s personal RSS feeder private and avoid copyright problems altogether. In terms of copyright law, “really simple” is not really simple.
File sharing is a central feature of social net- working, as evidenced by the high use of Flickr and YouTube in particular. Without explicit permis- sion, only the owner of the files can reproduce with work, create derivative works, distribute copies of the work to the public, display or perform the work publicly (including by digital transmission). Therefore, such files cannot be integrated into a school DVD for sale or placed on an institutional website or played at a public meeting. In short, one should read each file-sharing site’s copyright guidelines before downloading documents (Talab & Butler, 2007).
Administrative Issues
Because everyone has to comply with copyright law, it behooves everyone to be knowledgeable about it, but it can be difficult to keep current. In the final analysis, administrators are responsible for such compliance. Understanding copyright,
particularly as it applies to technology, enables administrators to address the risks of technology as they optimize its benefits. Discovery Educator Network Director Hall Davidson (http://www. halldavidson.net/) suggests ways that administra- tors can avoid copyright problems.
1. Develop, implement and enforce technology policies and procedures that include a code of ethics.
2. Review technology policies and procedures with the entire educational community.
3. Hire a technology manage to maintain records about licenses and registration in- formation for technology.
4. Teach and reinforce legal and ethical tech- nology use.
Training
To help the educational community remain in compliance, librarians sometimes provide training about copyright because of their role as informa- tion managers. More information about copyright is located online. Institutions should also maintain a reviewed bibliography of copyright resources that can be consulted easily.
• U.S. Copyright Office ◦ http://www.copyright.gov ◦ Provides copyright forms and regu-
lations, and a searchable database of copyright registrations
• American Library Association Copyright ◦ http://www.ala.org/ala/issuesadvo-
cacy/copyright/index.cfm ◦ Good information and links about
legislation, intellectual property, and international copyright activities
• Columbia University Libraries Information Services Copyright Advisory Office ◦ http://copyright.columbia.edu ◦ Well-respected site targeted to librar-
ians and educators
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• University Of Texas ◦ http://utsystem.edu/ogc/Intellectual
Property/crpindex.htm ◦ Many links on copyright issues;
they have a good crash course tuto- rial at http://www.lib.utsystem.edu/ copyright/
• Stanford University Libraries Copyright & Fair Use ◦ http://fairuse.stanford.edu ◦ Focuses on fair use, the public do-
main, and the permissions process • Copyright Website
◦ http://www.benedict.com ◦ Provides general copyright informa-
tion for education and digital resource creators
• Copyright for Educators ◦ http://www.koce.org/classroom/
copyright.htm ◦ Public television site designed to help
educators learn about fair use • Intellectual Property Legal Center
◦ http://www.cetus.org/fairindex.html ◦ Provides information on several as-
pects of intellectual property, with a separate section on ebooks
• New York State Education Department Office of College and University Evaluation ◦ http://www.highered.nysed.gov/
ocue/ded/resources.html ◦ Useful links about distance educa-
tion: organization support, learning design, learner support, intellectual property, and disabilities
• Cybercrime ◦ http://www.cybercrime.gov ◦ Computer crime and intellectual
property section of the Criminal Division of the U. S. Department of Justice
• Software & Information Industry Association
◦ h t t p : / / w w w. s i i a . n e t / i n d e x . p h p ? option=com_content&view=article& id=77&Itemid=7
◦ Their Anti-Piracy Division campaign tries to balance enforcement with education
Digital Rights Management
As digital resources grow in number and percent- age in institutions, the function of digital asset management has grown in complexity. How do institutions keep track of all their electronic resources as well as make sure that they are effec- tively stored and retrieved? Especially in today’s Web 2.0 world, digital asset management has to address interactivity options and social network- ing features, such as push technology RRS feeds, comment/messaging options, incorporation of faculty repositories, enterprise mash-ups, and user-customizable folksonomy “shells.” While some of these features are low-cost plug-ins, their management and incorporation into the library’s digital collection system can involve sophisticated technical support, which is usually not inexpen- sive. Furthermore, such customizations need to be well documented and maintained.
Within that scope, the field of digital rights management (DRM) has become increasingly important. Broadly speaking, DRM deals with the exact rights that each digital content has: who holds those rights and under which circum- stances, who has authority to access that content and how that can be insured as well as preventing non-authorized people access (Calhoun, 2005). Complying with intellectual property regulations is very difficult; so digital rights management technologies are being employed to control content use. While automated systems conveniently take care of authentification issues and facilitate fair royalties compensation, they can also and may jeopardize privacy rights and leak into discrimina- tory profiling practices. E-resources sometimes are not device-neutral, so rights are sometimes
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given for just one operating system, which belies the concept of intellectual property. Installation of DRM-protected content can be burdensome, and may malfunction, preventing authorized ac- cess. At the other end of the process, when the access key to DRM-protected content is lost or the device becomes obsolete, the content itself becomes unreadable, even if it has been paid for legally. DRM can also pose problems for users with special needs. Furthermore, these DRM digital tools are not standardized. In short, DRM technology may be unavoidable when purchasing some digital resources, but needs to be carefully used (Houghton-Jan, 2007).
Even without considering DRM technology, digital rights management can be complicated Libraries are usually the body that deals with commercial digital resources, and a few are now dealing with institutional e-documents. Within that scope, subscription databases (including e-book aggregators) constitute the major copyright effort because each vendor has a unique set of license agreements. Farb and Riggio (2004) list basic elements of most contracts: scope, completeness of content, duration, warranties, indemnification, access, confidentiality, sharing, archiving, disabil- ity compliance, and usage statistics. Increasingly, libraries are considering “leasing with an option to buy” licenses as a way to insure access through backfile ownership; licensing a database with no copyright to the content beyond the date of the license is no longer attractive.
Libraries and their institutions are embracing the creative commons arena of electronic journals. Particularly as the academic community pursues research venues, providing efficient access to e-journals is a logical function for academic li- braries. The Scholarly Publishing and Academic Resources Coalition (SPARC) (http://www.arl. org/sparc), founded in 1998, exemplifies a collab- orative library approach to disseminating research. Because of such open interchanges, more citations have been included in studies, and scientific ad- vances have been accelerated (Lawrence, 2001).
FUTURE TRENDS
Copyright law tends to react to new technologies and practices, so it is unlikely that it will pro- actively change. Nevertheless, technology will continue to change and expand, so the law will need to accommodate such changes. In addition, technology has also impacted the interchange of information, from the local to the international level, which will affect copyright law at least indirectly. Both technology as a whole and the phenomenon of resource sharing is already im- pacting the publishing model, which may have startling implications for copyright. In the face of such change, it seems almost laughable to consider that current copyright law allows for proprietary rights for 70 years after the author’s death in some cases. This practice may need to change in light of digital realities.
Interactive technology corners the market in terms of copyright issues. As noted above, deter- mining the recordable version of a document when multiple users can edit it almost simultaneously can be a copyright nightmare. As web 3.0 emphasizes the relations between documents, those relation- ship themselves might fall under copyright just as bibliographies and links can.
The core concept of a work also needs further scrutiny as works are manifested in so many different formats and appearances. Right now, an e-book might be licensed to be readable on a single device; is that fair if the content itself exists separately from that device? How different does the document have to be in order to be considered a separate work?
International aspects also impact copyright in several ways. At present, no international copy- right law exists. How, then, are royalties handled when publishers are international or offer transla- tions of works? It is done by international treaties or agreements, usually on a case-by-case basis. Right now, Disney licenses some merchandise abroad, which products are not allowed in the U.S. because of copyright restrictions; foreign
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entities can sell them to U.S. buyers, who cannot buy the items stateside. Such inequities need to be addressed.
As mentioned above, documents and reposi- tories are increasingly the products of collective intelligence. As this practice expands in global environments, copyright law may need to become international so that authors can be fairly compen- sated. Theoretically, virtual worlds are associated with the country in which the software is based, but such boundaries may also come into question as documents are created in those virtual realities by people in other countries. Again, copyright law may need to be handled internationally.
Publishing itself is undergoing internal scrutiny as it develops new models of production and dif- fusion. Format issues, particularly as one idea is manifested in several ways, make fair remunera- tion difficult to ascertain. Particularly as product buyers and licensees share these documents, such as libraries and organizations, determining what is a fair royalty can be problematic. Micro-payments for access and downloading or printing are slowly being incorporated, but the models for fair rights still need to be hammered out.
CONCLUSION
Gone are the days of copyright limits of fourteen years, which was calculated on the average age of a generation. Somehow the spirit of the U.S. Constitution “to promote the progress of science and useful arts, by securing for limited times to authors and inventors the exclusive right to their respective writings and discoveries (Article 1, Sec- tion 1, Clause 8) seems to have been left behind.
Nevertheless, educators and other researchers have the strength of fair use behind them so they can promote an effective learning environment, be it face-to-face or virtual. In addition, collaborative practices such as the Creative Commons promote intellectual sharing in order to advance their fields.
Technology has significantly expanded the intellectual arena in terms of production and sharing of information. In response, copyright law has tried to codify intellectual property rights to balance the rights of the creator and appropri- ate access to information. Such laws are often format-specific, reflecting both the nature of the medium as well as the perspectives of their pro- ducers. Dissemination models have also changed drastically, so how the information buyer uses that information constitutes another can of copyright worms. Adding the international dimension that technology facilitates, copyright law cannot help but seem instantly out of date.
At the least, leaders and other educators need to keep abreast of copyright issues, and try to comply with them in an ever-changing environment.
REFERENCES
Budapest Open Access Initiative. (2002). Budapest open access initiative. Retrieved from http:// www. soros.org/ openaccess/ read.shtml
Calhoun, T. (2005). DRM: The challenge of the decade. Campus Technology, (March), 18-20.
Farb, S., & Riggio, A. (2004). Medium or message? A new look at standards, struc- tures, and schemata for managing electronic resources. Library Hi Tech, 22(2), 144–152. doi:10.1108/07378830410524576
Houghton-Jan, S. (2007). Imagine no restrictions. School Library Journal, (June): 53–54.
Talab, R., & Butler, R. (2007). Shared electronic spaces in the classroom. TechTrends, 51(1), 12–14. doi:10.1007/s11528-007-0004-1
Van de Sompel, H., & Hochstenbach, P. (1999). Reference linking in a hybrid library environment. D-Lib Magazine, 5(4). doi:10.1045/april99- van_de_sompel-pt1
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Wheatley, P. (2004). Institutional repositories within the context of digital preservation. York, England: Digital Preservation Coalition.
KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS
Copyright: Laws that regular the use of the work of a creator
Creative Commons: A nonprofit organization that seeks to make creative work available for others to build on while respective intellectual property rights
Digital Rights Management: Access control technologies used to product the copyright of electronic media
Fair Use: The legal conditions under which one can use copyrighted material without obtain- ing permission and paying royalties
Intellectual Property: Any intangible asset that consists of human knowledge and ideas; the ownership of ideas
License: Permission granted by authority to exercise certain rights and privileges that would otherwise constitute an illegal act
Open Source: Coding that is freely avail- able to the public, usually applied to software development
Web 2.0: Interactive web; enables people to collaborate and share online
This work was previously published in the International Journal of Adult Vocational Education and Technology, Volume 2, Issue 1, edited by Victor C. X. Wang, pp. 1-12, copyright 2010 by IGI Publishing (an imprint of IGI Global).
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Copyright © 2012, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
Chapter 5
Jeff Allen University of North Texas, USA
Pamela Bracey University of North Texas, USA
Laura Pasquini University of North Texas, USA
Learning and Performance Innovation
ABSTRACT
Great changes are occurring in learning and performance programs. Learner demographics are evolving, fiscal concerns are rising, and technological developments are increasing to impact current programs. As information and communication increase, organizations continue to rethink and review learning and performance objectives. Social and collaborative online resources are rapidly emerging to enhance and connect learners. Emerging technologies in the last five to eight years, such as wikis, blogs, digital media, social networking, open source, and mobile applications have created a different dynamic for learning performance beyond the traditional educational experience. Shifting technological trends have altered how these learning and performance opportunities will occur, and how to best engage individuals in both content and experience. Learning and performance leaders are strongly encouraged to embrace these new challenges and to produce best practices for learning and performance innovation.
Innovations in learning and performance possess the ability to enhance academic programs which encourage educators, businesses, and other stakeholders to reach their objectives. This chapter will address the subject of learning and performance innovation as it directly relates to educators, training personnel, performance specialists, and leaders. Further, this chapter will broaden the definition of innovation to include the utilization of theory, system, processes, and tools that advance society by im- proving skill sets, promoting global and local connectivity, and increasing productivity and knowledge.
DOI: 10.4018/978-1-61350-068-2.ch005
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INTRODUCTION
Emerging technologies, such as wikis, blogs, digital media, social networking, open source and mobile applications, have created a different dynamic for learning and performance beyond the traditional educational experience. Referred to as forms of learning innovation and performance innovation, new approaches have allowed the enhancement of teaching, training, learning, and assessment to accommodate most learners. These learning and performance innovations provide a cooperative and collaborative venue that contrasts with the traditional classroom-lecture setting.
The term Learning Innovation encompasses creative, replicable and effective strategies, techniques, tools, or systems used to efficiently enhance the knowledge acquisition process of learners. Conversely, the term Performance In- novation encompasses creative, replicable and ef- fective strategies geared towards reaching desired goals through human behavioral change and the measurement of this change. When implemented appropriately, these constructs collectively pos- sess the potential to drastically enhance academic or training programs, and encourage educators, businesses and other stakeholders to efficiently reach their objectives.
This chapter will address the subject of learning and performance innovation as it directly relates to educators, trainers, performance specialists and leaders. Further, the authors seek to widen the definition of innovation to include the utiliza- tion of theory, system, processes, and tools that advance society by improving skill sets, promoting global and local connectivity, and increasing the productivity and knowledge of a society.
Definitions for Understanding
To best discuss the areas of learning and perfor- mance innovation, it is necessary to define a few terms that the authors will be utilizing throughout this chapter. For both performance and learning
there might be specific terms; however for com- monality and referencing we will define the terms used in this chapter. The Learner is an individual who gains knowledge, comprehension, or mastery through experience or study. The Learning Fa- cilitator is an individual responsible for assessing the skill level of learners, planning the learning experience, implementing the learning plan, and evaluating the acquisition of knowledge after the plan is executed. Examples include, but are not limited to, teachers, instructors and trainers.
The term Distance Education encompasses formal learning in which the learning group (learn- ers, resources, and facilitators) is physically sepa- rated, but virtually connected through the use of interactive telecommunication systems. Whereas, Interactivity is the degree to which technology supports and enables human collaboration. Finally, Emerging Technologies are the digital tools and online resources which comprise cutting-edge developments and represent contemporary ad- vances and innovation around the 21st century in various fields of technology (e.g., social networks, mobile computing devices, social media, and open education resources, etc.).
Background: The Evolution and Trends for Learning and Performance Innovation
Over the past ten years, Internet accessibility, the nature of the web, and contexts for learning have all been transformed, along with the need of technological competencies for learners, teachers, and administrators (Greenhow, Robelia & Hughes, 2009). Because this digital evolution is occurring during the second decade of the World Wide Web, these new uses of the web have been termed ‘Web 2.0’ (Shelly, G. & Frydenberg, M., 2011). Internet connectivity and digital ability have become a necessity for learners, and a critical requirement to excel in learning and performance. Learners now have the ability to connect and interact with knowledge, materials and peers around the world.
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Global demands for increased improvement in education and training curriculum are increas- ing due to its necessary element in expanding economic prosperity and demand for improved quality of life.
The shift in online information and commu- nication is collaborative and multi-dimensional. New emerging trends will influence learning and performance, specifically to increase glo- balization, encourage collective intelligence and produce user-generated content. These emerging technologies possess the ability to alter and chal- lenge organizations. Traditional classroom models must be reviewed to consider new, shared online spaces and networks for learning experiences including social media and open educational resources. Learners utilizing Web 2.0 tools such as wikis, blogs, meta tags, and social networks will exponentially grow community websites and collaborative educational opportunities that are user-generated and user-distributed (Baraniuk, 2007). Content creation allows individuals to engage in the multi-dimensional and in-depth learning.
Web 2.0 tools facilitate participatory, collab- orative, and distributed practices within social media enabled formal and non-formal spheres of everyday activities (Greenhow, Robelia & Hughes, 2009). Since the web now provides greater opportunities for participation, learners are beginning to see benefits and value of open and transparent practices. These social and innovative technologies have created a space for learners to create and share content with one another. Web 2.0 tools and the semantic web increases intelligence through natural language processing, data-mining, machine learning, and other artificial intelligence technologies that provides learners’ needs and be- havior for a richer and more meaningful learning environment (Baraniuk, 2007).
The New Media Consortium (NWC) and the EDUCAUSE Learning Initiative (ELI) have col- laborated on The Horizon Report project to explain the technological trends likely to impact teaching,
learning, research, or creative expression within learning-focused organizations (Horizon Report, 2009). New and exciting learning technologies are developed each day. The 2009 Horizon Report identifies the adoption of mobiles learning, cloud computing, geo-everything, the personal web, semantic-aware applications, and smart objects to alter the education in the next five years. This rapid development of digital technologies and their use in learning enables individuals to interact with new learning and performance ecologies.
In considering the innovations for performance, it is important to review online performance man- agement systems, blended learning experiences, and electronic improvements to assessment and feedback. Human Performance technology is the study and ethical practice of improving productiv- ity in organizations by designing and developing effective interventions that are results-oriented, comprehensive, and systematic (Pershing, 2006). To increase performance efficiency, a variety of technological tools and systems have helped to streamline the performance workflow. A thorough performance analysis to review the organizational needs, will likely provide insight for the manage- ment division, take into account the social structure and include physical and technical systems that may be required for learning and performance innovation implementation.
Performance innovation is part of an overall process which is designed to create value for an organization. Human Performance Technology (HPT) evaluation and change are driven by the objective to solve problems or issues of an orga- nization with the support of a variety of models, theories and practices from many professional fields (Pershing, 2006). For both performance and learning, the key motivation for innovation comes from the design, development and implementation of the critical resource. Innovation and moving forward always begins with the “if” or what might be. Figure 1 demonstrates the cycle that both learn- ing and performance take when considering the
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design and content for effective learning objects to best address the innovation question.
The last few years have seen a tremendous increase in the use of social media tools and ser- vices. As this new generation of web-based tools and services empowers learners to easily create and share content, learning facilitators need to better understand how to utilize these resources to have a considerable impact in their profes- sional practice (Geser, 2007). Many of the afore- mentioned emerging technological trends are initiating a new frontier for learning and perfor- mance innovation.
Leadership from within each institution or organization is crucial for learning facilitators to receive adequate support to implement changes for instruction, research and learning. Current profes- sionals who are interested in engaging with these innovations must stay abreast of these emerging technological trends and changes facing learn- ing and performance. It is necessary to critically evaluate and participate in this evolution of social media and open education resources in pursuit of impacting learning and performance programs worldwide. It is never the specific tool, but rather the assessment and purpose behind these forms of
Figure 1. Learning and performance innovation [Adapted from Performance Map (Addison & Johnson, 1997)]
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innovative curriculum. Information and resources often overlap between learning and performance innovation. To gain support and momentum, it is critical that learning and development contribute to one another’s development. The connections of learning and performance will encourage en- hancement and growth for a variety of educational practices and industry needs.
Connecting Learning and Performance Innovation
Technology has become an integral part of our society, and is being driven by a rapidly changing, globalized economy, dependent on immediate data and results. Learning now occurs in manners never imagined in the 1950s, and barely conceived in the early 1990s, allowing individuals to network and learn from others simultaneously in remote locations. Due to the common technological resources and tools impacting both learning and performance innovation, it is increasingly neces- sary to reflect upon the common theories creating the paradigm shift for current learners.
Several years of research have revealed that learners are diverse, changing, and adaptable. Although the primary goal of secondary and post- secondary education remains the same, educators must strive to be flexible and adjust to meet the vast variation of learning needs of learners who now have skills, needs, and desires that vary from learners of past decades. As our world becomes digital, our classrooms must begin to follow suit.
A Model for Learning and Performance Innovation
Both learning and performance structures draw from similar resources and theoretical back- grounds to best inform their programs and mod- els for learning. In thinking about performance and learning innovation, the authors will later outline the key theories that provide the most comprehensive ideas for any innovation frame- work for learning and performance programs.
There are both benefits and challenges to learn- ing and performance technology for innovation in education and training; therefore, it is highly important to understand what types of learning and performance practices are best utilized with technology since these fields are often diverse in nature. An illuminating way to illustrate this point is by referring to the Advising and Counseling Continuum Model created by Kuhn, Gordon, & Weber (2006) in Figure 2. The model includes five continuums for learners, such as informa- tional, explanatory, developmental, mentoring and counseling, and how each of these points fit in on the continuum by way of purpose, content, focus and length of contact.
This model provides an excellent way of pre- senting the challenges and benefits of different types of technologies as they relate to learning and performance innovation. Two examples can demonstrate this for the Informational and Ex- ploratory points on the continuum. Technology provides a centralized source for maintaining and storing information so that it is readily available. Many of the goals we seek to achieve in the In- formational and Explanatory points on the Kuhn, Gordon and Weber (2006) continuum can be handled through appropriate technology to reach learners in an easy and accessible way. Web-based uses of this technology have been available in learning and performance for years; however, the concern is more often expressed at the use of technology with the Developmental, Mentoring or Counseling points on the continuum. These require the understandings of the capabilities of the technology along with the types of learning needs and outcomes sought. The critical need to provide shared information for your curriculum, while conducting evaluation and assessment for cost effectiveness and learning outcomes, is the new reality for all learning and performance programs. Technology will not solve all of our learning and performance issues, but thought- fully implemented and applied, it can definitely help.
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Best Practices: Tools, Systems, & Processes Learning & Performance Innovation
Modifications in learning outcomes may not be achieved merely through the use of only one form of learning or performance innovation. Learn- ing theory, methodology, and various forms of technology must be implemented cohesively. The teaching or training methodology should be embedded within a sound and supportive learn- ing theory, while the integration of technology should then serve as the synergistic component to create sound instructional practices (Muniandy, Mohammad & Fong, 2007).
As demonstrated by the collaborative themes previously discussed in this chapter, learning in- novation and performance innovation are simply a continuum of one another as demonstrated in Figure 3. Although the terms are not synonymous, it is imperative that the significance of both constructs be mutually explored and embraced systematically.
A system is a concept or mental construct for understanding how things operate (Daniels & Esque, 2006). With regards to learning and per- formance innovation, each field best informs the other of best practices systematically. When something is viewed as a system, it often pos- sesses the following components: input, a process- ing system, processing system feedback, outputs,
Figure 2. Kuhn, Gordon, and Weber’s Advising to Counseling Continuum Model
Figure 3. Learning and Performance Innovation Continuum Model (Allen, Bracey & Pasquini, 2010)
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a receiving system, and receiving system feedback (Brethower, 1982). From this perspective, all systems control themselves by evaluating its outputs based upon the receiving-system require- ments; thereafter, performance occurs. However, the key predictor of success is the learner’s com- mitment to the output requirements; hence, learner requirements must be realistic, clear, and constant—not frequently changing.
In thinking about systems, processes, and tools, there are best practices and ideal components of successful performance innovation:
• Ensure that professional development in technological applications keep the pace with the organizations purchases and in- stallation of technology.
• Encourage and accept learner autonomy and initiative.
• Ensure that learning becomes the result of research related to real problems.
• Allow learner responses to drive lessons, shift instructional strategies, and alter con- tent (Lunenburg, 1998).
• Encourage learners to engage in student- to-student dialogue, which is the founda- tion upon which cooperative learning is based (Slavin, 1990).
• Instead of simply providing a platform for simple memorization or drill and practice, technology should serve as a set of tools for knowledge construction through a variety of simulations and problem-based learning environments (Overbay et al., 2010).
THE THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK FOR LEARNING AND PERFORMANCE INNOVATION
Self-Directed Learning
No longer is it mandatory that education be instructor-centered. Technology has allowed the
instructor to most effectively facilitate “self- learning” through a variety of instructional de- sign enhancements. Self-directed learning is an attractive, complex, and ambiguous concept that emphasizes human capacity, the potential for be- havior change, and self-evaluation (Danis, 1992). This form of learning is a vital component of the digital revolution, and begins with an incentive to learn. Although students vary in their desires for autonomy and guidance (Magolda, 2007), self- directed learning develops autonomous learners who are able to control and take responsibility for their own learning (Ng, 2008).
As instruction becomes more learner-centered and self-directed, there is also a growing emphasis on academic accountability and a global shift from course-completion to competency. Becoming a professional is not a process of substituting theory by experience, but a process of fusing theory and experience together (Bromme & Tillema, 1995). Hence, becoming a leader in the distance learning and training management communities not only re- quires becoming knowledgeable of various forms of learning innovation, but also taking time to explore them in pursuit of improving performance. To encourage improved human performance, it is vital to respect the learner’s ability and ensure that performance requirements are recognized and understood prior to the completion of tasks (Daniels & Esque, 2006).
Several models of self-learning exist; however, the majority of these models assume that learners must actively develop their own meanings and goals, while potentially monitoring and regulating some features of their cognition and motivation (McKeachie, Pintrich, & Lin, 1985; Zimmerman & Schunck, 2001). Another common character- istic among models is the presence of standards or goals being set and used as benchmarks throughout the knowledge acquisition process (Bracey, 2010). Due to the independent nature of the program structure, distance education should be student-centered, mainly moving learners from dependency toward self-directedness (Richards et
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al., 2004). However, achievement of self-direction depends on one’s level of psychological and so- cial maturity, as generated by the assumption of adult life roles, as well as one’s internal or exter- nal locus of control (Knowles et al., 1998). The self-directed learner’s ability to participate and engage in learning offers learners the opportunity to construct their learning process.
Constructivism
As self-directedness in learning is a critical trait, it is also important to make meaning of your con- nections to learning matter. Constructivism is a learning theory which revolves around the notion that learning consists of constructing, creating, inventing, and developing one’s own knowledge (Marlowe & Page, 2005). Each individual’s per- spective of life varies; hence, education should not teach one objective truth—instead, it should help people arrive at their own personal constructions of reality. Further, when knowledge is ‘constructed,’ the tools (e.g., various forms of technology) to sup- port that construction become extremely important (Herring, 2004). Individualized instruction, small group work, and problem-based learning are all elements of this movement.
A broad spectrum of modern instructional strategies and platforms may be integrated within problem-based curriculum to increase effective- ness (Newell, 2003)). This form of instruction places responsibility on students to access infor- mation, recognize gaps in their own knowledge base, achieve goals, and monitor understanding. It is also utilized by facilitators to support the de- velopment of self-regulated learning (Karabulut, 2002). When implemented, learning facilitators should serve as cognitive coaches who model interest and enthusiasm for learning, in addition to nurturing an environment that supports open inquiry (Torp & Sage, 2002). Problem-based learning helps learners realize the connection
between academic content and the accomplish- ment of complex real-world (or simulated) tasks.
As the appreciation for constructivism becomes more prevalent, altering assessment practices is likely to affect curriculum, instructional methods, and learners’ understanding of the meaning of their work. A current trend, known as Authentic Assessment, meets this demand by connecting the way assignments are assessed with the manner in which knowledge and competence are judged in the workplace. This method of evaluation includes any activity that engages learners in real-life ap- plication of skills and knowledge (Butts, 1997). However, in implementing authentic assessment, instructors must ensure that their efforts reflect learning theories, promote additional learning, use both kinetic and artistic measures, recognize errors as intrinsic to learning, and are rated by clear and defensible criteria (Little, 1992). Both constructivism and authentic assessment provide learners the platform for engagement and interac- tion for learning.
Multiple Intelligences
The idea of multiple intelligences (MI), intro- duced by Howard Gardner (1983), has been vastly embraced by learning professionals since its development. Gardner views intelligence as ‘the capacity to solve problems or to fashion products that are valued in one or more cultural setting’ (Gardner & Hatch, 1989). He initially formulated a provisional list of seven intelligences. In Table 1: Multiple Intelligences and Technology, the theory suggests that everyone possesses each of the fol- lowing intelligences to various extents connected with their relation to technology according to the follow multiple intelligences: linguistic, logical- mathematical, spatial, musical, bodily-kinesthetic, interpersonal, intrapersonal, naturalistic, and exis- tentialist. The first two have been typically valued in schools; the next three are usually associated with the arts; and the final two are what Howard
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Gardner called ‘personal intelligences’ (Gardner, 1999). Two more were added a few years after the originals were developed. The technology component of the following model was adapted from research conducted by Ian McCoog (2007).
In order to effectively integrate the MI theory with technology, learning facilitators must first assess the strengths and weaknesses of the learn- ers. Differentiating instruction along the param- eters of MI takes a great deal of creativity and dedication; however, when implemented effi- ciently, learner achievement has the capacity to be impacted tremendously in a positive manner (McCoog, 2007). In thinking about design and implementation of innovation for learning and performing, a variety of techniques and tech- nologies can be utilized to reach multiple layers and areas of intelligence.
PERSONAL LEARNING NETWORKS & THE COLLABORATIVE WEB ENVIRONMENTS
Through the development of emerging tech- nologies, the accessibility of online networks and personal learning environments (PLEs) improve learning and performance innovation. With the advent of Web 2.0 and social media resources, learner facilitators now have the ability to utilize a variety of online resources that are accessible, easily deployable and increasingly high function- ing online resources. Oftentimes, digital tools can compliment current learning practices and optimize the learning experience. These social technologies provide spaces for information dis- semination, community building, and interaction. Learners engage and contribute to their learning network through these collaborative, online me-
Table 1. Multiple Intelligences and Technology (Gardner, 1983; McCoog, 2007)
Multiple Intelligences
Learning Characteristics
Ideal Strategies Incorporating Technology
Linguistic · Excellent written and oral skills Internet research and presenting find- ings
Logical-Mathematical · Work best with tangible projects and results Using databases and spreadsheets to calculate and organize data
Spatial · Extremely visual and creative · Results driven
Digital video-camera projects, comput- er-aided design, and paint programs
Musical · Great listeners and creative Cross-curricular projects with Interac- tive books, video and audio recordings, audio notations
Bodily-Kinesthetic · Acutely aware of roles their bodies play in their learning
Video production, virtual field trips, and PDAs for data collection
Interpersonal · Interact well with society · Love to talk
Presentations, email projects, and videoconferences
Intrapersonal
· Keenly self-aware · Self-motivated · Learn through meta-cognitive processes
Computer-based journaling, concept mapping, and internet research
Naturalistic · Make connections between how content interacts with the natural world
Cameras, electronic databases, and spreadsheets
Existentialist · Focus on big picture and why the world operates the way it does
Communication and problem solving applications, Web 2.0 projects
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diums. Integration of these resources should be pondered thoroughly to ensure relevance and the interconnectedness of content knowledge, social or civic responsibility, career preparation, multi- cultural understanding, and personal growth. The interactive platforms introduced in the Web 2.0 movement have helped change the expectations for finding and learning information in a rapidly transitional world.
Several technological resources and tools have emerged to assist in meeting the needs of diverse students, promoting problem-based learn- ing, encouraging communication, and supporting collaboration. However, using technology for the sake of employing new tools should not be the purpose of a development activity, nor should it be a deterrent for learning (Pasquini, 2010). The most profound impact of the social media and open educational resources is the ability to support and expand learning development. Social learning is based on the premise that our understanding of con- tent is socially constructed through conversations about that content and through grounded interac- tions, especially with others, around problems or actions. Furthermore, the focus is not so much on what we are learning but on how we are learning instead (Brown & Adler, 2008). Web 2.0 resources such as social networks, blogs and microblogs provide learner facilitators and learners outlets to connect and engage locally and across the globe. Online forums, such as Twitter, have become an integral part of informal learning for learner fa- cilitators to enrich knowledge and simultaneously widen the scope of personal networks. Often you will find various professionals participating in shared interest, ideas and discussion groups on blogs or online networks to gain support, ideas and resources. Professional development can be situated in collaborative workspaces and online interactive environments that include pictures, videos, slides, and other multimedia content.
Collaboration has become integral vast component of today’s working culture; hence, many employers seek prospective employees
who possess the ability to effectively communi- cate and work in teams with others to aid in the production of quality products. To collaborate successfully, it is also necessary for learners to have a variety of other skills and characteristics including (1) critical thinking and problem solving, (2) creativity and innovation, (3) leadership, (4) cross-cultural understanding, (5) information flu- ency, (6) computing and information technology fluency, and (7) career and learning self-reliance (Trilling, 2008). Collaborative web environments such as personal learning networks and personal learning environments truly ignite learning and performance innovation.
The terms Personal Learning Environments (PLEs) and Personal Learning Networks (PLNs) have been used interchangeably to describe a personalized learning network and environment both online and in real life that enhance the learner experience. A PLE is more of a concept than a particular toolset, such as. In contrast, a PLN is a structure that reflects relatedness to other people, such as. One learner describes his experience with PLNs & PLEs in his blog post:
“I have seen my PLN as the network of people I want to learn from and with, while the PLE is the environment or context in which I communicate with ‘my’ PLN” (Karlsson, 2010).
Other models of personal learning environ- ments include various theories that learning and performance draw upon. The example of a PLE in Figure 4, demonstrates the importance of self- directed learning with innovation resources to help learners process their experiences.
Learning and Performance Innovation in Action: A Case Study
In reviewing the models and theories listed in this chapter, it is easy to recognize the overlapping ideas, and recognize that learning and performance innovation can be combined into the same prac-
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tice. One example of learning and performance innovation in practice is with Dr. Alec Couros’ open access, graduate level course, Education, Curriculum, and Instruction (EC&I) 831: Social Media & Open Education, offered from the Faculty of Education at the University of Regina. The de- velopment and facilitation of this course is inspired by philosophies of the open source movement and social media trendsthat include open, transparent, and networked learning of its participants (Couros, 2010). The utilized a peer-supported pedagogical approach where future educators learn how to be actively engaged with social media and online in the learning process. This graduate educational program was re-designed to train instructors to think innovatively and model the best practices on the horizon for educational technologies and pedagogies.
This innovative experience provided insight for both the learner and learning facilitators about leveraging personal learning networks in open
access and online learning environments. Stu- dents were able to make connections to learning material by reading reflective blog posts, sharing discussion points within Blackboard, and engage with peers in real time with Web 2.0 tools. The curriculum and content of this course was open and shared beyond the scope of the registered participants. Non-registered participants who joined in the graduate education class provided value for the registered learners with their in- sights and experiences in both the education and technology field. The course demonstrated open teaching methodologies, utilized emerg- ing technologies and pushed the boundaries for building personal learning networks for online, distance education learning (Couros, 2010). The mentoring and scaffolding approach for learning was merely enhanced with multimedia tools and dynamic online interactions affiliated with social media resources.
Figure 4. Personal learning environment (Hiebert, 2006)
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The learning and performance innovation excelled with this type of learning environment. The online course was developed to enhance the original content and curriculum for the learner, by creating digital spaces to share, reflect, ques- tion and develop ideas around emerging learning technologies for the classroom. The primary learn- ing environment for the initial EC&I 831 course was situated in a typical learning management system, such as Blackboard, Moodle, Ning and Wikispaces, where the learner facilitator provided assessment for learning outcomes and the course syllabus, however many learners found great value in connecting online through a variety of social media resources. The participation in blogs, digital portfolios, streaming media, video, voice threads and shared documents became a large contribut- ing factor for learning success and emerging technologies helped develop learners’ final digital projects (Couros, 2010). The learning experience developed with new methods for instruction and an innovative learning environment that promotes interaction and contribution to be successful in this course. This course format encourages developing a personal learning network, immerses learners in social media literacy, and supports learner- centered experiences that will be applied after the course concludes (Couros, 2010).
During both synchronous and asynchronous activities, the learner facilitator discovered how much connected online activities increase learner engagement, scaffolding and reflection. After the lecture ended, the learning continued as learners read and comment on blogs, post ideas on Twitter and form study groups amongst their social net- work connection. Beyond the scheduled weekly meeting, learners grew their personal learning networks (PLEs) to integrate and participate in learning outside the designated curriculum structure. The learning and performance networks provide opportunities for continued engagement and learning on-demand opportunities during the course of the learning experience and after the course comes to a close.
Couros (2010) encourages and empowers his learners to immerse in emerging technologies, critically assess the use of social media, develop learning networks, and continue the dialogue after the learning curriculum has concluded for- merly. In Figure 5, Couros (2006) demonstrates a new learner facilitator model known as “The Networked Teacher.” This diagram provides an example of how the role of the “teacher” is chang- ing to include connections for active learning. The participatory impacts of social media activities identifies how emerging technologies will in- novate and impact the learner facilitator role and to enhance the learner experience.
This model can easily be applied and utilized for other education, training and development curriculums. Learning facilitators in this techno- logical age must encourage learners to view knowledge as contextual, and see the value in working both individually and collectively to transform the world into what they envision it to become. Regardless of the techniques or tools utilized, ample research and planning are critical to ensure that learning and performance innova- tions are incorporated appropriately.
CONCLUSION
The future of learning and performance success is about being proactive, and sustaining the momen- tum of best practices and proven theory. A number of conditions are important in the integration of technology, including supportive leadership, social networks, adequate infrastructure, access, and proper training (Norris et al., 2003). Learn- ing facilitators must continue to embrace various forms of learning or performance innovation, and strive to utilize technology to assist in capitalizing on the unique skills and learning needs of every learner. While change is a constant, the growth of technology and globalization has increased to bring about a new level of complexity to manage
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for learning and performance innovation (Persh- ing, 2006).
The shifting innovation trends for learning and performance have altered how and when learning will occur. Many organizations have already begun the assessment and implementa- tion of how to support learning and performance innovation strategies more efficiently. Emerging technologies are innovative resources designed to develop learning communities, enhance con- nections, share knowledge and support social learning. When learners become engaged in the process, they become creators and narrators of their own progress, and in turn, develop meaning and purpose in the learning experience.
Critical needs for both education and employ- ment fields are moving forward with develop- ment and advancement. Employers desire to hire
potential employees that are adaptable, flexible, and possess critical thinking, teamwork, and self- regulatory skills (Borthwick, 1995). To assist with the development of these skills, more post-sec- ondary distance education programs are necessary due to increased enrollments in higher education, yet resources and qualified instructional designers are limited in many parts of the world. Hence, it is imperative that current professionals of the field continue to expand their knowledge base by seeking professional development opportunities, while simultaneously encouraging other potential leaders to enthusiastically embrace the various forms of innovation discussed in this chapter. When implemented collaboratively, learning and performance innovations foster learning success and efficiently prepare tomorrow’s workforce.
Figure 5. The networked teacher (Couros, 2006)
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KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS
Artificial Intelligence (AI): The intelligence of machines and the branch of computer science that aims to create it.
Blackboard: Develops and licenses software applications and related services to over 2200 education institutions in more than 60 countries. These institutions use Blackboard software to manage e-learning, transaction processing and e- commerce, and online communities. http://www. blackboard.com/
Blogs: Short for the term,”web log,” this is a type of website, usually maintained by an individual with regular entries of commentary,
descriptions of events, or other material such as graphics or video.
Data Mining: The process of extracting pat- terns from data and an important tool used to collect useable information.
EC&I 831: Social Media & Open Educa- tion: An open access graduate course from the Faculty of Education, University of Regina. This course is available to both for-credit and non-credit participants. It features openly available, live, and recorded presentations from notable educators & theorists. It is anticipated that the open nature of this course will benefit all participants, especially in the fostering and development of long-term, authentic, educational connections. http://eci831. wikispaces.com
Machine Learning: A scientific discipline that is concerned with the design and development of algorithms that allow computers to evolve behaviors based on empirical data, such as from sensor data or databases.
Meta Tags: Meta elements are HTML or XHTML elements used to provide structured metadata about a Web page. Meta elements can be used to specify page description, keywords and any other metadata not provided through the other head elements and attributes.
Moodle: (abbreviation for Modular Object- Oriented Dynamic Learning Environment) A free and open-source e-learning software platform, also known as a Course Management System, Learn- ing Management System, or Virtual Learning Environment (VLE). http://moodle.org/
Ning: An online platform for people to create their own social networks http://www.ning.com/
Open Education: A collective term that describes knowledge, ideas or important aspects of teaching methodology shared freely over the internet.
Social Media: Online applications for social interaction and content creation for accessible and simple publishing to share knowledge and information.
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Web 2.0: A term commonly associated with user-centered web applications that promote in- formation sharing, interaction and collaboration online.
Wiki: A website that allows the easy creation and editing of interlinked web pages for online collaboration and sharing.
Wikispaces: Wikis are simple web pages that groups, friends, and families can edit together. Starting your wiki at Wikispaces is fast, free, and easy. http://www.wikispaces.com/
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Copyright © 2012, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
Chapter 6
DOI: 10.4018/978-1-61350-068-2.ch006
INTRODUCTION
Workplace incivility is a growing challenge for all types of organizations (Porath & Pearson, 2010). In recognition of this mounting problem, researchers have investigated its prevalence in a broad range of organizational contexts, yet surprisingly little in K-12 schools. The lack of scholarly inquiry in this area is troubling considering the almost overwhelming difficulties facing the teaching profession (Fox & Stallworth, 2010). For example,
in our current lean economic times, schools are receiving less financial support, yet calls for ac- countability remain (Fox & Stallworth, 2010). Teachers continue to be under mounting pressure from a variety of sources to increase student learn- ing performance (e.g., through federal and state legislative mandates, demanding parents, society in general), with little obvious relief in sight (Stef- fgen & Ewen, 2007). Educational policy makers and superintendents, and in-school instructional and administrative (e.g., principal) leaders need
Thomas G. Reio Jr. Florida International University, USA
Stephanie M. Reio Florida International University, USA
Workplace Incivility in Schools
ABSTRACT
The purpose of this study was to investigate the prevalence of coworker and supervisor incivility in the context of K-12 schools and incivility’s possible link to teachers’ commitment to the school and turnover intent. The data were collected via survey from 94 middle school teachers in the US. Results indicated that 85% of the teachers experienced coworker incivility over the past year; 71% experienced supervisor incivility. MANOVA results suggested no statistically significant differences in incivility by gender or ethnicity. Hierarchical regression results suggested that supervisor incivility was associated negatively with commitment and positively associated with turnover intent. Coworker incivility was not a significant predictor in the regression equations. Macro- and micro-level human resource strategies were offered as possible tools to lessen the likelihood of uncivil behavior.
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to be aware that these stressful contingencies contribute to a school workplace context that may be less than ideal to work, setting the stage for increasing the likelihood of teachers’ uncivil behaviors (Waggoner, 2003).
Andersson and Pearson (1999) define work- place incivility as “low intensity deviant behav- ior with ambiguous intent to harm the target, in violation of workplace norms for mutual respect. Uncivil behaviors are characteristically rude, dis- courteous, displaying a lack of respect for others” (p. 457). Incivility is not necessarily objective, as it is a reflection of an individual’s interpretation about how an action made them feel; in other words, it is defined in the eyes of the beholder (Porath & Pearson, 2010). Scholars have cited several antecedents to uncivil behavior such as lack of establishing positive relationships in the organi- zation (i.e., not learning to fit in with coworkers), negative affect (e.g., anxiety, frustration, anger), and demographic dissimilarity (e.g., age, gender) as some of the likely predictors of uncivil behavior in the workplace (Baron & Neuman, 1996; Chen & Eastman, 1997; Pearson, Andersson, & Porath, 2000). Numerous labels have been assigned to uncivil behaviors such as condescending, sar- castic, inconsiderate, rude, and insulting, among others (Andersson & Pearson, 1999). Increases in workplace incivility have also been associ- ated with organizational outcomes like reduced organizational commitment and job satisfaction, and increased turnover intentions (Laschinger, Leiter, Day, & Gilin, 2009). Workplace incivility can dampen employee productivity and become an economic drain (Porath & Pearson, 2010), and even ruin an organization’s reputation (Fox & Stallworth, 2010; Hutton & Gates, 2008). Because few studies have examined workplace incivility and its possible association with organizational outcomes in the context of a K-12 school, the aim of this research was to investigate the frequency of uncivil behavior among teachers and the influence of workplace incivility on teachers’ commitment to the school and turnover intentions. Educational
leaders could use new information generated by this research to find ways to reduce the likelihood of uncivil behavior, increase teacher commitment, and decrease turnover intent among teachers at our schools.
BACKGROUND
Review of the Background Literature
In this section, we demonstrate how workplace incivility can be associated with intentional acts of workplace aggression and physical violence (Fox & Stallworth, 2010; Lim et al., 2008; Porath & Pearson, 2010). Second, we link workplace incivility to school outcomes like teacher com- mitment to the school and turnover intentions.
Workplace Incivility’s Link to Aggression and Physical Violence
Workplace incivility is characterized as violating norms of respect, with ambiguous intent to harm, and being of generally low intensity (Andersson & Pearson, 1999). Gossiping, ostracizing, passing blame, taking credit inappropriately, ignoring, and teasing are all forms of disrespectful workplace behaviors that can grow rapidly or spiral into more serious forms of aggression (i.e., inten- tional harm-doing short of physical violence) and physical violence (Andersson & Pearson, 1999; Fox & Stallworth, 2010; Lim et al., 2008). Thus, leaders and managers should be concerned about workplace incivility because it can lead to more aggressive forms of behavior (Fox & Stallworth, 2010). In May, 2010, for example, a Transporta- tion Security Administration worker at Miami International Airport was arrested for allegedly assaulting a coworker with a police baton who had had been teasing him about the highly personal results of an inadvertent full body scan at the airport (Hunter, 2010). This incident is emblem- atic of how seemingly harmless behaviors with
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ambiguous intent to harm can spiral out of control to produce acts of physical violence. Physical violence refers to more severe forms of workplace aggression, such as physical assault (Neuman & Baron, 1998). Although we cannot claim that every instance of workplace aggression has its roots in being treated uncivilly by a coworker or supervisor, instances of uncivil behavior leading to actual physical violence in workplaces such as airports and schools are all too common (Fox & Stallworth, 2010; Waggoner, 2003).
Alarmingly, there were 97,830 aggravated assaults committed in US workplaces in 2007 (National Center for Victims of Crime, 2010). The same report noted that female workers were victims in 61 percent of the workplace assault cases. Further, twelve percent of the victims sustained injuries, with less than half receiving medical care. Thus, physically violent acts like assault occur frequently in US workplaces; yet, such behavior is not limited to the US. Comparable to the US, for example, one in twenty workers in the European Union reported having experienced physical violence in the past 12 months. Exposure to physical violence was higher among women, particularly younger ones (European Founda- tion for the Improvement of Living and Working Conditions, 2010). A key finding too was that the level of physical violence was relatively high in the health, public administration, and education sectors. Being harassed/bullied by their colleagues (a more persistent form of incivility), a potent predictor of aggression and physical violence (Hogh, Henriksson, & Burr, 2005), was reported by almost seven percent of the EU teachers. Ap- proximately twelve percent were threatened with physical violence (EU average for all occupational types was six percent), with roughly five percent of teachers actually suffering physical violence from colleagues. In addition, five percent of teachers experienced physical violence from non- colleagues. Thus, even in workplaces like schools, uncivil behaviors and its negative consequences occur all too often.
Situational, social, and personal factors con- tribute to workplace incivility, aggression, and physical violence (Neuman & Baron, 1998). Situ- ational factors might include school change (e.g., an unpopular new federal or state mandate) and the nature of the work environment. At schools where the work environment affords little control over one’s work (e.g., having an authoritarian principal), accompanied by high intensity levels and conflict (e.g., with students, parents, cowork- ers, or supervisors), the likelihood of uncivil behavior and aggression increases (Neuman & Baron, 1998; Steffgen & Ewen, 2007). Examples of social factors would be teachers’ perceptions of being treated unfairly by principals and district personnel, frustration-interference with on-going goal-directed behavior by parents or students, and school workplace norms that support uncivil and aggressive behavior (Fox & Stallworth, 2010; Waggoner, 2003). Personal factors relate to per- sonality traits, in that certain individuals have a greater propensity to tease and agitate, aggress, and become physically violent than others (e.g., Type A Behavior Pattern, obstructionist, hostile attribution bias). Likewise, some individuals may also be more prone to reacting strongly to even mild provocation or vice versa. Overall, the combination of social and situational factors may affect individuals differently depending on their interaction with a possible range number of personal factors.
Outcomes of Incivility
What happens to employees who perceive they have been treated uncivilly where they work? First, being the target, observer, or instigator of uncivil behavior can have important implica- tions for teachers’ health (Hogh et al., 2005; Vartia, 2001). Stress, sleeplessness, depression, anxiety and frustration, and irritability are com- mon reported short- and long-term health-related symptoms (Lim et al., 2008; Lim & Teo, 2009). Such symptoms, in turn, have been associated
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with increased burnout, absenteeism, and vol- untary turnover, and reduced productivity (Fox & Stallworth, 2010). For instance, in a study of 779 teachers, Fox and Stallworth found a posi- tive link between physical health symptoms (e.g., headaches, fatigue, sleep problems, and stomach upset) that required a doctor’s office visit and be- ing the target of uncivil behavior. Likewise, in a study of 1158 US Circuit Court workers (Lim et al., 2008), increased personal incivility was as- sociated with decreased physical health. Gender differences were not found (Lim et al., 2008). Likewise, Reio and Ghosh (2009) found that even among instigators of incivility (N = 402), being the instigator of uncivil behavior negatively predicted the instigators’ physical health.
Describing a line of research extending 10 years, Porath and Pearson (2010) reported signifi- cant losses associated with being treated uncivilly in the workplace. For example, 48% intentionally decreased work effort, 47% decreased time at work, 38% decreased work quality, 66% claimed their performance declined, 78% indicated their organizational commitment had declined, and 12% said they left the organization as a result of their poor treatment. Turnover was highlighted as being particularly damaging financially in that it might cost anywhere from 30-50%, for instance, of a low-level employee’s salary for replacement (e.g., a novice teacher). For supervisors (e.g., a principal), replacement cost is roughly 150% of their salary.
Mirroring Porath and Pearson’s (2010) re- search, Hutton and Gates (2008) found a negative link between supervisor incivility and direct health care staff productivity. Incivility from supervisors and patients and not physicians or other direct care staff members were significant predictors of decreased productivity. The annual costs as- sociated with the decreased productivity were $1235 per nursing assistant and $1484 per RN. Further, in a Canadian nursing study (N = 612), Laschinger et al. (2009) examined the association between workplace empowerment, incivility,
and burnout, and three dependent variables: job satisfaction, organizational commitment, and turnover intentions. Supervisor incivility was a powerful predictor of each dependent variable, and coworker incivility was less so.
Demonstrating that uncivil behavior exists in not only face-to-face interactions, Lim and Teo (2009) estimated that rude emails generated rough- ly $5 billion in health-related costs to organizations due to targets’ stress-related illnesses. The authors also ascertained that exposure to cyber incivility predicted less job satisfaction and organizational commitment, and greater turnover intent among banking and financial service employees in Hong Kong. Male supervisors engaged in more active forms of cyber incivility like saying something hurtful through email; females tended to engage in more passive forms such as not replying to an email.
ISSUES, CONTROVERSIES, AND PROBLEMS
School researchers can play a vital role in revealing the insidious nature of workplace incivility and its consequences. Despite evidence that workplace incivility can have important organizational con- sequences, little empirical research has examined workplace incivility among teachers and their coworkers and supervisors in the context K-12 schools. If educational leaders and researchers hope to increase teacher commitment to their school and decrease turnover intent, we need more information about the degree to which su- pervisory and coworker incivility is associated with teacher commitment and turnover intentions. Lack of teacher commitment can lead to less productivity (Porath & Pearson, 2010) with its accompanying negative ramifications for student learning. Turnover intent has been shown to be one of the strongest predictors of actual turnover (Porath & Pearson, 2010); again, the costs as- sociated with replacing a teacher are simply too
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high. Principals and human resource practitioners may be able to apply this new knowledge into devising zero-tolerance policies toward uncivil face-to-face and online behavior and designing training interventions that can effectively reduce the frequency and severity of uncivil behavior, which ultimately can benefit the school (Reio & Ghosh, 2009).
Conceptual Model Tested in the Study
Drawing from the extant theoretical and research literature linking workplace incivility to organi- zational outcomes (Cortina et al., 2001; Fox & Stallworth, 2010; Lim et al., 2008; Neuman & Baron, 1998; Porath & Pearson, 2010; Vartia, 2001; Waggoner, 2003), we propose a conceptual model where coworker and supervisory incivil- ity are associated with teachers’ organizational commitment and turnover intention (See Figure 1). First, we hypothesized that both coworker and supervisory incivility are negatively associated with teacher commitment to the school. Second, we hypothesized that coworker and supervisor incivility are positively associated with teacher turnover intention.
Method
This research is part of a larger workplace learn- ing study. Sections describing the sample and data collection protocol, and research measures follow below.
Participants and Data Collection Protocol
Teachers (N = 94) completed the survey that mea- sured their commitment to the school, turnover intent, frequency of being the target of supervisor or coworker incivility, and certain demographics (i.e., age, gender, ethnicity, hours worked per week, length of employment at current school,
and length of overall teacher experience). Four middle schools from an urban school district in the US Midwest participated in this research. The teachers received the survey through the school mail system. To assure teachers of complete ano- nymity, a sealed collection box was set up in the school’s main office. After two weeks, the data were collected by the lead researcher where the overall response rate was 33.9%. The participants were largely female (n = 57; male: n = 37), with an average age of 39.6 years (SD = 11.9). As for ethnicity, 4.3% (n = 4) identified themselves as Asian, 18.3% (n = 17) African-American, 17.2% (n = 16) Hispanic, 54.8% (n = 51) Caucasian, and 5.3% (n = 5) as “Other,” with one not responding. Average length of time teaching at their current school was 6.7 years (SD = 3.8), while average length of overall teaching experience was 9.3 years (SD = 4.5). Finally, average hours worked per week was 40.5 (SD = 12.2).
Research Measures
In this section, we describe the research measures employed in this study. Each is a self-report mea- sure based upon the respondent’s perceptions, not actual behaviors. The independent variables (coworker and supervisor incivility), are presented first, followed by the dependent variables (orga- nizational commitment and intent to turnover).
Figure 1. Hypothesized model of association between workplace incivility and organizational outcomes
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Workplace Incivility
Coworker and supervisor incivility were mea- sured by modified versions of Cortina, Magley, Williams, and Langhout’s (2001) 7-item Work- place Incivility Scale (WIS). The WIS asked the respondent to think about being exposed to supervisor or coworker incivility over the past five years; we reduced the time period to the past year to reduce the likelihood of recall-related issues. Instead of one instrument to measure a combination of supervisor or coworker incivility, we decided to modify the measure by splitting it into two separate scales: one measuring supervisor incivility and one measuring coworker incivility. We also introduced new items from the literature; the teacher’s coworker and teachers’ supervisor incivility scales now included 15 (α = .94) and 12 items (α = .96), respectively. The frequency of being the target of coworker incivility over the past year was specified through statements such as coworkers “Snapped at you” or “Talked about you behind your back.” The frequency of being the target of supervisor incivility over the past year was specified through statements such as supervisors “Gave you the silent treatment” or “Did not give credit where credit was due.” The items were rated on a 5-point Likert scale with responses ranging from 1 (never) to 5 (most of the time). The mean scores for the coworker and supervisor incivility measures were 18.2 (SD = 7.5) and 24.1 (SD = 9.6), respectively.
Organizational Commitment
Mowday, Steers, and Porter’s (1979) Organiza- tional Commitment Questionnaire (OCQ) was used to measure teachers’ commitment to one’s school. The OCQ is a summative 15-item, 7-point Likert scale (1 = strongly disagree to 7 = strongly agree). Six items were reverse scored. Sample items included “I really care about the fate of this organization” and “I talk up this organization to my friends as a great organization to work for.”
The mean score for the measure was 47.6 (SD = 4.7); the Cronbach’s alpha in this study was .90.
Turnover Intent
Participants’ turnover intent was measured with the 3-item scale from Singh, Verbeke, and Rhoads (1996). The three items assessed the teachers’ overall intent of leaving their jobs in their current organizations. The items were rated on a 5-point Likert-type scale with responses ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). A sample item from the scale is “I often think about quit- ting.” The mean score for the measure was 7.0 (SD = 3.0); the Cronbach’s alpha in the present study was .78.
Control Variables
Because there is research evidence indicating that gender (coded 0 = male; 1 = female), years teaching at current school, and hours worked per week might influence the dependent variables (e.g., Cortina et al., 2001; Mowday et al., 1979; Pearson et al, 2000; Reio & Ghosh, 2009), they were used as statistical controls in our two regression models.
Results
Correlation coefficients between the variables of interest were determined and investigated for meaningfulness. Coworker incivility was signifi- cantly and negatively correlated with teachers’ commitment (r = -.32, p < .01) and positively associated with teachers’ turnover intent (r = .29, p < .01). Likewise, supervisor incivility was negatively correlated with commitment (r = -.55, p < .001), but associated positively with turnover intent (r = .40, p < .001). Finally, commitment and turnover intent were negatively related (r = -.69, p < .001), indicating logically that greater commitment to the school was associated with less turnover intent. What these results suggest is that increased levels of being the target of ei-
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ther coworker or supervisor incivility decreased teachers’ commitment to the school and increased their turnover intent. Supervisor incivility was the strongest predictor of the two dependent variables (large effect size; Cohen, 1988).
MANOVA Results
Before testing the regression models, we ran a 2 (gender) X 5 (ethnicity) X 2 (coworker incivility and supervisor incivility) MANOVA to investigate the possibility of group mean differences in the dependent variables. Box’s Test indicated that equal variances could be assumed (p = .44). Wilks’s criterion suggested the absence of a multivariate effect; thus, there were no statistically significant differences by gender (Wilks’s Λ = .93, F(4, 140) = 1.14, p = .34, η2 = .03) or ethnicity (Wilks’s Λ = .80, F(8, 140) = 1.88, p = .08, η2 = .09) with respect to the combination of dependent variables. There was an absence of an interaction effect as well (Wilks’s Λ = .94, F(6, 140) = .69, p = .66, η2 = .03). Thus, no group mean differences were found by gender or ethnicity. However, because a number of studies have demonstrated gender differences in uncivil behavior (e.g., Reio & Ghosh, 2009), we retained the variable for our regression analyses.
Regression Analyses
To test the first hypothesis where coworker and supervisor incivility negatively predicted com- mitment to the school, a hierarchical regression was run. In the first step of the regression equa- tion, the demographic variables were entered as control variables; the variance explained was R2 = .03, p > .05. Gender (β = -.11, p > .05) and time teaching at current school (β = .12, p > .05) did not make statistically significant contributions to the regression equation, while hours worked weekly (β = .30, p < .01) was a significant predic- tor of teachers’ school commitment. In essence, the analyses suggested that greater hours worked was positively associated with teacher school
commitment. After controlling for the block of demographic variables, we entered both incivility variables into the regression equation (Block 2; ΔR2 = .34, p < .001). The supervisor (β = -.68, p < .001) but not coworker incivility (β = .07, p > .05) variable was a significant negative predictor of teacher commitment. In other words, those who experienced supervisor incivility more frequently were less committed to their school. The third step, interaction terms (cross-products of three demographic variables and the two incivility variables) were entered (Block 3; ΔR2 = .007, p > .05). None of the six interactions added signifi- cant variance to the regression equation. Overall, 38.0% of the variance (adjusted R2) in teachers’ school commitment was explained by the model. Hypothesis one was partially supported in that supervisor incivility significantly and negatively predicted commitment to the school. A summary of regression results are detailed in Figure 2.
To test the second hypothesis where cowork- er and supervisor incivility positively predicted teachers’ turnover intent, a second hierarchical regression analysis was run. In the first step of the regression equation, the demographic variables were entered as control variables; the variance explained was R2 = .04, p > .05. None of the de- mographic variables made statistically significant contributions to the regression equation: gender (β = .24, p > .05), hours worked weekly (β = -.41, p > .05), time teaching at current school (β = -.19, p > .05). After controlling for the block of demo- graphic variables, we entered the two incivility variables into the regression equation (Block 2; ΔR2 = .16, p < .001). The supervisor (β = .39, p < .01) but not coworker incivility (β = .03, p > .05) variable was a significant positive predictor of turnover intent. Thus, being the target more frequently of supervisor incivility was associated with a greater likelihood of turnover intention among the teachers. In the third step, interaction terms were entered (Block 3; ΔR2 = .003, p > .05). None of the six interactions added significant variance to the regression equation. Hypothesis two was partially supported in that supervisor
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incivility positively predicted teacher turnover intent. Overall, 20.1% of the variance (adjusted R2) in teacher turnover intent was explained by the regression model (see Figure 2).
DISCUSSION AND IMPLICATIONS OF INCIVILITY FOR ORGANIZATIONAL OUTCOMES: FUTURE TRENDS AND CONCLUSIONS
Little research has investigated the link between workplace incivility, organizational commitment (teachers’ commitment to the school), and turnover
intent among K-12 teachers. Results from this exploratory study demonstrated that the majority of teachers had been the target of coworker and supervisor incivility over the past year. In the regression models, supervisor incivility was the most powerful predictor of both commitment and turnover intent.
Frequency of Workplace Incivility
Almost 85% of this sample of teachers reported being the target of some form of coworker incivil- ity in the past year. Likewise, 71% indicated they were the target of supervisor incivility as well.
Figure 2. Summary hierarchical regressions with demographic and incivility variables predicting teacher commitment and turnover intent (Note: N = 94. **p < .01; *** p < .001)
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Slightly over 50% experienced coworker incivil- ity at the “from time to time” to “always” levels; similarly, 33% experienced supervisor incivility from time to time to always. This result compares with Laschinger et al.’s (2009) hospital worker study where 68% of nurses reported experienc- ing supervisor incivility and 78% experienced coworker incivility. These findings are also in line with Cortina et al.’s (2001) research where 76% of the US Circuit Court participants experienced acts of uncivil behavior. The most frequent co- worker uncivil acts in this research were leaving a jammed copier or printer for the next person to handle, snapping at you, showing little interest in your opinion, talking about you behind your back, and giving you dirty looks. Supervisor incivility exhibited itself most frequently as not being paid attention to, having your judgment doubted, not giving credit where credit was due, being put- ting down, and being cut off in the middle of a conversation without regard for your feelings.
Consistent with the prior literature (European Foundation for the Improvement of Living and Working Conditions, 2010; Fox & Stallworth, 2010; Waggoner, 2003) then, the results of this study suggest that the majority of teachers reported being the targets of coworker and supervisor uncivil behavior over the past year. Although we did not find gender or ethnic differences in be- ing the target of uncivil coworker of supervisor behaviors, the frequency of being the target of uncivil incivility should be a cause for concern because such behavior, albeit ambiguous in intent, has been shown to spiral into patterns of repeated incivility (i.e., bullying) and “tit for tat” responses from targets, to aggression and finally physical violence (Andersson & Pearson, 1999; Porath & Pearson, 2010) across a broad range of occupa- tions. Not only can uncivil behavior escalate into more severe forms of problematic interactions among coworkers and supervisors, there are con- comitant decreases in target work engagement and commitment to the school, and turnover becomes more likely (Porath & Pearson, 2010).
Correlation Results: Target Incivility and Organizational Outcomes
The correlational analyses revealed that coworker and supervisor incivility were associated with less commitment to the school and greater intent to turnover. The effect sizes demonstrated ranged from moderate to large (Cohen, 1988). For each dependent variable, the relation to supervisor incivility demonstrated the largest effect. The cor- relation results mirror the bulk of the literature in that being the target of coworker and supervisor incivilities is associated with important organiza- tional outcomes (Fox & Stallworth, 2010; Porath & Andersson, 2010; Waggoner, 2003); in this case, less commitment to the school organization and greater intent to depart the school.
Regression Results
Before running the regression analyses, we ran a MANOVA to examine possible group mean dif- ferences in the incivility variables by gender and ethnicity. No statistically significant differences were found in being the target of uncivil behavior by gender or ethnicity. This finding is in contrast to other studies where females were found to be more likely than males to be targets of incivility (Cortina et al., 2001). Then again, Porath and Pearson (2000) established that women were no more likely to be targets of incivility than men. Perhaps the difference lies in the types of orga- nizations represented in the two studies. Cortina et al. (2001) surveyed US Circuit Court workers, excluding judges, while this study dealt specifi- cally with teachers.
The regression analyses involved examin- ing the predictive relationships between the demographic variables of gender, length of time teaching at the school, and hours worked weekly, coworker and supervisor incivility, and the two dependent variables. First, neither being female nor being employed longer at the school made a statistically significant contribution to predicting
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commitment to the school and turnover intent. However, working more hours weekly was positively associated with commitment, but not significantly with turnover intent. This finding may be a reflection that the hours worked by the teachers (40.5 hours weekly) were sufficiently consistent with norms in other professions to not be a factor in this study.
Supervisor incivility predicted commitment and turnover intent, but coworker incivility did not. This is in contrast to Laschinger et al.’s (2009) research with nurses, after controlling for perceived empowerment, that both supervisor and coworker incivility negatively predicted commit- ment, and positively predicted turnover intent. This inconsistency may be more of a reflection of the large sample (N = 612) examined because the reported beta weights are very small but simi- lar to those found in this study for the coworker incivility variables. The results of this study do parallel Hutton and Gates’ (2008) findings that supervisor, but not coworker incivility was linked with another important organizational outcome, that is, productivity. As was the case in this study, supervisor incivility was the strongest predictor of organizational outcomes in the research informing this investigation.
Limitations and Recommendations for Future Research
There are several limitations in this study. The response rate was relatively low, but consistent with other social science research of this type where response rates can range from as low as 8% and as high as 75% (Dillman, 2000). Still, we must be very cautious in generalizing the results. The use of single-source, self-report data also raises concerns of potential common method variance bias because it has been shown to either inflate or deflate correlations among variables (Burton-Jones, 2009). However, as Lim et al. (2008) suggested, properly developed and standardized instruments like the ones employed
in this research can reduce the likelihood of in- troducing common method variance bias into a study. All the scales used in this study have been tested previously and thus provide validity and reliability evidence. Although the sample size for this research was appropriate for running the statistical analyses (Tabachnick & Fidell, 2001), future larger studies with proportional ethnic and gender representation of the link between incivil- ity and other vital organizational outcomes could incorporate different sources of objective data, for example, organizational records pertaining to absenteeism to substantiate turnover intent, or corroborating data from supervisors or coworkers in regard to job performance, worker adaptation, and uncivil behaviors. Cyber or online incivility could be investigated as well for evidence of uncivil behavior (Lim & Teo, 2009).
Because the data were collected at a single point in time, this precludes making causal infer- ences. Longitudinal research is recommended to overcome this limitation. Examining the behaviors and responses of teachers over time would add to the emerging base of research suggesting that uncivil behavior impacts both short- and long-term work outcomes at schools.
Implications for Future Practice
This study has several practical implications. The relation between coworker and supervisor incivil- ity and teacher commitment to their school and turnover intent has some major implications at both individual and school levels. Consequently, macro- and micro-level strategies are imperative to lessen the likelihood of future problems with uncivil behavior.
At the school level, district leaders and princi- pals may wish to consider macro-level strategies to limit the likelihood of uncivil behavior and dimin- ish its effects by establishing policies and codes of conduct aimed specifically at encouraging respect and discouraging incivility (Pearson et al., 2000; Reio & Ghosh, 2009). As the school’s environ-
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ment may perpetuate or inhibit incivility through workplace norms (Pearson et al., 2000), principals and other school leaders must model and promote appropriate behavioral standards. Modeling appro- priate behavior must not only include face-to-face interactions, but in the online context as well (Lim & Teo, 2009). Rude, snippy emails and any other type of uncivil online communication should not be tolerated. Indeed, standards of civility should be positively reinforced to perpetuate norms of civility at the school (Porath & Pearson, 2010; Reio & Ghosh, 2009). However, we must remember that individuals can communicate online through more than exchanging email; the availability of a wide variety of Web 2.0 supported technologies like blogs, wikis, podcasts, and social-networking sites (e.g., Facebook) have increased opportunities for communicating uncivilly. At the micro-level, professional development opportunities might help address individual and group interpersonal skill gaps. Human resource professionals could help schools focus on training interventions to improve interpersonal skills. Training interven- tions could also include mediation or conflict management trainings for principals, assistant principals and other school leaders. This may be considered a preventative strategy because school leaders, once equipped, can identify and manage uncivil behaviors before they escalate.
CONCLUSION
Educational leaders and researchers need to know that teachers were the target of frequent uncivil behavior from coworkers and supervisors in the four middle schools examined in this study. Although the frequency of incivility found was consistent with prior empirical research, these findings warrant considerable concern because as Neuman and Baron’s (1998) and Andersson and Pearson’s (1999) theoretical notions suggest, uncivil behavior, unchecked, can escalate into
aggression and physical violence. Teachers work daily with children and the stakes seem so much higher; more must be done to reduce its likeli- hood in schools. This research also indicates that incivility can diminish teacher commitment and promote turnover intent. Clearly, we need more research to find productive ways for dealing with the insidious problem of workplace incivility at both the school and individual level.
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KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS
Aggression: Any act where an individual attempts to intentionally harm another, either psychologically or physically. In the school workplace, aggression would refer to individual attempts to intentionally harm those with whom they work or have worked. Examples of psy- chological aggression would include a principal berating a teacher to make him or her look better or intentionally withholding information to make a supervisee look bad in front of one’s peers.
Bullying: A consistent pattern of behavior aimed either consciously or unconsciously at an individual to cause shame, offense, or distress. Bullying does not include physical violence. In the school workplace, examples of bullying might be teasing and spreading gossip nonstop about a coworker or supervisee. Bullying overlaps concep- tually with incivility, but it is the more consistent pattern of behavior of the two.
Cyber Incivility: Communicative behaviors in a computer-mediated environment where interac- tions may or may not intentionally violate norms of mutual respect. In schools, writing hurtful emails, ignoring a request made through email, and putting a supervisee down via email are all examples of such uncivil behavior.
Incivility: Low intensity, disrespectful, rude behavior with ambiguous intent to harm. It is similar conceptually to bullying, but in general it is of less frequency and intensity, and the conscious intent is not to harm. In the context of school, ignoring a fellow teacher, paying little attention to a coworker’s opinion, and cursing a supervisee constitute examples of incivility. Engaging in such activities repeatedly over a period would then be examples of bullying.
Organizational Commitment: The relative strength of an individual’s identification with and involvement in the organization where one is employed. Organizational commitment in this study, then, refers to the degree to which teachers identify with and are involved in the school where they currently work. Thus, the organization in this case is the school.
Physical Violence: Any act where an indi- vidual attempts to harm another through physical means. Thus, physical violence is a more severe form of aggression. In the workplace, examples of physical violence include shoving, slapping, kick- ing, and tripping a coworker, supervisor, or client.
Turnover Intent: Refers to an individual’s intent to depart and no longer labor at their cur- rent work location. A teacher’s turnover intent is a measure of the degree to which he or she anticipates no longer working at the school.
This work was previously published in the International Journal of Adult Vocational Education and Technology, Volume 2, Issue 1, edited by Victor C. X. Wang, pp. 23-35, copyright 2010 by IGI Publishing (an imprint of IGI Global).
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Copyright © 2012, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
Chapter 7
INTRODUCTION
Play therapy is at a crossroads intersected by tech- nology and research. The interface with technology is primarily an issue of understanding how to use technology to provide quality training outside of the traditional model of face-to-face education and overcoming the profession’s hesitancy to validate the use of online learning for the educa- tion necessary to become registered.
The interface with research involves meeting the expectations of the therapeutic community
by establishing play therapy’s empirical value. Play therapy research has only recently begun to recognize the need to establish a solid base of clinical research that fits the criteria for empiri- cally valid clinical research. Establishing empirical value will also demonstrate to third-party payers that play therapy has validity. Thus, research will strengthen the case for claims payment. In addition, research will inform the practice of training play therapists in a way that ensures access and rigor.
How advocates of play therapy address these issues is critical to its future development. This
Hilda R. Glazer Capella University, USA
Constance E. Wanstreet Ohio State University, USA
David S. Stein Ohio State University, USA
Play Therapy at a Crossroads: A Vision for Future Training and Research
ABSTRACT
This chapter outlines technology and research issues that are critical to the development of play therapy as an expressive therapy for children. Technology issues involve how to provide quality training outside the traditional model of face-to-face education. Research issues involve establishing empirical value to inform the practice of training play therapists in a way that ensures access and rigor. The growth of the profession relies on the ability to train play therapists so that play therapy continues to be part of the therapeutic toolkit for children provided by mental health providers. The vitality of the profession relies on the ability to produce credible clinical research that meets the standards of clinical evidence.
DOI: 10.4018/978-1-61350-068-2.ch007
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chapter outlines these concerns and offers a vision for the online clinical training of play therapists to ensure the development of the field.
BACKGROUND
Play therapy as an expressive therapy for chil- dren is relatively new, with the majority of its development occurring since World War II. The Association for Play Therapy (APT) (2010a) defines play therapy as “the systematic use of a theoretical model to establish an interpersonal process wherein trained play therapists use the therapeutic powers of play to help clients prevent or resolve psychosocial difficulties and achieve optimal growth and development” (para 2). APT is the American professional organization for play therapists, representing more than 5,000 members. Founded in 1982, APT registers play therapists and play therapy supervisors based on standards for training, practice, and continuing education since 1993, with more than 1,600 registered play thera- pists and play therapy supervisors (APT, 2010b).
Play therapy has a rich history. Schaefer and O’Conner (1982) saw the early history of play therapy as the diversification of psychoanalytic approaches into a variety of clinical approaches. Significant developments in the history of play therapy begin with the use of play in therapy with children by Hug-Hellmuth in 1919; 10 years later Anna Freud and Melanie Klein incorporated play into their sessions (Schaefer & O’Conner, 1982). Melanie Klein and Anna Freud proposed that play was the child’s way of free associating (Gil, 1991). In 1947, Virginia Axline published Play Therapy which brought to the forefront developments in the treatment of children that centered around play.
Play techniques had been mentioned as early as 1909 when Freud used play to uncover uncon- scious fears and concerns (Gil, 1991). Gil (1991) noted the development of play therapy evolved with the structured play therapies in which the therapist took an active role in determining the
course and focus of therapy and the belief in the cathartic value of play followed by the emergence of the relationship therapies by such therapists as Rank, Rogers, and Moustakas. This approach pro- motes the full acceptance of the child and stresses the importance of the therapeutic relationship with the genuineness of the relationship as critical to success in therapy. Axline (1947) said that play therapy “was an opportunity that is offered to the child to experience growth under the most favor- able conditions.... play is the natural medium for self expression....” (p. 16).
Axline (1947) modified Roger’s client-cen- tered approach into a play therapy technique. Her eight basic rules have become known as the credo of the approach (Schaefer & O’Conner, 1982). Schaefer and O’Conner noted that in 1949 Bixler presented the concept of the therapeutic limit as the primary vehicle of change in therapy. Ginott added to that perspective on the importance of limit setting as part of the therapeutic process (Schaefer & O’Conner, 1982).
Following these developments in the first half of the 20th century, there has been a proliferation of different theoretical orientations to the approach to play therapy and the development of applica- tions of play therapy. For the most part, these were based on theory without the close examination of the efficacy of the models, with a few notable exceptions.
One of these was the development of filial therapy by Bernard and Louise Gueney in the 1960s under the premise that parents were the best people to be the therapeutic agent for the child. Their center at Penn State University became the center of research on filial therapy with a number of dissertations and subsequent publications of the data. With the development of the 10-week model by Gary Landreth at the University of North Texas and the retirement of the Guerneys, North Texas became a major site for training and research on play therapy and filial therapy. At the same time other research centers developed, and a number of educators and therapists developed
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research programs. The University of North Texas Center tracked the development of research and literature on play therapy publishing The world of play therapy literature: A definitive guide to the subjects and authors in the field(Landreth, Homeyer, & Bratton, 1993) with four editions.
Research Gap
Psychotherapy in general and play therapy in par- ticular, have image problems related to research and practice. O’Donohue and Fisher (2006) identi- fied the following issues:
• There are problems for which there are no known effective treatments.
• Treatment fidelity and competency; i.e., lack of competence and lack of adherence to the protocols.
• Limited effectiveness of treatments; i.e., we do not have large-scale studies.
• There are cultural issues. • We commit to therapies for reasons other
than evidence. • Apparent lack of commitment to quality
improvement.
The Association for Play Therapy has encour- aged the development of evidence-based research by funding research projects, providing an award for outstanding research, including opportunities for research programming at the national confer- ences, and encouraging the development of centers for play therapy.
Over time, the amount and quality of research in play therapy has increased. However, as Phillips (2010) concluded, play therapy is not supported by a credible body of research. It is time to elevate the credibity of play therapy through research (Urquiza, 2010) and to gain the recognition of play therapy as an evidence-based treatment for children (Phillips, 2010).
The question for play therapy researchers to consider is how to research play therapy in a way
that is credible. This is particularly important in light of the movement for evidence-based research. The development of manualized treatments is one step in the development of credibility (Urquiza, 2010); manuals not only guide the treatment process but provide a way to replicate the inter- vention and collect research data. Manuals do exist for varieties of filial therapy, notably Brat- ton et al. (2006), which is based on the Landreth 10-week model, as well as parent manuals (Van Fleet, 2000). The original model for filial therapy used at Penn State provided early examples of a manualized treatment that was researched and subsequently published. Chwalisz (2003) speaks to the varieties of types of evidence that could make valuable contributions to understanding therapies. While the randomized clinical trial is the gold standard (Chwalisz, 2003), all rigorous research endeavors including qualitative research will make a contribution to the body of knowledge (Chwalisz, 2003; Glazer & Stein, 2010).
One of the issues for play therapy research, which has the potential to be a strength, is the fact that play therapy is a secondary specialty for child therapists. That is, all registered play thera- pists are licensed in a mental health field such as psychology, counseling, and social work. Thus their primary training and their primary research focus is not in play therapy but rather as part of their primary training or is added on post-licensing through continuing education. This diversity of primary professions may in part account for the lack of evidenced-based research but also may encourage collaborative research.
TRAINING ISSUES
Training in play therapy has traditionally been of- fered in three ways: through coursework as part of programs for mental health practitioners, through conferences, and through continuing education of- fered by play therapists at sites around the United States. However, policy restrictions are at odds
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with technological advances that could increase access to training.
Training Policy
The promise of online group learning is that computer-mediated communication offers more opportunities for members to participate equally (Zafeiriou, Nunes, & Ford, 2001) and interdepen- dently (Curtis, 2004). However, the Association for Play Therapy limits the use of online learning for the education necessary for registration as a play therapist and continuing education to maintain registration. Recent research has shown that online learners perform better, on average, than learners in face-to-face environments (U. S. Department of Education, 2009). Nevertheless, there appears to be unwillingness in the profession to validate the use of online learning for the education necessary to become registered. Restricting the opportunity for quality online education is a critical issue that must be faced.
The development of a body of graduate stu- dents who become the therapists/researchers of play therapy demands that play therapy training move from continuing education provided by the current play therapist supervisors to training provided by those in university settings. Yet a bias exists among play therapy educators as it does among educators in other health and mental health fields. At the heart of the issue for social work educators is that with a focus on human interaction and hands-on teaching for skill de- velopment, skills-based clinical courses can seem incompatible with e-learning (Coe Regan & Youn, 2008). Vernon, Pittman-Munke, Vakalahi, Adkins, & Pierce (2009) found that though there may be differences in outcomes, they are not significant and should not be of concern. The concerns about the separation of the student from the instruction and the instructor were noted by Collins (2008) who reminded us that the learning is not all there is to education; there are also the clinical place-
ments where students interact with clients, peers, and supervisors.
The certifying and regulating agencies have shown a bias for process; that is, they focus on the way something is taught. Social work has moved away from that and looks at outcomes rather than process (Coe Regan & Youn, 2008; York, 2008). Social work programs that are entirely online have been accredited (Vernon et al., 2009), and there are online masters’ programs in family studies (Piercy & Lee, 2006).
The American Psychological Association (APA) (2010) has focused on process rather than standards and included the following statement in Section C-27 of the APA Commission on Ac- creditation Policy Statements & Implementing Regulations:
The APA Commission on Accreditation (CoA) is recognized as an accrediting body by both the U.S. Department of Education and Council of Higher Education Accreditation. The CoA’s recognized scope of accreditation does not include distance education. However, the CoA understands that the growth of technology has increased the options for how instruction can be delivered within psy- chology doctoral programs. Traditional methods of teaching and interaction in the same time and place are no longer the only available approach to instruction. The CoA recognizes that some ac- credited doctoral programs may elect to utilize distance and electronically mediated delivery formats in a supplemental or adjunctive role within their programs.
Although the Guidelines and Principles for Ac- creditation of Programs in Professional Psychol- ogy (G&P) do not set a pre-determined limit on the extent of distance education that is permitted, a doctoral program delivering education and training substantially or completely by distance education is not compatible with the G&P and could not be accredited. This is because face- to-face, in-person interaction between faculty
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members and students is necessary to achieve many essential components of the G&P that are critical to education and training in professional psychology, including socialization and peer inter- action, faculty role modeling, and the development and assessment of competencies. (Section C-27)
The Council for Accreditation of Counseling and Related Educational Programs (CACREP) has taken a more open stance toward distance educa- tion, focusing on standards rather than process. In its 2009 Policy Document the council includes distance education as acceptable for review:
18. Review of Nontraditional Programs. CACREP recognizes institutions and pro- grams may deliver counselor preparation curriculum and experiences via alternative instruction and delivery methods (e.g., distance learning, cohort learning environ- ments). The following principles apply when evaluating programs using nontraditional modes of delivery: i. Programs offering all or part of the cur-
riculum via alternative structures and delivery modalities will be evaluated against the same CACREP accredita- tion standards as traditional programs
ii. Accreditation for such programs will be based on demonstrated compliance with CACREP Standards
iii. CACREP will determine the appro- priate structure of the on-site visit to ensure determination of compliance with the Standards (p. 7)
The Association for Play Therapy has de- veloped standards that include the necessity for face-to-face interaction, but they have allowed for synchronous discussion online. The following is part of the application criteria for the registered play therapist: “Must have completed at least 150 hours of play therapy specific instruction, not more than 50 of which may be non-contact
hours, from an institution of higher education or APT–approved provider of graduate-level con- tinuing education” (2010c, p. 1).
Training with Technology
The development of centers for play therapy at universities is one trend that will support the growth of play therapists as well as the therapists/ researchers who will conduct the research that will increase the status and acceptance of play therapy as evidence-based. At the same time, play therapy must consider all avenues for professional education rather than assuming that one can be- come a play therapist only through face-to-face interaction.
For a truly student-centered approach students should be able to learn within the best environment for their own learning style, as it varies through their education. Can any university offer such a service? Can we define the learning outcomes, of- fer a set of varied educational activities (including more e-learning) and clinical rotations, and allow students to choose their own ways to meet the outcomes while also ensuring that some outcomes may only be achieved through interprofessional learning with other health professional students (Thistlethwaite, J., 2008, p.131).
Interaction
The concerns about teaching clinical skills must be addressed by educators. In their review of the re- search on e-learning, Coe Regan and Youn (2008) found that the research does support a concern with lack of interaction and relationship build- ing needed for teaching clinical skills. However, they suggest that “Given the rapid developments in technology and the little identified research, a slow and gradual process of determining the best way to teach clinical skills in Web-based learning environments is needed” (Coe Regan and Youn, 2008, p. 107). This finding was supported by Vernon et al. (2009).
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Interaction is a key variable in learning and satisfaction with distance education courses (Fulford & Zhang, 1993; Gunawardena & Du- phorne, 2001; Swan, 2001). An extensive body of literature in online and distance learning addresses concerns with interaction from three perspec- tives: interaction as an instructional exchange, interaction as computer-mediated communica- tion, and interaction as a social/psychological connection (Wanstreet, 2009). Interaction as an instructional exchange between entities includes learner-content, learner-instructor, and learner- learner (Moore, 1989) as well as learner-interface interaction (Hillman, Willis, & Gunawardena, 1994). The body of work around interaction as computer-mediated communication addresses ways in which technology supports synchronous and asynchronous conversation and collaboration among learners separated by space (Jonassen, Da- vidson, Collins, Campbell, & Bannan Haag, 1995). Finally, interaction as a social and psychological connection fosters learning as problem solving in collaboration with capable peers and draws on the work of Vygotsky (1978).
Those concerned with lack of interaction need only to familiarize themselves with the research and subsequent best practices when designing curriculum to teach clinical skills online. One such practice is to design courses around the idea of communities of inquiry, which holds that a combination of teaching presence, social presence, and cognitive presence will lead to a worthwhile educational experience (Garrison, Anderson, & Archer, 2000). Teaching presence supports the contribution that all class members make to the learning of others through course design, direct instruction, and facilitation of discourse (Ander- son, Rourke, Archer, & Garrison, 2001). Social presence is what individuals share about them- selves through their emotions, affirmations, and cohesive dialogue (Rourke, Anderson, Garrison, & Archer, 2001). Cognitive presence is the learn- ing that occurs through sustained communication
around asking questions, exploring viewpoints, integrating and synthesizing perspectives, and resolving the issue under discussion (Garrison, Anderson, & Archer, 2001).
Effectiveness
The second bias is that e-learning is simply not as effective as face-to-face learning. In their review of the literature, Coe Regan and Youn (2008) and Vernon et al. (2009) found that research did not support this; rather, there appeared to be no significant differences in test scores and other learning outcomes. York (2008) in a study com- paring traditional, hybrid, and online social work courses found that students given online instruc- tion were not significantly different on measures of outcome from those given either traditional instruction or who were in a hybrid course. Stein et al. (2007) suggest that learners in synchronous chats develop high levels of learning through a process of asking questions, exchanging informa- tion, connecting ideas, and defending solutions when they have clearly defined goals. In addition, coaching and feedback on the process of discuss- ing inquiry-based issues can lead to high levels of learning over time (Stein, Wanstreet, Lutz, Slagle, & Trinko, 2010).
When looking at student satisfaction, Vernon et al. (2009) found that social work student sat- isfaction ratings were less with e-learning than other formats, while Collins (2008) found a high degree of satisfaction. Course design plays a role in satisfaction (Stein, Wanstreet, Calvin, Overtoom, & Wheaton, 2005). Stein et al. found that learner satisfaction with the course structure—activities, assignments, and instructor guidance and en- couragement—led to satisfaction with perceived knowledge gained. Studies in medical education have shown that students view clinical learning online as comparable to traditional clinical skills learning (Gormely, Collins, Boohan, Bickle, & Stevenson, 2009).
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Access
Access to education is critical. Those geographi- cally distant from institutions and those with family commitments, disabilities, work require- ments, or other barriers to access can benefit from the flexibility offered by distance learning. Virtual universities in particular have increased the accessibility of education for working adults, have increased the diversity of students, and have purposefully made decisions to comply with acces- sibility standards related to assistive technologies (Stein, Glazer, & Wanstreet, 2010). Collins (2008) notes, “From the post-modern perspective, open and distance learning offers another, different, opportunity for student choice of programmee along with the ultimate in individualistic timing and ‘localisation’—study from home or from the work place in a never ending, wide variety of locations, at a time convenient for the student, not the institution” (p. 430).
Outcomes
The focus on outcomes of education and the ability of practitioners to demonstrate skills and knowl- edge in the clinical setting should be the concern of the certifying bodies rather than the process of education. If the curriculum meets the standards set by the certifying bodies, then the educators and universities should be in charge of how that content is presented. Future research should focus on outcomes of clinical education. Other research should look at the development of best practices for teaching and learning in clinical education.
FUTURE TRENDS
Training
To illustrate how play therapists can be trained online, we can develop a scenario that combines imagination with present technological realities.
An immersive learning environment will place the instructor and learner avatars in a play therapy building. Immersive environments are collabora- tive and have the ability to incorporate different forms of media. For example, one room in the play therapy building features video interviews with Bernard and Louise Gueney, Gary Landreth, and other play therapy pioneers. Another room features challenging simulations that offer choices regarding different play techniques. Experience in this room will increase the number of play techniques that therapists have at their disposal and increase the likelihood that they will select an appropriate technique. In this way, the learn- ing environment both shapes and is shaped by the therapists in training. A third area features a classroom with a wide-angle-camera view of live interaction. Therapists and their supervisors can come together in a fourth room to watch a video of a play therapy session and discuss it. Therapists can enter a break room to share their experience with other play-therapists-in-training. Finally, an online library will provide electronic, audio, and video resources.
Research
Issues of quality of research design and the lack of clinical trials are easily fixed with the encourage- ment and support of clinical research by the field. There is the need for the development of robust research studies that meet the standards of clinical research. It may be necessary to conduct qualita- tive studies to identify and define constructs and phenomena that can form the dependent variables for later clinical research. There is a larger issue that relates to the questions that should be asked. Phillips (2010) suggests that major questions are, What is the theory or model of change in play therapy, and where is the play in play therapy?
Urquiza (2010) notes that play therapy will move forward with the “development of a body of graduate students steeped in the history, theory, and skills of a play therapist—while also pos-
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sessing the knowledge and skills of a clinical researcher” (p. 11).
CONCLUSION
Access to graduate education in general and play therapy education in particular is critical given that many people who work with children and families work in geographically dispersed areas (Piercy & Lee, 2006). Distance education or traditional face-to-face education will become a choice giving the future play therapist avenues for access to the profession. The growth of the profession relies on the ability to train play therapists so that play therapy continues to be a vital part of therapy for children provided by all mental health providers. The vitality of the profession relies on the ability to produce credible clinical research that meets the standards of clinical evidence, thus providing validity for play therapy as an intervention.
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KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS
Association for Play Therapy: The profes- sional organization for play therapists in America. The association was founded in 1982 and has more than 5,000 members.
American Psychological Association: The scientific and professional organization that represents psychology in the United States. The association has 150,000 members.
Council for Accreditation of Counseling and Related Educational Programs: Established in 1981, CACREP is an accrediting body for coun- seling and related educational programs.
Filial Therapy: A type of play therapy that involves parents as therapeutic agents for their child.
Immersive Learning Environments: In- structional approaches and software that place
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learners in synthetic environments behind the mask of an avatar.
Interaction: A key variable in learning and satisfaction with distance education courses, in- teraction can be considered from the perspective of an instructional exchange, computer-mediated communication, and a social/psychological con- nection.
Play Therapy: The power of play to help clients prevent or resolve psychosocial difficulties and achieve optimal growth and development in a therapeutic setting.
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Chapter 8
DOI: 10.4018/978-1-61350-068-2.ch008
INTRODUCTION
Computer use has become and continues to be part of everyday life. Today’s students rely on a variety of Web 2.0 technologies for information gathering, to stay updated on social concerns and national issues, for inter-personal communica- tion, and, of course, as a way to learn. It is not surprising to find a similar trend in the academic world, while none of these technologies were developed to initially support language learning,
they have been used, to a certain extent, in the field of Second Language Acquisition (SLA). The Internet has opened multiple windows for all genres of self-expression and social interaction that support meaningful educational experiences and encourage foreign language acquisition. In the last decade, research has illustrated how commu- nication technology offers second language (L2) learners the opportunity to observe and interact not only in the target language, but also with culture, as they provide a powerful and authentic representation of how languages are embedded in
Geraldine Blattner Florida Atlantic University, USA
Web 2.0 Technologies and Foreign Language Teaching
ABSTRACT
This chapter looks at the potential of two Web 2.0 tools: forums and the social networking website Facebook for foreign language learners and educators. It highlights how these technologies provide authentic settings that are dynamic and communicative as they facilitate the cultural enrichment of learners, enhance their socio-pragmatic awareness, as well as develop their multiliteracy skills in a second language. The chapter contains an examination of various recent studies which investigated or underlined how technological inclusion of forums and Facebook complements traditional classroom instruction, and how it allows students to extend their learning experience outside of this typical envi- ronment in order to supplement their linguistic abilities and to become autonomous learners.
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a social context (Belz & Kinginger, 2002, 2003; Blattner & Fiori, 2009; 2011; Chun, 1994; Hanna & De Nooy, 2003 ; Kinginger, 1998; Kramsch & Thorne, 2002; Lord, 2008; McBride, 2009O’Bryan & Hegelheimer, 2007; Stevenson and Liu, 2010; Thorne, 2003; Warschauer, 1996).
Web 2.0 tools are more prominent than ever in higher education as they have been recognized as meeting the high connectivity demands that today’s students expect; however, they are still underused in foreign language learning and teach- ing. Some Web 2.0 media provide language learn- ers with unprecedented opportunities to enrich their learning experience in a more dynamic and communicative environment. Computer Mediated Communication (CMC) technology such as chats, forums, blogs, wikis and various social networking communities (SNCs) can all positively impact for- eign language classrooms by offering meaningful social experiences. In this chapter, the pedagogical potential of forums as well as the social networking community Facebook is explored. I highlight how these emerging tools promote the development of multiliteracy skills, socio-pragmatic competence, and cultural enrichment in a foreign language while promoting a sense of community among the learners which, in turn, are essential elements to reach native-like communicative competence in today’s technologically-driven society.
Specifically, this chapter draws attention to the importance of the participation and socialization of foreign language learners in authentic contexts (Hall, Cheng, & Carlson, 2006; Swain & Deters, 2007) through the use of different forums and the social networking site Facebook, and it illustrates how these mediums of communication can be ef- ficiently integrated into foreign language classes to create a dynamic learning environment. Electronic media allows students to observe how learners and native speakers use a foreign language in online contexts and gives them an opportunity to interact and engage in real meaningful communication with a variety of interlocutors that embrace the notion that language learning happens through
social interactions. The strenght of Web 2.0 tools is their ability to help language learners understand and use language in different technology-mediated environments that present specific discursive and interactional rules and conventions that are rarely covered by traditional language textbooks or in classrooms (The New London Group, 1996; Kern, 2000; Gonglewski & DuBravac, 2006). Becoming familiarized with new voices and new genres of discourse that are yet to be considered standard language, despite their wide usage, allows L2 learners to gain cultural and linguistic knowledge about electronic language and to become members of online communities. Given the changing nature of the way we communicate, this process is, in the present day, a required step to fully experi- ence language as a social practice and to produce competent speakers of an L2.
BACKGROUND
Web 2.0 in Higher Education: A New Way of Teaching
The growth of the Internet and the evolution of CMC have opened new doors for communication in general and arguably, for language learners to interact in a foreign language beyond the tradi- tional classroom setting. As researchers pointed out (Blattner & Fiori, 2011; Blattner, submitted; McBride, 2009), Web 2.0 tools allow students to be involved in their own learning process by engaging with instructors, classmates, and other speakers through authentic interaction, transcending the spatial and temporal confinement of traditional language classes. Relatively little is known about how these web-based services can be beneficial to teaching and learning. Nevertheless, in the last few years research (Buffardi & Campbell, 2008; Stutzman, 2006; Tufekci, 2008) has pointed out the enormous amount of higher education students and educators who have become active members
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of the SNC Facebook or participated and/or con- sulted forum discussions.
Some studies in the field of communications have investigated the social implications that SNCs have on educational settings. Mazer, Murphy and Simonds (2007) showed that faculty self- disclosure on Facebook appears to constructively impact the students who accessed and viewed the information posted on the social networking site. The results suggested that being connected via SNCs had a positive influence on the motivation, affective learning and classroom climate, as the students felt there were similarities between them- selves and their instructor. Another social impact linked to the use of SNCs was explored by Kok (2008). His study suggested that it is important to provide learners with opportunities to develop a sense of group and to maintain a community as a unit that can work collaboratively (which is an essential element of the Vygotskyan Sociocultural Theory (1978)). Students are encouraged to be actively involved in their own learning process by engaging with one another. He thus claimed that students’ participation in online communities may add to the limited in-class interaction and the learning experience as a whole. Wenger (1998) explained that learners develop the ability to share knowledge when they collaborate with peers and form what he calls communities of practice. Social engagement in different classes can take several shapes, but in foreign language courses this process is necessary for learners to fully experi- ence language as a social practice and to develop communicative competence that will ultimately be comparable to that of a native speaker.
Thus, these new trends in higher education research underlined the potential of these online resources to also provide constructive (linguistic) outcomes and simple, immediate and individual- ized interactions with peers, educators and native speakers (NS) of a target language in the context of foreign language learning. In fact, Lave and Wenger (1991) and Wenger (1998) pointed out that observation and legitimate peripheral participation
in digital exchanges are ways for students to be- come familiarized with new technology-mediated environments and engaged in authentic linguistic experiences. In other words, language learners can develop their abilities to appropriately interact in an L2 and gradually extend their sociopragmatic competence and their cultural knowledge and as- sociated with oral and written language so that they can fully participate in electronic social practices. Research (Blattner & Fiori, 2009, 2011; McBride, 2009; Stevenson & Liu, 2010) recently advocated that language educators should exploit SNC websites to capitalize on the electronic routine of many students. There are various pedagogical advantages to integrating Web 2.0 tools in foreign language curricula, but the most important and the most obvious are the experience of new me- dia and connecting socially with peers and other speakers of the target language these are elements that transform classes to a more learner-centered environment as explained in detail in the next two sections focusing first on the use of forums and then the SNC Facebook.
Forums
As defined on www.wikipedia.org (another popu- lar Web 2.0 tool) “an Internet forum, or message board, is an online discussion site where people can hold conversations in the form of posted messages,” These discussion forums have been compared to an offline physical bulletin board in a fixed location where people can leave messages for others (Blattner & Williams, 2009). In the past few years, in addition to using plain text, still or animated images can now be part of a thread. As Blattner and Williams explained, users can respond to any posting, create a new post and/or create a new thematic thread very easily. In fact, one of the attractive aspects of this Web 2.0 tool is its convenience, as participants do not have to be connected to the Internet synchronously in order to interact. These web-based bulletin boards usually organize their threads by theme
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or topic and the messages are archived and clas- sified by date in chronological order or reverse chronological order; however, it is important to note that forums vary drastically from one another. Some forums are moderated, which means an individual supervises the content of the posting before making them public in order to verify that the messages are appropriate (i.e.: polite, do not contain any offensive remarks). Hanna and de Nooy (2009) explained that in these types of fo- rums, appropriate cultural behavior can be learned through explicit commentary of a moderator. The nature of forums has an important impact on the type of language used by participants on these public platforms (van Compernolle & Pierozak, 2009), but their organization provides language learners with a context that will help them in terms of peripheral and full participation (Lave & Wenger, 1991). According to Lave and Wenger “…learners inevitably participate in communities of practitioners and that the mastery of knowledge and skill requires newcomers to move toward full participation in the sociocultural practices of community. ‘Legitimate peripheral participa- tion’ provides a way to speak about the relations between newcomers and old-timers, and about activities, identities, artifacts, and communities of knowledge and practice” (p. 29).
Despite these attractive contemporary linguis- tic features, public discussion forums have been excluded from research literature on language learning and technology. As a result, researchers are left with “very little awareness of pedagogi- cal use [of such forums]” (Hanna & de Nooy, 2009, p. 1) and few educators have integrated this medium in their foreign language classes. However, as previously argued, these electronic bulletin boards can provide a great platform for foreign language learners to gain essential skills to develop L2 abilities such as electronic literacy and socio-pragmatic awareness; to gain cultural knowledge associated with a target language and a new space to practice using a foreign language, in general, to increase the sophistication of trans-
lingual and transcultural competence. The next two sections explain these concepts and provide suggestions in terms of how to use forums that were not created for foreign language classes in a pedagogically meaningful way.
Multiliteracy Skills
More than a decade ago, a handful of research- ers (Kern, 2000; Shetzer & Warschauer, 2000; Warschauer, 1999) started questioning the concept of literacy as it was traditionally perceived as being able to read and write in a language. They noted that in today’s technologically oriented, multicultural, multitasking, and multimedia-driven society, the definition of literacy has dramatically evolved and is no longer limited to mastering reading and writing abilities, but, it is also closely linked to a variety of electronic conventions associated with new media that individuals must be familiar with in order to be considered ‘literate’. The new reli- ance on technological means of communication and, especially, the variety of Web 2.0 tools that are available, have dramatically impacted the way individuals interact and socialize with one another (Downes, 2006; Gonglewski & DuBravac; 2006), and this is the reason the term ‘literacy’ is now frequently used in its plural form – literacies. In the context of CALL, the terms ‘electronic’ and ‘digital’ are commonly associated with litera- cies (Chun, 2007; Lankshear & Knobel, 2008). Gonglewski and DuBravac (2006) claimed that “multiliteracy is shaped by an ability to commu- nicate in a multimedia environment with many additional complex factors and functionalities that such a diversely cross-cultural and highly social context brings to bear” (p. 45). Thus, today’s students must be prepared not only to recognize and use multiple discursive features in technology- mediated environments, but also to understand, analyze, and interpret their content (Kern, 2000). In addition, as Thorne and Black (2007) pointed out, promoting the development of communica- tive genres is a new form of competency needed
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to function not only in personal, but professional contexts.
In a study examining the discursive and in- teractional strategies used by French learners, Hanna and de Nooy (2003) noted that electronic discussion forums provide fruitful opportunities for the development of electronic literacies. They examined how four French learners who were ‘newcomers’ to the world of discussion forums attempted to engage in communication on the well-known French daily newspaper website of Le Monde. The initial online post of the participants in this discussion forum unanimously identified their status as language learners and their messages reflected the limits of their written competence in the target language. After this introductory statement, the four French learners exhibited substantial disparities in their approaches to be- coming active members of this online community, which ultimately resulted in dramatic differences in how they further engaged in the discussion. After apologizing for their limited mastery of the target language, two of the learners requested that other contributors interact with them in order to practice their second language by stating:
Pourriez-vous m’ecrire pour m’aider a ameliorer me francias SVP. Merci! (Could you write to me to help me improve my French please. Thanks!) (Hanna & de Nooy, 2003)
This self-centered approach failed to respect the conventions of engaging in discussion forums, which, in turn, further jeopardized constructive and productive interaction with native speakers as these two students became discouraged by the negative feedback they received by other users. The other two daring learners opted for a differ- ent communicative strategy after their apologetic introductory statement. Despite the language bar- rier, they attempted to contribute to the topic of discussion, thus respecting the main purpose of this electronic medium. This ultimately led them to fulfill their goal of practicing French while
engaging in debates, thereby also gaining knowl- edge about francophone culture and language. According to Hanna and deNooy, successful involvement in this particular online community did not primarily depend on the participants’ level of proficiency in the target language (i.e. linguistic accuracy) as one of the students wrote mostly in English; however, awareness of the cultural and generic rules of communication must be respected in order to satisfy the purpose of this Web 2.0 tool and make one’s participation compatible with that of the other forum members. The authors concluded that involvement in forums can be a valuable intercultural learning experience, but it is not always guaranteed. Hanna and deNooy suggested that to effectively exploit this genre of communication as a teaching tool, preparatory work to make language learners familiar with acceptable behavior in this interactive context is extremely important. Their investigation clearly underlined d the importance of being familiar with the linguistic and pragmatic norms before engaging in online communication as they noted: “Public Internet discussion is a way of getting to know some of the locals in the global village, but it will mean doing so not only in their language but largely on their terms” (Hanna & de Nooy, 2009, p. 189). Thus, it is important to explicitly prepare and initiate language learners to such a medium in order for them to understand the re- quirements of communicating appropriately in a specific electronic environment and developing their literacy.
It has been established that there are conven- tions of interaction definded by shared practices and goals in discussion forums (Farell Whitworth, 2009; Hanna & de Nooy, 2003; van Compernolle & Williams, 2007). However, as Blattner and Williams (2009) emphasized, these discursive principles may vary within the same medium depending on the topic discussed, highlighting the complexity of today’s literacy. In a study exploring the social and linguistic dimensions of French language discussion forums and how
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this electronic environment can enhance sev- eral aspects of language learning, they proposed pedagogical applications for French learners to develop their understanding of being familiar with not only discursive and interactional fea- tures, but also with the rules and regulations of particular forums which are typically associated with this genre of electronic communication. It is common practice to find a webpage dedicated to the specific rules explaining the type of language that will be censored (i.e. foul language, offensive remarks, racist comments, SMS style). Blattner and Williams explained that there is a great deal of variability in the way various forums instruct their users on how to verbally conduct themselves, especially between multitopic and topic-specific forums. Another activity recommended by the same authors is to analyze typical thread structure as some clear patterns of speech acts emerge in this medium. Discussion forums messages are usually of three general kinds: problem messages, advice messages and thanks messages (Morrow, 2006, p. 536) and a first step would be to ask students to identify the type of posting. Blattner and Williams suggested for students to investigate the greet- ings and leave-takings, use of punctuation, and the length and of these three kinds of messages to better understand how forum users exchange ideas, give advice or express opinions.
Such guided exercises are designed for students to develop their digital literacies in general and particularly in the L2, so that they can consciously avoid inappropriate language usage which can become more than a simple linguistic violation and lead to misunderstanding of intent (Gumperz, 1982). Ultimately, our role as educators is to en- able our students to become autonomous learners and give them the tools to practice their (new) linguistic skills on their own by participating in forum discussions outside an academic context. This concept of multiliteracy is closely related to another key element in foreign language learning, which is sociopragmatic competence. Often, these two concepts cannot, in fact, be dissociated since
being ‘literate’ in a particular electronic medium implies being able to select and use the most ap- propriate language which in many ways, reflects cultural norms.
Sociopragmatic Development
Sociopragmatic competence is the ability to use and adjust speech appropriately within a social community, asserting that discourse appropriate- ness depends on both the social community and its communicative usages (Thomas, 1983). Leech (1983) sees it as “the sociological interface of prag- matics” (1983, p. 10) involving the interlocutors’ own social and cultural values and norms (i.e., age, gender, social status) as well as those of the specific discourse community. It is an understand- ing of the social relationships at hand and how these constraints establish “participants’ rights and obligations in communication” (Harlow, 1990). More specifically, sociopragmatics refers to an ability to understand the use of the sociolinguistic norms and linguistic variants in social practices (i.e., colloquial lexis, morphosyntactic variants such as the ne omission of the French negation ne…pas, the use of address pronouns, etc.) and how these practices construct various discourse styles as well as social differences. L2 learners should thus be able to construe the meanings behind the use of some variable sociolinguistic features to then use a language appropriate for the specific social practice they wish to join.
The conundrum in the current foreign lan- guage curricula is that the focus of typical foreign language classes revolves around the students’ abilities to express themselves with appropriate communicative competence. This primary goal is in line with the Communicative Approach to language teaching and learning and is often thought to be achieved by exclusively inculcating learners with grammatical and lexical knowledge (Alcón Soler & Martínez Flor, 2008; Liu, 2007). Consequently, educators often relegate culture and sociopragmatic competence to a secondary
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position as it is frequently assumed that language learners will naturally be confronted with cultural elements at later stages, for instance when they study abroad. However, students cannot master a foreign language until they have also developed the appropriate understanding of the cultural context in which this target language occurs (National Standards in Foreign Language Education Project, 1996, p. 27).
In addition, typical textbooks introduce a limited number of sociopragmatic elements as- sociated with a particular language. Numerous studies showed that L2 textbooks cannot be seen as a reliable source of authentic language (Bardovi-Harlig, 2001; Hassal, 2008; Uso-Juan, 2007; Vellenga, 2004) and that students must engage in authentic exchanges in order to develop an awareness of the societal discursive features of various types of communication that are prevalent in today’s society. Communicative competence goes beyond grammatical and lexical mastery of a foreign language and also includes awareness of contextual and interactional dimensions of language use, elements which are essential to the appropriate functioning of any society (Omaggio- Hadley, 2001). Dewaele (2004) further explained that ignoring socio-pragmatic aspects of language development results in presenting an impoverished version of the target language and will generate L2 learners who are not only unable to determine their responses in socio-pragmatic terms, but also are not capable of producing vernacular speech since they only received traditional classroom instruction. Consequently, there is a clear need to incorporate some authentic cultural teaching in basic foreign language classes and withhold not to such essential elements to language learners to a later stage of acquisition (Eslami-Rasekh, 2005; Maxim, 2000; Pearson, 2006). As Chapelle (2003), and later, Thorne (2008) pointed out, language learners must understand the discursive and interactional features of communication as- sociated with specific CMC tools as each online community has its own set of social and linguistic
rules which shape their discourse. Therefore, par- ticipants should be aware of the practices before attempting to interact in online contexts.
Previous research (Pearson, 2006) illustrated the difficulty of integrating meaningful and con- structive sociopragmatic instruction in foreign language classrooms. In her study focusing on learners’ perspective about the usefulness and attractiveness of pragmatic instruction, Pearson reported the students’ desire to learn “real life” language. She concluded that L2 pragmatic instructional materials should come from vari- ous authentic sources in order to be successfully retained by language learners. Other studies based on authentic CMC, such as e-mail ex- changes (O’Dowd, 2003) and telecollaborative interaction (Belz, 2002; Belz & Kinginger, 2002; 2003), confirmed that these technology-mediated communication lead to intercultural learning and development of intercultural communica- tive competence. O’Dowd highlighted the fact that Spanish learners improve their recognition of “semantic connotations of words in differ- ent cultures and also through the need for them to deal with the various communicative styles and sociopragmatic rules in intercultural com- munication” (p. 137). In her study, Belz showed how German learners improved their mastery of the formal/informal pronouns of address during a semester long telecollaboration project with German native speakers. The German second- person pronouns du and Sie present difficulties to learners for a variety of reasons, one of which is the number of second-person pronouns in the first language of the learners compared to the number in the second language. However, as Blattner and Williams (2009) explained for the use of the two comparable pronouns in French: “even if the L1 of a learner of French happens to have the same number of second-person pronouns that are also used in similar ways (e.g., formal vs. informal; singular vs. plural; close vs. distant), their use across languages cannot simply be memorized as a set of rules and exceptions since the use
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of these pronouns is determined culturally and socio-situationally” (p. 274). Therefore, it is logi- cal to assume that other electronic Web 2.0 tools, such as forums, can in many ways help second language learners to further develop their inter- cultural communicative competence by promoting sociopragmatic awareness.
Several studies recently suggested a variety of pedagogical applications for the development of sociopragmatic competence via forum use. First, Blattner and Williams (2009) focused on the development of a critical feature of pragmatic competence in the French language – the compre- hension and use of third person personal pronouns (tu/vous). Students can investigate sociopragmatic variations through peripheral participation in different discussion forums. They explained by analyzing various discussion threads, students can identify in which specific context the formal third person pronoun vous is selected and when its informal counterpart tu is preferred. The ac- cess to authentic language is extremely powerful as learners can infer norms from actual linguistic input instead of reading about it from the limited perspective, based on generalizations, typically offered by language textbooks.
Secondly, Farrell Whitworth (2009) suggested a series of tasks for ESL (English as a second language) learners to reflect on the effects that a particular discussion forum’s topics may have on the type of discourse used by its participants. In other words, she puts an emphasis on the fact that the language used and the type of messages found on a ‘weight management’ message board or a ‘giant and large breed dog owners’ message boards are somewhat different. Farrell Whitworth pointed out that self-presentation or the way users greet each other can be expressed by a range of linguistic structures. The author explained that ‘lurking’ or peripherally participating in these discussion forums draws students’ attention to various linguistic conventions used in this elec- tronic medium and can also be used as a spring board to further linguistic analysis in class or in-
dependently and for students to be more assertive in terms of belonging to a particular community of practice. She further argues, as her predeces- sors, that becoming familiar with the rules and regulations of a specific forum is essential to avoiding future attacks, insults, or reprimands by other users that could disturb or halt any type of meaningful communication.
In a similar vein, Abraham and Williams (2009) examined the linguistic, discursive, and interactional versatility of discussion forums, highlighting how Spanish language learners can benefit from an exposure to expanded discourse options (i.e.: observe use of pronouns, verb tense, aspect, mood in particular contexts) through this online communication environment. They explained how forums can be used as part of the Integrated Performance Assessment (IPA) because of their versatility as they open doors to practice various features of each mode of communication – interpretive, interpersonal and presentational. In addition, they are a great means for students to develop some knowledge on a wide variety of topics and to access a wider selection of interlocu- tors. Abraham and Williams also remind us that instead of traveling, CMC in general is an efficient language learning resource to get in touch with authentic speakers.
These various studies gave suggestions about pedagogically meaningful integration of discussion forums in foreign language classes, highlighting its ability to complement classroom textbooks and activities in order to develop elec- tronic literacy as well as sociopragmatic awareness (i.e.: understanding when and which personal pronouns are favored, observing in which settings the complete French negation ne…pas is used and so on). Sociopragmatic competence cannot truly be enhanced without a good understanding of cultural elements of a particular society and this can not be achieved with the use of textbooks and traditional classroom activities which offer limited exposure to authentic native discourse. Other Web 2.0 tools, such as SNCs, may offer additional
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opportunities for foreign language learners to familiarize themselves with new linguistic norms that will supplement their knowledge of an L2.
Another Web 2.0 tool that has gained enormous popularity in the past few years is the SNC Facebook. With more than 500 million members, Facebook is one of the most popular and one of the fastest-growing sites on the Internet today (nytimes.com). Established by Zuckerberg in 2004, this social community, which was initially targeting high-school and college students, went global a few years later and has since actively increased in popularity with adults of all ages (Tufekci, 2008). It is not surprising that the vast majority of university students are active members of this online community (Lampe et al., 2007; Stuzman, 2006; Tufekci, 2008) where members get to witness life-in-progress (Vander Veer, 2008). Blattner and Fiori (2009) explained that Facebook is far more sophisticated and refined than many of its SNC counterparts, both social (MySpace1, Friendster2, etc.) and academic (Blackboard, An- gel, WebCT, etc.), given the variety and types of applications that are embedded into its platform as well as the different modes of Computer Mediated Communication. Members get to disclose and wit- ness life-in-progress (Vander Veer, 2008) through status updates (self-presentation). Furthermore, they can also view and share countless information, such as exchanging private messages (one-to-one) just like regular email programs, sharing light- hearted messages publicly on a virtual message board (one-to-many)–known as the “wall” (i.e.: wishing happy birthday or poking each other - an emphatic “how are you doing”(Vander Veer, 2008, p. 59)). Joining Groups in which users share similar interests is a feature that is extremely popular on this SNC, and it is the pedagogical potentials of this particular application that I will focus on in this section. However, there are other applications that could be used to enhance the development
of a second language. One easy step towards this goal and, more specifically the expansion of vocabulary acquisition, is to simply ask foreign language learners to switch their interface into the L2, as Facebook has been translated in many languages. Consequently, language learners would have to rapidly become familiar with the various ‘buttons’ in order to navigate this website.
The very nature of the site is rooted in com- munity building, social networking, and inter- personal relationships. As Garrison and Kanuka (2004) pointed out, a sense of community is necessary to sustain a dynamic and meaningful educational experience over time and is a valu- able asset to promote higher level thinking and the construction of knowledge. Blattner and Fiori (2009; 2011) further argued that it is a powerful and attractive learning tool that allows synchronous and asynchronous communication and has the potential of transforming the learning of languages in several ways and redefining the connections of students and faculty in unprecedented ways. The SNC Facebook is, indeed, an environment in which Digital Native (Prensky, 2001) students can communicate with a variety of speakers and obtain information which ultimately promotes the development of communicative competence. Facebook can be used as a constructive techno- logical tool which is easily accessible and does not require educators to be trained to use them as they are probably familiar with this website. The only training that language teachers need is to use these tools appropriately and in pedagogi- cally meaningful ways to develop linguistic L2 competence of learners.
Relatively few studies have been published to date in which the pedagogical advantages (so- cial and linguisitic) of integrating Facebook in the classroom have been documented. Recently, scholars (Blattner, 2010; Blattner & Fiori, 2009; 2011, McBride, 2009) suggested that Facebook can add many positive elements to foreign language classes. In fact, McBride (2009) reiterated that this tremendously popular website was “built to
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allow people to express themselves and to interact socially with others” (p.35), which is a context language educators try to create in their classroom to facilitate language acquisition.
Multiliteracy Skills
As established earlier, becoming multiliterate is an essential skill nowadays and Gonglewski and DuBravac (2006) highlighted the fact that language instructors should view themselves as educators who should embrace and promote contemporary and popular modes of expressing and interpreting meaning in various contexts and media. For language learners, becoming familiar with electronic literacy in a new language may be a challenging but necessary task that cannot be kept outside the classroom. In fact, by making L2 learners multiliterate, language educators also en- able language learners to take advantage of emerg- ing technologies autonomously. Gonglewski and DuBravac further explained that fostering these new literacies ultimately prepare students for a suc- cessful career and life in a “technology-saturated world” (p. 46). Teaching toward literacies enable language learners to become active members of different global learning communities and use a foreign language in contemporary ways (Kasper, 2000).
The popularity of SNCs, such as Facebook, in today’s students generation brought a new societal concern and another important element of electronic literacy: privacy and safety issues. The essence of Facebook is to share personal information; however, some students reveal an enormous and inappropriate amount of personal information in cyber space, and this apparent openness to a vast network and acquaintances calls for attention (Gross & Acquisti, 2005). Students often do not know how to negotiate the boundar- ies between their public and private life. Gross and Acquisti investigated information revelation on Facebook by university students. The results showed that almost 40% of the participants listed
their phone number on their profile and more than 50% provided details about their current residence. In a more recent study focusing on disclosure behavior, Tufekci (2008) highlighted the fact that Facebook users remained oblivious to online privacy or the information they divulged. In a world where identity theft is a growing concern (Stutzman, 2006), the management and protection of identifying personal information is essential for academic institutions even though privacy threats usually result from voluntary dis- closures (Tufekci, 2008). Aside from the security aspect that cyber social networks can compro- mise, digital natives must comprehend audience management. Tufekci explained that Facebook users have to reflect on what type of information they want to reveal and to whom. Vander Veer (2008) pointed out: “Facebook’s raison d’etre is social networking; therefore, it should come as no surprise that the site can be a great help in job searches” (p. 143). She further explained that this SNC is not only utilized by college students, but its popularity has extended to adults who are job seekers and employers. Consequently, by using this SNC in the context of a classroom, allowing classmates and the instructor to access personal sites, students are forced to (re)evaluate the type of information they disclose on their usually highly-detailed profile. According to Windham (2005), students look for practical applications of their studies and, therefore, should respond positively to the fact that faculty can provide them with strategies to remain safe and to balance the benefits of using Facebook with the risk of los- ing control of some private information. In other words, educators can help students to realize the importance of the public nature of this website, as it is under such circumstances that Facebook users will further investigate the privacy settings available so that they can monitor which ‘friend’ can access certain information (such as pictures, wall postings, and so on). Students, and users in general, are not always aware that they can scale back the notifications regarding their activities.
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Facebook members can even reduce the amount of information revealed in their profile and create a limited one that is more appropriate for business or academic contact.
To summarize, by simply integrating Facebook in the language curriculum, students will develop their digital literacy by reflecting on the type and amount of information they are self-disclosing on this electronic public platform. As observed in the forum section, exposure to authentic discourse communities facilitate and cultivate students’ development of multiliteracy skills by tackling different modes of communication (formal/ informal; one to one/ one to many), but also, it prepares students to deal with global communi- cative practices and safeguards. As explained in the forum section, electronic literacies cannot be dissociated from other competencies as discussed in the following segment.
Cultural Access and Socio- Pragmatic Development
The concept of teaching culture in foreign lan- guage classes is not new; however, the traditional way of addressing this element in textbooks often lacks linguistic and social insight and focuses on iconic images, such as, customary clothing, food, or monuments that are often presented in an artificial and decontextualized classroom situation. Facebook Groups offer a wider range and less stereotypical outlook on a particular culture (Blattner, 2010; Blattner & Fiori, 2011). For instance, a group such as ‘Paris je t’aime’3 (a geography type group – not to be confused with the common interest group that revolves around the movie of the same name) where members engage in a plethora of topics, such as what people enjoy the most in the city, as well as posting videos and pictures of various Parisian attractions, which allows students to read various discussions from native speakers or people who know this city well. Different aspects of the French capital are illustrated in the following excerpt:
J-L Bouzou: Pas de lieu préféré... dans chaque arrondissement il y a toujours quelque chose qui vaut le coup d’oeil... Venir passer quelques jours et promener à pied dans Paris (le métro juste bon pour aller et revenir de la gare) permet de découvrir à chaque fois de nouvelles beautés dans les petites rues, ici et là... l’histoire est partout présente...
Côté musées... un petit/gros faible pour Orsay, l’Orangerie... le musée Guimet… Picasso (Hôtel Salé dans le Marais)… et celui du quai Branly que l’on quitte toujours à regret...
Les pique-niques au Luxembourg sur la pelouse... les déjeuners au Train Bleu... ou dans des petits bouibouis...
Paris me manque…
December 21, 2008 at 9:37am
[not a single favorite place…in each districts there is always something that is worth seeing… coming to spend a few days in Paris walking around (the metro is only good to go back and forth to the train station) allows the discovery of new beautiful sights in the small streets, here and there, history is all around…
In regards to the museums…a small/big love for Orsay, l’Orangerie, the Guinet museum…Picasso (Hotel Sale in the Marais area).. and the one of the Branly quai that we always leave with regrets…
The picnics at the Luxembourg garden on the grass… the lunches at the café Train bleu… or in other small unique cafes… I miss Paris…]
Consequently, language learners develop a better understanding of what is out there to see and experience apart from the Eiffel Tower and the Louvre which are the typical major monuments described in French textbooks. Moreover, to gain
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a real understanding of another culture, language learners must not only have an open mind about basic differences, but also reevaluate their own culture. As Kramsch (1993, 2000) explained, lan- guage learners grow distant from their own native culture and closer to the target culture; however, their view will ultimately combine both their first language (L1) and L2 experiences and knowledge and create a psychological “third space”. Accord- ing to Byram (1997), in order to construct this symbolic third space, one must develop “attitudes of curiosity and openness, readiness to suspend disbelief about other cultures and belief about one’s own” (p. 50); “critical cultural awareness/ political education” (p. 63); “knowledge of so- cial groups and their products and practices” (p. 58); and “skills of discovery and interaction” (p. 61). Foreign language textbooks provide limited opportunities for learners to practice these skills and understand the concept of culture which is much broader than what is usually presented in language classes. In addition, the peripheral ex- posure to cultural elements provided in manuals certainly restricts the development of socioprag- matic competence. Again, Facebook can be used as a complementary resource to fill this gap as illustrated in the following investigation.
In a study focusing on the development of sociopragmatic competence of Spanish learners, Blattner and Fiori (2011) showed how the Face- book Group application can be used constructively in an intermediate language culture course. It is important to note that any Facebook member can create a group which can be accessed by any user or restricted to a targeted, pre-selected audience. It appears that after completing a series of observa- tion tasks focusing on particular speech acts, such as greetings and leave-takings and vocabulary that was specific to this electronic environment, the students gained a better understanding of the type of language typically used in Facebook Groups. They noted several language variations that they had never previously encountered in the context of their classroom interactions. For instance, they pointed out that the symbol @ was used as
a means to express gender inclusivity - estimados + estimadas = estimad@s to refer to both male and female group members. They also commented about other intentional orthographic variations associated with electronic language, such as the use of syllabograms4 (Pierozak, 2003) such as k or q for que. The language learners appeared eager to discover how truncation or acronyms were utilized in an L2. In addition, they heightened their cultural understanding by visiting a variety of Groups which discussed, arts, politics and other topics related to themes discussed in parallel in their main textbook. Consequently, the learners appeared to have enhanced their communicative competence as well as their L2 electronic literacy, which are important skills to possess nowadays in order to appropriately and efficiently take part in an online exchange with other internet users. This study provided valuable insight into effective teaching techniques to aid learners’ acquisition of various elements of L2 sociopragmatics and also electronic literacies.
These studies all highlighted the versatility of the website Facebook which facilitate the awareness of cultural similarities and differences between the L1 and the L2 cultures. They also illustrated how using some applications avail- able on this SNC can enhance the development of sociopragmatic elements that are essential to language acquisition as well as new literacies skills associated with different CMCs within this platform. In other words, language learners can observe the use of the L2 through a variety of speakers in different contexts in order to better understand the appropriate discursive and inter- actional features in such Web 2.0 tools to avoid miscommunication which could hinder successful participation.
FUTURE TRENDS
The interest in Web 2.0 tools looks set to grow. As language educators increasingly look to inte- grate these free resources from the Internet, they
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will need to know how to effectively use them to enhance particular SLA learning process. More research needs to be done into the pedagogic value of forums and Facebook. Investigations focusing on the actual effectiveness of using these electronic media in terms of specific language acquisition areas (lexical, morphological and/or syntactical) are equally needed to further establish the impor- tance of these tools in foreign language curricula.
CONCLUSION
Given the recent communication developments in our society, it has become evident that educators need to adapt their pedagogical approach to foreign language teaching by incorporating some useful and versatile tools that will enhance the quality of their classrooms and potentially open the eyes of language learners on how to autonomously exploit these resources to maximize the development of their L2 abilities. The significance of this chapter is to highlight how language learners and educa- tors can both benefit from using Web 2.0 tools, such as forums and the social networking website Facebook, inside and outside a classroom context. The various studies reviewed underlined the im- portance of understanding these two electronic media as a rich locus of communication and as a source of current input for cultural and social interpretation of language use. As Blake (2008) reminded us, the number of hours typically spent in a classroom environment is far from being suf- ficient to master a foreign language. Consequently, if the goal of a learner is to become fluent in an L2, (s)he will need to explore other avenues in order to practice and learn about these linguistic norms and, nowadays, it does not necessarily imply studying abroad. The various studies reviewed in this chapter illustrated how forums and/or the SNC Facebook bring flexibility and independence into the language learning experience and also complement classroom instruction in various ways. In other words, teaching and learning no longer exclusively rely on publishers and instruc-
tors to create, organize and structure materials, but instead students become active participants of their own learning experience (Sturm et al., 2009). In addition, engaging in online communities equips students with the necessary competence and skills for bridging the gap between formal educational settings and the real world. A pedagogically sound implementation of these Web 2.0 tools allows language learners to enrich their foreign language learning experience by accessing intercultural sur- roundings of an L2 that are typically not introduced in textbooks and by developing socio-pragmatic awareness, as well as expanding multiliteracy skills related to CMC which is a necessary abil- ity in our technological era. Furthermore, as the modern language association (MLA) reported, language classes should cross boundaries to con- nect the study of language with cultural aspects as there is a need for transcultural and translingual reflection in foreign language.
Even though the pedagogical potential of discussion forums and the social networking community Facebook has been clearly estab- lished in recent years, the number of language educators in higher education taking advantage of such technology is, sadly, extremely limited (Arnold & Ducate, 2006; Arnold, 2007; Blattner, in progress). Reminding language educators of the beneficial outcomes of integrating Web 2.0 tools in their curriculum and presenting them with eas- ily implemented tasks, will hopefully positively impact this trend in the next few years.
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KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS
Community of Practice: This term comes from the notion that learning is a social practice and has been used to describe foreign language learners as they will inevitably participate in communities of practitioners where certain rules must be respected for communication to happen.
Forum: It is an electronic bulletin board where users can discuss various topics with each other, in a central fixed location. The web-based
discussion threads are very convenient as people do not have to be connected to the Internet at the same time in order to read each other’s messages. This implies that the time between a message posting and its reply is variable. They are usually organized by themes and/or topics. Some forums are moderated, which implies that one specific person can create new threads. In addition these types of forums require a more standard use of language than others which are not supervised by a moderator.
Facebook: Famous social networking com- munity which was created in 2004 by a Harvard student: M. Zuckerberg. It allows its members to connect with other users through a variety of ap- plications that can also be used in a pedagogically meaningful way in foreign language classes. By observing interactions in a second language learn- ers can understand the authentic discursive and interactional norms of Facebook. This platform can also be used to connect with native speakers of a language and create opportunities for learner to interact in a real context.
Legitimate Peripheral Participation: In the context of community of practice, language learn- ers can observe the way members of a community interact before fully participating themselves. In other words, legitimate peripheral participation is seen as a first step for newcomers to situate themselves and understand the underlying rules of the communication; for instance the discursive and interactional features that a particular com- munity uses and it is a key element leading to full participation.
Multiliteracy: In our technologically saturated society, being literate does not only imply being able to read and write, but also having knowledge of how to interact in a variety of electronic media. In other words technology users must rapidly identify the discursive and interactional norms in a particular medium in order to communicate with other users in an appropriate and expected manner.
Socio-Pragmatic Competence: Ability to recognize the effect of context on strings of lin-
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guistic events and to use language appropriately in specific social situations. In romance languages a typically difficult socio-pragmatic competence for language learners is to master the pronouns of ad- dress (i.e.: tu/vous in French, tu/usted in Spanish)
Third Space: This term refers to a psycho- logical space that learners progressively build when they become increasingly aware of the L2 culture, and develop a broader perspective and openness to different cultural elements, and in the process a more critical perspective of their own culture. When L2 learners find themselves mediating between two languages, two cultures and two worlds, they will have reached this “third place” that is essential to develop sophisticated translingual and transcultural competences.
ENDNOTES
1 http://www.myspace.com/ 2 http://www.friendster.com/ 3 http://www.facebook.com/group.php
?gid=18889003464&ref=search&s id=9351800.3542998830..1
4 A syllabogram is a single-character repre- senting a multi-letter sound, word, or subject- verb sequence which is usually associated with electronic discourse.
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Copyright © 2012, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
Chapter 9
INTRODUCTION
The issue of low completion rates has plagued doctoral programs for decades, and the issue is becoming even more important in times of eco- nomic recession as academic jobs become scarce. The Council of Graduate Schools (2010) in their seven year Ph.D. Completion Project found that
the national completion rate for doctoral students was about 57% after ten years, although this varied by discipline. Even if programs have an above average completion rate, time-to-degree may be another issue that needs to be addressed. While there are many reasons students leave doctoral programs, All But Dissertation or ABD students are of high concern. These students have
Beth Kania-Gosche Lindenwood University, USA
Using an Online Discussion Board for Peer Review of Dissertation Writing
for Ed.D. Students
ABSTRACT
To improve graduation rates in doctoral programs, the Council of Graduate Schools has recommended more supports for dissertation writing. This article describes and evaluates through action research one such support, an online discussion board where students could post drafts of their dissertation and peer review each other’s work. Results of effectiveness were mixed because of the wide spectrum of student participation. Students did not feel they had the expertise to critically read another’s work, although they liked reading the instructor’s comments to other students. Future implementation of the discussion board might be more successful if it was utilized as a support group or frequently asked questions page rather than a place for peer review or if it was utilized for excerpts from the dissertation rather than entire chapters. Faculty involved with supervising doctoral students should consider what supports are being offered and continue to evaluate their effectiveness.
DOI: 10.4018/978-1-61350-068-2.ch009
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Using an Online Discussion Board for Peer Review of Dissertation Writing for Ed.D. Students
completed all coursework but not the dissertation. Dissertation writing is often a lonely, frustrating time for doctoral students, and students who fail to complete their dissertation are often just as qualified as those whose degrees were conferred (Lovitts & Nelson, 2000).
Dissertation writing can be just as challeng- ing for the faculty supervisors. The relationship between dissertation chair and student is criti- cal. Dissertation supervision may be overlooked in faculty workloads, and little professional development is dedicated to this area, although it is just as important as teaching. Spillett and Moisiewicz (2004) outlined the four roles of a dissertation chair: cheerleading, coach, counselor, and critic. Faculty may be more comfortable in one of these roles than in the others, or faculty simply may not have the time to dedicate to each student individually. Students cannot rely only on their dissertation chair or committee, however, especially in departments where the dissertation supervision load is high. Students need the social interaction that they experienced during course- work. The deadlines, incentives, and feedback embedded in coursework are also important to the dissertation writing process (Garcia, Malott, & Brethower, 1988).
Although much of the literature on disserta- tion completion considers Ph.D. students, this study focuses on Doctorate of Education (Ed.D.) students. While much literature has debated the difference between the two groups, in this context the Ed.D. students consisted mainly of school dis- trict administrators who were obtaining the degree for certification. This group of students is often older with other responsibilities such as family and full time employment, making dissertation writing even more challenging (Willis, Inman, & Valenti, 2010). Often years or even decades have passed since completion of these students’ previous graduate degrees, which are often geared toward practice rather than research. The sheer volume of the dissertation and the many “hoops” that are required are intimidating for doctoral stu-
dents, even those who run entire school districts. Regardless of the discipline or type of degree, the dissertation is still the major stumbling block for most doctoral students.
Dissertation writing support groups are often recommended, both in journal articles discussed later in this chapter and dissertation advice books (e.g. Cone & Foster, 2006). “Reading someone else’s work and offering suggestions helps you think about writing, and the critiques of your papers will help you identify common problems” (Willis, et al., 2010, p. 331). Many of the specific program interventions from the Council of Gradu- ate School’s (2010) Ph.D. Completion Project center around peer interaction and workshops where writing is shared. Since more and more doctoral students are working adults who have returned to school, rather than “traditional” doc- toral students who have attended school full time continuously, physically meeting with a group of fellow students may be difficult. The online discussion board format is ideal for this situation and could perhaps supplement or even replace the face to face writing group. Discussion boards for doctoral students have existed for years online, offering informal support from across the country or even the world. PhinisheD is one example that has flourished for over ten years. Levine (2007) believed that “the online discussion board provides a unique potential that is not automatically present in a face-to-face situation” (p. 67). The discussion board allows students time to process and compose a response, rather than the immediacy required of a face-to-face discussion. All can participate in an online discussion, while some students elect not to participate in a verbal, classroom discussion. In theory, the discussion board would provide an ideal place for students to read each other’s work. This article will evaluate, through an action research approach, if this practice was beneficial for the students.
I utilized a discussion board in the dissertation writing course that I taught for Ed.D. students at my own university. Rather than only using the
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discussion board for moral support or as a ques- tion and answer forum as many websites do, I wanted students to use the discussion board to read the work of others and comment on strengths and weaknesses. This would give students time to read and comment on each other’s work at their convenience, rather than in class. Almost all online course platforms offer some version of the discussion board, and access is limited to students in the class and the instructor. As the instructor of a dissertation writing course, I drew on my own background teaching high school English, where peer review and writer’s workshop are common approaches to teaching writing. For example, Warnock (2009) in his book Teaching Writing Online dedicated an entire chapter to peer review.
While the course I taught met face to face weekly, the discussion board and other aspects of the course such as assignment submission were online. All documents from the course, includ- ing handouts, power points, journal articles, and sample chapters were all available online. In this way, I was able to utilize the Web 2.0 technologies available while still maintaining the regular meet- ing times and face-to-face discussion of a face to face course. Although this particular course was for Ed.D. students, I believe it could be adapted for almost any discipline, as the struggles of dis- sertation writing are almost universal. The plethora of dissertation advice books on the market are evidence that doctoral students are hungry for any scrap of advice they can use. As a recent Ph.D. recipient, the experience of writing a dissertation was fresh in my mind when developing the course.
I implemented the discussion board for one semester with 37 Ed.D. students. In this chapter, I will outline the literature I drew upon to design this aspect of the course and discuss the implementa- tion of the discussion board. I will review my data collection methods and the results I found after analysis. Analysis of the data showed that the on- line discussion board benefited different students in different ways, and some, not at all. Finally, I suggest recommendations for future implementa-
tion of the discussion board or similar tools in my course and in other programs and institutions. This article offers one practical intervention doctoral programs could implement in line with the rec- ommendations of the Ph.D. Completion Project (Council of Graduate Schools, 2010).
LITERATURE REVIEW
While researchers have conducted many studies analyzing discussion board postings, little has combined this literature with the research on best practices in supporting dissertation completion. In addition the Ed.D. students in my study quali- fied as adult learners, since many of them worked full time while writing their dissertations. Thus, even literature on traditional Ph.D. students was not necessarily generalizable to the population in this study. One of the difficulties in evaluat- ing any changes to doctoral programs is that “personal experiences in obtaining their Ph.Ds provide the primary lens through which they as- sess doctoral education,” Nyquist and Woodard (2000, p. 5) wrote after interviewing hundreds of stakeholders for the Re-evisioning the Ph.D. report. In addition, the perceived divide between the Ph.D. in education and the Ed.D. creates an additional controversy. In this literature review, I will briefly describe other research that described or evaluated dissertation writing groups, online or face to face. I will also briefly discuss relevant literature related to online discussion boards that I used when developing the course. However, first, I will examine the theoretical framework upon which I designed the Dissertation Writing course.
The theoretical framework I used in design- ing my course was that advocated by Liechty, Liao, and Schull (2009) in their literature review of dissertation completion: Vygotsky’s social development theory. I often referred to the Dis- sertation Writing course I taught as “scaffolding” the doctoral students. I differentiated the course by offering workshops on varying topics and al-
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lowing the students to choose which workshops met their needs, theoretically helping students to expand their zone of current development into their zone of proximal development. “A men- tor or more skilled peer demonstrates, explains, listens to questions, encourages, and offers just enough guidance—but not more—to encourage independence” (Liechty, et al., 2009, p. 483). The online discussion board was intended to be the peer aspect of social development theory. Levine (2007) also wrote of the constructivist nature of the online discussion board and, if implemented properly, the community that can be created online.
Depending on the structure of the doctoral program, support can be built into the program, as Burnett (1999) did in the collaborative cohort model, used in Australia. Members of this cohort met regularly to report progress and read each other’s work, after “receiving training from the faculty member in editing and providing criti- cal feedback on academic documents” (p. 48). Consistent with Mullen’s (2007) writing group, described next, the faculty member facilitator was not the dissertation supervisor for the students in the cohort.
In an article titled “Confessions of a disser- tation supervisor,” Mullen (2007) described a writing group for educational leadership doctoral students she called “Writers in Training.” She created a creed with specific rules for the group to follow, including coming prepared by reading the work of others and assessing the group yearly. The author was not the dissertation supervisor for these students, which was similar to my own situ- ation. In this article, the author described how the group worked and the struggles and successes she encountered when running the group. Commit- ment to the group was an issue as was competition among members, although most students felt the experience was valuable, specifically the regular meetings to keep them accountable.
Evans (1996) described another educational leadership support group from the perspective of a student rather than faculty member. The students
collaborated on the purpose of the group and wrote “articles of understanding” which included commitment to the group until graduation and the principles of “patience, endurance, and celebra- tion” (p. 10). These students shared drafts of IRB applications, surveys, and chapters. Evans wrote, “The cumulative knowledge gained from observ- ing how others navigated through the dissertation process was truly invaluable toward streamlining one’s own concerted efforts” (p. 4). Students in this group also practiced their dissertation defense presentations for the group, an assignment I imi- tated in the Dissertation Writing course.
All of these support groups functioned face-to- face, and I found little research on online support groups geared toward dissertation completion, perhaps because they often exist outside institu- tional boundaries. While a great deal of research has been conducted on using online discussion boards in coursework, much of it is focused on the undergraduate level. Dennen (2005) described nine different online instructors (one graduate, the others undergraduate) and their use of the online discussion board. One instructor required peer review perhaps because it was a writing course, and two others suggested the activity.
Assessment of discussion was not as much of an issue [in the writing instructor’s class], in part because the discussion was so heavily tied in with the other course assignments. It was difficult to separate discussion from other course activities, since pre-writing and peer feedback assignments all required discussion. (Dennen, 2005, p. 140)
The nine instructors in this study had varying participation in the online discussion board; if the instructor posted too much, peer interaction was limited, but if the instructor did not post enough, the students felt he or she was not paying attention to the discussion board.
From the student perspective, Fung (2004) investigated why students do not participate in a course online discussion board in graduate
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education courses in Hong Kong. As the author noted, “while researchers have reported numer- ous benefits in online group learning, these are by no means easy to achieve as one cannot assume all learners will participate actively in online discussion” (p. 137). Lack of time or preference to complete course reading rather than participate in the discussion board were the main reasons students indicated they did not participate.
I read extensively before developing the dis- cussion board for the course, and these are only a few of the articles I used. I also drew on my own experiences teaching writing to high schools students, undergraduates, and graduate students. This was only one of the supports that I helped initiate in my program in line with the recommen- dations of the Ph.D. Completion Project (Council of Graduate Schools, 2010).
IMPLEMENTATION AND DATA COLLECTION
I taught what my doctoral program termed “Dis- sertation Writing,” the last official course doctoral students completed. Students enrolled in Disser- tation Writing had passed comprehensive exams and were expected to have a draft of Ch. 1-3 as the minimum requirements for the prerequisite course in which students wrote a draft of their proposal. Unfortunately, one of the negatives to embedding dissertation writing into coursework is that students often wrote only the minimum requirements and did not continue to write between semesters when they were not held accountable. Unlike some other Ed.D. programs, the one where I worked did not utilize a cohort structure.
Students received an “incomplete” grade in the Dissertation Writing course until they had completed all graduation requirements, or, in other words, officially turned in their dissertations for binding to the library. Rarely did students finish
their dissertations in the semester they took this course. Almost every student went on to enroll in the zero hour course required to fulfill the continuous enrollment policy of the doctoral program. Records indicated that a little less than half of the students who enrolled in the zero hour course had graduated in the three year history of the doctoral program, consistent with national estimates of doctoral student attrition.
On the first night of class in Spring 2010, I introduced the 37 enrolled students to the online discussion board. The course location was in a computer lab, so students were able to log in and practice posting. Each student chose a partner, and for many of them, this was someone sitting in close proximity, despite my encouragement to find someone with a similar topic or at a similar place in the process. I provided students with dates for submitting feedback on their partner’s Chapters 1, 2, and 3 (the introduction, literature review, and methodology chapters of their disserta- tion). Chapter 1 feedback was due the third week of class, Chapter 2 the fifth week, and Chapter 3 the seventh week. These deadlines were set around the workshops for these corresponding chapters, so students could attend the literature review workshop before commenting on their partner’s chapter two. Students were responsible for establishing deadlines for posting their docu- ment so their partner had sufficient time to read and provide feedback. All three support groups in the literature review required students to report on their progress regularly; I designed the discus- sion board where students would have to show progress by posting their chapters. Students were encouraged to post their Chapter 4 and 5, but this was not an official course assignment since not all students had collected data at that point in the semester. Since no grades were assigned, student participation was voluntary, although I assured them during face-to-face meetings that
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the discussion board was designed to support them in their writing.
For the first chapter, I gave students a structure for submitting their feedback. “Discussion partici- pation will not just happen on its own. Learners look to the instructor to shapre their interactions” (Dennen, 2005, p. 128). I also knew from my experience teaching writing in other contexts that peer review needed some sort of structure, especially the first time. My instructions included the following:
Give a general reaction to your writing partner’s Chapter One. Please choose at least five of the ten prompts to answer in your peer feedback (Table 1). Make any other constructive feedback comments that you feel are appropriate. Focus on organization and content in your discussion board post, although you may comment or make changes on the document for grammar issues you notice. Often students revise this chapter after they have completed their study, so consider this when making comments.
I also posted an anonymous discussion thread for questions. I wanted students to feel comfort- able asking questions they may not want to ar- ticulate during class. This thread was completely
optional, since it was anonymous. Later in the semester, I also added a few additional threads asking for feedback on the discussion board and asking what support students would need in the summer. I also posted two of my own conference proposals so students could have a model for their own proposal submission and become familiar with the process.
Throughout the semester, the other course in- structor and I read the discussion board regularly. We posted when we had a response or praise for a specific student; however, we did not respond to each and every message. While at least one of us left general feedback on each student’s writing, we mostly affirmed their partner’s comments as appropriate or answered any questions. Since our feedback on student’s writing was often quite detailed, we sent this by email instead.
After the course had ended, I saved all records from the discussion board, including the contents of all posts as well as usage statistics for each individual student. I also held focus groups with students at the end of the course, so I could gauge their reaction to the discussion board and obtain recommendations for its usage in the future. The an anonymous thread on the discussion board also elicited recommendations for future imple- mentation.
Table 1. Chapter one peer review prompts
Ten Possible Chapter One Peer Review Prompts
I think the answer to your research question will be...
Your definitions of terms list is too (long/short). I recommend (deleting/adding) these words...
Your first paragraph doesn’t grab my attention. It would be more interesting if you...
I’m not sure from this chapter what your study will actually do or find. Some specifics about... would help.
Your conclusion or summary is weak. The most important point of this chapter is... You should also include a sentence about...
The (first, second, etc.) paragraph on page... doesn’t seem to fit with the others. Maybe you should move it to...
I think you could take the paragraph on page... and turn it into a list or table rather than writing about it in the text. This would be better for the reader because...
I want to know more about... (one of the authors or references). Give more context for the quotation or citation that you give.
I disagree with this sentence (copy and paste sentence and list page number) because...
I think you should remove this quotation (copy and paste quotation here) on page... because...
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RESULTS
One of the challenges of the online discussion board was the amount of in class time I dedicated to instruction on its use. Students indicated that while they might receive help logging in from the university Help Desk, they did not receive much support in completing tasks within Blackboard, such as adding attachments to the discussion board. The average age in my class was 47, and few professors in the doctoral program utilized the Blackboard course platform beyond posting handouts. I also had to dedicate time in class to discussing how to use the comments and track changes features of Microsoft Word. While these features of Microsoft Word are useful to a doctoral student, especially if faculty utilize them for feed- back, using the Blackboard discussion board is not a skill that would enhance dissertation writing.
Student activity on the discussion board ranged from nothing to reading hundreds of messages. In total, the class logged over 130 hours of time on the discussion board. While the descriptive data tells only how many posts students opened, not necessarily how many they actually read, I was surprised how many students assured me in class that they read almost everything that was posted. Table 2 gives a frequency count for number of posts read, with a mean of 191 and a median of 160. Yet, most students posted only a few times, as demonstrated in Table 3.
This reinforces the qualitative data that students felt they did not have the expertise to comment on another’s work, although they indicated they learned from my comments and from just looking
at others’ work. Students did appreciate, how- ever, the ability to post an anonymous question and have the instructors or other students answer it. In fact, a few students began posting their own recommended websites to help with issues such as passive voice.
Students often indicated in the text of their posted draft or in the discussion thread what their issues were with that chapter. For example, one student wrote at the end of one of her chapters, “I have absolutely no idea what to write in the sum- mary of this chapter. There is so much information included here that it doesn’t seem possible to write a summary without it being unreasonably long and kind of confusing…HELP!” This student did not receive any advice from her partner, although I offered a response. This was an example where my response to this individual student would benefit almost anyone in the course.
For the first chapter, many students responded to my prompts in the text of the discussion post, and only a few made notations in the actual docu- ment. These comments were more focused on organization and content, as I intended. However,
Table 2. Number of posts read by students
Number of Posts Read Number of Students (N=37)
Less than 20 8
20-100 8
101-250 8
More than 250 13
Table 3. Number of posts made by students
Number of Posts Made Number of Students (N=37)
0 5
3 3
4 5
5 5
6 3
7 2
8 2
9 3
10 1
11 2
12 1
13 3
14 1
25 1
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for the second and third chapters, most students chose to only respond using comments from Mi- crosoft Word, although some of them left general comments on the discussion board such as “See attached document for my comments. Overall I think this looks great but it needs a little polish- ing.” These comments almost exclusively focused on APA style or correction of grammar, perhaps because they did not have the structure of the prompts I provided for the first chapter. Students indicated both online and in face-to-face discus- sions that they disliked the prompts; therefore, I left the peer review open for the second and third chapters.
Students were focused in their comments, and I only had one instance where a student was dismissive of another’s comments about her work, pointing out the typos in the discussion post. I stepped in and wrote on the discussion board how her comments were inappropriate since the other student obviously spent time reading her paper. I mentioned how students would receive feedback from many different sources and that they did not necessarily have to take all of that feedback although they should be respectful and grateful if someone else took the time to read their work. The student responded on the discussion board that she did not realize her comments could be interpreted as rude or disrespectful, and we had a face-to-face conversation about her frustrations. This student had never before participated in an online discussion board or blog. I chose to post my comments on the discussion board so that all students in the class would see that respect was important both face-to-face and online.
I also created a discussion board thread for students to post their Institutional Review Board applications if they had been approved, similar to Evans (1996). This provided a model for stu- dents who were still struggling to overcome this hurdle. I posted my own IRB application for this research study as well. Students who had not yet obtained IRB approval began to post as well, but their peers did not offer feedback on these docu-
ments. Students indicated they appreciated the availability of these and other documents on the website so they could access them as they needed them. This saved me the trouble of making paper copies and distributing them in class, especially if I was unsure if all students needed the document or would even look at it.
In the anonymous discussion board thread evaluating the discussion board, one student wrote, “Getting feedback even if it is not directed towards your work as helped me examine what I am doing and look at common mistakes. I liked the postings however I do not feel I truly benefited from the system because my partner rarely responded which made me choose to read other posts for feedback.” Some students also had technical issues upload- ing files to the discussion board or downloading files from their partner. A few students indicated they resorted to printouts and handwritten edits with their partner.
At the time of this writing, one year after the course ended, ten of the students from this course have defended their dissertations. Six of them were peer review partners, and they attri- bute some of their success to each other. All of them were active participants on the discussion board, and regularly provided feedback to their partners. While their success cannot be attributed to the discussion board or the Dissertation Writing course as a whole, I believe these interventions led the students to be more satisfied with their dissertation writing experience since the expec- tations were made clear. This remains a subject for future longitudinal study, however, since the sample is, at present, so small.
In conclusion, students spent a great deal of time reading the discussion posts but not con- tributing themselves. While this may have been valuable for them, it was not my original intent. My desire was to create an online community where students would support and encourage each other when writing the dissertation by providing feedback. However, since this was only one ele- ment of a course that also met face to face (see
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Using an Online Discussion Board for Peer Review of Dissertation Writing for Ed.D. Students
Kania-Gosche, 2010 for more details about the design of the course), some of these goals may have been met, just not by the online component.
DISCUSSION
As the instructor of a graduate level research course in the summer of 2009, I had experienced great success with peer review using an online discus- sion board. Students indicated they enjoyed this format more than face-to-face revisions, since they could take as much time as they needed to read other’s work. The fall semester of 2009, I taught a small section of the Dissertation Writing course with only four students in which I utilized the discussion board for peer review. Again, students gave positive feedback and indicated how much they enjoyed reading each other’s work. However, the large class size, wide variance of student writ- ing ability, and variability in progression toward completion may have contributed to the peer review discussion board’s uneven effectiveness in the Spring of 2010. Most other research on dissertation writing groups focused on a sample of ten or fewer; perhaps this is a more optimal size for this type of group.
I should have been clearer about the purpose of the discussion board and created ground rules with the class of students on the first night. Much of my face-to-face instruction was on the technical aspects of the discussion board, and I left the mechanism of feedback up to the student pairs after the first chapter. A creation of a group document such as those mentioned by Mullen (2006) and Evans (1996) might have led to more student ownership in the process. The expectations would be clearer to the students if they had a hand in creating them. This is true for any proposed intervention intended to support students in dis- sertation writing. Students should have a hand in developing the expectations.
The low percentage of postings but high per- centage of students who read the postings was
consistent with Fung’s (2004) findings; however, this may be because I partnered students. Some students indicated they thought they were only supposed to comment on their partner’s work. Others believed they could learn from the com- ments of others, but they did not have time to read through entire chapters to provide their own feedback. Students who read the discussion board regularly indicated they almost always read the posts of the professors in the hope of applying the feedback to their own writing.
When grouping students, I should have first assessed students’ writing to determine their zone of current development, following the advice of Liechty, Liao, and Schull (2009). Unfortunately, with 37 students I was not able to read their work before the class started, and instead, I relied on their self-assessment of their work, which was not always accurate. While I always copied the students’ chair on any dissertation feedback and sent an introductory email, I should have asked the chair to assess the student’s strengths and weak- nesses rather than relying solely on the students’ self-assessments.
The peer review was most effective for the first chapter of the dissertation for several reasons. First, I gave students a structure for the feedback as shown in Table 1, although students indicated at the time that they did not like this structure. Second, this chapter is intended to provide the background necessary for understanding the study. Thus, students did not need any special- ized knowledge of research methodology or the research topic to provide feedback. Students were struggling to develop their own methodology and use the appropriate vocabulary, and so they struggled to provide feedback on someone else’s methodology chapter.
The literature review was the most difficult chapter for students to peer review, unless they were writing on a similar topic as their partner. This chapter is often quite lengthy, and students had little motivation or time to read extensively on a topic that did not pertain to their own study.
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Most feedback on this chapter consisted of citation or quotation rules rather than content. No students posted a draft of their results or discussion chap- ters, which was optional and not required like the first three chapters. However, Evans (1996) also noted that students became less involved in the support group during the writing of these final two chapters.
From the instructor perspective, one benefit to the discussion board was that I could easily note misconceptions students held and correct them. I tried to redirect any student feedback that gave incorrect information. Additionally, I could note any reoccurring weaknesses that I observed in multiple student papers. Rather than posting to each student individually, I could direct students with similar issues to one of my earlier posts to a different student or documents on the website that I felt would benefit them.
One of the most interesting aspects of this study is that students had no grade motivating them to complete the assignments. All students received a grade of Incomplete until their dissertation was complete. This may explain why some students did not read over their discussion posts for typos or post according to my deadlines. Those students who did not contribute may not have felt the peer review activity would benefit them. Students’ activity on the course website was consistent with their activity in the face-to-face aspects of the course. Those who did not participate online often did not attend or were not engaged in the workshops offered on campus.
FUTURE TRENDS
Due to the results of this study and my institution’s transition to a new course management platform, I did not utilize the peer review discussion board in the dissertation writing course in the Fall of 2010. I plan to implement it again with sweeping changes in the Spring of 2011, based on data from this study and my continuing review of literature.
At the time of this writing, I am investigating op- tions for creating a discussion board that could be utilized by groups of doctoral students and monitored by myself or another faculty member. This would create a mechanism for an online sup- port group, not just a place for peer review. One thread could be utilized as an anonymous, safe place to ask questions for the faculty monitor or other students to answer. Next time I will involve the students more in the purpose and organization of the online discussion board, including some written document of ground rules and purpose.
Tying the discussion board to the face-to-face meetings of the course was important. Students were able to ask questions outside of class meet- ings, and I was able to respond to one student’s question in a place where the entire class could read the response. This is more efficient than email, where I may receive several messages asking the same question throughout the semester. The discussion board would be even more effective if all Ed.D. faculty would participate, not just the official instructors of the course, but most faculty have an overwhelming workload without adding the burden of reading a blog or discussion board. Perhaps students would prefer a “safe” place where only their peers could read with no interference from any faculty members.
Future implementation of the discussion board in this course will include posting of excerpts rather than entire chapters, especially sections where I often see weakness, such as the problem statement or limitations section. According to Fung (2004, p. 145), “it may be better to pose questions, or assign tasks, which are more focused, requir- ing shorter answers, and which can be handled easily by the students.” I could leave the posting of entire chapters as a voluntary activity or just require posting of the first chapter, since that seemed to be the most successful. In the Sum- mer of 2010, faculty in the School of Education and other disciplines met and created a rubric for Ed.D. dissertation proposals. I hope to use this in future implementation of the discussion board, so
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students can provide constructive feedback on content rather than surface level errors.
Students preferred separate threads for each chapter, rather than continuously responding back and forth to one thread. They felt overwhelmed when reading through all of the posts, and most of them did not realize the advanced features available such as sorting by author or date. I am investigating the use of an online discussion board that is easily searchable or other online formats such as blogs. Another option would be to divide students into small groups, each with a dedicated discussion board, and perhaps a blog for the entire class. I could even make participa- tion in the discussion board optional; requiring two students to commit to each other and cre- ate their own deadlines for posting and writing feedback. Future implementation should focus on supporting students rather than having them review entire chapters from other students. Using the data from this study and information from the literature, I will continue to revise the use of the online discussion board to facilitate dissertation writing more effectively in the future.
CONCLUSION
While well intentioned, the online discussion board did not fulfill the original intent of supporting students in dissertation completion. For some, the discussion board posts were another assignment, something else to distract them from dissertation writing. While other students felt they benefited from reading my posts, they did not feel the peer review aspect was helpful since most students did not feel they had the knowledge and experi- ence necessary to provide effective feedback. Students most enjoyed the ability to ask questions anonymously and post information they found that would help others.
As Heathcott (2007) wrote in a description of the modifications one doctoral program made, “the task of reorganizing doctoral training is a
process of absorbing the literature and retooling the practices it describes to fit our departments, institutions, and disciplines” (p. 48). I envisioned my entire Dissertation Writing course as a scaffold for the students, with the discussion board as one component. In another program, these supports may not be appropriate. Faculty in every doctoral program should examine both quantitative and qualitative data related to degree completion to determine best practices for each program’s context. The social aspect of learning cannot be overlooked, and students should not be writing their dissertations in isolation. I hope the read- ers of this article consider implementing their own supports for doctoral students writing their dissertations. While the online discussion board may not be appropriate, faculty must continue to develop and study any support systems offered.
REFERENCES
Burnett, P. C. (1999). The supervision of doctoral dissertations using a collaborative cohort model. Counselor Education and Supervision, 39, 46–52.
Cone, J. D., & Foster, S. L. (2006). Dissertations and theses from start to finish (2nd ed.). Wash- ington, DC: American Psychological Association.
Council of Graduate Schools. (2010). PhD completion and attrition: Policies and procedures to promote student success. Washington, DC: Council of Graduate Schools.
Dennen, V. P. (2005). From message post- ing to learning dialogues: Factors affecting learner participation in asynchronous discus- sion. Distance Education, 26(1), 127–148.. doi:10.1080/01587910500081376
Evans, T. (1996). From A.B.D. status to Ed.D: A successful dissertation support group. Retrieved from ERIC database (ED 405 530). Kalamazoo, MI: Western Michigan University.
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Fung, Y. H. (2004). Collaborative online learning: Interaction patterns and limiting factors. Open Learning, 19(2), 136–149.. doi:10.1080/0268051042000224743
Garcia, M., Malott, R., & Brethower, D. (1988). A system of thesis and dissertation supervision: Helping graduate students succeed. Teaching of Psychology, 15(4), 186-191.
Heathcott, J. (2007). Blueprints, tools, and the real- ity before us: Improving doctoral education in the humanities. Change, 39(5), 46–51. doi:10.3200/ CHNG.39.5.46-51
Kania-Gosche, B. (2010). Using the principles of adult learning to facilitate dissertation comple- tion. Midwest Research to Practice in Adult, Continuing, and Extension Education Conference Proceedings, 29, (pp. 129-134). Retrieved from https:// www.msu.edu/ ~mwr2p/
Levine, S. J. (2007). The online discussion board. New Directions for Adult and Continuing Educa- tion, 113, 67–74..doi:10.1002/ace.248
Liechty, J., Liao, M., & Schull, C. (2009). Facili- tating dissertation completion and success among doctoral students in social work. Journal of Social Work Education, 45(3), 481-497.
Lovitts, B. E., & Nelson, C. (2000). The hid- den crisis in graduate education: Attrition from PhD programs. Academe, 86(6), 44–50. doi:10.2307/40251951
Mullen, C. (2006). Best writing practices for graduate students: Reducing the discomfort of the blank screen. The Connexions Project. Retrieved from http:// cnx.org/ content/ m14054/ 1.2/
National Writing Project & Nagin. C. (2006). Be- cause writing matters: Improving student writing in our schools. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
Nyquist, J. D., & Woodford, B. J. (2000). Re- envisioning the PhD. Retrieved from http:// www.grad.washington.edu/ envision/ project_re- sources/ concerns.html
Phinished. (2010). Homepage. Retrieved from http:// www.phinished.org/
Spillett, M. A., & Moisiewicz, K. A. (2004). Cheerleader, coach, counselor, critic: Support and challenge roles of the dissertation adviser. College Student Journal, 38(2), 246-256.
Warnock, S. (2009). Teaching writing online: How and why. Urbana, IL: National Council of Teachers of English.
Willis, J., Inman, D., & Valenti, R. (2010). Completing a professional practice dissertation. Charlotte, NC: Information Age Publishing.
KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS
Dissertation Committee Chair: Also referred to as dissertation supervisor in some literature. The dissertation chair coordinates the doctoral student’s committee and often has the final ap- proval for the dissertation document. While re- sponsibilities vary by institution and program, the chair works closely with the student throughout the research and writing of the dissertation.
Online Discussion Board: An asynchronous form of posting messages or attachments on a course website. These messages may be viewed by the entire class or small groups of students. Most online course platforms have some version of an online discussion board, and many free versions are also available. In an online or hybrid course, the instructor is the discussion board facilitator and may participate by posting messages (War- nock, 2009).
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Peer Review: “A classroom technique de- signed to help the student develop editing skills and a sense of authentic audience. The teacher first models a process of supportive critique that sets the tone for positive and useful comments. Students then read and review one another’s work in pairs or groups.” (NWP & Nagin, 2006, p. 27)
Ph.D. Completion Project: “In response to growing national concern about high levels of attrition from doctoral programs, the Council of Graduate Schools (CGS) launched the Ph.D. Completion Project in 2004 to examine and docu- ment attrition and completion patterns at a variety
of universities, to encourage graduate schools and universities to develop and model intervention projects designed to both improve completion rates and reduce attrition, and to study and validate the impacts of these interventions on Ph.D. Comple- tion” (Council of Graduate Schools, 2010, p. 1).
Social Development Theory: Also known as social development theory. Learning does not occur in isolation; ideally, a teacher, mentor, or peer aids the learner in expanding his or her zone of current development into the zone of proximal development (Liechty, et al., 2009).
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Copyright © 2012, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
Chapter 10
DOI: 10.4018/978-1-61350-068-2.ch010
INTRODUCTION
“The only constant is change.” Heraclitus, 500 BC
Change is a constant variable in today’s lives. It is inevitable, so it makes sense to face changing issues and deal with them explicitly and effec- tively rather than respond to them in an unplanned manner. While it can be said that some change is cyclical, the focus of most educational change theory is on evolutionary change. In the fields of adult education and counseling, change is a
central concept and necessity for personal and professional development, and undergirds orga- nizational improvement.
Change occurs at several levels within any system: the individual, a group, and the system as a whole. At each level, internal or external factors can drive change (although internal factors are usually responses to outside factors). Change can be viewed in terms of the changer and the entity being changed. The theories of change can be approached in several ways: change theory (defin- ing change), the change in terms of the process
Lesley Farmer California State University, USA
Change Process
ABSTRACT
Change occurs at several levels within any system: the individual, a group, and the system as a whole. At each level, internal or external factors can drive change (although internal factors are usually responses to outside factors). Change can be viewed in terms of the changer and the entity being changed. The theories of change can be approached in several ways: change theory (defining change), the change in terms of the process itself (what occurs), change agency (catalyst for change), and change manage- ment. This chapter provides representative studies on the change process as it relates to leadership in education and counseling.
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itself (what occurs), change agency (catalyst for change), and change management. This chapter provides representative studies on the change process as it relates to leadership in education and counseling.
BACKGROUND
Schwatz and Ewald, 1968 defined changed as “a never ending process of readjustment and read- aptation, as man responds behaviorally to ever changing circumstances” (p. 454). They further asserted that change may be internal, within a culture, or external, originating from outside a culture.
Hohn (1998) posted four types of changes:
1. Exception: a specific change that is an excep- tion to the rule of one’s knowledge or belief system
2. Incremental: change that happens so gradu- ally that the individual is not aware of it
3. Pendulum: change to results in extreme exchanges of view points
4. Paradigm: fundamental rethinking of prem- ises and assumptions.
Change is usually precipitated by the action of a change agent, followed by a reaction by the targeted population. If change occurs, it is integrated. Several factors are instrumental in change. At its most basic level, as one encounters information that conflicts with one’s existing knowledge base, the potential for change exists. As the environment changes, one needs to adapt and change either oneself or that environment. On a social level, conflict between different groups often lead to change, be they institutionally-based, community-based, or more broadly construed. On a societal level, certainly economic and techno- logical change drives social change.
Bennis, Benne and Chin (1985) asserted that people change based on self interest. When change is communicated rationally, and supported through incentives, people are more likely to change. People are also social beings who follow cultural expectations, so when change is based on reinterpreting existing cultural norms and values to achieve superordinate goals, people are more likely to commit to the new forms of that culture. Cultural change levers include communication, demonstration, degree of consistency, structural flexibility, people orientation, and empowerment, People are also apt to change under the exercise of author or coercion, although they may revert to their prior behavior once such power wanes.
Ely (1999) focused on the conditions that should exist or be created in the environment in order to facilitate change. Those catalysts include:
1. Dissatisfaction with the status quo 2. Sufficient knowledge and skills in order to
accomplish the change 3. Availability of resources 4. Availability of time 5. Rewards or incentives to engage people to
change 6. Participation in decision-making 7. Commitment to change 8. Leadership of expectations, commitment,
and support.
In counterpoint, resistance to change is also a reality. Leaders and other educators need to iden- tify possible negative reactions s they can know how to deal with them. Furthermore, resistance to change may be an indicator that the change effort is off course. When resistance is encountered, that occasion may be considered a learning op- portunity to rethink the reasons for change and the strategies being used to affect change, and to root out the reasons for resistance (Ellsworth, 2000). Zaltman and Duncan (1977) provided the most thorough examination of resistance factors.
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In terms of social barriers to change, noting how individuals act as members of a social system, they identified five related barriers: group solidar- ity, rejection of outsiders, conformity to norms, conflict, and group introspection. Organizational barriers were also delineated: threat to power and influence, organizational structure, behavior of top-level administrators, climate for change in the organization, and technological barriers. The researchers separated out cultural barriers to change, those traditions and values conflicting with the change; specific barriers include cultural values and beliefs, cultural ethnocentrism, saving face, and incompatibility of a cultural trait with change. A fourth set of barriers exist: individual’s psychological ones: perception, homeostasis, con- formity and commitment, and personality factors. In fairness, resistance can reflect the contention that an outsider, such as a change agent, would not understand a person or group’s inner work- ings and so might wrongly diagnose problems or suggest unsuitable solutions; alternatively, a system might be very divisive, which would hinder change. In response, change agents should explore the normative underpinnings of the entity in order to meet its expressed needs; furthermore, change agents should encourage participatory decision-making processes.
Change Process Theories
Change process theories and models may be cat- egorized as inevitable or planned, developmental as reflected in the life cycle, political or strategic, and conceptual. This chapter will focus on planned and conceptual approaches.
Most change process theories are based on Kurt Lewin’s 1936 three-stage change model: freezing, movement, freezing. The idea is that the status quo or equilibrium is the current stage. Something happens that causes disequilibrium or movement, and then interventions help the system re-achieve equilibrium or new status quo. The driving forces are change agents (positive forces) that overcome
resistance (negative forces). Lewin suggested that removing counter forces within individuals was more effective than applying outside pressure, although he also asserted that it is easier to change individuals as part of a group rather than change them separately because group norms provide peer pressure to change and can provide positive reinforcement for change.
Edgar Schein (1987) added strategies to Lewin’s model. For instance, to create motivation and readiness to “unfreeze,” he suggested creat- ing guilt or anxiety, causing discomfirmation of current stasis, and providing psychological safety to support change. At stage two, change occurs through cognitive structuring that helps individu- als to evaluate and react differently based on a new point of view obtained through identifying with a new role model and gathering information. In refreezing, where the individual integrated the change, self-concept and positive relations need to be associated with the change.
Prochaska and DiClemente’s 1986 transtheo- retical stages of change model posits six stages of change, each having unique characteristics and ways to transition to the next stage.
1. Pre-contemplation. The person is not considering change. He or she should be encouraged to self-explore and re-evaluate their current behavior. The person might need to validate their lack of readiness to change. Consciousness is awakened.
2. Contemplation. The person is ambivalent about change. He or she needs to identify the pros and cons of behavior, and consider new expectations about the possible outcomes of change.
3. Preparation. The person has some experi- ence with change, testing the waters. A change agent can help them identify social support, help them identify and overcome obstacles, and encourage small steps for immediate success.
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4. Action. The person practices new behavior for 3-6 months. He or she should combat feelings of loss, look for support, and focus on long-term benefits.
5. Maintenance. The person is committed to sustaining the new behavior. He or she should feel comfortable discussing about ways to cope with possible relapse, and internally reinforce sustained effort.
6. Relapse. The person resumes old behavior. He or she should identify triggers for relapse, reassess motivation and barriers, and plan stronger coping strategies.
John Fisher’s 2005 model of change focuses on individual’s reactions to change. At the early stages, people use cognitive, affective, and evalua- tive processes. As they move to maintenance, they relay more on conditioning and environmental factors. Based on Kubler-Ross’s model of grief and loss, Fisher’s transitional stages include:
1. Anxiety and denial 2. Happiness 3. Fear 4. Threat 5. Guilt and disillusionment 6. Depression and hostility 7. Gradual acceptance 8. Moving forward.
A several points, the person undergoing change may choose not to accept change: at the point of happiness where one may deny the change, at the point of guilt where one my feel disillusionment, and at the point of depression where one may feel hostility.
Neil Weinstein’s 1988 Precaution Adoption Process Model identifies seven stages from lack of awareness to maintenance. This researcher pointed out several factors that are often overlooked: costs and benefits over time, the role of cues to action, competing life demands, and ways that decisions veer from rational intent.
Social Aspects of Change
As described by Stephen Robbins (2003), social cognitive theory asserts that behavior change is affected by the behavior’s attributes, personal factors, and environmental influences. Behavior itself is a result of consequences, which individuals assess in terms of possible benefits. Individuals also have to decide if they are capable of perform- ing the targeted behavior. Change agents can help individual’s sense of self-efficacy by providing clear instructions, modeling the behavior, provid- ing opportunities for practice, and reinforcing changed behavior.
Philosopher Karl Popper (1979) asserted that the change process was evolutionary. Change occurred as a result of successful adjustments in response to feedback. He also thought that change was socially contextualized in that an individual could not develop or change independent of the influence of others. Likewise, change as experi- enced by individuals would impact institutions and organizations as knowledge progressed.
Psychologist Albert Bandura’s early research examined how people model their own behavior on those behaviors observed in other people as a way to facilitate change through adopting new competences and creating emotional pro- clivities. Bandura then developed the principle of triadic reciprocality, which examines causal relations between personal behavior and events with environmental factors. In his 1986 book on social cognitive theory, Bandura stated that self-efficacy beliefs helped individuals plan and optimize personal change; he found humans to be self-organizing and self-regulating; indeed, people are producers as well as products of their environment. The social aspect of the theory refers to the social original of thought and action, and the cognitive aspect of the theory reflects how the mind impacts affect and action.
Likewise, Icek Ajzen’s 1991 theory of planned behavior asserts that a person’s intention to per- form a changed behavior is largely determined by:
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1) that person’s attitude abut the behavior in terms of the outcomes and value of those outcomes; and 2) the influence of the person’s social environment and its norms in terms of social expectations and the person’s own motivation to comply. The theory also recognizes the impact of an individual’s per- ceived control about the opportunities, resources, and skills needed to perform the new behavior.
System Change Theories
Certainly, individual change impacts associated groups to some degree. However, groups provide a means to “up the ante” for change; individuals can contribute to change, and the power of the group as a whole can influence decisions about change. The whole can truly be greater than the sum of its parts. The concept of system-based change reflects a broader-based foundation for change, and treats groups as integral identities.
A group is basically a collection of interacting individuals who share some commonality, such as “the class of 2014,” and usually a common goal or purpose, such as graduating in 2014. That commonality is such that non-members can be identified as lacking that quality: insiders versus outsiders. Members of the group communicate among themselves as individuals and have unique roles, but they tend to communicate with outsid- ers as a group.
Groups are usually measured along two dimen- sions: task and social; are they goal-oriented with supporting activities, and do they like each other and want to socialized with each other? Groups experience different degrees of cohesiveness and depth, and change over time. Typically, the longer a group exists, the more stable and substantial it becomes. However, if the group’s tasks are pro forma, and the social aspects are not kept lively, the group may become a structural skeleton without substance, and die.
An organization may be considered as a large and complex group, and it can also be thought of an open system that deals with its environment, taking in and transforming resources based on as-
sessment and feedback process. An organization includes several goals and several groups, each of which may differ and all of which are interde- pendent (Schein, 1970). Within an organization, several levels of behaviors – and opportunities for change – occur: individual, group, and organiza- tional. Change within the smaller groups can be tolerated, and organizational-level changes can be difficult to perceive. Nevertheless, the influence of the organization as a whole is significant because a number of entities together leverage change.
It may be asserted that organizations do not change, but individuals do.
While positive change can result in added status and better environment, educational organiza- tions tend to resist change because it threatens the existing structure of power and influence, and because it tends to redistribute limited re- sources. The timing may be poor, leadership may be weak, and individuals may feel personal loss. Leaders have to help the organization overcome these fears by personally building pressure for change, lowering resistance, and redirecting human forces. Both task and social aspects of change must be addressed: people must first be aware of their current status and potentiality for change, be interested in changing, evaluate and try to change, and only then adopt the change. Thorough planning, even planning to compensate for a negative change such as budget reduction, is vital for organizational success.
Ronald Havelock’s 1973 change theory is based on Lewin’s, but he focused more on man- aging change, which acknowledges resistance to change. In his theory, for instance, a person reacts to a disturbance (i.e., change), with the result of being either satisfied or dissatisfied; in some cases the person is resisting change, and in other cases the person self-changes to accom- modate the external change. He also delineated three major orientations to innovation adoption: internal problem solving, social interaction, and research-based development and diffusion. His six-step process follows.
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1. Relationship. A relationship is established with a system in need of change.
2. Diagnosis. The system or subject of change decides whether change it needed and worth doing.
3. Resource acquisition for change. The need for change is understood, and information is gathered to develop solutions.
4. Pathway selection. Different options for change are evaluated, and one solution is chosen and implemented.
5. Acceptance of change. Change is established and accepted, with attention paid to resisters.
6. Maintenance and separation. Change is the new norm and is self-sustaining.
Havelock thought that systems often do not see their own need for change, so that an identified change agent may be needed. Havelock was also quick to point out that a system might relapse so that change would not last.
The Burke-Litwin model of organizational change (1992) focuses on cause-and-effect rela- tionships within organizations, and links perfor- mance to internal and extern factors that affect such performance. They posited that organizational change was largely driven by outside factors, which would motivate key individuals within the organization. To this end, Burke and Litwin identified twelve dimensions of organizational change that need to be considered.
1. External environment. The organization needs to identify those factors which clearly impact them.
2. Mission and strategy. Top management’s vision needs to be examined in light of employees’ perceptions.
3. Leadership. The leadership structure and chief role models need to be identified.
4. Organizational culture. The organization’s culture needs to be examined in terms of rules, customs, norms, principles, and values.
5. Structure. The control, responsibility, author- ity, decision-making and communication structure between people need to be studied.
6. Systems. Policies and procedures about people and operations need to be examined.
7. Management practices. To what degree do managers conform to organizational strate- gies when dealing with human and material resources?
8. Work unit climate. How do employees think and feel about each other, and what do they expect?
9. Tasks and skills. Each job’s demands and skill set need to be analyzed in terms of the tasks themselves, and in terms of their match with each employee.
10. Individual values and needs. Each em- ployee’s opinion about their work needs to be examined in light of job satisfaction and enrichment.
11. Motivation level. What motivates employees, particularly in terms of putting effort into implementing change?
12. Individual and overall performance. Performance needs to be evaluated in terms of productivity, quality, cost-effectiveness, customer satisfaction, and so on.
The key players in organizational change need to prepare for change, manage the change process, and find a way to sustain that change over time.
John Kotter (1996) posited an eight-step pro- cess to lead change processes:
1. Create urgency. This step requires leader- ship and honest discussion about threats and opportunities.
2. Form a powerful coalition by identifying key players.
3. Create a vision for change and a strategy to achieve it.
4. Communicate the vision, and model the change.
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5. Overcome obstacles. 6. Create short-term wins to provide early suc-
cess that can motivate further change. 7. Build on change, making adjustments as
needed. Anchor change in the organiza- tion’s culture, publicly recognizing models of change.
Will McWhinney (1992) examined leadership and complex situations of organizational change. He perceived planning for change as problem solving, based on the detection of existing condi- tions that need to be changed in order to achieve a desired outcome. He posited two paths to solutions: revitalization from the top down, and renaissance through open systems planning. McWhinney identified six basic modes of change:
1. Analytic, based on testing ideas against gathered data
2. Participative, by developing a shared value through data analysis
3. Imperative, based on a leader’s authority to act on behalf of the organization
4. Emergent, by facilitating social interaction to formulate fresh ideas
5. Inventive, based on a new idea that is not tied down by social values
6. Influential, based on group acceptance of new values that are imposed or group-grown.
Nadler (1998) recognized the influence of an organization’s subunits, and asserted that optimal change and resultant performance when the entire system was aligned and congruent. Nadler’s five stage of discontinuous change follow.
1. Diagnosis. Systems need to evaluate the external environment and its impact on the organization.
2. Preparation. Systems must identify what internal adjustments need to be made to take advantage of external changes and minimize possible threats. At this point, a shared vi-
sion needs to be communicated to the entire organization, and a plan for continuous communication needs to be established.
3. Implementation of change. Unity of the subdivisions should be a major strategy. This action may require restructuring, aligning strategy and culture, and matching people with tasks.
4. Consolidation. Progress to change needs to be monitored and assessed in order to optimize successes.
5. Sustaining change. The changed organiza- tion be stabilized, with coherent, reinforced policies and reward systems into the new norm.
Recent discussions about systems and change have led to studies about complex adaptive sys- tems, which are special cases of complex systems. Their complexity arises from their dynamic and interactive networks, and their adaptability is couched in experience-based changes of individu- als and groups within the system. Usually such complex systems consist of loosely coupled enti- ties, such that control is decentralized. Coherence emerges from cooperation among the entities, although the systems’ future direction may be unpredictable (Holland, 1999).
School Change Design Models
While a one-to-one approach can work over time, rather like eating an elephant one bite at a time, to insure sustained and systematic change, the gen- eral school culture should support this initiative. In addition, several elements need to be in place:
• willingness to change • group participation with the intent to im-
prove education by changing it • collaboration among those who are respon-
sible for improving education • self-reflective and self-evaluative commu-
nities of learning
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• internalized theory and practice • accountability in terms of documenting
plans, actions, data analysis, and changes.
In sum, for meaningful change to occur, people must see an overriding need to improve instruction and effective learning. Not only should be find a common motivation and common vocabulary to leverage change for improvement, but they should also be aware of its costs in time and effort because change redistributes resources and influence.
Reigeluth, Carr-Chellman, Beabout and Wat- son (2006) compared school system transforma- tion change models, concluding that key leadership and school readiness were necessary for successful change in all the models; less apparent was the locus of power: either top decision-makers such as administrators or a strong user group.
In terms of change design approaches, they compared idealized (Banathy, 1992) and emergent design approaches (Reigeluth, 2006), the former built on the concept of an ideal future regardless of the current status, and the latter built on the concept of leveraging concrete improvements to develop an emergent overall systemic change. The elements of the idealized change model are: 1) a seminal breakthrough idea that begins from the perspective of a societal context, 2) the principle of participation in which the process is more important than the plan itself, 3) the principle of continuity in which planning and implementation occur in parallel and inform each other; and 4) the principle of holism in which all units at the same level should work interdependently. The process goes from ideal to concrete. Ackoff (1979) iden- tified a five-step process for implementing such idealized design: 1) examining the organization and setting systematically, 2) creating an idealized vision and determining what changes are needed to achieve the vision, 3) planning resources needed to achieve the vision, 4) planning organizational and management structures, and 5) designing the implementation and control.
In contrast, an emergent design approach to change begins with key stakeholders developing system-wide ideal beliefs. A system leadership team then develops a broad strategy with support capacity. Next, broad stakeholder involvement concretizes the beliefs and decides on high- leverage structural changes. They can then plan and implement initial changes, which then force other changes.
Change Agents
Some theories of change focus on the role and responsibility of the change agent rather than on the change itself. Generally, adults have to be motivated to make an effort to change, to learn. A change agent is a person or group with techni- cal expertise and human relation skill who can facilitate change through a helping relationship (Houle, 1972). Leaders and other educators can rightly be called change agents because they can serve as catalysts for learning. Not only do they design instruction to optimize learning, but they also try to help learners contextualize their learning and incorporate into their daily lives. In effect, leaders and educators try to provide the conditions for effective and sustainable change on the part of their clientele.
Expanding on Lewin’s change theory, Lippitt, Watson and Westley (1958) posited a seven-step process during which information is constantly exchanged.
1. Diagnose the problem. 2. Assess motivation and capacity for change. 3. Assess the change agent’s commitment and
resources for change. 4. Choose progressive change objects as part
of the action plan. 5. Clarify the change agent’s role so that all
participants in the change process understand the role.
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6. Maintain the change through communication and coordination.
7. Gradually terminate the change agent’s role.
Part of Havelock’s 1973 theory of change fo- cuses on the role of the change agent. He posted four main ways that a person can act in that role:
1. As a catalyst or trouble maker whose efforts stir up change
2. As a solution giver 3. As a resource linker, be it financial, material,
human, or knowledge-based 4. As a process helper who can recognize
and define needs, diagnose problems, set objectives, acquire needed resources, help implement solutions, and evaluate solution success.
Havelock emphasized the need for change agents to gather relevant information by inquiring and listening to clientele, observing and measur- ing systems outputs, and then reflecting on that data in order to diagnose the existing situation and determining how best to facilitate change. He and Zlotolow (1995) identified stage-specific activities for change agents to help their clientele progress from one stage to the next.
1. The agent stimulates the client to become aware, which leads to
2. Client interest, which is then piqued by the agent informing the client, which leads to
3. The agent demonstrating the new behavior so that the client can evaluate it before trial, which leads to
4. The agent training the client, who then tries the new behavior, which leads to
5. The agent helping the client, who is then read to adopt the change, which leads to
6. The agent nurturing the change so that the client can integrate it.
In his review of educational change models, Ellsworth (2000) codified the change agent’s process as follows:
1. The change agent wants to communicate an innovation to an intended adopter.
2. The innovation is made possible using a change process, which establishes a channel through the changed environment.
3. The innovation should explicitly focus on changing one part of the system rather than the entire enterprise since change brings about disequilibrium. Thus, the system needs to be examined in light of its elements: its purpose, its membership, its governance structure, its processes, its resources. What assumptions can be made about the system -- and its links to elements outside the system?
4. The change agent should identify the sys- tem’s needs. Which elements will facilitate change? Environmental elements may also resist the innovation, and disrupt or distort the change process. Some elements may want the status quo, so they need to understand how the innovation will benefit them – or, at least, not negatively impact them. Traditional beliefs may be threatened, so those fears need to be allayed – or the switch to the innova- tion needs to be worth relinquishing those past values. In some cases, a lack of skills or knowledge might hinder the adoption of the innovation, so attention needs to be paid to educate the members. In other cases, a simple lack of confidence in the innovation may hinder acceptance of the innovation; the change agent needs to convince enough of the members that the innovation will work and can be sustained. In each case, people are exhibiting a different stage of concern. The change agent needs to address each stage differently; what is important for one is inef- fective for another stage. Thus, for people who know nothing about the innovation, a demonstration or handout will provide ob-
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jective information. For those who are not convinced about the innovation, testimonials and sharing of evidence-based research may be compelling. For those who lack the skill, hands-on training with a small transfer of learning may help them take advantage of the innovation.
5. The change agent and supporters need to unify change tactics systemically in order to improve the changes for effective, lasting change. Thus, the different approaches need to be orchestrated so they do not appear to be disparate. With innovation comes orga- nizational change, which requires continued implementation by a substantial number of all those affected. There are many reasons for change to fail, for an innovation not to be sustained, so momentum and ongoing sup- port is imperative. In effect, not changing, or resisting the change, needs to be considered more of disequilibrium than going along with the change.
Once the innovation becomes the norm for a preponderance of the major stakeholders, then it has a greater likelihood of being institutionalized. The innovation has become the new status quo; the system has reached a new equilibrium.
CURRENT ISSUES
Adult Education
Adults bring a vast set of experiences, expecta- tions, and belief system to any encounter that could possible result in change. Just as with a long-term stable organization, adults are more resistant to change than young people. At the same time, adults have a mature understanding of the social aspects of change, and recognize the power of culture to affect change.
Reflective learning is a powerful way to conceptualize change, and acknowledges adults’
valued experiences. In discussing teacher change, Richardson (1998) grounded the change process in reflection; teacher self-assess their goals and be- liefs as they test possible changes in their practice. Schoen’s (1987) focused on reflection in action: having individuals recapture their experiences, think about them, and evaluate them in order to learn from them.
Major change can be transformative, tran- scending factual knowledge gains to encounter and deal with whole new ways of thinking. For example, Mezirow (1991) focused on strategies to help adults deeper their critical thinking ques- tioning assumptions and re-evaluating long held premises, such as guided inquiry and the posing of disorienting dilemmas that help people become more accepting of new ideas.
Adult change can also be political in nature. Paulo Friere’s (2000) constructivist-based change model has as its intent transformative change through learner-based meaning and conscientiza- tion, whereby adult become more aware of their socio-cultural reality and their ability to transform it. More generally, the growing recognition of contextualized or situated learning points to the socio-cultural aspects of planning that are needed in order to affect change (Tisdell, Hanley, & Taylor, 2000). For example, with the recent emphasis on hegenomy and critical theory, teaching for critical consciousness has become more prevalent. Some- times the change agent may have an underlying agenda as they ask individuals to critically view their existing value systems, either to confront subconscious prejudices or to empower people to take political action.
In her 2000 review of adult education practices in the change process, Susan Imel addressed the role of adult educators as change agents. She recommended paying attention to the context of change, being prepared to pro-actively initiate the change process, building in a call to action, and attending to different kinds of learning and follow-up support.
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Technology
Technology has been a major driving force in change, so not surprisingly, several change process models focus on adoption of innovation by stages. While adults exhibit varying degrees of comfort with learning, they tend to display overarching attitudes about new knowledge integration as a guiding principle. Typically, each person pro- gresses through each stage but may take different amounts of time to transition from one stage to another, depending on the nature of information or situation. As change agents, leaders and other educators should conduct ongoing needs assess- ment to determine the stage of relevant learners and design activities accordingly. This process can result in differentiated instruction to fit the needs of each group of potential participants. In this manner, those individuals further along the process can engage in activities when they need it. However, if a major educational initiative is being started at a site, educators would do well to develop learning experiences that progress along those same stages in order to maximize participa- tion and integration.
Building on Lewin’s theory, Everett Rogers (1962) created a five-stage theory that focused on the diffusion of innovation. The theory’s stages for change consisted of: awareness, interest, evaluation, implementation, and adoption. Rogers posited that within any organization, individuals would differ in the timing and pacing of their adoption of change. He asserted that within any social system change would begin slowly, then would experience rapid change, and then end in slow change as the source of change matured or new innovations would emerge. This pattern results in an S-curve; it should be noted that dis- ruptive technologies may radically change the diffusion patterns for established technologies by starting a different competing S-curve. In terms of the organization, Rogers identified five groups of adopters:
1. Innovators, the first 2.5 percent, who are educated risk-takers who appreciate inno- vation and want to be change agents within their group
2. Early adopters, the next 13.5% who are vi- sionary social leaders who see a competitive edge in adopting innovation
3. Early majority, the next third, who are mo- tivated by evolutionary change and want to move with the group as a whole
4. Late majority, the next third, who may be skeptical and tradition, but want to stay even with the rest of the group
5. Laggards, the last sixth, who want to main- tain the status quo and do not believe that the innovation will benefit the group.
Rogers’ theory is widely used in describing technology adaptation.
Fred Davis (1989) contributed the idea that individuals’ perception about technology impacts its use. Specifically, a person’s perception about a technology’s ease of use (which is tied to self- efficacy) and its usefulness largely predicted its adoption.
Gene Hall (1979) proposed a concerns-based approach to facilitating change in teachers, which focused on the adoptees’ developmental perspec- tive. He identified three components in the model: stages of concern, levels of use, and innovation configuration. These stages depend on individual characteristics (developing from personal issue to concerns about student implementation) and in- novation characteristics (developing from non-use to transformation). Nevertheless, his model has an underlying assumption that a change agent is needed to help adoptees transition to the next stage. Specifically, Hall asserted that educators need to modify instruction to align with each person’s stage of concern. Interestingly, this model aligns well with Bloom’s Affective Domain taxonomy of: Receiving, Responding, Valuing, Organization, and Value Complex (1964). Such an approach works best for homogeneous groups, obviously.
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However, when educators are sensitive to their learners’ varying stages, they can try to include ideas and activities that may be addressed at different levels. Hall’s model is used widely, so his stages are discussed in detail here, noting the role of leaders and other educators at each stage.
1. Awareness. Learners start from a point of ignorance: no knowledge of a situation or mental set. Leaders first need to let people realize that something is happening; they have to get the learners’ attention. A super- visor may make a comment in a corporate meeting that gets the employee’s attention; a human resource development officer might contact employees about retooling training as a follow-up memo.
2. Information (Receiving). Learners receive information, but they do not have to give any feedback; this step constitutes one-way communication. Leaders start by giving objective information through documents, telecommunications, or presentations. A new set of nursing standards might be explained; an online database might be introduced.
3. Personal (Responding). Learners then react; communication is now two-way. Usually, learners respond in a personal manner, so adult educators need to help them feel com- fortable. Leaders can optimize learning at this stage by showing the immediate benefits of the new information for the learner. As much as possible, adult educators should provide just-in-time training based on learn- ers’ perceived needs. A gradebook software program might resonate for the disorganized teacher; e-mail “broadcasting” might help an administrator; PowerPoint presentations might enliven a sales presentation. Often at this stage, learners focus on a learning tool rather than on educational content outcome. At this stage, also, learners need to know that support is available: coaching, manuals, Web tutorials, etc.
4. Management: Learners try to fit new in- formation into their practice at this stage. The more that instructors can help learners identify appropriate application of the new information within their present practice, the more likely that learners will take related intellectual risks and value that information. Some activities at this point might include: reviewing workflow, developing a Web page, or developing an exercise regime.
5. Consequence (Valuing): Learners may question the return on their investment of time and effort at this stage. They fine-tune their use of new information, embracing it when it results in significant adult learning or it increases their own productivity, and abandoning it if it does not improve their lives. Leaders should applaud this critical analysis and suggest alternative strategies when appropriate. For instance, a database might be a more robust way to keep track of insurance policies than a spreadsheet because files can be sorted and merged; a current practice might be more useful than a new one if the client is uncomfortable with technology.
6. Collaboration (Organization): Learners want to optimize new information integra- tion at this stage, and they may work with others to leverage impact. Leaders should encourage learners to support each other and share best practices through establishing networks that foster communities of practice. Examples of activities at this stage include: program reviews, department Web pages, and repositories.
7. Re-focus (Value Complex): At this stage, learners become pro-active experts who work to sustain and institutionalize change for the entire organization. They become instructors and engage in efforts such as strategic planning and policy development.
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Marsha Gladhart (2001) examined the role of student, teacher and the technology itself in her Levels of Adoption model. She posited five stages of computer integration by teachers:
1. Entry: awareness of potential use 2. Adoption: learning how to integrate
technology 3. Adaptation: applying technology 4. Appropriation: familiarity and confidence
integrating technology 5. Invention: adapting technology to new
contexts.
Rogers and Shoemaker (1971) also focused on diffusion of innovation, and identified five questions about innovation characteristics that potential adopters consider when making deci- sions about accepting the change.
1. What are the relative advantages to accept- ing the innovation?
2. How compatible is the innovation to one’s lifestyle?
3. How complex is the innovation; is one com- petent to use it?
4. Can the innovation be tested on a limited basis?
5. How observable is the innovation and its effects?
In terms of the decision-making process itself, Rogers and Shoemaker stated that four steps are involved.
1. Acquiring conceptual and procedural knowledge
2. Forming attitudes 3. Making a decision, which may involve trying
out the change 4. Confirmation of the decision, which also
seeks reinforcement for the decision made.
Lamble and Seaman (1994) researched types of innovation decisions. They asserted that deci- sions reflect a continuum of responsibility, from largely individual to little individual authority, with optional decisions made independently, collective decisions and decision by authority in between. Contingent decisions consist of a sequence of two or more decisions, which may depend on one another.
Building on Rogers and Galdhart, Cheri Toledo (2005) developed a five-stage adoption model that explicitly targets higher education. Her stages are as follows.
1. Pre-integration. Faculty seldom use tech- nology. University leaders need to support integration organizationally and fiscally.
2. Transition. Faculty show interest in technol- ogy integration. External pressures drive change. Administrative support increases.
3. Development. Administration acquires tech- nical resources and offers training to help faculty infuse technology.
4. Expansion. Faculty deepen relationships with support staff, and experiment with new technologies. Administration continues to provide needed resources.
5. Systemwide integration. A systematic ap- proach is used to develop and support inte- gration throughout programs.
Venkatech and his colleagues (2003) reviewed several innovation models to develop a united theory of accept and use of technology. They contended that change is a complex social and developmental process; adoption must consider cognitive, affective and contextual dimensions. The model includes four determinants of use and four moderators of individual use behaviors. The determinants consist of:
1. Performance expectancy: how technology will help carry out a function
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2. Effort expectancy: how easy the technology is to use
3. Social influence: the degree of social pres- sure to use the technology
4. Facilitating conditions: the degree to which the organization supports the technology
The individual moderators include gender, age, experience, willingness to use.
FUTURE TRENDS
Technology will continue to impact change pro- cesses, not just because of technical advances but more fundamentally because of its impact on global and cyber space.
Both in terms of transportation as well as enhanced communications channels, cultures come into contact more often and more deeply. Furthermore, economic globalization has resulted in international education and workforces. As people of varying experiences and expectations learn and work together by necessity, they will encounter change more often and more quickly, and will need to exhibit more cognitive – and af- fective – flexibility. At the system level, change process will need to be scalable to engage larger entities then ever before – and with more ac- tive participants because of web 2.0 interactive capabilities.
As resources become scarcer and societies become more interdependent, the ecological as- pects of change are becoming more important. Not only does change need to continue toe sustained, but the entire complex social system needs to be supported by a sustainable ecological environ- ment. The assumption of an open-ended universe may need to be reconsidered as parameters are set to constrain change that may destabilize the environment.
One may also consider the potentiality of cyber change. Change can occur uniquely in virtual worlds, possibly with little overlap in
physical environments. How seriously should people consider such changes? How might those two universes intersect in terms of change and its impact?
Perhaps more insidiously, change now occurs on the micro or nano level, unperceivable at the level of most humans. Machines can make adjust- ments and self-corrections based on intelligent automated agents. At what point do such changes impact humans? What control beyond that of technicians do humans have over such changes?
Learning systems are changing. Self-managed learning tools and planning reinforce adult learner control. Knowledge management systems enable learning communities to pool their knowledge and generate new ideas for the improvement of the entire enterprise. Collective intelligence is chipping away at the central role of the instructor. Instead, the educator is assuming the role of an orchestrator, setting up the conditions for learning by establishing an effective learning environ- ment and monitoring participants and available resources. This paradigm shift in learning will impact the change process, particularly in terms of the change agent’s role.
CONCLUSION
In order to lead effectively, educators and counsel- ors need to understand change and its processes. They need to define their own roles within the change process, particularly as change agents and managers of change.
As this chapter has revealed through a review of the literacy on change, many theories and models exist to capture the essence of change and its processes. It is perhaps most useful to think about change processes in terms of interactions between internal and external factors, which result in negotiated modifications on one or two sides. This dynamic interplay exists at all levels: psychological interaction with an external idea introduced in a book, individual accommodation
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as part of a job function, school reform, culture clashes, international trade regulations. In each case, change can be viewed from the perspective of the change agent, the adopter, and the system in which change occurs. In facilitating change, several conditions need to be considered:
1. Readiness for change 2. Knowledge of the current situation 3. Vision and perception of the change 4. Resources and support capacity to support
change 5. Leadership and commitment to change 6. Cognitive and affective factors impacting
the change process 7. Reinforcement and incentives for change 8. Factors to insure sustainability and
integration.
In any case, change involves ongoing inter- action, assessment, and decision-making. It is a dynamic and complex set of processes that are interdependent, even if at the unconscious level, and can never be completely controlled. Even the decision not to change is likely to evoke change as some other point within the system. Furthermore, as change becomes the new normal, it sets up the conditions for other changes. The more that the nature of change is understood, however, the more effectively educators and counselors can manage and leverage change in order to facilitate adult development.
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KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS
Affective (Domain): Emotions and their outward expression.
Change: A never ending process of readjust- ment and readaptation, as man responds behavior- ally to ever changing circumstances.
Change Agent: A person or group with tech- nical expertise and human relation skill who can facilitate change through a helping relationship.
Critical Theory: Examination and critique of society and culture, usually referring to a school of thought that combines psychoanalysis and Marxism.
Culture: Customary beliefs, social forms, and material traits of a racial, religious, or social group; set of shared attitudes, values, goals, and practices that characterizes an institution or organization.
Incentive: Something, such as fear of punish- ment or expectation of reward, that induces action or motivates effort.
Reflection: Intentional consideration. Self-Efficacy: Belief in one’s own ability to
perform a task. Technology Diffusion: The state in which
technology spreads to general use and application. Transformative Change: Change that tran-
scends factual knowledge gains to encounter and deal with whole new ways of thinking.
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Copyright © 2012, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
Chapter 11
INTRODUCTION
With buzzwords such as the “21st century digital economy” and “going global” floating throughout the media outlets, businesses and organizations reassess traditional means of preparing trainees for
challenges in this digital age. From communication to providing services, technology has reshaped the business landscape. Traditional means of training are no longer satisfactory nor as effective or efficient when preparing organizations to do business in the current economy. To make train- ing truly effective, businesses and organizations must utilize technology in providing training, but
Ernest W. Brewer University of Tennessee, USA
Stephen D. Stockton University of Tennessee, USA
Tammi M. Basile University of Tennessee, USA
Using Technology in Providing Effective Training
ABSTRACT
The key to an organization’s abilities to provide effective training in the 21st century is by infusing technology into their training programs. Before technology infusion can occur, there must be a clear understanding of the dynamics of learning with technology and of the instructional culture of the orga- nization. Developers of effective training programs infuse technology based on four phases—develop- ment, integration, implementation, and evaluation. The development phase involves the analysis of the organization, the creation of training goals and objectives, and the design of the training program. The integration phase determines the organization’s technology levels and allows developers and trainers to expedite training methods suitable for particular needs. The implementation phase consists of the actual delivery of the training. The evaluation phase is ongoing through formative evaluation, and it ends with a summative evaluation. Future trends of technology in training show promising models for effective individualized training in virtual environments.
DOI: 10.4018/978-1-61350-068-2.ch011
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Using Technology in Providing Effective Training
technology infusion into a training program is not a simple matter. It requires an understanding of the role of technology in the learning process and the importance of instructional technology culture of the organization. With this proper under- standing, business leaders, designers, developers and trainers can then infuse technology into the training program by going through the phases of development, integration, implementation, and evaluation outlined in this chapter.
Background of Effective Training
What is effective training? Multiple definitions for effective training exist. Some definitions could be as simple as teaching the trainee to master certain content. Others can include assisting with the removal of gaps or deficiencies in reaching specific organizational learning goals. For this discussion, effective training meets the needs of the organization, motivates the trainee, and uti- lizes the appropriate delivery system. Effective training is cost-efficient, knowledge building, and becomes a long-term asset by increasing the overall productivity and efficiency of an organiza- tion or agency (Machin, 2002). Most importantly, effective training provides positive outcomes for the organization.
Dynamics of Trainer, Trainee, Content, and Technology
Prior to developing a training program using tech- nology, it is important to understand the role of technology in terms of the dynamics of the trainer, trainee, and the content. A full discourse about this topic would require an entire book to explore different views, perspectives, and the impact it has on the learning process. For the purposes of this chapter, there are three main components: (1) the trainer, (2) the trainee, and (3) the content (Brewer, Dejong, & Stout, 2001). Much of the discussion centers on the importance of each component and the utilization of delivery methods.
With the induction of technology and on-line learning, some pundits have touted that it would revolutionize the learning process by eliminating traditional methods for instruction and training (Siegler, 2010; Bonk, 2010; Knobel & Wilber, 2009). Similarly, claims like these have been around since the days of the advent of motion pictures and recording machines (Oppenheimer, 2003). Experts of that day pronounced new tech- nologies were the gateways to revolutionizing education and training. The reality is that new technologies provided and supported additional methods to assist the learning process. Today, pundits say on-line training will supplant tradi- tional classroom training environments, but, as history has shown, today’s technology provides more avenues of support and additional methods of training to accomplish the organization’s train- ing objectives.
Fundamentally, technology is a tool to aid and support the learning process. Technology adds value by providing support to the dynam- ics of trainer, trainee, and content. Research on computer-assisted instruction shows that there are positive effects beyond simple traditional instruc- tion (Blok, Oostdam, Otter, & Overmaat, 2002; Torgerson & Elbourne, 2002). Also, computer use for instruction typically supports existing teach- ing styles (Cuban, Kirkpatrick, & Peck, 2001). Understanding that technology is a support tool allows trainers to avoid adding technology to train- ing just for the sake of technology. Instead, best practices of technology inclusion concentrates on finding the best training delivery system to assist in meeting the learning objectives. For example, just because on-line training is the most recent innovative instructional advancement does not mean that trainers should incorporate it into their particular training situation. Training developers need to ask questions, such as “Does the tech- nology support the learning process?” or “Are learners better served by another method?” With the proper perspective about technology in the
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learning process, trainers can avoid the pitfalls of adding technology for technology’s sake.
Content-Focused Versus Learner-Focused Instruction
Trainers need to address another key aspect of training, the differences between content-focused and learner-focused instruction. Researchers point out that computers are a simple medium for tra- ditional content tasks such as drill and practice, word processing, and searching for information (Ertmer, 2005; Sandholtz, Ringstaff, & Dwyer, 1997). Researchers also suggest that the computer has enormous potential as a cognitive tool to sup- port a constructivist or learner-based approach. (Richardson, 2003; LaJoie, 2000). Some profes- sionals could speculate that all instruction focuses on both─the content and the learner. However, when discussing training using technology, the difference is where the emphasis is placed. The best way to visualize this idea is by placing instructional concepts on a continual spectrum with content- focused instruction on one end and learner-focused instruction on the other as shown in Figure 1. The highest priority for the delivery of information to the learner is on the content-focused end of the spectrum utilizing delivery methods such as drill and practice. Training participants are required to memorize needed content and provide specific answers for real world problems. On the other end of the spectrum, learner-focused instruction would place the highest priority on higher-level think- ing and knowledge development by the trainee. The trainee would drive the training process and provide analytic results for real-world problems.
Instructional Technology Culture
Training processes do not occur in vacuums. It is essential to understand the importance of an organization’s instructional technology culture. Technology culture encompasses attitudes and beliefs of the people within the organization towards technology and helps to define aspects of the utilization of technology in the training environment. Familiarity and previous exposure to technology influences technology culture. Re- search has shown that technology-related training influences worker’s attitudes towards computers (Becker, Ravitz, & Wong, 1999). The level of comfort using technology can also affect the at- titudes and beliefs in an organization.
Over the years, there has been much discussion about the technology adaptability of the digital native as compared to the digital immigrant. The “digital native” is a term coined by Prensky (2001), which means a person who has grown up with technology in almost every aspect of their life, and therefore, is highly comfortable with it and can adapt to technology changes easily. Generally, the digital native is from the younger generation. The “digital immigrant” is a person who has not grown up in a technological world but attempts to adapt and learn the rules of the technology culture. Often times, this term focuses on the older generation who encounter new technology with adaptation, which is often more difficult and slower.
The terms digital native and digital immigrant may appear, at first, simply as a generational divide, but there could be cases where a person from a younger generation without exposure to technology is a digital immigrant. Even though
Figure 1. The content-focused versus learner-focused instruction spectrum
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there still may be discussion on who exactly is a digital native or digital immigrant, the concept is important when considering implementing technology in a training program.
Questions to ask before training development begins are “What is the comfort level towards technology of the people participating in the training?” and “Is the overall technology culture favorable to technology?” If the technology cul- ture of the organization is favorable to technology then the organization will have an easier time integrating it into training programs. If there is not a favorable culture, the learning participants of the organization could become resistant to ac- cepting learning delivery utilizing technology and the trainer from implementing technology within the training environment.
Technology Infusion into a Training Program
For this discussion, infusing technology into a training program is divided into the following four phases. As shown in Figure 2, they are: (1) Development Phase, (2) Integration Phase, (3) Implementation Phase, and (4) Evaluation Phase. An important characteristic of the different phases is the implication of a chronologically ordered set of distinct steps. However, this does not necessi- tate exclusivity or sequential order. Nevertheless,
they do provide a good framework in developing a training program.
Development Phase
The most vital step to implementing technology into a training program is the development phase, which lays the groundwork for a solid implemen- tation process. The development phase has three important parts—analysis, goals or objectives, and design.
Analysis of Current Organization Status
The first step in the development phase is the analysis of the current technology status of the organization. Stone and Koskinen (2002) suggests a mistake to avoid is choosing a method of train- ing before thoroughly analyzing the needs of the organization and the participants. For example, choosing web-based training as the method of training may seem like a practical model for training. However, questions that need answers are “Will it meet the needs of the participants?” and “Will it help fulfill the goals and objectives?” The organization’s training analysis indicates which technology, whether it is no technology, online training, or video conferencing, would best deliver content in the particular training situation. Other facets of the organization that need thorough
Figure 2. Four phases of implementing technology into training
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analysis include technical aspects, costs, benefits, and effectiveness (Stone & Koskinen). Table 1 provides questions to ask when analyzing an organization for a technology-training program.
Determine Training Goals
After a thorough analysis of the organization, the next step is to develop the goals for the training and the technology use. The training developer should establish a relationship between the training goals and the overall goals of the organization. They should address the needs found during the
technology analysis. The developer of the training goals categorizes them into specific objectives, which are benchmarks to measure the technol- ogy training effectiveness. The objectives should include a specific timetable to accomplish and fa- cilitate specific action. The developer lists specific actions to accomplish the objectives. Following these precise steps of training development, an organization has a systematic plan of action begin- ning with analysis and ending with accomplished objectives of effective training.
Table 1. Things to consider when using technology training
Questions for Analyzing Needs
1. What are the current needs for the organization?
2. What are the goals of the organization? What gaps exist from its present state to its desired goals and how can they be accomplished?
3. What is achieved by adding technology into the training program?
Questions for Analyzing the Audience
1. Who will be the participants in the training?
2. What are the competency levels of those working with the technology?
3. What are the skills levels of the training participants?
4. Is there training needed to assist participants in utilizing the technology?
5. What are the training participants’ learning styles?
6. Are there special needs to consider for the visional or hearing impaired or learning disabled, if applicable?
Questions for Analyzing the Technical Aspects
1. When will the training participants be available? At what location will the participant be available? Will the training method utilize on-demand or live delivery?
2. What type of infrastructure is in place for the technology?
3. What is the training delivery method─DVD, completely on-line, teleconference, combination, etc.?
4. Is the training content development in-house or outsourced to a third-party training developer?
5. Is the delivery method development in-house or outsourced to a third-party training developer?
6. Who will facilitate the delivery method?
7. How much trainer and training participant contact is required?
8. What is the accessibility of the technology to the training participants?
9. What are the hardware and software requirements?
Questions for Analyzing the Cost and Benefits
1. What are the initial costs of developing the training utilizing technology?
2. What are the long-term savings of using technology?
3. What is the likelihood that utilizing technology will improved training participant performance?
4. Will the improved training translate into better competitive performance and customer satisfaction?
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Design of the Technology Training Program
Once the technology-training program has solid goals and objectives in place, they provide a framework for the design of the training program. The design stage gives the developer the oppor- tunity to select the technology utilized during the training. An extensive list of possible technology methods appear later in this chapter. In addition, during the design phase, developers and trainers make decisions about technology integration and the role technology will play. Questions to ask during this stage are “Will the training be primar- ily using technology, trainer-directed learning, or a combination of both?” and “Does the training require instructions on how to use the technology before training implementation?”
One of the first design steps includes develop- ment of templates and storyboards to map visu- ally content of the training course. Along with this map, the designer builds a timeline to group the training activities, and allocate time for each training step (Schank, 2002). By utilizing the map and the organized timeline, the designer can build a prototype of the training program. The prototype then undergoes testing to make sure that it is viable. In some cases such as web-based training, testing will create several evolutions of the training module, as alpha versions and then as beta versions until a reliable and smooth running version becomes available. Once a viable training program is ready, the trainer integrates it for use within the organization.
Integration Phase
The technology integration phase allows an organization to establish and use technology, particularly computers and other computer-based electronic equipment, to achieve particular goals. Technology integration is an ongoing process that is continual and ever changing. When applied to an organizational training curriculum, it becomes
a powerful way for trainers to provide up-to-date primary source material efficiently and effec- tively. Levels of integration, blended learning, content-focused instruction, and practical designs for integration are components in carrying out effective training. The importance of understand- ing the organization’s present level of integration develops building blocks toward advancement of effective learning in aspects of content, learning, and the use of technology in learning.
Levels of the Integration Phase
Developers and trainers wishing to integrate technology into the training environment focus on a model of integration that consists of clearly defined components based on levels of technology use and goals of the learning environment. Table 2 shows the levels of technology integration in the scope of training goals exemplifying these relationships. Developed based on Brown and Ford’s (2002) model of learning outcomes, Uni- versity of South Florida Center for Instructional Technology’s (2007) matrix, and Gallivan’s (2001) stages of assimilation model, Table 2 describes levels of integration. It illustrates how levels of integration correspond to training goals. As levels of technology integration become more complex, greater participation is required of the learner, which Brown and Ford refers to as active learn- ing. For example, once technology integration reaches the adaption level, the trainer no longer drives learning exclusively. For instance, a learner using flowchart software would create a diagram to illustrate a given process. While the trainer drives the assignment, the learner drives the outcome for purpose. The importance of understanding the organization’s present level of integration develops building blocks toward advancement of effective learning in aspects of content, learning, and the use of technology in learning.
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Blended Learning
Blending learning combines face-to-face in- struction with centralized computer-mediated emphasis (Graham, 2006). The importance of the degree of technology integration relates to con- cepts of blended learning. Graham explains that widespread availability and adoption of learning technologies have led to integration increases in more traditional learning environments. As the levels of technology integration increases, it is only logical that at some undefined point, blended learning gives way to e learning, discussed later in this chapter.
Content-Focused Instruction
Understanding learning objectives is the first line of defense when attempting to determine the most appropriate delivery method of training instruc- tion. Some training topics do not lend themselves to a computer-generated venue, for example, a nursing student learning to give shots. An effec- tive blended learning experience will focus on identifying and understanding the learning objects and develop a complementary content-focused
instructional design. When given a specific level of technology integration, providing effective training means combining content-focused design with appropriate technological delivery to arrive at a pre-determined training goal (Singh, 2006).
Practical Integration Designs
After understanding an organization’s technol- ogy integration level, the next step in integrating technology into a training environment is to develop and apply practical integration. Liu and Velasquez-Bryant (2003) developed an integra- tion design model that considers planning, design, implementation, and evaluation as four compo- nents essential to the life cycle of technology integration. In the design phase of the model, an objective is to match learning objectives and needs to instructional strategies with use of available technology. Brewer, DeJonge, and Stout (2001), illustrates how delivery methods of technology can relate to training goals. Table 3 displays these concepts. For example, group discussions can take content to high levels of cognitive learning goals but does not assist with skill-based outcomes. Use
Table 2. Levels of technology integration in the scope of training goals
Levels of Technology Integration
Training Goals
Entry Adoption Adaption Infusion Transformation
Unidirectional (from trainer to
student)
Unidirectional (from trainer to student via
software)
Multidirectional
Multidirectional (reciprocal be-
tween learner and trainer)
Total Immersion
Skill-based training
Drill and practice
Production driven
Purpose driven Learner driven in blended learning
environment
Virtual/Blended Learning
Cognitive Learning
Information delivery
Construction of prior knowledge
Modification of knowledge base
Integration of established knowl-
edge
Higher-level think- ing and knowledge (unattainable with-
out technology)
Affective Training
Assigned ac- tivities for real- world problems
Content-specific for real-world
problems
Problem-solving for real-world
issues
Self-developed, authentic solutions
for real-world problems
Total inclusive, analytical results for real-world problems
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of appropriate technology delivery methods can affect training outcomes and learner participation.
Strategies for Funding and Support
Whitehead, Jensen, and Boschee (2003) notes that strategies emerging for the support and funding of technology include developing proper tech- nology planning, utilizing effective leadership, instituting staff development, and managing established financial resources. Whether your training environment includes corporate centers, classrooms funded by grants or state support, pub- lic outreach or workshops and other educational events, communicating with stakeholders is an important activity for success. As it applies to technology integration, a thorough communica- tion plan includes a mission statement, analyses of the weaknesses and strengths of the plan, ob- jectives and strategies to fulfill the mission, and action plans based on individual responsibilities (Psencik, 1991; Whitehead et al.).
Implementation Phase
After integrating technology into an organization, the next step to effective training is implementa- tion. Implementation is providing a comprehensive plan of action with the most appropriate options to support and facilitate the organization’s strategic training plan. It includes decision about technology use and the type of technology methods.
Technology Use in the Training Environment
Specific types of technology-assisted training delivery have two components in common— communication and intervention of an electronic device. Communications is the foundation to any technology-based training environment. Whether the delivery method is email-based, threaded discussions, corporate intranet, or types of e- learning, some form of communication stands out as a necessity. Fundamentally, technology- assisted training activities in organizations have two types of communications, either synchronous or asynchronous. Synchronous means conducted in real time and asynchronous means in delayed time, in other words, not in real time. Additionally, technology-assisted training communications, whether synchronous or asynchronous requires intervention via an electronic device, most often, computers.
Communication-Assisted Training Applications
Communications is an important component in providing effective training. It is important in face-to-face training, blended learning, or e-learning. Differences exist only in the facilita- tion of communication. Applications that assist in facilitating effective training communications included email, group discussions, instant mes-
Table 3. Technology methods and training goals
Technology Integration Methods
Training Goals
Lecture Demonstration Group
Discussion Simulation
Role Playing (Virtual Classroom)
Skill-based training
X X X
Cognitive Learning
X X X X X
Affective Training
X X X X
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saging (sometimes called chatting), collaborative support systems, and voice/video conferencing (Rothwell et al., 2006).
• Email. Email (or e-mail) sends messages from one individual to one or more indi- viduals for the purposes of relaying types of information. It replaces the inter-office memo, frequent time-consuming meetings, and phone calls. Email messages can contain a variety of different types of information such as documents, photographs, and voice/ video media files as attachments. During training, email enables direct communication exchange between trainer to trainee where they disperse all information uniformly and identically. Similarly, communication from each student to the trainer is an efficient and effective management tool for the trainer to expedite classroom communication.
• Group Discussion. Threaded discussion (sometimes called group discussion) is an asynchronous communication tool usually developed around a particular question or statement pertaining to the training topic or similar related issue. It allows students, and sometimes the trainer, to exchange com- ments, questions, stories and other related information such as help and advice in a continuous flow similar to a verbal con- versation. These types of discussions can augment classroom participation, further technology-assisted training, and assist in developing frequently question and answer sessions.
• Instant Messaging. Instant messaging (IM) is a synchronous communication tool that expedites the exchange of information im- mediately. Individuals use this form of com- munication to create a real-time, electronic meeting for the purpose of gathering opin- ions, making group decisions, and gaining insight to additional training needs without additional complications related to response
time. The advantage of using instant mes- saging is the ability to work collaboratively in a real-time environment.
Expanding the concept of instant messaging, collaborative (sometimes called group) support systems combine the abilities to communicate in real time with the ability to compute, facilitate decisions, brainstorm, discuss, create and write in a synchronous learning environment. Trainees create group formations over long distances, which can combine different learning objectives into a seamless engaged classroom process. Rothwell and his colleagues (2006) suggests that learners can be divided into groups, sometimes anonymously, to facilitate broader interactive activities that can be shared among groups, which can effectively increase productivity while maintaining a con- tinuum of training.
• Teleconferencing. Teleconferencing has many definitions; therefore, it becomes important to establish a clear definition when discussing this topic. In this section, teleconferencing includes audio conferenc- ing and video conferencing, which allows communication between people at two or more locations.
Audio conferencing requires the capabilities of exchange of voices using conventional telephone services or technologies that facilitates the process over the Internet. It requires specific facilitating technologies to make the actual connection be- tween participants and typically occurs through service providers. Users of audio conferencing rely on it where video conferencing is not reliable because of lack of or limited strength of an internet connection. Effective training using audio confer- encing is focused on creating an environment that generates group bond for learning through voice only interaction.
Video conferencing facilitates the exchange of both voice and video using technologies developed
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over the Internet. Users of communication in a training situation accomplish it by utilizing one- way or two-way methods. In a training environ- ment, trainees could see the trainer without the trainer seeing the trainees; the two-way method would allow both trainees and trainer to see each other. The two-way method of communication increases interactivity between trainer and trainees and thereby boosts group collaborative learning environments.
Classroom Technology- Assisted Training
This section examines technologies that exist in the classroom for the purpose of expanding training instruction. According to Rothwell et al. (2006) advances in technology that can enhance a trainee’s active engagement and can facilitates trainers delivery methods include projectors, digital displays, electronic whiteboards, docu- ment viewers, interactive group response systems, cellular phones, PDAs and other mobile devices.
• Digital Projectors. Projectors are digital devices that deliver face-to-face content in most classroom settings. When used with other devices such as display units, electronic whiteboards, computers, DVD players, and many other pieces of electronic equipment, they become the preferred tool in today’s classroom. Three types of commonly used digital projectors include an LCD unit that connects via cable to a computer, a wireless unit that require no cables, and a networked projector that operates through an organi- zation’s network eliminating the need for connectivity to other devices.
• White Boards. Electronic white boards (sometimes called smart boards) are large, touch-sensitive interactive units that connect to a digital projector and a computer for the purposes of exchanging information visually. While they can display many types of infor-
mation, the added-value with the white board is its ability to capture written annotations, notes, drawings, corrections, and changes in the display, and then subsequently, save, email or print the altered file information.
• Document Viewers. Document viewers replace overhead projectors. Trainers can display detailed drawings, photographs, and 3-D objects with such features as zoom, image capturing, and other optical features. The availability of document viewers in the classroom allows trainers the opportunity to utilize limitless presentation materials.
• Response systems. Interactive group re- sponse systems (also called audience re- sponse systems) enable trainees to respond individually to questions and opinions during the training session. A trainer uses these devices to increase trainee participation and attentiveness, and consequently creates an engaged learning environment.
Web-Based Technology-Assisted Training and Distance Learning
In understanding the rapid advances in technology- assisted training, it is important to understand the impact that the development of the Internet has had on organizational training. Connecting organiza- tions and individuals worldwide has fostered the delivery of learning and created distance learning through various pathways facilitating web-based technologies, such as web collaboration, web conferencing, webcasting, and mobile learning (Rothwell et al., 2006). No longer is the training model uniformly specific of trainer to trainee in a simultaneous location and time.
Internet, Intranet, and Extranet. The Inter- net is a series of pathways using data systems, independently built, for the purposes of the exchange of knowledge. Distribution methods include the Internet and the World Wide Web, intranets, and extranets. As seen in Figure 3, the Internet encompasses all other networks; it is an
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integrated network of other networks. The World Wide Web is the vehicle that allows all networks to communicate to each other for the purposes of information sharing, and requires web-browsing applications to facilitate the exchange. Intranet refers to a network owned by an organization solely for the purposes of limited accessibility to members of the entity. Authorization to the intranet is required and administrators of the intranet can control further access to the larger, dominant Internet as well as access for an extranet. An extranet is essentially an intranet that allows limited public access to an organization’s intranet, in other words, allowing partners of the organiza- tion to connect to the intranet for the purposes of sharing information, resources, and tools relevant to the partnership and is determined by the level of relationship between partners. Sophisticated models of differing capabilities and accessibilities between members of the organization, partners, and customers exist depending upon the needs of all the stakeholders.
Trainers often utilize intranets for training purposes because of the authority to centralize proprietary information and training content. Intranet capabilities also allows for private use of software technologies such as learning manage-
ment systems and learning content systems de- veloped specifically for certain organizations, which allows for organizational knowledge build- ing and sharing.
• Webcast. Web-based technologies assist in delivery methods of webcasting, web con- ferencing, web collaboration, and mobile learning. A webcast is a media file containing audio and/or video information that is either broadcasted through the Internet on-demand or live. The technology that drives webcasts is called streaming technology. Live web- casts are only available when scheduled in real time; on-demand webcasts are available at the discretion of viewers and the producer who determines availability. The advantages of webcasts as a method of training include delivery of information simultaneously to a large, diverse, and expansive learning popu- lation, in asynchronous or synchronous de- livery method, and the capability of included multiple webcast to build an infrastructure of learning modules (Piskurich & American Management Association, 2003).
Web conferencing, webinars, and web collabo- ration are meetings conducted over the Internet enabling two or more individuals to simultane- ously hear and/or see the same content utilizing computers. The differences between the three are the degrees of interactivity among participants. Web conferencing are small interactive meetings that utilize such features as presentations, applica- tion and file sharing, messaging, and one-way and two-way audio/video conferencing. Web collabo- ration expands the concepts of web conferencing into a group collaborative effort. Small groups connect through the Internet for the purposes of conducting group activities with other groups.
• Webinar. A webinar (short for web-based seminar) is a type of web conferencing allowing participants to give, receive, and
Figure 3. Relationship between Internet, Intranet, and Extranet
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discuss information; and a moderator typi- cally facilitates the communications during the event (Webinar, 2010).
• Mobile learning. Since becoming popular, mobile devices, such as smart phones are important to mobile learning (sometimes called m-learning.) Mobile learning enhanc- es activities to support front-line workers in such areas as retail, repair, facilitation, and others giving significant information, learning materials, and expertise real-time knowledge in a variety of locations at critical times (Piskurich et al., 2003). Most mobile devices can browse the Internet, participate in online discussions, send and receive informative emails, access multimedia streaming, and create and edit documents such as word processing and spreadsheets. The clear advantage of mobile learning using mobile technology is the ability of content to be available to the trainee at all times in all places.
E-Learning
E-learning is short for electronic learning but has no declarative definition (Fee, 2009). For this section, the e-learning definition is hav- ing characteristics that utilize web technology through an electronic device for the purposes of delivery of learning. In general terms, e-learning is technology-assisted learning facilitated through online delivery. E-learning could include infinitive characteristics such as asynchronous learning, synchronous learning, trainer-delivered, webcast modules, self-paced or webinars.
• Virtual classroom. A virtual classroom is a learning environment that delivers in- structional content through synchronous delivery (Rothwell et al., 2006). A live trainer integrates learning material such as presentations using graphics with individu- als who registered for the training sessions.
During the sessions, live interaction, email exchanges and chatting functions are avail- able along with other types of technologies. Similar to simulations, the virtual classroom is essentially a conceptualized classroom produced in a virtual (not physical reality) world, led by a trainer and attended by train- ees. An example of an all-inclusive virtual classroom is Second Life, it’s free persistent virtual environments enable trainees to work together synchronously and then return, individually or as a team and amplify learn- ing beyond traditional capabilities and other web-technology delivery methods (Second Life, 2009).
• Blended learning. Blended learning, men- tioned previously, is face-to-face instruction combined with e-learning delivery methods. For example, a training course delivered by a trainer once a week in a classroom setting and then supplemented with online content or activities, such as an on-demand webcast is considered blended learning. Sloman (2003) describes blended learning as trainees interacting with the trainer and other trainees, while online content supports additional instruction where appropriate.
Delivery Methods
Implementers of effective training utilize many different types of delivery methods. At the point of implementation, planners, designers and trainers have already made decisions influencing which deliver method to utilize in the appropriate learning situation. Trainers may utilize one delivery method or combine various methods to produce needed results. Table 4 summarizes e-learning delivery methods and gives a short description of each.
Evaluation Phase
When using technology in providing effective training, there are several evaluation models to
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assess instruction and learning. The type most frequently used is the Kirkpatrick’s Evaluation Model. According to Brewer (2009), this Model has been the “most widely recognized and used for evaluating training programs” (p. 132). Evalu- ators look at four separate levels when consid- ering training program effectiveness. Level 1, referred to as the Reaction Level, allows one to assess how the training participants react to the training. The benefits to conducting this level of evaluation are assessing trainee satisfaction, the use of technology, and trainers who provide the training. Level 2, known as the Learning Level, assesses the extent to which the trainees change their attitudes, increases their knowledge and/or skills. This level allows one to assess whether the “learning transfer” has occurred. Some ques- tions to consider at this level would be “What knowledge was learned?” or “What skills were
developed or improved?” and/or “What attitudes were changed?” Level 3, The Behavior Level (sometimes referred to as the Impact Level) ad- dresses the extent to which change in behavior has occurred. This occurs after the trainees leave the formal training session and are implementing what they learn while in their work environment. Level 3 assesses the job impact of the training that the trainee completed. The final level (Level 4) of Kirkpatrick’s Model deals with the Results of the training. This is the most important level and perhaps the most difficult of all because the trainer is training to assess the bottom line impact of training. Brewer (2009) notes that amounts of information increase as one proceeds from on level to another. This systematic approach to the evalu- ation of training programs is important because it will measure such factors as trainee satisfac- tion, learning proficiency, application skills, and
Table 4. E-learning delivery methods
Method Description
ebooks Electronic formatted books; available for computers and mobile devices (Smart phones, Kindles, iPads)
Podcast Similar to webcast with the exception that the user listens to content on an iPod or like device
Online content including online testing Documents, spreadsheets, databases, multimedia content, graphics, quizzes, exams, etc. retriev- able online
Demonstrations How-to videos, YouTube videos, step-by-step instructions
Simulations Imitating a real phenomenon or situation for practice
Interactive resources Such as calculators and dictionaries
Subject-specific games Math drills, interactive skill games
Streaming media Audio and video downloaded in real time from the Internet without the ability to save it
Video/audio conferencing Conferencing using multi-media on an electronic device(s)
Email Electronic messages that are relayed between individuals
Wikis Collaborative web pages containing continuous works by many authors. Similar to blogs except wikis can be modified by others. Example: Wikipedia─the online encyclopedia
Blogging/moblogging Interactive commentaries typically suited to ownership and can include media postings
Collaborative group learning Sharing applications, notes, ideas, tasks, and learning activities in groups
Discussion groups Threaded asynchronous conversation about a specific question or common topic
Skyping A free Internet-based one-on-one video/audio telephone call via the Internet (microphone and camera required) Conference calling available soon
Virtual classroom An online learning environment where trainees and trainers interact
Listservs An automatic emailing service to individuals who joined as a member an interest group
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overall program effectiveness. Some researchers have added a Level 5 to Kirkpatrick’s Model that is entitled “ROI—Return on Investment.” Over time, the need to measure the dollar value impact of training becomes a very important factor in providing training activities to an organization.
FUTURE TRENDS
Future trends in effective training using technology are difficult to predict. It entails many factors such as the development of technologies, integration of technology into organizations, and the ability of organizations and trainers to develop effective training programs. Questions that lead to predic- tions and future trends include “Who will do the training?,” “Where and how will the training be offered?,” “Will the training be on-demand or live?,” and “What is the need for the training?” Answers to these questions will lead to better un- derstanding about where training with technology is going in the future.
Other questions that may shed light on the future trends of training are question not yet de- veloped. The role of technology and the advances not even thought of today may influence beyond our limited scope of thought. For example, the role of satellite systems, mobile technologies, virtual and artificial intelligence are all areas in their infancy and likely will influence future technology developments.
A component of technology that stands out among many − is online training, which is chang- ing the way adults gain knowledge and move forward in their professional development. Using mobile learning, web-based continuing education, and e-learning will continue to play a significant role in training. The need for trainers will always exist. Without a director, the play cannot go on. Trainers will need to develop new skills for the online and mobile environments.
CONCLUSION
The future for utilizing technology in training has many possibilities, but the core principles of infusing technology into a training program dis- cussed in this chapter will hold true. Businesses and organizations must remember the role of technology in the training process and the impor- tance of the institutions technology culture. They will need to develop, implement, integrate, and evaluate the technology to infuse it properly into the training program to make it effective. Most importantly, businesses and organizations must avoid the pitfalls of the traditional ways of doing things and be brave enough to change themselves to meet the challenges of these 21st century times.
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Bonk, C. J. (2010). For openers: How technology is changing schools. Educational Leadership, 67(7), 60–65.
Brewer, E. W. (2009). Evaluation models for evaluating education programs. In Wang, C. X. (Ed.), Assessing and evaluating adult learning in career and technical education. Information Science Reference, Zhejiang University Press.
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Brewer, E. W., DeJonge, J. O., & Stout, V. J. (2001). Moving to online: Making the transition from traditional instruction and communication strategies. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press, Inc.
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Cuban, L., Kirkpatrick, H., & Peck, C. (2001). High access and low us of technologies in high school classrooms: Explaining an apparent paradox. American Educational Research Journal, 38(4), 813–834. doi:10.3102/00028312038004813
Ertmer, P. (2005). Teacher pedagogical beliefs: The final frontier in our quest for technology integra- tion. Educational Technology Research and De- velopment, 53, 25–39. doi:10.1007/BF02504683
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KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS
Asynchronous: Occurring in delayed time, not in real time.
Blended Learning: Face-to-face instruction combined with computer-mediated instruction
Digital Immigrant: An individual who has not grown up with technology and must adapt and learn to use technology.
Digital Native: An individual who has grown up with technology and feels highly comfortable adapting to technology.
Extranet: An intranet that allows limited public access to an organization’s intranet.
Intranet: A limited access network owned by an organization solely for the organization’s use.
Synchronous: Occurring in real time. Webcast: A multi-media file that is broad-
casted through the Internet on-demand or live. Webinar: An interactive web conferencing
seminar conducted among a facilitator and par- ticipants.
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Copyright © 2012, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
Chapter 12
INTRODUCTION
Today’s organizations operate in an environment characterized by high uncertainty and rapid change brought on by fluctuating economies, intensified globalization, constant technology advancement, rapid generation of new knowledge, and unex- pected crisis events. In an effort to achieve suc- cess in such dynamic and complex environments, practitioners and scholars increasingly resort to ‘learning’ as a means to keeping up with the speed
of change (Raelin, 2008). Adopting “learning” as a strategy has quickly become a trend in industry, as evidenced by the emergence of positions such as Chief Knowledge Office and Chief Learning Officer in many large business organizations (e.g., Coca-Cola, General Electric, Sequent Computer, Young & Rubicam, and leading consulting firms (e.g., Ernst & Young, Coopers & Lybrand, and Booz and Co). Strategies aimed at increasing organizational efficiency are also dependent on the ability of managers and workers to learn and assimilate new ways of thinking and behaving.
Jia Wang Texas A&M University, USA
Organizational Learning and Technology
ABSTRACT
The purpose of this chapter is to explore the role of technology in organizational learning. Recognizing that the presence of technology may not always bring about desirable change, this chapter focuses on identifying promising aspects of technologies and their potential to enhance the organization’s learning capacity. Three interrelated constructs—technology, organizational learning, and knowledge manage- ment—are examined. This review pointed to several challenges related to technology integration in the organizational learning processes. A variety of technology-based learning platforms are suggested. Virtual learning, virtual dialoguing, virtual communities of practice, and technology-enabled knowledge management systems are recommended as appropriate technology applications for facilitating learning within organizations. Gaining an understanding about how technology can be leveraged to promote learning is key to improving organizational practices.
DOI: 10.4018/978-1-61350-068-2.ch012
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The capacity to learn has become, perhaps, the number one indicator for organizational effective- ness (Cho, Cho, & McLean, 2009), and innovation (Hurley & Hult, 1998).
In the knowledge-intensive world, technology can play a significant role in promoting learning by providing organizational members with easy and flexible access to information (Dewett & Jones, 2001). Parallel research efforts have been made to study information technology and organizational learning; however, only until recently has research begun to address these two concepts in combina- tion. The interrelationship has been investigated from two perspectives: (1) organizational learning as a strategy to help learn different technologies; and (2) the role of technology in organizational learning. This chapter focuses on the latter line of inquiry. Recognizing the dual (enabling and disabling) effects of technology on organizational learning, the goal is to explore how technology can be leveraged as a facilitator for learning within organizations. This goal was accomplished through a review, analysis, and synthesis of three bodies of literature—technology, organizational learning (OL), and knowledge management (KM). Note that in this chapter, KM was not weighted as heavily as OL. KM was treated as a tool for facilitating OL; however, this is not suggesting the lesser importance of KM.
BACKGROUND
This section provides the theoretical context of this research. It begins with an overview of tech- nology and its broad impact, and then moves to a discussion about organizational learning and the related construct—knowledge management.
Technology
Defining and studying technology is important because of rapid changes in workplace learning and performance as driven by a multitude of tech-
nologies. Technology was initially conceptualized in terms of: technical complexity (Woodward, 1965); operations technology and variability (Pugh, Hickson, Hinings, & Turner, 1969); interde- pendence (Thompson, 1967); routine-nonroutine (Perrow, 1970), and manageability of raw materi- als (Mohr, 1971). More recently, technology has been broadly defined as the process of “managing and reducing the uncertainties surrounding pro- duction and administrative processes” (Dewett & Jones, 2001, p. 316). Two related concepts worth defining here are information technologies and information systems. Information technologies (IT) encompasses a broad spectrum of communi- cation media and devices which link information systems and people. Examples are voice mail, e-mail, voice conferencing, video conferencing, the Internet, groupware and corporate intranets, car phones, fax machines, personal digital as- sistants, and so on. Information systems refer to the multiple varieties of software platforms and databases designed to manage the major functions of an organization. Examples here are products provided by companies such as SAP, PeopleSoft, JD Edwards, Oracle, and Microsoft. Information systems and information technologies are often inextricably linked.
Technologies have gained huge popularity in the last two decades. By 1991, U.S. companies spent more on IT than any other capital investment. Total spending on computers and related services doubled from approximately $80 billion in 1984 to over $160 billion in 1998 (Dewett & Jones, 2001). Technology application has consistently been found to be linked to positive organiza- tional outcomes. Specific examples of improved capabilities are: ability to connect and enable employees; ability to codify the organization’s knowledge base; improved boundary spanning capabilities; improved information processing leading to increased efficiency; and improved collaboration and coordination which promotes innovation (Dewett & Jones, 2001). Dewitt and Jones also identified two meta-benefits of IT
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which they called information efficiencies, and information synergies. Information efficiencies are the resultant cost and time savings when IT enables individual employees to perform their current tasks at a higher level, assume additional tasks, and expand their roles in the organization due to advances in data collection and analysis. For example, as the result of the application of IT in an organization, it is very likely that a reshuffling of tasks will occur as technology in- creases people’s or subunit’s abilities to process information. What previously might have been a task requiring the inputs of three different people or subunits becomes a task that one individual/ subunit can perform effectively. Because IT helps boost the amount and quality of information which can be processed, it simply allows each individual or subunit to perform more work, cumulatively providing a gain in organizational efficiency. By the same token, information syner- gies are the performance gains when IT allows two or more individuals or subunits to pool their resources, and cooperate and collaborate across role or subunit boundaries. For example, informa- tion synergies occur when different individuals or subunits adjust their actions or behaviors to the needs of other individuals or subunits on an ongoing basis. In essence, information synergies arise when IT helps promote the multiplicative and non-separable gains which can be obtained from team-based cooperation.
While contemporary belief posits that ad- vanced information technologies likely triggers radical organizational change, empirical studies do not always support such an assertion (DeSanctis & Monge, 1999; Robey & Boudreau, 1999). Ample evidence suggests that the use of IT can also lead to undesirable side effects (e.g., Culnan & Markus, 1987; DeSanctis & Monge, 1999; Zuboff, 1988). When we consider that some traditional means of communication often score higher than advanced technologies with respect to acceptability, ease of use, and richness (e.g., Trevino, Lengel, & Daft, 1987), it becomes clear that the effects of
IT are not universally positive. Thus the key is to leverage technology to advantage. When a technology is applied appropriately it can serve as a powerful addition to an organization’s com- munications infrastructure (Huber, 1990), or can even radically change the core activities of an industry (McGahan, 2004).
Organizational Learning
In modern society, an organization’s competitive advantage increasingly depends on its individual members’ abilities to learn and apply knowledge and translate that knowledge into action at multiple levels of operation (Taylor, 2008). Learning is a process which integrates an individual’s cognitive, emotional, and environmental influences, and his or her experiences. It promotes knowledge acquisition and learning skills, as well as devel- ops the personal values and beliefs necessary to be successful in life (Merriam, Caffarella, & Baumgartner, 2007). In the workplace, learning implies the completion of a variety of formal (structured) and informal (unstructured) activi- ties at the individual, group, organizational, and transorganizational levels (Taylor, 2008).
Conceptualizations of OL
The concept of organizational learning was first in- troduced by March and Simons in 1958; however, it did not gain much attention until the late 1970s when Argyris and Schon (1978) defined it as a process of “detection and correction of errors” (p. 2). At its most basic level, organizational learning is the development of new knowledge or insights which have the potential to influence behavior (Huber, 1991). It is “a fundamental mechanism by which organizations, as open systems, interact with their environment, process information, and adapt to changing external and internal conditions” (Kuchinke, 1995, p. 308). In this sense, organiza- tions are cognitive entities, capable of reflecting upon and modifying their own behavior. Despite
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variations in conceptualizations, organizational learning highlights two aspects: cognitive and behavior changes (Tsang, 1997); and knowledge creation (Casey, 2005; Dodgson, 1993; Glynn, Milliken, & Lant, 1994; Huber, 1991). First, learn- ing is grounded in the cognitive and behavioral capabilities of individual members. Regarding the cognitive aspect, most researchers agree that this is concerned with gaining knowledge, understanding, and new insights. In terms of knowledge creation, in organizational learning processes, knowledge is acquired collaboratively (McHugh, Groves, & Alker, 1998), and transferred to new members, and shared across organizational boundaries of space, time, and hierarchy (Ulrich, Jick, & von Glinow, 1993).
Types of OL
Argyris and Schon (1978) identified three types of organizational learning: (a) single loop learning (correcting errors by using feedback), (b) double loop learning (questioning underlying assump- tions and core beliefs), and (c) deutero learning (learning how to learn). Single loop learning (or adaptive learning by Senge, 1990), the most basic form of learning, occurs when goals, values, and action plans are taken for granted. On the contrary, double loop learning (or generative learning by Senge, 1990) occurs when the organization ques- tions long-held assumptions about its missions, customers, capabilities, or strategies. Therefore, double loop or generative learning is frame- breaking and more likely to lead to competitive advantage than single loop or adaptive learning. Double loop learning is essential to help organiza- tions make informed decisions in rapidly changing environments.
Processes of OL
Although there is more than one single concep- tual framework for understanding organizational learning process, it is generally agreed that organi-
zational learning contains four sub-processes: in- formation acquisition, information dissemination; information interpretation, and organizational memory (Bell, Whitwell, & Lukas, 2002; Huber, 1991; Nevis, DiBella, &Gould, 1997). Simply defined, information acquisition is the process by which information is obtained from multiple sources (e.g., own or others’, and organizational memory). Information distribution is the process by which information acquired from different sources is shared and thereby leads to new or more broadly based information and understand- ing. Information interpretation is the process by which distributed information is interpreted and given shared meanings. Organizational memory is the means by which newly created knowledge is stored for future use (Huber, 1991).
Productive organizational learning leads to im- proved organizational performance and increased organizational capacity (Argyris & Schon, 1996). OL has been widely adopted by organizations as a strategic tool for achieving organizational survival (Casey, 2005), competitive advantage (Wang & Ellinger, 2008), innovative efficiency (Lopez, Peon, & Ordas, 2005), renewal (Crossan, Lane, & White, 1999), and organizational change (Wang, 2008).
From Learning to Knowledge Management
Learning generates knowledge. According to Gillette (2002), knowledge contains six compo- nents: (1) wisdom (e.g., ability to make sound judgments); (2) understanding (e.g., ability to recognize, comprehend, and select information based on wisdom); (3) information (e.g., data selected, screened, and used to make a decision or reinforce a user’s position); (4) data (e.g., structured facts); (5) facts (e.g., signifiers); and (6) phenomena (e.g., perceptions, knowledge). Knowledge can be explicit or tacit. As explained by Nonaka and Konno (1998), explicit knowledge can be expressed in “words and numbers and
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shared in the form of data, scientific formulae, specifications and the like” (p. 41). Conversely, tacit knowledge such as insights and intuition, is “highly personal and hard to formalize,” (p. 41) and is, therefore difficult to communicate and share with others.
From the organizational learning perspective, knowledge management (KM) is a more tactic- oriented and system-focused supportive concept for learning in an organization. KM encompasses many systematic practices and organizing efforts within organizations, including creation, reten- tion, succession, and management of learned knowledge at the organizational level (DeLong, 2004; Nonaka & Toyama, 2003; Wenger, 1998). Knowledge creation is initiated by individuals; and at the organizational level, it refers to the organization’s ability to “create new knowledge, disseminate it through the organization, and embody it in products, services, and systems” (Nonaka &Takeuchi, 1995, p. 58). Organizational knowledge is created through social interactions between an individual’s tacit and explicit knowl- edge. Knowledge retention is “the act of building organizational memory” (Delong, 2004, p. 24) through knowledge acquisition, storage, and retrieval. It is more action-oriented with the goal of offering a solution to a critical problem that impacts performance.
The practice of using technology in KM pro- cesses has gone through persistent changes since the 1970s. Most of the early attempts to manage knowledge and associated technological tools for KM were aimed at capturing and managing explicit knowledge (Ardichvili, 2002). Early data management technologies include groupware technologies, document management systems, and enterprise-wide resource planning and man- agement systems. Most of early KM technologies were based on a company’s local area networks and wide area networks. As organizations continued to experience failures, the focus of KM started shift- ing in the late 1990s. The shift from organizing and making sense of information, to knowledge
generation and sharing, lead to a search for col- laborative work platforms for knowledge workers (Ardichvili). Two approaches were adopted— a process approach and a practice approach (Tur- ban &Aronson, 1998). The process approach, relying on the utilization of information and communication technologies, attempts to codify explicit knowledge through formalized controls, processes, and technologies. Here, policies are designed and implemented which outline how ar- tifacts will be collected, stored, and disseminated. The practice approach attempts to codify tacit knowledge by promoting and building informal social networks and/or communities of practice in face-to-face settings. This approach promotes and fosters naturally occurring social relations. A third approach, or hybrid, was identified as emergent, a combination of both the process and practice categories. Groupware software (e.g., blogs, bul- letin boards, wikis) are being adopted to enable sharing processes in networked environments. The intent is to assist members in transforming tacit knowledge to explicit knowledge by socially constructing knowledge through interactions with others (Divitini & Simone, 1996).
CRITICAL ISSUES AND RECOMMENDATIONS
The relevance of technology to organizational learning was established by Argyris (1977), who argued that the contradictions inherent in systems implementation could be resolved through the type of authentic communication he prescribed as part of organizational learning. Despite this early and authoritative appeal, the link between IT and organizational learning has barely begun to be explored. The few conceptual arguments examining this relationship agree that IT is not limited to the role of storage and retrieval devices supporting organizational memory (Campbell- Kelly, 1996), but may also contribute to the process of organizational learning by supporting
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education and training, as well as the creation and communication of knowledge (Jones, 1995; Robey & Boudreau, 1999; Stein & Zwass, 1995). For example, Boland, Ramkrishnan, and Te’eni (1994) proposed a software tool (Spider) enabling managers to represent personal cognitive maps and to facilitate dialogue with other managers about business situations. Likewise, Stein and Zwass (1995) developed a model for an organizational memory information system to show how IT might support the learning process and provide electronic repositories for knowledge. Benson, Johnson, and Kuchinke (2002) identified a number of IT tools adopted by organizations for the purpose of learn- ing, performance improvement, and organization development. These included e-mail, mailing lists, bulletin board discussion lists, newsgroups, Internet, search engines, Web databases, enterprise resource planning systems, learning management systems,, and instant messengers. In addition, to support major learning activities, organizations have also turned to virtual technologies, especially Web tools and services, such as blogging, wikis, online bookmarking tools (Beldarrain, 2006), vir- tual worlds (OConner & Menaker, 2008), virtual communities of practice (Ardichvili, 2008), virtual knowledge management (Bennett, 2009; Goulay, 2001), and performance support systems (Gery, 2002). Several issues are worth consideration in building technology-enabled organizational learning systems.
Critical Issues
First, among the multiple variables that affect organizational learning outcomes, the learning environment plays a critical role. The learning environment must support the free exchange of ideas and feelings and allow learners to feel secure to participate in open two-way communications (Tseng & McLean, 2008). This requires a move from simply putting more knowledge into data- bases, to leveraging the many ways that knowledge can migrate into an organization. Technology,
when harnessed effectively, help foster a learning conducive environment.
The next issue concerns the challenges associ- ated with technology. The first has to do with the constant and rapid advancement of technology, which requires organizations and individuals to engage in continuous learning in order to remain current. Lack of knowledge of the most current technology will be a restraint in determining the appropriate types of technologies to use, when to use them, and to what end. It is not surprising that research evidences that the presence of technol- ogy in the workplace does not always elicit the intended outcomes.
The second technology related challenge con- cerns its dual influence. In other words, technology has both facilitating/enabling and constraining/ restricting implications. Gill (1995) showed how the heavy reliance on IT has disabled the ability of two companies (Batterymarch Financial Manage- ment, and Mrs. Fields’ Cookies) to appropriately react to changed business environments during a time of great success. The inherently contra- dictory nature of technology has typically been inadequately studied, leading to the pitfalls of uncritical and massive adoption of technology. Recognizing potential contradictions is important as it can foster a better understanding of the areas of tension and instability in organizations, and how these may interact to change and transform organizations. This awareness can also help bal- ance the design of technology-based tools for enabling organizational learning.
Additionally, technology adoption is a complex social phenomenon which is largely influenced by relationships among psychological, organiza- tional, and systems variables. Examples of these many variables are: individual knowledge of technology; perceptions of and attitudes toward technology; the usefulness and ease of use of technology; external pressure to use technology; and the quality of information obtained.
Finally, there are two critical issues to address to insure successful KM. One is to understand
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how knowledge can be expressed in a concrete form, communicated effectively, codified for reuse, and retrieved in a coherent and consistent manner (Lam, 2000). The second is to find ways to enhance organization member’s capabilities to handle KM, so that knowledge can be generated, utilized, interpreted, disseminated, and retained in a more effective manner.
Possible Solutions
Organizational learning, knowledge management, and technology should be treated as constructs which are interconnected, interactive, and sup- portive of one another. A conceptual framework (Figure 1) was derived from the literature review. This simplistic model captures the interrelation- ships and dynamics among the three theoretical
constructs, as well as the intended consequences when they are used appropriately and synergisti- cally.
As depicted in Figure 1, the relationship among OL, KM, and technology are non-linear and can be understood from three perspectives. Firstly, when appropriate technological tools are inte- grated into the OL process, they can provide new and innovative platforms which are unbounded. As a result, they are likely to enable and enhance learning. Secondly, effective OL requires the establishment of effective KM systems, which can be accomplished with the aid of technologies. Thirdly, organizational learning can serve as a strategic tool for learning about new and advanced technologies. Consequently, organizations will be able to make educated decisions when design- ing technology-enabled OL and KM systems.
Figure 1. Conceptual framework of technology-enabled organizational learning
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Having appropriate technology-enabled systems will ultimately lead to desired organizational outcomes, such as enhanced learning capacity, optimized KM systems, and updated technologi- cal knowledge. The key question to consider is: what technology applications can organizations leverage to elicit positive results? This section proposes four technology-oriented practices.
Utilizing Web-Based Learning Platforms
Technology enables forms of learning different from traditional learning. One is hybrid/blended learning which combines face-to-face and Web- based formats. Blended learning, resulting from the merger f formal classroom training and e- learning, is becoming one of the viable options in corporate, government, military, and non-profit organizations around the world (Teng, Bonk, & Kim, 2009). This learning approach was recog- nized by the American Society for Training and De- velopment (ASTD) as one of the top ten emerging trends in the knowledge delivery industry. Another
form of learning enabled by technology is virtual learning (Sambrook, 2005). With its inherent ac- cessibility and flexibility, virtual learning allows organizational members to learn at the time and pace that suits their capabilities and circumstances (Macpherson, Elliot, Harris, & Homan, 2004). In addition to innovative platforms, technology also offers cognitive tools which allow learners to concentrate on higher order tasks rather than mere memorization. Further, learning in a three dimensional virtual environment allows learn- ers to act intuitively (Bouras & Tsiatsos, 2006). Intuition is an unconscious activity important for creativity, particularly through the processing of images into image memory (Torrance & Safter, 1999). As a result, virtual interaction is no longer solely cognitive but involves emotions, imagina- tions, and intuition. Given the unique capabilities and potential of Web-based learning environments, virtual learning can be a valuable means to support organizational learning (Romano & Marhherita, 2008). Table 1 suggests different Web-based plat-
Table 1. Web-based learning platforms (Sources: Adapted from Benson, Johnson, and Kuchinke (2002), and McWhorter, Mancuso, and Hurt (2008)
Platform Description Sample Technologies
E-mail, Blogs, Virtual Communities
Asynchronous posting of information and requests. Can be used by virtual teams and workshops.
Microsoft Outlook®, mailing lists, video streaming, AOL®, Blogger®, Twitter, Wiki Yahoo Groups®, MySpace®, Face book® LinkedIn
Instant Messaging, Chat Platforms
Virtual spaces that create opportunities for work groups, friends, and families to talk online with text or voice.
AIM®, Yahoo Chat®, MSN Messenger®, Google Talk®, Skype®, gotomymeeting™
Virtual Learning Environment
Software platform for providing opportunities for synchronous and asynchronous communication. Often used in academic settings where knowledge is being disseminated.
Blackboard™, WebCT Vista™, Desire2Learn, ATutor, Digication, Desktop Video / Web Conferencing, Bulletin Board
Virtual Worlds
Online spaces that simulate the real world and have opportunities for synchronous social interaction through the use of an avatar (graphic embodiment of the user) for text chat and/or voice chat.
Second Life®, HiPiHi®, Planet Cazmo®, Kaneva®, Active Worlds®
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forms to support both formal training interventions and informal learning activities.
Engaging in Virtual Dialoguing
Literature on organizational learning emphasizes the significance of dialogue as a means to learning. There have also been several efforts to explicitly link dialogue and organizational learning (e.g., see Isaacs, 1993, Levine, 1994; Schein, 1993). Marsick and Watkins (1993) called for organiza- tions to foster a culture that promotes dialogue and inquiry. Similarly, Senge’s (1990) discipline of team learning, one of the five elements of a learning organization, emphasizes the importance of dialogue in organizations.
Dialogue facilitates organizational learning in at least three ways. First, dialogue is a vehicle for creating a shared or collective understanding and meaning among organizational members across levels and functions (Maurer, 2008). Second, dialogue is an important means to “manage am- biguity and to develop a shared understanding of the situation and required actions” (Noordegraaf & Abma, 2003, p. 864). Third, dialogue can serve as a platform for critical inquiry into existing ways of thinking, assumptions, and current practices (Maurer, 2008). Such critical thinking and reflec- tion is essential to stimulate double-loop learning.
In order to promote higher-level learning, people’s capacity for engaging in genuine dia- logue is instrumental, because, as Maurer (2008) reasoned, “double-loop learning is based on the premise of a free and open exchange of informa- tion, inquiry and public testing of positions, and joint ownership of the task (p. 880). However, it is not uncommon to find no dialogues in organi- zations. Several factors contribute to lack of this practice for instance: time constraints (Marsick & Watkins, 1994); organization structural barri- ers (Ballantyne, 2004, Scheeres & Rhodes, 2006, Schein, 1993); cultural and societal norms, particu- larly individualism (Ellinor & Gerard, 1998; Tee & Liang, 2005); organizational cultures (Marsick
& Watkins, 1993, Scheeres & Rhodes, 2006); and individual psychological barriers (Maurer, 2008; Tee & Liang, 2005).
Given that dialogue is considered a key strategy in organizational learning, it is crucial to improve dialogue by “finding effective ways to help in- dividuals and systems clarify their assumptions and mental models” (Brown & Starkey, 2000, p. 355). Some of the online platforms depicted in Table 1 (e.g., virtual communities, virtual learning environments, and virtual worlds) can be useful venues to allow individuals to feel comfortable and safe sharing and challenging different thoughts without experiencing confrontation, discomfort, or intimidation as they may do in the traditional, face-to-face context.
Forming Virtual Communities of Practice (VCoPs)
The idea that learning involves a deepening process of participation in a community of practice has gained significant ground in recent years (Tseng &McLean, 2008). As Wenger (2002) put forth, a community of practice is:
“a group of people informally bound together by shared expertise and passion...Regardless of the circumstances that give rise to communities of practice, their members inevitably share knowl- edge in free-flowing, creative ways that foster new approaches to problems….The purpose of the community of practice is to develop members’ capabilities; to build and exchange knowledge.” (pp. 1-6)
Communities of practice are advantageous to organizational learning at team or group levels (Tseng & McLean, 2008), because it has the po- tential to lead to “the most intensive interaction and knowledge generation and exchange” (Ardi- chvili, 2002, p. 456). Virtual environments enable the co-creation of knowledge which promotes the formation of virtual communities of prac-
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tice, “important vehicles for collective learning in the workplace” (Ardichvili, 2008, p. 541). In case studies of organizational learning within six high-technology firms in Taiwan, Lien, Hung, and McLean (2007) found that VCoPs contributed to the linkage of knowledge sharing and knowledge management. Technological tools which can be used for online community discussions and col- laboration include Web conferencing (enabling virtual meetings between geographically dispersed members), interactive chat tools (enabling direct real-time interaction among participants), and Voiceover IP (an Internet protocol that facilitates real-time voice communication over the Internet). These tools can support the generation and sharing of both explicit and tacit knowledge (Ardichvili, 2002).
Integrating Web-Based KM Systems to OL
As Ardichvili (2002) observed, “contemporary Web-based KM systems integrate real-time infor- mation sharing and coordination between various departments, knowledge sharing and discussion between individual employees and teams and
communities, skill databases, company yellow pages, product and service information, and Web presence for customer information gathering” (pp. 455-456). These features make a contemporary KM system an ideal tool for promoting organiza- tional learning. Table 2 presents some KM tools which are most relevant to organizational learn- ing. These tools provide an infrastructure through which knowledge is integrated and circulated to achieve knowledge optimization, building the potential for innovation.
FUTURE TRENDS
Organizations which are able to learn and effec- tively use their collective knowledge are likely to generate higher levels of productivity. Innova- tive organizations are adopting a wide variety of contemporary technologies to enable and improve work processes. We will continue to witness organizations to implement or integrate formal learning (onsite and online training) and informal learning (knowledge management, performance support systems, and mentoring/coaching) using the ever rapidly developing digital technologies.
Table 2. Contemporary web-based KM tools for organizational learning (Source: Adapted from Ardi- chvili (2002)
Categories Sample Tools Features Application to OL
Intranets and extranets Search engines Databases
Offering easy access to the wealth of information from the Web Flexibility Portability Reduced cost
Information acquisition; Information dissemination
Virtual community col- laboration tools
Web conferencing interactive chat tools Voiceover IP
Enabling the most intensive interac- tion and knowledge generation and exchange
Knowledge creation; Knowledge sharing
Data warehousing and analysis tools
Case-based reasoning Inference modeling
Allowing the search of a collection of past cases for attributes that match the current cases; Allowing the analysis of historical operational data to uncover needed information; Increased efficiency; Reduced cost
Information interpretation; Information storage
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In this regard, knowledge management will con- tinue to evolve as a combination of information repositories, virtual communities and networks, and experts/expertise; e-training will continue moving towards e-learning which consists of online training, KM, and performance support systems. These projections are in agreement with Marsick’s (2009) observation that informational learning often happens in the pursuit of a mix of individual and organizationally set goals; and research will be more fruitful if studied in the context of KM within organizations.
Organizational learning processes can be enhanced through the utilization of modern tech- nologies; but organizations must be prepared to do broader, more critical thinking about how to manage processes which require cooperation, mutual adjustment, and sharing of resources. Adoption and utilization of ICTs will continue shaping and redefining interactions among people, technologies, and techniques that are located in social and technical systems (Bhatt, 2001). Burris (1998) proposed that ICTs “assume the form of visible, functional decentralization (e.g., a com- puter terminal in every office or throughout the shop floor) but with an underlying centralization of control” (p. 145). Marchand, Kettinger, and Rollins coined the term “Information Orientation” to describe preparedness to use this approach for managing knowledge (Detlor et al., 2006).
For human resource development (HRD), a field of practice which has a keen interest in learning, moving toward technology-based or- ganizational learning practices has significant implications. In the technology-enabled learning environment, HRD practitioners are more likely to assume a different role, that is, facilitator rather than trainer (Sambrook, 2005). They can take a leading part in providing initial and follow- up training in the use of virtual platforms for knowledge management (Ardichivili, 2008). By organizing periodic, formative feedback and user evaluations, HRD professionals can also provide continuous improvement for employees operating
in virtual environments. In addition, the rapidly changing nature of technology is likely to make HRD practitioners’ technological know-how increasingly obsolete. To overcome the lack of technological proficiency—a success factor in virtual environments (Ardichivili, 2008) --- HRD practitioners must engage in continuous learning so that they can acquire the necessary skill sets that enable them to design effective technical support for organizational learning.
For scholars who are interested in this line of inquiry, there is much that can be done. The following questions are intended to trigger more research. And, I strongly encourage researchers to explore these questions by engaging in empirical studies so that many of the current conceptualiza- tions can be tested and validated in reality.
• What types of technologies have been ad- opted by organizations in their learning processes?
• How effective are virtual platforms in fa- cilitating organizational learning?
• How has technology been integrated into organizational learning processes?
• What factors influence the dual effects of technology in organizational learning?
• What skill sets are required for learning in virtual environments?
• What technological tools can be useful for organizational knowledge management?
• What is the implication of virtual orga- nizational learning to human resource development?
• What challenges are associated with orga- nizational learning in virtual environments?
CONCLUSION
As technology continues to advance at a fast pace, we are likely to witness technology continuing to shape the social, political, economic, and educa- tional interests of organizations (Greisler & Stu-
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pak, 2007) and their practices. For organizations, the only way to keep up with the rapid changes and become successful in the knowledge-intensive world is to engage in learning. With the flexibility and access it provides, technology will likely be viewed as one of the most valuable tools for stimulating learning and innovation.
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Organizational Learning and Technology
KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS
Information: Documents, data, and structured messages.
Information Technology: A broad spectrum of communication media and devices which link information systems and people.
Knowledge: Validated information and un- derstanding acquired through personal experience and individual learning.
Knowledge Creation: Organizational ability to create and disseminate knowledge and transfer it into products and services.
Knowledge Management: A process of managing information, quality, and human capi- tal. It emphasizes more on knowledge use than knowledge availability.
Learning: A continuous, experience-based process characterized by dynamic interaction between the individual and the environment.
Learning Organization: An organization where learning for all employees is embedded in the organizational culture, values, policies, structures, systems, and practices.
Organizational Learning: A process in which organizations as a whole acquire, disseminate, and utilize knowledge that has the potential to induce cognitive and behavior changes and improve organizational effectiveness.
Technology: Human constructed tools that aim at facilitating work processes and improving efficiency.
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Copyright © 2012, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
Chapter 13
DOI: 10.4018/978-1-61350-068-2.ch013
James A. Bernauer Robert Morris University, USA
Christopher T. Davis Robert Morris University, USA
Lawrence A. Tomei Robert Morris University, USA
The Integrated Readiness Matrix:
A New Model for Integrating Pedagogy and Technology into Higher
Education Faculty Development
ABSTRACT
This chapter introduces the Integrated Readiness Matrix (IRM) designed to place faculty skills and competencies along two critical aspects of teaching and learning: the pedagogical and technology dimensions of education. Bloom’s Taxonomy and Gardner’s Theory of Multiple Intelligences provide the foundations for developing faculty into more effective classroom teachers. The Taxonomy for the Technology Domain suggests a new perspective for infusing technology into the traditional and online classroom and provides the spectrum of capabilities that actually produce learning. Faculty should seek to move themselves up on either or both dimensions; the IRM will assist in this endeavor. Technology coordinators can use the IRM as a guide to develop courses that specifically target faculty based on their position in one of the five recognized sectors of the IRM. The IRM model is ready for consideration now; future work will focus on the implementation of the matrix and an evaluation of its effectiveness.
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INTRODUCTION
Educators often voice unity with the appeal of integrating technology with instruction, yet most are not well prepared to use it to its fullest potential in the classroom. Higher education faculties are most often recruited not for the preliminary dem- onstrations of their teaching ability but for their expertise in a particular discipline. Engineering instructors, for example, often come with me- chanical, civil, or electrical credentials. Similarly, computer information systems faculties often have a successful history of applied technology in the business environment. In truth, except for possibly education faculty, college and university teachers have not had appreciable preparation in pedagogical principles or classroom technologies much less a formal preparation in how to integrate these two theoretical foundations into successful instructional strategies.
To be successful in the classroom, faculty must become aware of the various dynamics that come into play when designing, developing, and delivering a lesson. All too often, higher education faculty discover that a lecture or group discussion, delivered and well-received perhaps dozens of times previously, suddenly is a failure among students in their current course. Reflections by the instructor are little help for, in truth, many suggest that they are just as much in awe of their previous successes as their current collapse. Without the fundamental grasp of instructional strategies and learning theories, diagnosis and repair of ineffec- tive deliveries will almost certainly remain elusive.
Instructional technology is another tool of applied pedagogy seeking to increase student learning. Yet it, too, is fraught with penalties and consequences when delivered by ill-prepared faculty. Computers, handheld devices, educational software, learning management systems, and on- line social networking venues have the potential for infusing excitement and exhilaration into lessons. They are utterly imperative to the online learner. Still, as with pedagogical principles, technology
can be unintentionally misapplied by the novice teacher who mistakes digital presentations for academic content and computers for teaching.
In order to close this gap between learning and teaching, an instrument called the Integrated Readiness Matrix (IRM) was developed to help college faculty locate themselves with respect to both their pedagogical and technological aspira- tions. The IRM was designed to go beyond simply identifying the characteristics of “integrators” and “non-integrators.” It provides information needed to facilitate simultaneous faculty development along both critical dimensions. This diagnostic information can be used by instructional technolo- gists to design faculty classes that will facilitate moving faculty higher on either or both of these dimensions. This review begins with a look at the learning theories and instructional strategies that make for successful lessons.
BACKGROUND
Learning Theories
Obviously, there are numerous theories con- cerning how we learn. For our purposes here, Bloom’s Taxonomy and Gardner’s Theory of Multiple Intelligences will lay the foundations for the Integrated Readiness Matrix as a model for developing higher education faculty into more effective classroom teachers.
Bloom’s Taxonomy for the Cognitive Domain
Bloom (1956) together with four colleagues and with input from 29 other scholars developed a tax- onomy of educational objectives in three domains; here, the cognitive domain is most applicable. With some procedural revisions considered in the latter part of the twentieth century (Anderson & Krath- wohl, 2001), the top two levels of the hierarchy
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were reversed and the taxonomy reinvigorated for expanded use in education (Figure 1).
We believe that the reason for the longevity of the taxonomy is very simple – it continues to be a ubiquitous tool for instruction and assessment. Even in its earliest design, Bloom’s taxonomy was the most comprehensive attempt to classify educational objectives for the purpose of both curriculum and assessment development and most generally to “facilitate communication” (p. 10). The revised levels of the taxonomy are now defined as:
1. Remembering: the acquisition of learned material and the ability to retrieve, recognize, and recall relevant knowledge from short or long-term memory. Knowing common terms; articulating specific facts; and, de- scribing methods, procedures, and concepts are examples of learning at this level.
2. Understanding: an awareness of the lit- eral meaning of information contained in instruction and being able to evidence an understanding of the relationships between the elements that comprise the academic content presented.
3. Applying: the ability to assimilate (i.e., in- corporated into existing schema for solving a problem) or accommodate (i.e., creating
new ways of dealing with problems) learned content. It also includes applying new learn- ing to different situations.
4. Analyzing: the ability to examine a problem and detach the various components to bet- ter focus attention. Analysis involves going from the general to the specific.
5. Evaluating: the ability to make judgments based on criteria or standards along with the skill to critique the value of content for a specific purpose. Evaluation is based on definite criteria or relevance to the stated purpose.
6. Creating: the highest level of the cognitive domain. All other levels are encompassed in the ability to evaluate based on clearly defined criteria. This level of the taxonomy combines disparate parts to form new con- cepts or ideas; considering a problem from specific to general concepts.
Bloom’s taxonomy is ideal for writing learn- ing objectives. Instructional learning objectives are specific, measurable and observable student behaviors. An objective describes a performance that learners must exhibit before being considered competent. A learning objective is created when all four ABCD elements are combined:
1. Audience: the target of the learning objective 2. Behavior: the observable result 3. Condition: the tools provided by the instruc-
tor, given to the learner, to effect the transfer of information necessary to meet the learning objective, and
4. Degree: the criteria that must be attained to be considered proficient
Here is an example behavioral learning objec- tive for your consideration:
Given a map of the United States (condition), fifth- grade students (audience) will be able to correctly
Figure 1. Bloom’s revised taxonomy (Anderson & Krathwohl, 2001)
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match (behavior) at least 45 of 50 (degree) states with its capital city.
Another example objective is written at a higher level:
After watching the video, Twelve O’clock High, (condition) students in the Graduate Management Program (audience) will prepare a 300-word pa- per and present a five-minute brief (behavior) to the class following the assessment rubric provide by the instructor (degree).
Notice that all four elements are readily iden- tifiable in both objectives. The first objective is written at the knowledge level; the second objec- tive is written at a higher level (analysis at least). Both objectives, however, are written behaviorally so they are easy to understand and straightforward to assess.
So, the primary value of the taxonomy is twofold, First, a taxonomy allows teachers to help students learn by acquiring an increasingly complex level of skills and laying the suitable foundation at the lower levels of cognition for higher order thinking. Second, and most important for our purposes in this paper, a taxonomy provides a basis for developing instructional strategies that can address the learning levels of all students in a classroom.
Howard Gardner’s Theory of Multiple Intelligence
Multiple intelligence is a strategy for addressing the diverse learning styles of students. Students learn in different ways, at different speeds, and at different times. Some students learn easier by reading, some by listening and watching, and some by hands-on practice. Howard Gardner’s theory has identified eight distinct intelligences:
1. Linguistic intelligence measures a learner’s effective use of words. Such learners have
highly developed auditory skills and often think abstractly, preferring to use words rather than tools; reading rather than speak- ing, and playing word games rather than tactile interaction.
2. Logical -Mathematical intelligence focuses on reasoning and calculating skills. Learners here think more conceptually and abstractly and are able to recognize and investigate patterns and relationships. Such learners prefer experimentation, puzzles, and global problems.
3. Visual-Spatial learners think in terms of space, distance, and intervals. Architects, pilots, and designers are common vocations that pique the use of this intelligence. They prefer to draw, do jigsaw puzzles, and are good at map reading.
4. Bodily-Kinesthetic is characterized by learners who evidence a keen sense of body awareness. They prefer movement, feeling and tactile sensations. They communicate through body language and are taught best when engaged in physical activity, hands-on learning, acting out, and role playing.
5. Musical intelligence promotes sensitivity to rhythm, patterns, and sound. Learners love music and often study better with noise in the background. They turn lessons (e.g., memory demands) into lyrics and speaking rhythmically.
6. Interpersonal intelligence involves under- standing and interacting with others. Such students have many friends, evidence em- pathy for others, and are characterized as “street smart.” They are taught best through group activities and projects and prefer to use tools that put them in contact with others.
7. Intrapersonal intelligence is an understand- ing of one’s own interests, strengths, and goals. More introverted, such learners are in tune with their inner feelings and charac- terized as having intelligence, intuition and motivation. Independent study is often the
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best modality for these individuals and their best tools include books (electronic books are acceptable) and online logs, calendars, and diaries. They are the most independent of the learners.
8. Naturalist intelligence is the human ability to recognize plants, animals, and other parts of the natural environment, like clouds or rocks and categorize and draw upon certain features of the environment. Simulations are excellent applications of technology as are computer-enhanced instruments such as electron microscopes and digital probes.
Teachers increase opportunities for learning by using a number of media to present ideas and information and by encouraging students to construct and express knowledge in a variety of ways. Students review when necessary to ensure understanding or check memory. Students use a variety of tools to develop their visual, kinesthetic, aural, and oral skills.
A substantial number of teachers use Bloom’s taxonomy to prepare their lesson plans. Combined with an understanding of Gardner’s multiple in- telligences, they are able to devise an assortment of instructional strategies aimed at particular segments of their classroom. Following are ex- amples of some of the more commonly accepted instructional applications.
Instructional Strategies
Differentiated Instruction
The basic application of differentiated instruction is fairly straightforward; that is, teachers should take into account not only the subject matter taught but also the numerous individual learning styles of the students they teach (Woolfolk, 2111). Dif- ferentiated instruction involves an understanding that effective instruction is student- rather than teacher-centered. Students learn in different ways based on their backgrounds, abilities, experiences,
and interests. Differentiating instruction is more likely to be encouraged in K-12 education where the classroom is noticeably more diverse in terms of ethnic, economic and linguistic characteristics as a result of the greater inclusion of students with a mixture of physical, social, and emotional issues (Jackson & Davis, 2000; Tomlinson, 2005). Higher education tends to homogenize the population of students, selecting the more academic successful and thereby refining the range of applicable learner characteristics.
By utilizing different instructional practices, teachers can promote similar standards of achieve- ment while taking into account different ways of learning (Anderson, & Krathwohl, 2001; Bloom et al, 1956; Gardner, 1983; Gardner, 2003). By using differentiated instruction, teachers find themselves able to tap into one of the most criti- cal dimensions of learning; that is, the intrinsic motivation of students to learn that is activated when instruction is perceived as both meaningful and worthwhile.
Active Learning
Active learning is an instructional strategy where students assume a high level of personal interac- tion and individual responsibility for how and what they learn. Active learners become involved in the selection, presentation, and assessment of learning rather than mere bystanders in a didactic classroom. Instructors create an active learning situation by assigning a complex topic and using a variety of tools to provide a richer resource for personalized investigation. Students, rather than teachers, explore and arrange the information in order to bring the learning to its logical conclusion.
Some examples of active learning include research projects where students propose a hy- pothesis, define the methodologies they will use to test their theories, and then conduct and collect data that either proves or disproves the original suppositions. Classroom presentations are still further examples of active learning in which stu-
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dents take the role of teacher rather that learner. School and community-based projects offer the active learner immersion in real-life situations. Technology can enhance active learning via the use of powerful hardware and software tools such as digital video equipment, audio recorders, video and compact discs, telecommunications, and per- sonal digital assistants. Computer simulation is another excellent technology for activating learn- ing, especially when the topic under consideration is too dangerous, time-consuming, expensive, simply impossible to recreate.
Cooperative Learning
Cooperative learning calls for students to work in small groups to achieve shared learning objectives. The most effective application of cooperative learning is found when instructors team learners of different abilities, interests, and backgrounds. Research is quick to note, however, that instruc- tors are not exempt from the responsibility to ensure that learning has occurred. Teachers may create these learning environments by establish- ing groups, helping students to determine group goals, and teaching students cooperative learning skills. But they remain in charge of the class and, ultimately, accountable for the learning outcomes of the lesson. Some well-known applications of cooperative learning include distributed leadership (where group members are assigned different roles within the group), heterogeneous interdependence (where all students experience success or failure together), positive achievement (where everybody is expected – and graded – based on their con- tributions to the outcome), and group autonomy (where groups are encouraged to develop their own unique process for interaction and explora- tion – usually saved for more mature learners).
Collaborative writing exercises, problem- solving via brainstorming, and peer collaboration and tutoring are further examples of cooperative learning opportunities.
Synchronous and asynchronous telecommu- nications may be the most logical application of technology to support cooperation, removing the geographic separations for students who may be online in different parts of the country or the world. Multimedia presentations that integrate video and audio clips, images harvested from the internet or personal cameras, and web sites created to host lesson content are ways in which technology can support this highly successful teaching strategy.
Learning Across Disciplines
Learning across the disciplines is an effective strat- egy for tying together related learning objectives from various academic disciplines. Especially appropriate at the secondary and post-secondary levels, learning across disciplines places an em- phasis on teachers from different departments collaborating on projects of importance to two or more classes. Writing across the curriculum is perhaps one of the oldest and most successful ap- plications of this instructional technique; however, this form of instruction also includes thematic projects, community based research projects, and team-teaching. Creating integrated products or multimedia presentations are the most com- mon forms of outcomes from LAD projects. But spreadsheets, databases, and desktop publishing packages also provide a venue for demonstrating mastery using this technique.
NEED FOR A NEW MODEL
Issues, Controversies, Problems: Learning Theories and Instructional Technology
The Technology Domain
Since the introduction of the first taxonomies for cognitive learning, social interaction, and physical development, other classifications have followed.
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They have become recognized by many as the essential building blocks for writing measurable learning objectives, creating lesson plans, and evaluating student learning outcomes. It was not until 1998 that Tomei began to explore a taxonomy for technology – perhaps the newest pedagogy for learning in the last 30 years. Many educators have already come to accept distance learning as the newest and perhaps most important teaching strategy ever to hit the classroom. An accepted taxonomy suggests a new perspective for viewing technology and the spectrum of capabilities that actually produce learning.
The Taxonomy for the Technology Domain, like its predecessors, includes a progressive level of complexity from simple to complex, first to last, general to specific. The six interconnected levels of literacy (see Figure 2), communica- tions, decision-making, tech-ology for learning, technology for teaching, and technology offer a new conception for technology-related learning objectives and technology-based student learning Tomei (2005).
Technology for Literacy (Level 1.0) represents the simplest level of technology-based learning.
At this level of the taxonomy, literacy is defined as “the minimum degree of competency expected of teachers and students with respect to technol- ogy, computers, educational programs, office productivity software, the Internet, and their synergistic effectiveness as a learning strategy.” The first rung on the ladder of taxonomy estab- lishes the most fundamental literacies for the technological learner.
Technology for Collaboration (Level 2.0) is defined as “the ability to employ technology for effective interpersonal interaction.” Effective use of technology by learners includes appropriate written and aural communication. Skills at this level of the taxonomy are evidenced by sharing information in written form (word processing, desktop publishing), by participating in and in- terpreting interpersonal dialog (via newsgroups, list servers, and chat rooms), and by responding to directed personal interchange (electronic mail).
Technology for Decision-Making (Level 3.0) refers to the “ability to use technology in new and concrete situations to analyze, assess, and judge.” Included in this definition is an assumed mastery of the concepts and skills from the previ-
Figure 2. Taxonomy for the technology domain (Tomei, 2005)
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ous two levels. Many distance education courses are housed within an online course development environment that provide the course designer a password-protected setting that simultaneously offers the legitimate student unlimited access to online resources while discouraging unethical downloading of course materials by unscrupulous browsers. They also offer the instructor ready- made drag-and-drop features such as bulletin boards, chat rooms, calendars, email, whiteboards, and quizzes that take advantage of the multitude of online student learning strategies and thereby promote student understanding. Decision-making technology includes such important tools thinking and learning tools as spreadsheets, brainstorm- ing software, statistical analysis packages, and virtual tours.
Technology for Learning (Level 4.0) recognizes technology as a powerful strategy for uncover- ing and exploring academic content. Level 4.0 is concerned with the “identification, harvest- ing, and applications of existing technology to unique learning situations.” Here, learners move from a previous concentration on the external use of technology to solve particular problems to an internal application of technology to learn. Teachers, whether online in a distance environ- ment or in the traditional classroom, are expected to have a firm grasp of their academic content. The taxonomy expands these expectations by incorporating technology-based instructional materials: printed, audiovisual, and web-based technology is employed in addition to the more typical category of educational software.
Technology for Teaching (Level 5.0) is con- cerned with the creation of new technology-based materials, combining otherwise disparate tech- nologies to teach. Appropriate technologies are identified and harvested; however, at this level, the objective of integration is to develop new, previously non-existent, innovative instructional materials to enhance learner understanding. The Internet often presents sites containing extremely
relevant, but often disjointed, material. Using integrated technology, the teacher captures online text, an image, sound, or video clip, and perhaps a few hyperlinks to bring together a lesson ap- propriate for the needs of the logical learner. Text-based materials attract the tactile learner while multimedia-based lessons appeal to the learning styles of the visual/spatial learner. Web- based instruction focuses on the strengths of the self-motivated learner. The best in online teaching uses as many available technologies as practical given student backgrounds and teaching time constraints, presenting instruction in a variety of formats which allow students to select the one that best fits their own personal learning style.
Tech-ology (Level 6.0) refers to the ability to judge the universal impact, shared values, and social implications of technology use and its influence on teaching and learning. Tech-ology addresses the study of technology and many is- sues related to the effect of technology on the individual learner, the educational institution, the community, and society as a whole. Many issues necessarily come to the fore. Multicultural issues, for example, include the increasing disparity of computer access between the wealthy and poor; the availability of information between the computer “haves’ and have-nots;” copyright and fair use laws; censorship on the Internet; and, legal and ethical behavior when using information obtained using technology.
Management Theories and Instructional Strategies
The Managerial Grid
In 1964, Robert Blake and Jane Mouton devel- oped the Managerial Grid that establishes a view of the interrelationship of people and product- oriented management styles. Their grid uses two behavioral dimensions: Concern for People and Concern for Task.
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• Concern for People - The degree to which a manager places the needs of team mem- bers, their interests, and areas of personal development foremost when deciding how best to accomplish a task
• Concern for Task - The degree to which a manager emphasizes concrete objectives, organizational efficiency and high produc- tivity when deciding how best to accom- plish a task.
Blake and Mouton proposed a graphic portrayal of leadership styles through a two-dimensional grid with concern for people (accommodating people’s needs and giving them priority) on the y-axis and concern for task orientation (meeting objectives and deadlines) on the x-axis. When they positioned their range of performances along an axis ranging from low (1) to high (9), they found they had created 81 different positions in which the leader’s style may fall. (See Figure 3).
They also determined that the extremes as well as the mid-range provided for five easily identifi- able leadership styles. Some authors call each of the regions showed above by their x-y coordinates (e.g., “he/she is a 9,1 manager”); others give each of the regions a descriptor (e.g., “the country club manager”). Either way, a short description of each of the regions is beneficial at this juncture.
Country Club Leader (1,9): high people/low production. Country club managers are most con- cerned about the needs and feelings of members of the team. They operate under the assumption that as long as team members are content and feel their positions are secure, they will work up to the demands of the job. The leader gives thoughtful attention to the needs of people thus providing them with a friendly and comfortable environ- ment, but often does so at the risk to meeting the tasks established by top management.
• Task Master Leader (9,1): high production/ low people. Also known as authoritarians,
Figure 3. Blake-Mouton managerial grid
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this brand of manager is more concerned about production and has less concern for people. Employees are simply a means to an end.
• Impoverished Leader (1,1): low produc- tion/ low people. The most ineffective range of the grid, managers in this sector are low on both dimensions and exercise the lowest possible effort to get the work done from subordinates. The leader has an equally low concern for employee satisfac- tion and deadlines.
• Middle-of-the-Road Leader (5,5): me- dium production/medium people. Leaders who use this style settle for average per- formance. They believe that this is the most anyone can expect. The leader does not push the boundaries of achievement most often resulting in run of the mill performance for both the staff and the organization.
• Team Leader (9,9): high production/high people. According to the Blake-Mouton model, the team leadership segment is the pinnacle of managerial style. The leader feels empowered, committed to people and the job, and respects a team atmosphere that results in high employee satisfaction and production.
• The construct of five distinct styles (and re- spective sectors on the grid) will be applied to the Integrated Readiness Matrix.
SOLUTIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Creating the Model for Pedagogical and Technology
The Pedagogical Y-Axis
Not surprisingly, when trying to determine what should define the “Y axis” of the Integrated Readi-
ness Matrix, the authors chose the most widely used taxonomy for the cognitive domain. For our purposes here, the revised taxonomy (circa 1999) will be used rather than Bloom’s initial iteration.
In order to locate faculty along the pedagogi- cal y-axis dimension, the IRM utilizes cognitive objectives based on Bloom’s Taxonomy as well as concepts borrowed from educational psychology previously discussed in this chapter. In addition to cognitive mapping, the y-axis also incorporates faculty identification according to their current use of instructional delivery methods such as differ- entiated instruction, active learning, cooperative learning, learning across disciplines, etc. The net result of using both cognitive and instructional delivery modalities to “locate” faculty along the y-axis is a more complete pedagogical picture of their current status that can encourage professional development providers to explore potentially effective pedagogical strategies that were not a part of the faculty’s previous teaching repertoire.
The Technological X-Axis
The Taxonomy for the Technology Domain becomes the pivotal focus for the technological x-axis of the Integrated Readiness Matrix. Suc- cessfully integrating technology into instructional standards, lesson plans, and learning environments follows a hierarchy of increasingly sophisticated applications (similar to the cognitive domain). Literacy, collaboration, decision-making, tech- nology for learning, technology for teaching, and tech-ology offer a new perspective for higher education. The technology taxonomy serves as a guide during the analysis, design, development, implementation, and evaluation of new technol- ogy-based instructional materials.
The Integrated Readiness Matrix
Finally, when the pedagogical y-axis is fused with the technological x-axis, it defines an archetype of genuine integrated instruction where technology
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is used in concert with instructional methods to help achieve the desired levels of learning out- comes (Figure 4).
When attempting to transpose Bloom’s revised taxonomy and Tomei’s technology taxonomy, five segments emerge that, similar to Blake & Mouton’s Managerial Grid, seem to accurately describe the majority of higher education faculty. The catego- ries take into account the teaching skills of the faculty as well as the technology integration skills of the faculty. Each of these categories is a unique blend of teaching skills and technology integration competencies as faculty members concisely iden- tify the strengths and weaknesses of their respec- tive skill sets.
The Aspirer faculty member teaches classes utilizing the lower levels of questioning and teaching methods. This deficiency may be due to a lack of teaching skills or mastery of the content area. However, as most higher education faculty have terminal degrees in their respective fields, it is unlikely that the deficiency lies in the indi- vidual’s grasp of the content. It is far more likely that the faculty member has immature teaching skills in general. Most colleges and universities provide little to no training for faculty in the
areas of pedagogy or technology as it relates to instructional design.
Without a strong grasp of instructional strat- egies, classroom management, and assessment principles, it is an unfortunate truth that the average higher education faculty spends an in- ordinate amount of time in the lower levels (i.e. remembering, understanding, and applying) of Bloom’s Taxonomy as well as the lower levels (i.e., literacy, collaboration, and decision-making) of Tomei’s Taxonomy. This is not to say that an individual who fits into this category never delves into higher order thinking or technology; it merely points to the fact that a majority of the instructional activities are lower level in nature.
Compounding the challenges of the Aspirer, such instructors typically possess very poor technology integration skills. Again, this is most likely a factor of lack of training. Instructors in this segment may understand the basic technol- ogy functions associated with teaching such as email, Internet browsing and possible the use of a learning management system to host files for students. However, for the Aspirer the technology never really becomes part of the teaching and learning process. Rather, the technology serves
Figure 4. Integrated readiness matrix
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almost as a crutch to the faculty to support their teaching. In some cases, the technology may ac- tually be a hindrance if the faculty member is a technophobe or has a very negative opinion of the use of technology. It is important that instructors in this segment are targeted by their school of remediation in both instructional strategies and educational technology.
While the Sage on the Stage is most likely a gifted teacher who understands the importance of instructional design and sound teaching prin- ciples, this person is severely lacking in the area of educational technology. While many colleges and universities offer training to faculty in technology for the classroom, this training usually stops at the functionality of the product. Seldom, does a school explore the actual educational applications of the technology piece. Because of this lack in education and technology fusion, they have become far too common in higher education settings.
There are several reasons why an instructor has underdeveloped technology skills. First, they may be a technophobe. Many older faculty are intimidated by technology. They tend to see it as something that adds work and stress into their life. They may also see technology as something that can “break” and should therefore be avoided for fear of appearing incompetent to their students. Second, they may not see or understand the educa- tional application of the technology. Although they see the “wow” factor of technology, they simply do not understand how it fits into the classroom and how it can be leveraged to increase student learning and achievement. Finally, they may simply reject the use of technology. Instructors who adopt this attitude likely have a long track record of successful teaching and simply do not wish to “clutter” their delivery with technology. Regardless, the Sage of the Stage can be very difficult (the term “curmudgeon” comes to mind) since they believe what they are doing in the past will continue to bear fruit with future, sufficiently motivated, students.
On the other extreme, the Dazzler can ma- nipulate technology better than most colleagues. The dazzler creates multimedia presentations that astonish even diehard technologists. The use of technology is pervasive in their teaching and at times can be overwhelming to the students. In fact, many dazzlers use their technology skills to deflect attention away from their lack of teaching skills or mastery of the content. Although this technique may work at first, students quickly see through the veil and often avoid these faculty when registering for next semester’s courses.
Dazzlers can be very difficult to remediate as they will tend to be very defensive about any perceived deficiencies: pedagogical or technologi- cal. However, with the right training and support, dazzlers can quickly ascend into the higher target segments.
The Pedestrian Implementer is the middle- of-the-road initiator. If someone can prove that a different instructional strategy or a new technol- ogy can help a student, perhaps the instructor will consider its use – or, perhaps not. Implementation is seldom mandated by either student performance or persistence. Past successes are the best gauge of future potential; therefore, the pedestrian imple- menter feels no obligation to integrate the latest technology simply because every student in class owns an iPhone, a PDA, or a Facebook account.
Master Integrators are the epitome of college instructors. These faculty members understand the effective use of instructional strategies and have a solid understanding of how the taxonomies impact teaching, learning, student motivation, and learning outcomes. Such instructors tend to be very self-motivated, eager to learn new technologies, and willing to become early adopters of technolo- gies they believe could benefit their students.
Master integrators challenge learners by offer- ing instruction at the highest levels of the cognitive and technological domains. They support instruc- tion by implementing technology in the classroom beyond basic communication and literacy needs and they are not threatened when students evidence
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a higher degree of skill in either domain. These instructors typically create learning assessments that offer students not only the opportunity to show mastery of the content through traditional means, but also a chance to create and synthesize what they know in meaningful, technological artifacts that are more native to their digital world.
Determining Faculty Location on the Integrated Readiness
Too much college and university teaching occurs at the lower levels of both taxonomies. While several reasons can be offered, the most serious is probably the lack of pedagogical and technology training opportunities for faculty with a consequent lack of understanding and skill. The Integrated Readiness Matrix addresses these shortcomings by exploring how pedagogy and technology should be applied when teaching college and university students.
But first, it is imperative that faculty be aware of where they fall on the IRM. The following steps are provided to gauge where faculty is positioned on the grid so that they can then identify ways of becoming competent in both dimensions.
By plotting a location on the x-y grid, not only can faculty assess where they need to improve, but professional development programs can be designed by college and university administrators to assist their personal growth in these critical areas of pedagogy and technology.
• Step One: Determine Your Level of Teach- ing in the Cognitive Domain ◦ Locate recent syllabi from courses
that you have taught within the last four years.
◦ Without modifications and using the Table of Cognitive Action Verbs in Appendix A, identify at what level of Bloom’s taxonomy each of your learning objectives was taught.
◦ Plot those objectives on the IRM, Figure 4. They will naturally cluster
into one or two (at the most) of the six levels.
• Step Two: Determine Your Level of Teach- ing in the Technology Domain ◦ Use the same syllabi and using the
Table of Technology Action Verbs in Appendix B to identify at what level of Tomei’s taxonomy each of your learning objectives was taught.
◦ Plot those objectives on the IRM, Figure 4. Again, they should natu- rally cluster into one or two of the six levels.
• Step Three: Identify your Integrated Readi- ness style. ◦ From the most predominant level of
the cognitive domain, draw a hori- zontal line to the right of the matrix.
◦ Similarly, from the most predominant level of the technology domain, draw a vertical line to the top of the matrix
◦ Where the two lines intersect will constitute your integrated readiness category.
• Step Four: Identify areas of improvement and develop your IR skills ◦ Look at your current IR method and
critically analyze its effectiveness. ◦ Look at ways you can improve. ◦ Identify ways to acquire different skill
sets to reach the Master Integrator po- sition, such as using: ▪ Computer simulations, games,
multimedia, books, tape record- ers, and recorded lectures (e.g., podcasts).
▪ Models, graphics, charts, im- ages, drawings, 3-D modeling, videoconferencing, television, multimedia, and text with charts and graphs.
▪ Technology that includes mu- sical instruments, audio files,
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radio, stereo, CD-ROM, and multimedia.
▪ Cell phones as well as audio, video, and computer conferenc- ing, and, of course, email.
▪ Questions designed to induce high-level cognitive processes such as analysis of ideas, com- parison and contrast, inference, prediction, and evaluation.
▪ Complex constructs, orienta- tions, values, and attitudes to make assessment more relevant and meaningful to the learner.
Summary: It is important to recognize that, although the Master Integrator style is considered the best of five segments, it may not always be the most effective approach in every situation. There are times when it is more acceptable to place a higher emphasis on cognitive skills than technology, and vice versa.
FUTURE TRENDS: PROPOSED RESEARCH STUDY USING THE INTEGRATED READINESS MATRIX
Demand for Professional Faculty Development
Fundamentally, experts in pedagogy and tech- nology are needed not only to administer and interpret the results of the IRM but also to provide the opportunities for professional development – programs to move faculty towards the top right portion of the matrix. More specifically, adopting the Integrated Readiness Matrix presumes that faculty will seek to be transformed into master integrators of technology. Centers of Teaching Excellence are encouraged to offer programs team-taught by technology and pedagogical ex- perts dedicated to creating a seamless learning
environment in which both are equally applied to improve student learning.
The ultimate success of the IRM will be mea- sured by the extent that institutions of higher edu- cation adopt an established practice of integrated instruction to break down walls that separate the cognitive and technology domains for college faculty and their students. It is therefore our contention that successful faculty development in colleges and universities demands that we provide opportunities for them to learn in an environment where pedagogy and technology are taught in an integrated manner.
Perhaps a future study of the IRM and its ap- plication in higher education could examine the pedagogical and technology dimensions (strengths and limitations) that lead to effective preparation of traditional classroom and e-learning instructors.
A future study of the IRM will evaluate its usefulness for faculty self-placement, course de- velopment, and impacts on instruction in higher education.
CONCLUSION
There is a demand for increased learning outcomes which demands that students can no longer be considered passive learners. In truth, they have evolved as constructors of their own knowledge. (Moshman, 1982; Piaget, 1964; Vygotsky, 1997). While there are differences in emphasis between those who stress the role of the individual (e.g., Piaget) and those who stress social interactions (e.g., Vygotsky), there is fundamental agreement that students are not vessels into which knowledge can be poured, but rather they play an active role in building their own individual understanding of ideas and events in order to make sense of them. An understanding of both pedagogy and technol- ogy can encourage student-centered approaches.
In a separate but linear vein, the success of the IRM will also be measured by the extent that institutions of higher education infuse integrated
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instruction into the syllabi and lesson objectives of its courses. The cognitive and technology do- mains have as much (and arguably, even more) application to student learning than instructional strategies.
Reserved for future study are the means and methodologies for raising awareness among learners that the IRM, with its pedagogical and technology dimensions, applies equally as well to them. Students should be afforded the opportunity to measure their level of cognitive and technologi- cal skills. Such research might tell an interesting tale of their exposure or temperance to the upper levels of the IRM hierarchy.
REFERENCES
Anderson, L. W., & Krathwohl, D. R. (Eds.). (2001). A taxonomy for learning, teaching, and assessing: A revision of Bloom’s taxonomy of educational objectives. New York, NY: Longman.
Bloom, B., Engelhart, M., Furst, E., Hill, W., & Krathwohl, D. (1956). Taxonomy of educational objectives. New York, NY: David McKay Com- pany, Inc.
Gardner, H. (1983). Frames of mind: The theory of multiple intelligences. New York, NY: Basic Books.
Gardner, H. (2003). Multiple intelligence after twenty years. Paper presented at the American Edu- cational Research Association, Chicago, Illinois.
Jackson, A., & Davis, G. (2000). Turning points 2000: Educating adolescents in the 21st century. New York, NY: Teachers College Press.
Moshman, D. (1982). Exogenous, endogenous, and dialectical constructivism. Developmental Review, 2, 371–384. doi:10.1016/0273-2297(82)90019-3
Piaget, J. (1964). Development and learning. In Ripple, R., & Rockcastle, V. (Eds.), Piaget rediscovered (pp. 7–20). Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.
Tomei, L. A. (2007). Taxonomy for the technology domain. Hershey, PA & New York, NY: Informa- tion Science Reference.
Vygotsky, L. S. (1997). Educational psychology (Silverman, R., Trans.). Boca Raton, FL: St. Lucie.
Woolfolk, A. (2011). Educational psychology (11th ed.). Boston, MA: Pearson.
KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS
Bloom’s Taxonomy: A classification system first developed in 1956 of six progressively hierarchical levels within the cognitive domain, from the simple recall or recognition of facts, through increasingly more complex and abstract mental levels, to the highest order of evaluation. Revised in 2001.
Instructional Strategies: Teaching strategies and methods used by teachers to instruct students based on a preferred school of educational psy- chology. Examples include Active Learning (Be- havioral), Differentiated Instruction (Cognitive), Learning Across Disciplines (Constructivism), and Cooperative Learning (Humanistic).
Integrated Readiness Matrix: An archetype of genuine integrated instruction where technology is used in concert with instructional methods to help achieve the desired levels of student learn- ing outcomes.
Learning Theories: A paradigm of educa- tional psychology that explains human behavior through the concept of learning and knowledge acquisition. The primary schools of educational learning theory include Behaviorism, Cognitiv- ism (including constructivism), and Humanism.
Managerial Grid: Method of classifying management leadership styles on the basis of the balance of their concern for people and tasks. There are 81 possible positions in the grid, ranging from a 9,1 leader (task manager) to the 9,9 leader (team manager).
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Multiple Intelligences: In recent years, other views of intelligence have emerged including the perspective that there are several kinds of “intel- ligence”, and that the most successful teachers are those who attempt to reach all students by adapt- ing their lessons to various types of intelligences exhibited in their classrooms.
Pedagogy: (literally, “child-instruction”). The art and science of teaching; the related processes of teaching. The term generally refers to instruc- tional strategies and learning styles considered as an integrated discipline.
Taxonomy: A classification of learning objec- tives within education that refers to the organiza- tion of different levels of learning objectives for students.
Taxonomy for the Technology Domain: A classification system that includes literacy, collaboration, decision-making, infusion, inte- gration, and technology. A progressively more sophisticated level of technology complexity that addresses increasingly complex student learning outcomes.
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APPENDIX A: TABLE OF COGNITIVE ACTION VERBS
APPENDIX B: TABLE OF TECHNOLOGY ACTION VERBS
Table 1.
Levels Skills Action Verbs
Knowledge/ Remembering Mastery of Content Define/Describe/List/Identify/Label
Comprehension/ Understanding Grasp Meaning of Content Explain/Predict/Defend/Extend
Application/ Applying Problem Solving Change/Compute/Modify/Solve
Analysis/ Analyzing Compare and Contrast Breaking into Components
Deduce/Differentiate/Infer/Relate
Synthesis (Original) Evaluating (Revised)
Combine and Integrate Manufacture new products Assess/ Assign Value
Compose/Create/Design/Rewrite Appraise/Criticize/Justify/Validate
Evaluation (Original) Creating (Revised)
Assess/ Assign Value Combine and Integrate Manufacture new products
Appraise/Criticize/Justify/Validate Compose/Create/Design/Rewrite
Table 2.
Levels Skills Action Verbs
Literacy Hardware operations Desktop operations Educational software Internet Windows
Cut, copy and paste text and images Download text and images Open, save, close, drag files Point and click to launch applications Save/store selected files
Collaboration Electronic mail Audio/Video-conferencing Online bulletin boards Virtual classroom Word processing
Edit, revised, and submit a term paper E-mail colleagues Participate in a chat session Post messages to a bulletin board
Decision-making Spreadsheets Database applications Statistical applications Grade book software Electronic surveys
Report using database Assess data via statistical software Develop a decision support systems Decide using spreadsheet
Technology for Learning Distance programs CDROM-based materials Satellite downlink programs Audio/Video equipment Text/Visual/Web-based materials
Harvest (select, download) digital content Incorporate educational software Investigate Web-based educational sites Adapt technologies to academic standards Burn a CD-ROM with digital lesson materials
Technology for Teaching Hyperbook Interactive PPt lessons Virtual tour Harvest images, sound, video
Construct an electronic portfolio Build an integrated thematic technology unit Produce an interactive lesson Harvest ed sites to create a Web Quest
Tech-ology Assistive Technologies Electronic Group Surveys Virtual Communities Online Research
Address technology equity Advocate for/ against technology issues Share students electronic diaries Judge moral issues re the use of technology
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Copyright © 2012, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
Chapter 14
INTRODUCTION
Organizations take many forms and sizes. A company comprised of five employees is an orga- nization. A multi-national corporation comprised of several hundred employees is an organiza- tion. A small college is an organization, and a mega-university is an organization. A church is a religious organization. Even a whole country can
be treated as an organization. As an organization, there must be rules and regulations. There must be leaders, managers, supervisors and above all employees, or followers or members. As an organization, there must be a hierarchy or chain of command. Otherwise, there may be chaos in any organizations. A society or a culture can also be an organization. People are the major players in any organizations. People in an organization
Victor C. X. Wang Florida Atlantic University, USA
A Critical Review of Learning Organizations
in the 21st Century
ABSTRACT
This article critically reviews what constitutes a learning organization. The author argues that a learn- ing organization is born out of a static organization. In determining whether organizations are learning organizations, components such as structure, atmosphere, management philosophy and attitudes, decision- making and policy-making, and communication must be considered. In addition, these components are discussed in comparison to the characteristics of static organizations. The theme of this article is such that in order for organizations to remain competitive in this global economy, organizational leaders must be flexible and people-centered. Successful organizational leaders should engage in the use of supportive power, involve high participation at all levels, and conduct multidirectional communication in order to turn static organizations into learning organizations.
DOI: 10.4018/978-1-61350-068-2.ch014
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make policies, rules, and regulations as to how people should contribute to a certain organization. There are organizations where people are takers from their organizations. There are organizations where people are basically contributors to their organizations.
People label organizations different names. Some organizations are labeled as learning orga- nizations (the term given to a company that facili- tates the learning of its members and continuously transforms itself. Learning organizations develop as a result of the pressures facing modern organi- zations and enables them to remain competitive in the business environment), and other organi- zations are labeled as static organizations (fixed practices, fixed size. Like static equations, these organizations have no variables -- time doesn’t change them significantly). It is not that people enjoy doing this without following certain rules or criteria. Certain criteria do apply when people label their organizations. Organizations leaders do many things in order to push their organiza- tions to a new height. Takers or contributors of organizations do have some common goals (even imposed upon them by their superiors), that is, organizations are supposed to add “value” to society. In Marx’s terms, humans are capable of producing “surplus value,” and it is this surplus value that helps human society make progress from one stage of development to another (Marx, 1929; Wang, 2006). Indeed, without the surplus value, humans would stay in the primitive state as a society.
In organizations, people receive education and training in order to be more productive citizens in society. Organizational leaders design training so that employees can be more educated. In this new century, people need more formal and informal education and training in order to work. In primi- tive society, people did not need education in order to work (Wang & King, 2008, 2009). Organized training can be traced back 6000 years ago when scribes received formal training in order to copy documentation from documentation. In order to
remain competitive, learning organizations are committed to providing education and training to all employees.
Any time leaders in certain organizations stop caring about the well-being of their employees, these organizations become static organizations, which means they face being eliminated from modern society as other learning organizations eventually replace these static organizations. Therefore, the survival of any organizations is directly related to the commitment and compe- tence of their leaders. If their leaders are corrupt, unethical, or incompetent, these organizations cannot move forward with the necessary changes to survive. These organizations will be down- sized, restructured, merged, or even collapsed. Ordinary people tend to believe that we live in the 21st century, and naturally leaders possess many needed leadership skills and management skills or competencies. These leaders may be found from learning organizations. However, very few can be found from static organizations. In the 21st century, static organizations may outnumber learning organizations. People tend to believe that cronyism, nepotism or appointing people by blood or friendship relationships were things of the past. History repeats itself in almost every aspect of life. In any organizations or even in a whole country, whether democratic or communist, leaders often hire their own people, people who are their relatives or their friends or people those leaders believe will listen to them once hired. Job advertisements or descriptions are done for the sake of showing to their superiors that they are hiring by the rules. Under the guise of those job descriptions, friends or relatives are hired. Those with real expertise are “interviewed” but not hired. Then, these organizations indicate to the outside world, “See, we are hiring the most qualified people via this democratic process or ‘shared governance.’.” This is not to say that every organization does its business like this. However, organizations that abuse their power in the 21st century are rampant. Due to their effective
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abuse of power, some other terms become the most talked about terms in today’s organizations. Certain leaders are portrayed as “incompetent, unqualified, puppet chairs, or leaders” who are closely associated with “hegemony, tyranny, dictatorship, totalitarian leadership style.” The list goes on. King of France Louis XV (1710-1774) stated before his passing, “It matters not at all to me whether, after my death, the flood or any other catastrophe comes.”
Indeed, many organization leaders become affluent and enjoy the rest of their lives after retirement. Organizations employees work hard to bring food to the table for their families. Yet, these people become poorer and poorer. When interviewed why corporation leaders or university leaders are paid a huge amount of dollars per year ($ 420,000 at least) (personal communication, K. Janousek, 2010), most people say, “terminal greed.” When it comes to saving jobs for part- time lecturers or those employees without tenure status, 10% cut of their salary means almost noth- ing to these organization leaders. However, it is the common employees who feel the pain of the 10% salary cut. Why not ask these organization leaders donate one third of their salaries to the whole society? Well, because these people are policy makers. They will not make any policies that will hurt themselves. They will do anything they can to make ordinary employees sacrifice their own benefits (Nelson, 2010). Blood drives, food drives, or any other campaigns are geared towards encouraging ordinary employees sacrifice their own benefits. Leaders are often empty talk- ers, and they are never doers.
Leaders for the common employees are Marx, Lenin or even Mao who advocated that com- mon employees are heavily exploited by their organization leaders. In some countries, ordinary employees listen to their teachings about being exploited and workers go on strike in order to ob- tain their benefits. However, in certain countries, any teachings from these aforementioned leaders are frowned upon. In certain organizations, those
employees who organize against organizational abuse are labeled as trouble makers, rogues, and they may even be black listed. Future employment for these “trouble makers” becomes difficult. Therefore, many ordinary employees are willing to be “exploited” in order to be labeled as a “team player.” Some organizations see all the ugliness of leaders as authoritarian leaders (Leadership style in which the leader dictates policies and procedures, decides what goals are to be achieved, and directs and controls all activities without any meaningful participation by the subordinates) and decide to hire some “benevolent dictators (a form of dictatorship in which an authoritarian leader exercises political power in an allegedly constructive and non-tyrannical way).” These organizations relatively can survive and thrive longer than those static organizations. Of course, they are not learning organizations, organizations that exist between learning organizations and static organizations. In the long run, they cannot survive forever. It is the learning organizations that will always make adjustments to thrive in any given society.
To depart from static organizations, today’s organizations must strive to become what we call learning organizations in order to remain competi- tive in a global economy (Petty & Brewer, 2005). Learning organizations are drastically different from static organizations in terms of structure, atmosphere, management philosophy, decision- making and communication. To redefine learning organizations, one has to approach structure, atmosphere, management philosophy, decision- making and communication because these are the indispensable aspects that may lead to the rise or fall of an organization in today’s competitive global economy. Today’s organizations have a choice to make. Whether they wish to remain a learning organization may depend on redefinition of these key concepts. While some organization leaders can speak eloquently about these key concepts, they never apply them to practice or they do not care to do so. These key concepts
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(structure, atmosphere, management philosophy, decision-making and communication) need to be redefined, analyzed and even “taught” to these organization leaders. Without being at least re- defined, organization leaders that are installed by their friends or relatives are clueless as to how to lead their followers in the 21st century.
BACKGROUND
Both scholars and practitioners have pointed out that learning organizations are born of static orga- nizations. It is just like the saying, “failure is the mother of success.” To better understand the at- tributes of learning organizations, some important aspects of static organizations must be discussed first. Numerous studies (Arends & Arends, 1977; Baldridge & Dean, 1975; Bennis, Benne, & Chin, 1968; Goodlad, 1975; Greiner, 1971) have indicated that static organizations possess some dimensions that are worth the attention of corporate leaders, university leaders, HRD (human resource development) and HRM (human resource man- agement) practitioners. Without the knowledge of static organizations, it will be extremely hard for static organizations to transform themselves into learning organizations. We all seem to agree that static organizations are first of all rigid (Knowles, 1978). These leaders rarely listen to any opin- ions from the followers; they always act on any mandate from their superiors. In organizations, employees label these rigid leaders as “kiss up, kick down type of leaders.” They may have been installed as puppet leaders for political reasons. In terms of commitment and competency, prob- ably, they possess neither. In these organizations, much energy is given to maintaining permanent departments and committees. Maintaining the status quo remains the norm in these organiza- tions. Anyone who wishes to be innovative gets demoted or penalized, or these leaders may say, “you don’t belong here.” Respect is given to tra- dition, constitution, and by-laws. Followers have
to do everything based on prescribed tradition or constitution. These organizations are hierarchical. Leadership is “top-down.” In other words, they adhere to chain of command. Employees’ roles are defined rather narrowly. Both organizational leaders and employees focus on tasks (Hersey & Blanchard, 1969). They are rather task oriented. Once tasks are completed in a timely manner, employees are praised as good employees. The organizational atmosphere is impersonal, cold, formal, reserved and suspicious. Personnel are managed through coercive power. Employees are afraid of losing their jobs if they do not listen to their supervisors. Leaders coerce employees into agreeing with them on every aspect of the work to be performed. Employees are cautious and afraid to take risks. They tend to avoid errors. One fatal error may cause them to lose employment. It is not an open system (McGregor, 1960).
How many organizations are operated like this? In reality, there are countless organizations that belong to static organizations. However, these or- ganizations leaders never admit that they are static organizations and face elimination due to global competition. They use flamboyant words to cover themselves. For example, they claim that they are committed to shared governance, democracy and transparency when it comes to decision mak- ing. They say one thing and do another. In these organizations, most employees call their leaders “politicians,” which means that these leaders care only about their own politics. The interest of em- ployees is the furthest thing in these leaders’ mind. Are they like the former King of France? Yes, in a certain way. These organizations feature closed system (in social sciences, it refers to a process that does not exchange material, energy, people, capital and information with its environment) re- garding sharing resources. There is little tolerance for ambiguity. In static organizations, there is high participation at top, but low participation at bot- tom. Employees are reserved and are not invested in organizational goals. There is clear distinction between policy-making and policy-execution. It
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is worth noting that decisions are made by legal mechanisms and that any decisions are considered final. In terms of communication, it is one-way communication or downward communication. Feelings are repressed or hidden. There is no natural flow of communication. Communication is rather constipated or restricted. These are the basic characteristics of static organizations that prevent today’s organizations from remaining competitive in a global economy.
Because static organizations reveal these obvious problems, HRD and HRM consultants constantly seek to solve these problems. Because these problems are manifold, solving one problem does not prevent static organizations from col- lapsing. The best solution is to transform these static organizations into learning organizations that will embrace these problems in a way that these organizations can be reinvigorated again in this global economy (Cramer & Wasiak, 2006). First, learning organizations must be redefined for all members, leaders and followers.
LEARNING ORGANIZATIONS
First of all, leaders from learning organizations learn to release the energy of followers. To release the energy of others, there are certain leadership skills that leaders should learn to follow. Once followers accomplish their tasks, leaders do not claim any credit. Instead, followers are praised for their efforts and contributions to the organiza- tions. Second, leaders learn to motivate followers for change. Learning to motivate followers is an important trait that leaders must possess. Organi- zations without involving employees for change quickly become static organizations. Third, lead- ers learn to align people. Leaders should learn to put followers with similar expertise on the same team or related teams. Senior employees with more expertise should be given the responsibility to mentor inexperienced employees. Employees with high emotional intelligence should mentor
those with low emotional intelligence. Last but not least, leaders must learn to set the direction for followers (Kotter, 1998). Directions and structures are needed to accomplish the vision set by leaders. Of course, leaders from learning organizations are required to set the vision in collaboration with their followers. To motivate employees means to keep them moving in the desired new direction despite the obstacles they may face. Communication is needed to communicate the new direction to those employees who can understand the leaders’ vision.
Above all, learning organizations must be flexible (Knowles, Holton, & Swanson, 1998, 2005). Learning organizations make much use of temporary task forces. Task forces easily shift department lines if department lines do not work for them. They do not adhere to constitution. In fact, they are always ready to change constitution if they find flaws with them. They like tradition, but they are ready to depart from tradition if it stands in the way. Learning organizations are no longer hierarchical. Rather, they have multiple linkages based on functional collaboration. In- stead of defining everyone’s roles narrowly, roles in learning organizations are defined broadly. The atmosphere in learning organizations is that people are caring and that these organizations are people-centered (Rogers, 1951, 1961, 1969, 1980). On the whole, the atmosphere is warm, informal, intimate, and trusting.
Management philosophy in learning organi- zations is to release the energy of personnel by delegating power to the employees. Corporate leaders believe that everyone in the organization has pent-up energy (Knowles, Holton, & Swan- son, 1998, 2005). Once released, these people will contribute substantially to the organization. Power does not have to be used coercively. In- stead, it can be used supportively. Employees are not afraid of risk taking or experimenting. They are willing to commit errors because they know that is part of the learning process, and they are willing to learn from errors. Leaders in learning organizations allow employees to fail. They reward
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success among their employees. Leaders in these organizations place emphasis on personal develop- ment rather than on things or events (Galbraith, 2004). In static organizations, the whole system is closed. In learning organizations, the system is open regarding sharing resources. All in all, there is high tolerance for ambiguity.
Because of the democratic nature of learning organizations, there is relevant participation by all those affected. In static organizations, there is low participation at bottom because employees believe decision-making is none of their business. In learning organizations, policy-making and policy- execution are collaborative. Leaders do not make policies without the input from employees. Any decisions made in learning organizations are not final. Rather, learning organizations make deci- sions by solving problems. Decisions are treated as hypotheses to be tested. Should they work for the organizations, they will keep them; if they do not work for them, they seek to discard them and look for good ones. In static organizations, communication is one way. In learning organiza- tions, communication is multidirectional—up, down, sideways. Specifically, communication in learning organizations features open flow and easy access. Leaders communicate with leaders freely. Leaders communicate with employees freely. Employees communicate with employees freely. Nobody’s feelings are repressed. Rather, feelings are expressed freely.
By virtue of simply discussing the nature of learning organizations in terms of structure, atmosphere, management philosophy and at- titudes, decision-making and policy-making and communication, it is easily concluded that learning organizations are the keys to the survival of today’s organizations in a global economy. Both HRD and HRM practitioners strive to turn static organizations into learning organizations by changing corporate leaders’ and employees’ mindsets (Bennis, 1989; Bennis & Nanus, 1997). To survive and remain competitive in this global economy, organizations must rise from static or-
ganizations that prevent themselves from being successful. Unlike leaders in static organizations, leaders in learning organizations tend to do the following (Knowles, Holton, & Swanson, 1998):
• Have faith in people, offer them challeng- ing opportunities, and delegate responsi- bility to them;
• Involve their clients, workers, or students in every step of the planning process, as- sessing needs, formulating goals, design- ing lines of action, carrying out activities, and evaluating results (except, perhaps, in emergencies);
• Believe in and use the power of self-fulfill- ing prophesy; they understand that people tend to come up to other people’s expecta- tions for them;
• Value individuality, sense that people per- form at a higher level when they are oper- ating on the basis of their unique strengths, talents, interests, and goals than when they are trying to conform to some imposed stereotype;
• Stimulate and reward creativity; • Are committed to a process of continu-
ous change and are skillful in managing change;
• Emphasize internal motivators over exter- nal motivators;
• Encourage people to be self-directing. (pp. 203-209)
Any organizations that perform by the stan- dards of learning organizations can taste the fruit of success. Likewise, any organizations that perform by the standards of static organizations can taste the bitterness of failure. Downsizing, restructur- ing or merging are bound to be under way. Once we understand the drastic differences between static organizations and learning organizations, perhaps we should be on the verge of beginning to understand how to optimize the release of the enormous pent-up energy in our human energy
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systems (Knowles, Holton, & Swanson, 1998, 2005). After all, human capital is the more valuable corporate resource capable of contributing to the improvement of the organization’s competitive advantage (Torres-Coronas & Gasco-Hernandez, 2006).
FUTURE TRENDS
Like all other HRD and HRM issues in today’s organizations, making the transition from static organizations to learning organizations will continue to be subsequent research focus by scholars and practitioners. Although some basic characteristics of static versus learning organiza- tions have been identified in the literature, there is still room for developing more dimensions so that today’s organizations can benefit from. Is the nature of the organization (static or learning) related to the level of the employees’ education? Learning organizations must hire people who are flexible, caring, high-risk taking and above all, well-educated.
What about one’s moral goodness? Will this contribute the types of organizations? Definitely, this will be another area of scholarly research in the future. In HRD and HRM, we often hear, “one’s IQ and performance are not synonymous!” How come a highly intelligent individual does not contribute to the development of an organization while an individual with mediocre IQ contributes to the development of an organization? The an- swer may lie in the individual’s moral goodness. Researchers may explore how self-directedness of employees may contribute to the development of an organization. To test this area, the comparison of assumptions about human nature and behav- ior (Knowles, 1978; Maslow, 1970; McGregor, 1960) has been researched in the field for years. A renewed, fresh look in this area may result in astonishing discovery for HRD and HRM prac- titioners.
Any types of organizations do not exist in social vacuum. How the larger social setting (e.g., politi- cal culture, social culture and cultural settings) may affect organizations will be a perennial topic for HRD and HRM practitioners in the future. For example, a static organization will be turned into a learning organization by itself if a social landscape is drastically changed. In developing countries, rules for any organizations are made by the central government. The central governments create static organizations by design. One area of research can be how can these static organizations be turned in learning organizations where there is nothing employees can do but to follow orders from their superiors. This kind of phenomenon exists in developed countries as well. In many organizations, do not follow the philosophies or principles that guide learning organizations. Decisions are made behind closed doors. Shared governance is simply a slogan.
In university settings, department chairs serve at the pleasure of the deans; the deans serve at the pleasure of the provosts and university presidents serve as the pleasure of the chancellors. This sometimes may mean that employees have to follow any instructions from their supervisors no matter how wrong they are. When this happens, how can we turn those static organizations into learning organizations? This issue has baffled researchers for years. In other words, employees or followers are “willing” to follow even wrong orders from their supervisors. If they don’t, their employment may face termination. The success of any learning organizations depends on the level of emotional intelligence (EI) of learners as well (Goleman, 2006). Those leaders with low EI are bound to create static organizations. One future trend can be that researchers will study how em- ployers can find out about the level of EI of their future leaders via their hiring process. Or can EI be trained and elevated?
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CONCLUSION
This article supports a fresh look at some of the generic characteristics of static organizations versus learning organizations in terms of struc- ture, atmosphere, management philosophy and attitudes, decision-making and policy-making, and communication. It is by examining static organizations that we know more about learning organizations. All organizations should strive to become learning organizations. That should be the ultimate goal of any organizations. Unfortu- nately, so many organizations today are termed as static organizations. This article has demonstrated that we can determine the type of organizations by examining their management philosophy, attitudes, decision-making, policy making and communication. There may be other factors that we can take into consideration such as EI. Further, this article argues that learning organizations are more desirable if today’s organizations wish to remain competitive in a global economy. In order to survive, some organizations have been privatized in order to make profits. “Public” organizations always have a hard time, surviving and thriving simply because they rely on public funds. In public organizations, it is hard to establish a responsibility system. Leaders make all kinds of decisions and are able to walk away without penalty. No penalty is involved. This is only true for public organiza- tions because these organizations may feature a closed system, not an open system. There could be other reasons, which are beyond the scope of this discussion. Academic departments fall and rise due to wrong decisions by administrators. Are these universities learning organizations? Sadly, no. The primary reason these static universities can survive is partly due to the support coming from students who desire for degrees and knowledge. Then, future leaders of universities may rectify the errors made by their predecessors or may not. But they will have their new policies. All policies are made on trial and error basis. Evidence-based/ criteria based/research-based decisions hardly ever
exist at university levels. Same thing can be said about those organizations in society.
For human capital to contribute to the improve- ment of the organization’s competitive advantage, learning organizations provide fertile ground for both corporate leaders and employees. Static organizations are detrimental to the development of any organizations. Therefore, they must be transformed in this new century. To transform them into learning organizations, these traditional aspects such as structure, atmosphere, manage- ment philosophy and attitudes, decision-making and policy-making and communication cannot be overlooked. In fact, unless we address these aspects first, we cannot expect to transform an organization. Table 1 illustrates how learning organizations differ from static organizations in terms of those traditional dimensions such as structure, atmosphere, management philosophy and attitudes, decision-making and policy-making and communication. This is not to say that learn- ing organizations cannot use any of the strategies utilized by static organizations at all. There may be situations where strategies used by static organiza- tions may be realistic for learning organizations. However, on the whole, learning organizations should keep their own characteristics in order to qualify themselves as true learning organizations.
On the surface, people tend to believe that static organizations exist in developing countries only. In fact, these organizations exist anywhere as long as human nature is the same. Some people are natural contributors to organizations. Bill Gates is a perfect example. He is not a taker from society but a contributor to society. Some people still have the mentality of the former King of France. When placed in leadership positions, are they willing to do the right things and do things right? They do not seem to care. They know un- consciously that their successors will clean up the mess by their wrong policies. The characteristics of learning organizations cannot be overempha- sized. They are so crucial to the success of any organizations. Without possessing these charac-
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teristics, leaders really need to consider stepping down from their positions and let those qualified/ competent people serve as leaders in organizations. Indeed, in the new century, all leaders need to be flexible, people-centered, engage in the use of supportive power, involve high participation at all levels and conduct multidirectional commu- nication. Only by doing so, can organizations become learning organizations that will continue to survive and thrive. Then, global competition is not an empty slogan. Organizations like human beings can grow in a healthy manner.
REFERENCES
Arends, R. I., & Arends, J. H. (1977). System change strategies in educational settings. New York, NY: Human Sciences Press.
Baldridge, J. V., & Dean, T. S. (1975). Managing change in educational organizations. Berkeley, CA: McCutchan Publishing Corp.
Bennis, W. (1989). On becoming a leader. Wilmington, MA: Addison-Wesley Publishing Company.
Bennis, W., Benne, K. D., & Chin, R. (1968). The planning of change. New York, NY: Holt, Rinehart and Winston.
Bennis, W., & Nanus, B. (1997). Leaders’ strate- gies for taking charge (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Harper Collins Publishers.
Cramer, K. D., & Wasiak, H. (2006). Change the way you see everything: Through asset-based thinking. Philadelphia, PA: Running Press Book Publishers.
Galbraith, M. W. (2004). The teacher of adults. In Galbraith, M. (Ed.), Adult learning methods: A guide for effective instruction (pp. 3–21). Malabar, FL: Krieger Publishing Company.
Goleman, D. (2006). Working with emotional intel- ligence (Rev. ed.). New York, NY: Bantam Dell.
Goodlad, J. I. (1975). The dynamics of educational change. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.
Greiner, L. E. (Ed.). (1971). Organizational change and development. Homewood, IL: Irwin.
Hersey, P., & Blanchard, K. (1969). Management of organizational behavior: Utilizing human resources. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Knowles, M. S. (1978). The adult learner: A neglected species (2nd ed.). Houston, TX: Gulf.
Knowles, M. S., Holton, E., & Swanson, A. (1998). The adult learner. Houston, TX: Gulf Publishing Company.
Knowles, M. S., Holton, E., & Swanson, A. (2005). The adult learner (6th ed.). Boston, MA: Elsevier Butterworth Heinemann.
Kotter, J. P. (1998). What leaders really do. In Har- vard business review on leadership (pp. 37–60). Boston, MA: Harvard Business School Press.
Table 1. Static organizations versus learning organizations
Dimensions Characteristics
Static Organizations Learning Organizations
Structure Rigid Flexible
Atmosphere Task-oriented People-centered
Management Philosophy and Attitudes Use of coercive power Use of supportive power
Decision-making and policy-making High participation at top, low at bottom; decisions treated final
High participation at all levels
Communication Top-down, one way Multidirectional
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Marx, K. (1929). Capital: A critique of political economy The process of capitalist production (Paul, E., & Paul, C., Trans.). New York, NY: International Publishers. (Original work published 1890)
Maslow, A. H. (1970). Motivation and personality. New York, NY: Harper and Row.
McGregor, D. (1960). The human side of enter- prise. New York, NY: McGraw Hill.
Nelson, C. (2010). Parents: Your children need professors with tenure. The Chronicle of Higher Education. Retrieved from http:// chronicle.com/ article/ Parents-Your-Children-Need/ 124776/ ?sid=wb&utm_source=wb&utm_medium=en
Petty, G. C., & Brewer, E. W. (2005). Perspec- tives of a healthy work ethic in a 21st-century international community. International Journal of Vocational Education and Training, 13(1), 93–104.
Politicsweb. (2010). The Expropriation Bill, what were the Mbeki-ites thinking? Retrieved from http:// www.politicsweb.co.za/ politicsweb/ view/ poli- ticsweb/ en/ page71639?oid=102096&sn=Detail
Rogers, C. R. (1951). Client-centered therapy. Boston, MA: Houghton-Mifflin.
Rogers, C. R. (1961). On becoming a person. Boston, MA: Houghton-Mifflin.
Rogers, C. R. (1969). Freedom to learn. Colum- bus, OH: Merrill.
Rogers, C. R. (1980). A way of being. Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin.
Torres-Coronas, T., & Arias-Oliva, M. (2006). Encyclopedia of human resources information systems: Challenges in e-HRM. Retrieved from http:// www.etse.urv.es/ ~ttorres/
Wang, V. C. X. (2006). A Chinese work ethic in a global community. International Journal of Vocational Education and Training, 14(2), 39–52.
Wang, V. C. X., & King, K. (Eds.). (2008). Innova- tions in career and technical education: Strategic approaches towards workforce competencies around the globe. Charlotte, NC: Information Age Publishing.
Wang, V. C. X., & King, K. (2009). Building workforce competencies in career and techni- cal education. Charlotte, NC: Information Age Publishing.
KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS
Ambiguity: This is the noun of the word ambiguous which means confusing, able to be understood in different ways.
Dimension: It this article, it is used as a countable noun. Thus, it means a measurement of something in one direction.
Downsizing: It refers to the process of mak- ing smaller, esp. a work force or business. In this article, it also refers to laying off employees. Although this may not be the best solution to existing problems in today’s organizations, this technique may help ease the shrinking operating budget of an organization. Employees are meant to produce surplus value. If they are unproduc- tive for whatever reasons, their jobs should be terminated and handed over to those who can produce surplus value.
EI: It describes the ability, capacity, skill or, in the case of the trait EI model, a self-perceived grand ability to identify, assess, manage and control the emotions of one’s self, of others, and of groups.
Hierarchical: This is the adjective form of the noun hierarchy which means an organization from higher to lower by rank, social status, or function. In this article, it also means that a static organization is too rigid. It adheres to a rigid chain of command.
Learning Organizations: Learning organiza- tions refer to innovative organizations that strive to transform themselves from static organizations
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to learning organizations. Anything that does not work for these organizations is bound to be changed in a timely manner. In this article, learn- ing organizations are flexible, people-centered, operated through supportive power with high participation at all levels. Decisions are treated as hypotheses and their system is open. Communi- cation is multidirectional. Above all, employees’ energy is released rather than suppressed. Learn- ing organizations are full of learning facilitators instead of knowledge dictators. Leaders in learning organizations serve as resource persons, linking employees to learning resources. Leaders in learn- ing organizations reward their employees in a fair and open manner. Leaders in learning organiza- tions are creative leaders that strive to release the energy of their employees. They understand that power they hold need to be delegated rather than reinforced through coercion. Coercion is a tech- nique mostly used by leaders who do not believe in the Y assumptions of human beings. Creative leaders in learning organizations have faith in pent up energy of human beings. Therefore, they utilize a facilitative approach to their leadership styles.
Merging: It refers to the process of being combined or becoming combined. Organiza- tions often merge into one in order not to waste resources. For example, recently K-Mart and Sears in the United States of America merged into one company where customers can use the same credit card issued by Sears to shop at both K-Mart and Sears. This kind of merging will facilitate their management at both Sears and K-Mart. Many universities and colleges in developing countries have merged into mega universities in order to better serve students.
Restructuring: It refers to the process of re- organizing an organization, often to make a work force smaller in order to be profitable in a global economy. Restructuring often occurs as a result of organizational leaders’ changing their manage- ment philosophies. Sometimes, organizations have to shut down in order to do restructuring. Lead- ers and employees in these organizations need to reflect upon their practices to find out where things have gone wrong. Often times, they find conflict between leadership and management. Leadership and management are two distinctive and complementary systems of action. Manage- ment is about coping with complexity whereas leadership is about coping with change.
Static Organizations: In general, static organi- zations refer to organizations that are not moving or changing in the right direction. In this article, static organizations refer to organizations that are rigid, task-oriented, controlled through coercive power without proper participation expected at all levels etc. Any decisions made in these organizations are considered final and communication is top- down. Many factors lead to static organizations. Confusion between management and leadership is a huge factor that leads to static organizations. Employee morale is another factor that leads to static organizations. The level of education of employees also contributes static organizations. When examining static organizations, it is always a good idea to approach them comprehensively. One single factor alone does not necessarily leads static organizations.
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Copyright © 2012, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
Chapter 15
DOI: 10.4018/978-1-61350-068-2.ch015
INTRODUCTION
A significant feature of information and com- munication technology (ICT) has been the op- portunities that it has provided for the formation of school-home partnerships. Parent involvement is integral to the successful operation of any school and building school-home partnerships in this new millennium is possible through a range
of technological innovations. On-line communi- cation systems such as school websites, email, wikis and learning management systems are just some of the ways schools are now interacting with parents and the wider community. A recent innovation, discussed in an earlierchapter, is the learning management system KnowledgeNet (KNet). As part of a New Zealand Ministry of Education initiative a parent portal was developed to connect teachers, students and parents/caregiv-
Julie Lynch University of Auckland, New Zealand
Kerry Lee University of Auckland, New Zealand
Case Study of a New Zealand School’s Use and Development
of a Parent Portal
ABSTRACT
Involving parents and the community in children’s learning has always been a difficult challenge. The New Zealand Ministry of Education has identified the value of this involvement and has directed schools to develop links with parents and the community. Learning Management Systems are seen as a way where this can be effectively achieved. This chapter will provide a case study of one of the first schools in New Zealand to take up the challenge of linking with parents by utilising their school learning management system. Examples will be used to provide evidence of the ways the school utilised their parent portal to enable parent and community interaction to assist with children’s learning.
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ers. This parent portal, has been described as “an online portal that gives key stakeholders up-to- date, ‘on-demand’ access to individual student’s education progress” (Dataview, 2010). Through this parent portal, the key stakeholders have been able to engage and access attendance information, assessment results, school reports and interact with samples of children’s work.
Although here is a wide body of literature dis- cussing the adoption and diffusion of course and learning management systems, few publications provide specific examples of the adoption and implementation of these tools (West, Waddoups & Graham, 2007). This chapter refers solely to the experience of one New Zealand school. This school was the first in New Zealand to develop a parent portal via their learning management sys- tem. Specific examples of child, parent, peer and teacher interaction will be used and links made with international literature on this area.
Recent developments in the New Zealand educational system with a particular focus on ICT and initiatives of the Ministry of Education will provide background information in order to “set the scene” for the reader. This chapter will then provide an overview of the school, and the imple- mentation strategies that were utilised. Some of the strategies to implement change, the importance of whole school alignment and effective leader- ship, as well as the structures that were required will also be identified. The benefits, challenges, and possible impact on the engagement of key stakeholders will then be discussed.
BACKGROUND
Information and Communication Technology (ICT) in New Zealand
The New Zealand Ministry of Education, as a key stakeholder in New Zealand teaching practice and engagement of learners, is encouraging initiatives and innovations in technology. One initiative is to
develop learning management systems to enhance and improve student-learning capacity. By funding initiatives such as the parent portal, the Ministry of Education is encouraging innovative networks and online communities which offer more choice for educators, schools, and communities on how they engage in education. Steve Maharey, the Minister of Education in 2006, highlighted how new knowledge and technology needs to be se- cured to sustain the social and economic future of New Zealand.
For New Zealand, the development of a prosperous and confident knowledge society means the devel- opment of new skills and knowledge. It will require a culture of continuous enquiry, innovation and improvement, risk taking, and entrepreneurship. This can only come from the education system. (Ministry of Education, 2006, p. 3)
Educational researchers support the impor- tance of preparing students for life in the world outside education especially now “the emphasis needs to shift to developing students’ capacity for knowing – in all kinds of situations with all kinds of people” (Gilbert, 2005, p. 76).
In 2006 the Ministry of Education produced an action plan “Enabling the 21st Century Leader” which argued that effective teaching for all stu- dents will depend on teachers becoming confident and capable users of technology (Ministry of Education, 2006). Pedagogical practices that are required to make an impact on students’ learning will depend on teachers making decisions about how to integrate ICT effectively into the class- room. Teachers need to evaluate ICT tools like learning management systems from an educational perspective to determine how the new technology can be embedded into the teaching and learning. The New Zealand E-Learning Advisory Group (2002) stated, “effective e-Learning also means ensuring that on-line resources and assessment are of equivalent or superior quality to those available in a traditional learning environment”
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(p. 15). According to the Ministry of Education (2006) the effective use of “well-designed digital content across a broad range of learning activities has a positive effect on student engagement and learning outcomes” (p. 14). ICT provides new possibilities for following students’ progress and engagement with teachers but also for strengthen- ing communication with families.
Strengthening partnerships with families, busi- nesses and the wider community is one of the goals that has been set by the Ministry of Education in the “Digital Horizons: Learning through ICT”, policy document (Ministry of Education, 2002). One of the strategies for schools to achieve this goal is to enhance public understandings of how children learn and how ICT can enrich learning environments. The growing interest by the Min- istry of Education in partnerships with ICT has been “fuelled by the recognition that education is not simply a government responsibility, but the future of our nation [New Zealand] will depend on our ability to work in partnership with families, businesses and the wider community” (Selby, Ryba & Falloon, 2005, p. 93).
History of the Parent Portal Development
In February 2010, the Minister of Education, Anne Tolley, announced several initiatives to support schools to improve student attendance and engagement (Ministry of Education, 2010). One initiative was to fund schools to implement a parent portal that provided parents and students access to online information that supported teach- ing and learning. The purpose of this initiative was to strengthen links between school and home by enabling parents/caregivers to engage in learning conversations with teachers and their children. The parent portal was seen as innovative as it had the potential to open lines of communication by giving parents instant access to their child’s education progress.
It was intended that the parent portal would allow information from the school management system (SMS) such as reports, assessment data and attendance records to be accessed by parents in the learning management system. The availability of this inter-operability between the two systems created potential to make parents partners in their child’s education and increase family interaction. It was hoped the parent portal would provide the ability for the school to interface with their com- munity far more effectively. Recent New Zealand research highlighted the importance of feedback to students, stating it was at the heart of effective pedagogy and played a critical role in scaffold- ing students’ achievement (Alton-Lee, 2003). Therefore it was felt important that feedback and feed-forward opportunities for the learner, peers, parent/caregiver, educator, needed to be provided in a parent portal.
Schools engaging the community by providing parents and caregivers’ access to school calendars, notices, resources, and information on what the learners are working on in classes, and their areas of interest is nothing new. It also allows the broader community a far more realistic understanding of the work a child is engaged in, and what the school’s expectations are of the learner and the learning community. These school-home partner- ships however “are critically dependent upon the agency of educators…and their ability to initiate links, respond to, and recognise strengths within the diverse families of their students” (Alton-Lee, 2003, p. 44). When developing a new curriculum in 2007, the Ministry of Education ensured the importance of developing successful school home community partnerships were highlighted. The principles of the new curriculum embodied beliefs about what was important for the student and what should underpin all school decision- making. Schools were required to implement the curriculum in a way that had meaning for students, connecting with the wider lives, and engaging the support of the families and communities (Ministry
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of Education, 2007, p. 9). It was believed that a parent portal would allow for these connections to be more easily made. The school developing and trialing this system believed that as their entire school management system was web based edu- cators, parents and students, would have access to information from anywhere at any time. By using an online portal it was hoped to increase direct family interaction and enhance community engagement with the school.
Importance of Involving Parents and the Community
For nearly a decade, the No Child Left Behind Act has required American schools, districts and states to organise programmes of parental involvement and communicate with parents and the public about students’ achievement and the quality of schools (Epstein, 2005). Research by Epstein and Sheldon (2006) identified seven major principles when working with schools and policymakers to create and support these positive, permanent partnerships. These principles stated that:
1. Because parents, educators and others in the community share responsibility for the students’ learning and development, it is better to use the ‘term school, family and community partnerships’ than ‘parental involvement’.
2. School, family and community partnerships are multi-dimensional and require practices that are not superficial or overly-general.
3. Schools need to develop programs and ac- tivities that reach out and involve all parents not solely relying on parent self initiated actions.
4. An overarching guidance (at district and state level) must be provided to schools in order to strengthen and sustain community and family involvement
5. Partnerships must include a focus on increas- ing student learning and development.
6. Equal opportunities must be provided for all families to become involved in order to support students’ progress and success in school.
7. Methods of research on partnerships must continue to improve.
The New Zealand Curriculum also identi- fied that some of the best learning conditions for students are when teachers create supportive learning environments which provide sufficient opportunities to learn, enhance the relevance of new learning, encourage reflective thought and action and see teaching as inquiry (Ministry of Education, 2007). In New Zealand “the use of resources, teaching materials and ICT is aligned with curriculum goals to optimise student mo- tivation and accomplish instructional purposes and goals” (Alton-Lee, 2003, p. 67). Therefore, effective teachers are expected to focus on learn- ing by considering what is important for their students to learn, what strategies will most likely help students learn and what happens as a result of their teaching as well as considering what the resulting implications will be for their future teaching. Through using a learning management system, teachers and students should be able to create online environments which support learn- ing and encourage reflective thought and action. Inquiry learning will be enhanced, as parents/ caregivers become part of the process through the parent portal which will impact on student motivation and engagement.
When utilising a Government supported learning management system, and a parent portal Epstein and Sheldon’s seven principles (2006) are clearly addressed. Overarching guidance is provided by the Ministry, in order to strengthen and sustain the school family and community partnerships. These partnerships are developed as parents and the community, become more involved and share the responsibility for the students’ learning. Teachers can effectively com- municate with parents through the online school
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notice boards as well as information on class pages about up-coming events. Through the par- ent portal, teachers can provide parents/caregivers with digital resources to assist with their child’s progress. This allows parent/caregivers instant ac- cess to what is currently happening in their child’s learning through tools such as forums, learning journals, and learning stories. The immediacy of the technology allows parents/caregivers to pro- vide resources and services from the community to strengthen school programmes either online or face-to-face. Parents/caregivers can view absen- teeism, update personal contact information, view school newsletters, the homework programme for their child and communicate with the school. This creates the possibility for greater community involvement within schools and a powerful three- way communication environment can be created between the learner, the educator and the home, which is in stark contrast to the traditional self initiated actions of parents, identified by Epstein and Sheldon (2005).
The ability of learner and parents/caregivers to access “just in time information” on the learner’s learning allows each stakeholder to be far more proactive in supporting the student’s learning. Traditionally within school systems by the time the assessment data on the learner was seen by the learner and parents/caregivers, the data was out of date, sometimes arriving months after the assessment event happened thus rendering any action by any of the stakeholders almost com- pletely irrelevant. Providing data via the parent portal allows the learner and parents/caregivers to deal with the learning and proactively act in a manner that sees the issues that arise from the assessment process dealt with and the learner’s understanding addressed immediately.
Implementation Strategies
Implementation is very different from adoption, with the former focusing on integrating the in- novation into a person’s life rather than adoption
which focuses on undertaking processes which lead the person to use the innovation (Rogers, 2003). Introducing an innovation like the parent portal has huge implications for schools especially in terms of leadership and change management. The New Zealand Education for Enterprise website provides insights into leading change in schools by acknowledging that, “teachers will require time to experiment, to develop quality community partnerships, and to evaluate the outcomes. They need to know that the school leadership, systems and structures are supportive of the approach, both in word and in action” (Education for Enterprise 2010). In developing the Concerns-based Adop- tion Model (CBAM) Hall and Hord (1987) believes that time needs to be allocated for those adopting and implementing an idea or technology. These researchers believe that adopters progress through seven levels of concern: awareness, informational, personal, management, consequences, collabora- tion and refocusing. Different support structures are needed to address concerns at each of these levels for example as a teacher becomes familiar with the innovation, concerns change from being more task and technically related to those which emphasise how to use the innovation to improve teaching and learning.
Ely (1990) believes there are eight main conditions which aid the successful adoption of technological innovations: dissatisfaction with the status quo, existence of knowledge and skills, availability of resources, availability of time, existence of rewards or incentives, participation, commitment and leadership. Working as a team (including management) which was committed to the same goal allowed whole-school alignment and was essential to the projects’ success. This notion is supported by the research conducted by Alton-Lee.
Whole school alignment can enhance the focus on achievement, provide a sustainable foundation for strong school-home partnerships, optimise inclusion (rather than exclusion) across the daily
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experiences of diverse students, and increase op- portunity to learn…. Whole school alignment can optimise collaboration and provide processes to support, resource and sustain quality teaching (2003, p. 72).
It is essential that careful consideration is given to developing an innovation like the parent portal so it benefits all the key stakeholders especially to sustain strong school-home partnerships. The role of the stakeholders in this particular innova- tion is vital for its success. This is supported by Dew and Sarasvathy (2007) who highlighted the importance of “a network of stakeholders engaged in an ongoing process of (re) negotiating the design of innovations, a process which continually shapes and alters the consequences of innovations” (p. 275). This has implications for future strategies, as all key stakeholders need to be continually consulted to establish the impact the parent portal has on teaching practice and engagement.
Rogers (2003) believes that adopters of this new technology pass through five stages: knowl- edge, persuasion, decision, implementation and conformation. The majority of these stakeholders quickly saw the potential of the parent portal and passed through these stages relatively quickly. Children, parents, teachers learnt about the portal and their role within it. After trialling many of the tools, the majority of the stakeholders began regular interaction using the portal.
Case Study
In order to provide more detailed information on how this learning management system (KNet) is utilised the following case study has been pro- vided. This case study focuses on the findings from a limited source (one school) rather than multiple sources such as those in cross sectional studies (Neuman 2003). A brief background will be provided in order to situate the school and its community. For the past eight years the school has been using KNet as their learning management
system, and was the first school in New Zealand to do so. The school is a decile 9 co-educational with a roll of 605 and a diverse range of ethnici- ties. The school caters for the middle years (11-13 year olds) with approximately 28 teaching staff.. The senior leadership team consists of a principal and two deputy principals.
Whilst implementing KNet, the school con- tinually developed teacher and student capacity. Passion, drive and enthusiasm by the senior management team and teachers at the school cre- ated whole school alignment and coherence by implementing policies, agreements, and practices to ensure KNet was utilized effectively across the school. Teachers quickly showed they were working at Rogers’ (2003) implementation stage when they began developing support pages where homework was set, as well as providing such things as updates for students on the week ahead, links to useful websites including the school website, and resources for their current unit of inquiry. Classroom teachers created blogs each week so students had opportunities to express their ideas. Each student had their own web page (which linked to their class page), homework, school notice board and specialist pages. The teachers and students used these e-portfolios as an alter- native to the traditional print portfolio. Access to the learning management system was through the school website as seen below in Figure 1.
The philosophy held by the school was that “our curriculum is designed to provide students with life-long learning skills which will enable them to actively participate in a rapidly changing world” (Takapuna Normal Intermediate School, 2010). The school takes pride in its strong sense of direction and commitment creating a quality third-millennium learning environment. The ef- fectiveness and implementation of KNet and the parent portal was seen as a critical success factor in achieving this type of learning environment.
The implementation of the parent portal be- gan with the school applying for funding from the Ministry of Education to trial the student
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management system and learning management system inter-operability. The funding covered implementation costs (site set-up, initial design/ reports and training) and operating costs for at least six months. This meant the school had a fee-free period of at least six months in order to establish the system. As a trial school, the Min- istry of Education required the school to report on the implementation of the parent portal. This was seen as a benefit for other schools in New Zealand as information was collated and analysed by the Ministry of Education to offer guidelines for the future.
The school believed the parent portal would help make a difference to student engagement and learning by offering the parents another op- portunity for meaningful engagement with the school as well as participating in their child’s work, learning and progress. Figure 2, as seen below, shows how parents can access information for their child through the portal.
Initially, the school decided to trial the parent portal amongst 100 of their students. The school encouraged active participation from students, and teachers through various strategies. This ‘buy-in’ was seen as vital for the development of the portal. Within the school, expectations were set for teachers by the senior management team and the creation of a Project Team and KNet Coordinators distributed leadership throughout the school. Whole-school alignment of the expec- tations ensured a common language was devel- oped, teacher collaboration was encouraged amongst teams, and reflection was undertaken during sharing sessions of teaching practice at staff meetings.
The school selected students who would meet on a weekly basis with the KNet Coordinator and were trained as Technical Experts (Tech Ex). Their role was to support teachers and peers to utilize the tools on KNet. The Tech Ex students created a web page on KNet to support teachers and stu- dents through a helpdesk forum and using Web
Figure 1. Takapuna Normal Intermediate School website
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2.0 tools such as “jing” to record how to create web pages, use learning journals or other school wide applications such as “iMovie”, “Garageband” or “Comic Life.” Figure 3 is an audio recording and visual demonstration of how to create a home page which was created by a “Tech Ex student.”
These strategies created leadership roles for students and encouraged cooperation amongst the school community. This exposed teachers and students to an environment where they could foster their individual talents and empower their creativity through risk taking. Warner (2006)
Figure 2. Home page for the parent portal
Figure 3. Example of student’s audio recording and visual demonstration designed to teach others how to create their own homepage
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supports this type of environment as “schools can only provide innovative learning and foster cre- ativity when their environment allows risk-taking and individual and group exploration of learning” (p. 83). It was essential that the school commu- nity utilised KNet effectively and understood the school-wide expectations in order to success- fully engage all the key stakeholders.
The parent portal had many functions such as providing parents with high stakes information such as attendance and assessment data. However it was not enough to have a system which was accessible for all users but was important that the users had control over these tools as sug- gested by Ioannou & Hannafin (2008). In order to do this students were engaged in the learning process when they selected how to present their information, for example their learning journals, as seen in the previous chapter.
The learning journals enabled students to pres- ent their ideas through a range of multimedia such as movies, images, or audio recordings. Students could express themselves through all curriculum areas using a range of genres such as poetry, report writing, statistical information, etc. Students could find information through a range of sources and embed that information into the learning journal, which they shared with their teacher, caregivers, and/or peers.
In the web page reproduced below in Figure 4 teachers, students, and parents/caregivers have reflected on students’ learning by recording audio files, which they were able to embed into KNet.
Through tools such as the learning journals, learning stories and web pages parents, teachers, and peers were able to comment on students’ work and offer feedback and feed-forward. This active participation in the learning process provided new possibilities for following students’ progress and engagement with teachers and parents/caregivers. Learners’ reflecting on their own learning was seen as a powerful representation of their thinking. This active participation acknowledged learner competencies, dispositions, and modes (Treadwell, 2008).
Future Uses of KNet
The lead writer and the school community believe the parent portal to be innovative as it has the potential to create links between the school and the community. As information flows between the school and home it creates an environment where teachers, students, parents, caregivers and the community engage through inquiry and discovery. For example, students research information and share their findings through the learning journals in creative and innovative ways. Teachers, peers and caregivers make comments, share ideas and
Figure 4. Recorded feedback on student brochure using Jing
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provide feedback and feed-forward. The parent portal encourages the building of powerful learn- ing networks between learners, educators, and parents/caregivers.
Schools in New Zealand usually disseminate information to parents through newsletters, emails and the school website. At this school students share their e-portfolios during student-led con- ferences to demonstrate to parents how they use KNet and Web 2.0 tools to enhance their learn- ing. Teachers encourage parents to comment on the students’ learning journals through the parent portal. By providing parents with access to stu- dents’ learning through this online environment the school found that parents developed clearer understandings of inquiry processes. Parents readily accessed information such as homework, school notices, and events that are sometimes “lost” between school and home.
Another benefit for the wider school com- munity was that family overseas were able to access information. The parent portal enabled these family members e.g. parents working in other countries to access and follow the progress of their child as well as make comments on their learning.
Future Challenges
Schools will face challenges developing the parent portal to ensure it benefits all the key stakehold- ers. The New Zealand Curriculum has a vision for young people to be “creative, energetic, and enterprising” (Ministry of Education, 2007, p. 8). Gibb (1993) refers to enterprising behaviours, skills and attributes such as initiative, problem solving, risk taking, creativity, perseverance, and commitment to achieve. These attributes are es- sential for teachers when utilising an innovation such as the parent portal and teachers need to consider them attributes in order to support the creation of a flexible learning situation. Caird also adds to these attributes by maintaining, that “progressive approaches emphasize the develop-
ment of transferable skills…the pupil is active/ generative, independent and a collaborative group worker” (1990, p. 54). The parent portal requires teachers to reflect on their pedagogical practices and consider how to utilise the portal to improve family engagement.
The parent portal does create ethical issues for schools on how to successfully encourage all parents/caregivers to participate and how involved should parents be. In the parent portal there is an opportunity for parents/caregivers to contribute to forums and this could create issues around privacy and confidentiality of information. There is also a range of constraints that could factor into parent involvement such as time, Internet access, technological knowledge, and if English is their second language. This raises issues for schools on how to manage and find resources to resolve these challenges.
Once the inter-operability framework is in place and the parent portal is made available to all stakeholders in 2011 then appropriate views of the assessment data will be made available to all of them. Each stakeholder has a unique user ID and password allowing them to receive a view of the learner’s capability. Parents will be able to access their child’s assessment information, while the challenge for the school is educating the parents on how to interpret and use this data to help their child with their next learning steps. In order for parents to be active participants, they will need to understand the teaching practice and assessment data at the school.
Future Research
The school, as well as the Ministry of Education, will need to consider how to work with and educate parents in participating in this online environment. This requires further research into what methods would be effective when educating parents/care- givers especially considering the ethnic diversity of the school community.
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Further research is also required to determine if the parent portal is something that the teachers, students, and parents actually want. The senior management team already have clear ideas con- cerning how the parent portal should look and function but this may conflict with the viewpoints of other key stakeholders. Parents/caregivers and students have powerful voices and schools need to embrace them as partners in learning.
The next step for this school is marketing the parent portal through parent evenings with students educating parents on the use of the tool. Encouraging the parents to use the parent portal by uploading school reports mid-year and at end of year is a future strategy to consider as a way of engaging parents/caregivers. It is essential that the school evaluate the success of the parent portal through surveying the school community. This includes parents/caregivers, teachers, and students to determine any impact on teaching practice and if the parent portal is engaging all the key stakeholders.
Through informing and engaging parents the school hopes that, in the future, parents become more involved in the learning process and offer authentic learning experiences for students. This could take many forms as parents may have contacts with the wider business or community organisations that link with the student’s inquiry or project. Parents may have an area of expertise, offer to be a guest speaker or even volunteer time. The possibilities of linking the classroom with the “real world” both online and face-to-face are innovative and will require careful consideration by schools and the community.
CONCLUSION
The use of the parent portal has the potential to innovate within the New Zealand education system on many levels through increasing family engage- ment and creating enterprising links between the school and the community. Developing enterpris-
ing attributes such as resilience, initiative, and problem solving in students can help prepare them for the future and benefit New Zealand socially and economically. Careful consideration will have to be given on how schools will develop the portal so it reaches its full potential. The portal engages parents in their child’s learning and this has the potential to make a difference to how their children learn and how well they achieve. Links between teachers, students, parents and the community can be made through the parent portal as stakeholders become more aware of the possibilities available in schools. The challenge for schools will be how to develop the parent portal so it benefits all the key stakeholders. This will involve professional development for staff, marketing to, and educat- ing parents on the use of this educational tool. The parent portal will require investigation and ongoing evaluation to measure its successes and limitations. This case study has provided exem- plar knowledge that is currently found in online forums such as blogs. Further academic research of how other schools are demonstrating innovative ways of linking with the community is necessary. This will enable educators to learn, monitor and compare the impact and full potential of parent portals on teaching practice and engagement for all the key stakeholders.
REFERENCES
Alton-Lee, A. (2003). Quality teaching for diverse students in schooling: Best evidence synthesis. Wellington, New Zealand: Ministry of Education.
Caird, S. (1990). Enterprise education: The need for differentiation. Journal of Education and Work, 4(1), 47–57. doi:10.1080/0269000900040104
Dataview. (2010). Parent portal. Retrieved from http:// www.knowledge.net.nz/ services/ parent- portal.php
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Dew, N., & Sarasvathy, S. (2007). Innovations, stakeholders & entrepreneurship. Journal of Business Ethics, 74(3), 267–283. doi:10.1007/ s10551-006-9234-y
E-Learning Advisory Group. (2002). Highways and pathways. Exploring New Zealand’s e- learning opportunities. (Report of the E-Learning Advisory Group). Retrieved from www.executive. govt.nz/ minister/ maharey/ highways/
Education for Enterprise. (n.d.). Resources for school leaders. Retrieved from http://education- for enterprise.tki.org.nz/ Resources-tools-tem- plates/ Resources-for-school-leaders
Ely, D. P. (1990). Conditions that facilitate the implementation of educational technology inno- vations. Journal of Research on Computing and Education, 23(2), 298–305.
Epstein, J. L. (2001). School, family and com- munity partnerships: Preparing educators and improving schools. Boulder, CO: Westview Press.
Epstein, J. L. (2005). Attainable goals? The spirit and letter of the No Child Left Behind Act on pa- rental involvement. Sociology of Education, 78(2), 179–182. doi:10.1177/003804070507800207
Epstein, J. L., & Sheldon, S. B. (2006). Moving forward: Ideas for research on school, family, and community partnerships. In Conrad, C. F., & Serlin, R. (Eds.), SAGE handbook for research in education: Engaging ideas and enriching in- quiry (pp. 117–138). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
Gibb, A. A. (1993). Enterprise culture and education: Understanding enterprise education and its links with small business, entrepreneur- ship, and wider educational goals. Interna- tional Small Business Journal, 11(3), 11–34. doi:10.1177/026624269301100301
Gilbert, J. (2005). Catching the knowledge wave? The knowledge society and the future of education. Wellington, New Zealand: NZCER Press.
Hall, G., & Hord, S. (1987). Change in schools: Facilitating the process. Albany, NY: State Uni- versity of New York Press.
Ioannou, A., & Hannafin, R. D. (2008). Course management systems: Time for users to get what they need. TechTrends, 52(1), 46–50. doi:10.1007/ s11528-008-0111-7
Ministry of Education. (2002). Digital horizons: Learning through ICT. Wellington, New Zealand: Learning Media.
Ministry of Education. (2006). Enabling the 21st century learner. An e-learning action plan for schools 2006-2010. Wellington, New Zealand: Ministry of Education.
Ministry of Education. (2007). The New Zealand curriculum. Wellington, New Zealand: Learning Media.
Ministry of Education. (2010). Learning manage- ment system. Retrieved from http:// www.min- edu.govt.nz/ NZEducation/ EducationPolicies/ Schools/ Initiatives/ ManagedLearningEnviron- ments/ LearningMgmtSys.aspx
Neuman, L. (2003). Social research methods: Qualitative and quantitative approaches. Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon.
Rogers, E. M. (2003). Diffusion of innovations (5th ed.). New York, NY: The Free Press.
Selby, L., Ryba, K., & Falloon, G. (2005). Im- proving educational opportunities through ICT partnerships. In K. W. Lai (Ed). E-learning communities: Teaching and learning with the Web. New Zealand: University of Otago Press Takapuna Normal Intermediate School. (2010). About us. Retrieved from http:// www.tnis.school. nz/ about.php
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Treadwell, M. (2008). The conceptual age and the revolution: School v2.0. Victoria, Australia: Hawker Brownlow Education.
Warner, D. (2006). Schooling for the knowledge era. Victoria, Australia: ACER Press.
West, R. E., Waddoups, G., & Graham, C. R. (2007). Understanding the experiences of instruc- tors as they adopt a course management system. Educational Technology Research and Develop- ment, 55, 1–26. doi:10.1007/s11423-006-9018-1
KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS
Decile: The decile rating is the indicator used to measure the extent to which schools draw pupils from low socio-economic communities. A decile is a 10% grouping. Decile 1 schools are the 10% of schools with the highest proportion of students from low socio-economic communities. Decile 10 schools are the 10% of schools with the lowest proportion of these students. A school’s decile rating does not indicate the overall socio- economic mix of the school. Each state and state integrated school (with the exception of health camp schools, regional health schools, and Child, Youth and Family schools) is ranked into a decile on the basis of the indicator. The indicator is based on Census data for households with school-aged children in each school’s catchment area (Ministry of Education, 2010).
Information and Communication Technol- ogy (ICT): ICT includes any communication device or application encompassing: radio, tele-
vision, cellular phones, computer and network hardware and software, satellite systems, as well as the various services and applications associ- ated with them, such as video-conferencing and distance learning (Ministry of Education, 2010).
Intermediate Schools: Provide education for year 7 and 8 students (11-13 years old).
Learning Management Ssystem: A software package to manage and deliver learning content and resources to students, usually comprising a variety of applications amalgamated as an “inte- grated” package (Ministry of Education, 2006, p. 2).
Normal: A normal school is a school created to assist with training student teachers to become teachers. Its purpose was to establish teaching standards or norms, hence its name.
Parent Portal: An online portal that gives key stakeholders up-to-date, “on-demand” ac- cess to an individual student’s education progress (Dataview, 2010).
Student Management System: A software application for schools and universities to man- age student data. Capabilities of these student databases include attendance, behavioural and medical information, as well as storing assess- ment information.
State Schools: Most New Zealand schools are state schools that receive government fund- ing. State schools can be primary, intermediate, middle, secondary or area/composite. Generally they accept both boys and girls at primary and intermediate levels (years 0-8), although some secondary schools offer single-sex education. Les- sons are based on the New Zealand Curriculum.
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Copyright © 2012, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
Chapter 16
INTRODUCTION
Higher education (HE) in the United States is at a crossroads. Economic upheaval, globalization, and technology have created a sea change that will affect funding sources, instructional methods,
student pipelines, education priorities, and the rela- tionship between HE and workforce development. As far back as 1972, Kerr noted that the greater the percentage of gross national product that HE takes up, the less likely the American people will wish to pay the bill, especially if graduates are
Elisabeth E. Bennett Tufts University, USA
Rebecca D. Blanchard Tufts University, USA
Gladys L. Fernandez Tufts University, USA
Knowledge Sharing in Academic Medical Centers:
Examining the Nexus of Higher Education and Workforce Development
ABSTRACT
In light of substantial government subsidies, upcoming demographic shifts, new technologies, and financial downturns, higher education (HE) must adopt new approaches for knowledge creation and knowledge sharing to foster economic development. This chapter explores knowledge sharing in academic medi- cal centers which represent a nexus of higher education and workforce development and they operate as a critical component of medical education in the United States. Particular emphasis is placed on technology and culture in academic medical centers. This chapter concludes that cultural changes and the development of leadership skills are needed in both academic medical centers and higher education to most effectively create and share both tacit and explicit knowledge needed for expertise development.
DOI: 10.4018/978-1-61350-068-2.ch016
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unable to find the jobs they expected to have at the end of their programs, and his prediction seems to be relevant to the present economic climate.
With recent unemployment rates rising above ten percent in some states, lawmakers and the public are beginning to question whether HE is living up to its promises. In so doing, they are asking whether the degrees provided in HE translate into the capabilities and experiences graduates need to qualify for and be successful in high-earning jobs. Additionally, the question of how HE promotes economic growth is a criti- cal one. The United States is lagging behind less prosperous countries in disciplines that have a critical impact on economic growth, such as math, science, and technology. Prosperity itself may be the culprit since students in the United States have fewer extrinsic incentives to study these subjects (Christensen, Horn, & Johnson, 2008).
Knowledge is increasing rapidly, and the global economy is predicated on capitalizing new knowledge. Economic success depends upon the application of knowledge necessary for production and innovation. While some domains, such as law and medicine, have always been knowledge-based, every profession possesses domains that include forms of knowledge that are difficult to share, particularly knowledge built from experience and held implicitly by experts. In the past, apprentice- ship models of education combined knowing and doing, thus producing expertise through iterative practice; however, apprenticeship declined as HE was formalized over time.
One exception to this decline is in the field of medicine. Medical education still heavily uses apprenticeship as a model for training. Medical education is housed in professional schools of medicine but it branches quickly into healthcare practice, thus extending its boundaries far beyond traditional HE. The model represents a mixture of basic science curriculum and medical practice along a continuum of undergraduate, graduate, and continuing medical education.
Medical education represents an example of the nexus between HE and workforce development, combining academics and practice. Academic medical centers (AMCs) exist at this nexus because they are invested in the development of a qualified future workforce. AMCs provide clinical experi- ence essential to undergraduate medical students and they are typically accredited for graduate medical education programs, or residencies.
Gunderman (2006) noted that medical educa- tors must become adept at knowledge sharing for the field to thrive. In keeping with the call toward knowledge sharing, the purpose of this chapter is to explore knowledge sharing in AMCs in that nexus between HE and workforce development. The chapter opens against the backdrop of HE, describes the role of AMCs in medical education, examines a framework for knowledge sharing, contrasts AMCs and HE, and discusses how tenets of knowledge sharing are connected to the use of technology in medicine. The chapter concludes with a discussion of future trends in AMCs and HE.
BACKGROUND
HE has functioned as the gatekeeper to many professions (Biesta, 2007); however, a credential does not necessarily correlate with success when students enter the workforce. One aspect missing from the traditional HE classroom is the develop- ment of expertise through real-world application of knowledge over time. Experience, flexibility, critical thinking, and the ability to solve problems in chaotic contexts are necessary for success. A different kind of knowledge born of tacit learning and experience is needed, and this knowledge typically cannot be learned in textbooks nor can it be confined solely to the duration of a degree program.
HE, however, has often been marketed as the way into higher status, higher earning professions. Just as real estate has been over-inflated in recent years, some postulate that a HE bubble is about
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to burst (Barone, 2010; Cronin & Horton, 2009). Barone (2010) suggested that Americans have been willing to pay the high price tag of HE because they believe it will lead to greater wealth. He identi- fied government loan subsidies as a major factor sustaining the trajectory of ballooning costs. In a climate of economic uncertainty, legislatures are asking for evidence that the approximately 11% of general-fund budgets spent subsidizing HE is worth it, and they are going so far as to create formulas and balance sheets to measure return on investment even at the level of individual profes- sors (Simon & Banchero, 2010).
To wit, the Delta Cost Project published a report which ranked states by the productivity of their public HE institutions, arguing that less- costly degrees provided greater economic value to the state (Kelly, 2009). The rise of for-profit schools catering to working professionals, as well as the growth of diploma mills, has exacerbated concerns about the quality, rigor, and trustworthi- ness of post-secondary degrees. In a society where knowledge is a key asset to economic survival, HE needs to focus on delivering knowledgeable and capable graduates.
HE can boost student output by moving away from the traditional semester format and by lever- aging technology (Cronin & Horton, 2009), but questions remain about the relationship HE should have to workforce needs. Further, ambiguity exists in identifying to what extent HE prepares people for careers or whether its goal is to produce an educated citizenry with no expectation of a direct connection to the economy. It is also difficult to draw a straight line between academic productivity and how new ideas produced in HE disseminate throughout industry, especially since knowledge flows from HE institutions through Internet media and other public forums that may not attribute work back to a specific scholar.
Some institutions are taking an increasingly open stance to sharing knowledge produced in HE. For example, the Massachusetts Institute of Technology is well-known for making recorded
lectures openly accessible to the public through the Internet; this represents unprecedented access to the content of HE during a time when there is mounting global competition in the sciences. If information is freely available, some may ask whether employers will continue to value higher degrees or whether they will come to value com- petent, knowledgeable workers regardless of how they built their knowledge base.
Regardless, HE institutions must address the need to develop expertise in the workforce, which includes the ability to solve important, messy, and emerging problems for which there are no prior existing solutions. The practical application of knowledge can be elusive in HE, but intensive practical application is what makes AMCs unique in the HE system.
ACADEMIC MEDICAL CENTERS
AMCs stand at the nexus of HE and workforce development. They are extensions of HE into the organizational settings in which real-world practice of medicine occurs. Medical education is high stakes because patients’ lives are at risk, and many years of education and experience are needed to develop medical competence. Students must see and experience a wide variety of patholo- gies and demonstrate repeated practice of skills to prepare them for independent patient care. A large amount of time is needed to train a physician that is eligible to be board certified and to maintain certifications, and lifelong learning is required for practice-based improvement critical to the field. In addition, societal demand requires a continual supply of students in the pipeline.
AMCs are either affiliated with or owned by medical schools. Students spend the final two years of medical school rotating through various medical specialties. Training not only emphasizes practical experience; but it also connects skills to the latest evidence-based research that guides medical care. During these clinical years, medi-
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cal students become socialized to their identities as physicians and they explore careers in various specialties in preparation for choosing their path in residency. Residency in the United States is accredited through a different governing body than medical school and generally requires three to five years of additional training after completion of the medical doctorate degree. Some residents choose to extend training even further through fellowships, which makes the total training time of physicians among the longest periods in any of the professions.
Education in AMCs is often not fully compen- sated by tuition and so the healthcare system ab- sorbs the remaining costs. Hospitals not only train future physicians but also many other healthcare professionals such as nurses, medical assistants, and occupational therapists. This investment by our healthcare system ensures a qualified future workforce that cannot be produced solely by HE institutions but rather through a direct continuum from HE to workforce development.
Medical education must adjust to changing demographics to ensure a stable future workforce, especially as members of the “baby boom” genera- tion approach retirement and they require geriatric care. Given an expected increase in demand for services and the complexities of geriatric care, the Institute of Medicine (2008) projected that the United States will need an additional 3.5 million healthcare providers by 2030. The Institute also emphasized the need for team-based care since geriatric patients often require the coordination of multiple specialties. Despite economic uncer- tainty, the healthcare sector must find a way to support a growth in training programs, possibly before it can afford to do so.
Corresponding with growing demands for the expansion of the healthcare workforce, there is likely to be a restructuring of medical edu- cation to address the length of time it takes to produce competent physicians, which includes competence in learning and knowledge sharing as medical practice advances. This is especially
critical since it is not realistic to expect graduat- ing physicians to know the full corpus of existing medical knowledge. More emphasis will be placed on supportive technologies; however, computers cannot replace the way people discern a situation at a glance or how they devise shortcut strategies for reaching decisions and conclusions (Sanders, 2009). Although the profession has to some ex- tent be adapted to new technologies, the current structure of medical education remains steeped in longstanding tradition.
As a direct result of criticisms of physician training in the U.S. levied by Abraham Flexner in 1910, approximately two-thirds of medi- cal schools require that students complete two years of basic sciences followed by two years of clinical training. This structure can lead to highly variable outcomes because of limits to hospital capacity and the lack of uniformity of students’ knowledge as they rotate from one specialty to another (Christensen, Grossman, & Hwang, 2009). Additionally, residents comprise a transient part of the workforce yet are responsible for a high proportion of teaching in clinical rotations. AMCs are not necessarily utilized by medical schools in the most efficient manner, and the field is pres- ently exploring new ways to integrate students’ basic science knowledge with clinical experiences throughout their years of medical school; these new ways would significantly alter the presently staggered structure.
AMCs are critical for advancing and sharing knowledge because they house significant ex- pertise and rich resources for learning. Learning resources are not limited to fellow physicians. Rather, many other professions are involved in medical education, and we cannot ignore the role of the patient as tutor. AMCs develop not only practical expertise but also new knowledge generated by clinical research and, increasingly, educational research. To grow as physicians in this environment, medical students must develop expertise in experiential learning, and they need to balance metacognitive thinking – which is
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contemplative and reflective thinking – as well as learning to act intuitively (Quirk, 2006).
According to Davenport and Prusack (2000), knowledge can be defined as “a fluid mix of framed experience, values, contextual informa- tion, and expert insight that provides a framework for evaluating and incorporating new experiences and information” (p. 4). Thus, knowledge is both fluid and structured, and necessary for building expertise. Tenant (1999) reviewed research stud- ies on expertise and developed a list of common characteristics, adapted below (pp. 171-172):
• Experts excel mainly in their own domains, and their expertise does not easily transfer to another domain.
• Experts perceive large, meaningful pat- terns in their domains by chunking data into categories and other structures.
• Experts are faster and more economical than novices, and they are more likely to anticipate what is needed.
• Experts have superior, domain-specific memory.
• Experts see and represent a problem at a deeper and more abstract level.
• Experts spend a lot of time analyzing a problem qualitatively, giving structure and problem formation to ill-structured situations.
• Experts have robust self-monitoring skills and are attuned to errors and complexity.
Tenant further noted that the transfer of knowledge from experts to novices may depend upon the situational characteristics of the learn- ing environment and whether learners have good access to expert knowledge in AMCs as well as a culture of participation.
AMCs are involved in research activities, often funded by the National Institute of Health or other national agencies. They continually generate new knowledge in medicine. Learners can participate in the advancement of knowledge before it becomes
part of the literature base. Experts are able to man- age and use their own knowledge, but the field of medical education struggles with how to best man- age and share the knowledge needed to develop the future workforce. Because of the centrality of knowledge in AMCs, we turn our attention to the conceptual framework for this chapter.
CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK
The conceptual framework for this chapter is Knowledge Management (KM) with specific em- phasis on the construct of knowledge sharing. KM differs from traditional information management because it focuses on forms of knowledge beyond what is codifiable in databases and information systems. KM also overlaps with organizational learning since the process of embedding learn- ing into organizational structures typically oc- curs through KM strategies. KM is important for knowledge professions, and it is particularly important for fields such as medicine that need to manage a vast amount of knowledge.
Knowledge Management
The knowledge economy has brought a growing respect for expertise. The focus is on leveraging expertise for innovation and competitive advan- tage, thus providing an economic incentive for people to seek credentials that represent bodies of knowledge. KM encourages a holistic approach toward human knowledge and technology. This area of inquiry arose in the 1990’s as technol- ogy became more sophisticated and increasingly important for networking people, rather than just for developing information repositories. While KM can be practiced by individuals – such as off-loading one’s schedule and directions to a digital scheduling assistant – it has been most relevant to groups and organizations. There is a social aspect to KM that is demonstrated through
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the connections people have within organizations (Brown & Duguid, 1991).
KM recognizes distinctions amongst data, in- formation, and knowledge (Bhatt, 2001; Drucker, 1989), and sometimes wisdom (Harris, 1998). While information and knowledge are often used interchangeably, the term knowledge captures a greater emphasis on all forms of knowledge, including a synthesis of different information sources over time (Davenport & Prusack, 1997), and tacit forms of knowledge such as intuition, emotion (Nonaka, 1998), and perceptual insight that are all integral yet indefinable facets of ex- pertise.
Harris (1998) advanced that information be- comes dynamic and evolutionary as value is added to transform observations into wisdom. His model (Figure 1) represents planes that evolve in a value chain, starting with observation that generates data, which, when analyzed for classifications, produces information. People demonstrate understanding when they can explain information, but predictive capability stems from knowledge. When knowl- edge is achieved, the next level is wisdom, which is the ability to proscribe or create general laws. The planes become increasingly smaller, with very little knowledge entering the highest level of wisdom. In like manner, medicine is continu- ally adding value to its knowledge-base, which must be extended to and be further developed by medical students.
Michael Polanyi is revered as a seminal theo- rist for KM because of his well-known perspectives on tacit knowledge. He believed that humans know far more than they can say (1966), thus he contrasts explicit and tacit knowledge. In Polanyi’s view, people interpret new observations and in- formation from a framework of prior knowledge or intuitive understanding of how the world works (1946). He believed that “the premises of science on which all scientific teaching and research rest are the beliefs held by scientists on the general nature of things” (1946, pp. 10-11). He argued that beliefs guide the kinds of questions, concep-
tual relationships, and interpretations of contradic- tory evidence explored in the research process.
The science and practice of medicine is no different, as beliefs and intuitive patterns under- pin expertise. Because a great deal of education occurs in AMCs, organizational values as well as discipline-specific values are inherent in medical education. These values are likely to have a distinct effect on how knowledge is shared, to whom it is shared, and the process by which it is created.
Knowledge Sharing
Many people enter academics because they pos- sess a desire to create and share new knowledge. Medical education is no different. A challenge in any profession is how to share knowledge ef- fectively. Lectures, for example, are efficient for covering large volumes of explicit information; however, they are not always the best approach to foster active knowledge creation within the mind of the learner. Nor do they provide the best ways for students to engage in experiential learning, which develops tacit knowledge. Storytelling can be an effective way to share some aspects of tacit knowledge in medical education (Gunderman, 2006) but nothing replaces actual experience.
Figure 1. Harris’ value added flow
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There is an art to figuring out how much ex- plicit knowledge to share since people can quickly experience information overload; however, the art of conveying tacit knowledge is far more difficult to learn. How does one share what is routinized, personally developed, and deeply embedded, yet so essential to expertise?
Nonaka’s (1998) matrix demonstrates how knowledge can be transformed and shared (see Table 1). He indicated that any knowledge which remains tacit or explicit is of limited value for new knowledge creation whereas combining tacit and explicit knowledge produces powerful results. Since tacit knowledge is, by definition, difficult to articulate and transfer to another set- ting, alternative methods are needed to tap into tacit levels. Nonaka described how images and symbols connect people with subjective insights, intuition, and ideals for knowledge creation.
Knowledge can possess attributes described by terms such as “sticky” and “leaky”, which identify the level to which knowledge can leaks to other people rather than sticking within one person or unit. Brown and Duguid (2000) make the case that knowledge can be both sticky and leaky if experts have shared experiences and mental models that allow them to appreciate knowledge that others do not, thus immediately recognizing the value of new knowledge. It is possible that knowledge can stick in a very tacit way and be stored for future use by experts. It is a challenge in medicine for experts to share such knowledge with junior learners who do not yet have similar mental models, but this challenge
can be overcome through innovative educational techniques and collegial relationships.
Reflection is an important capacity for utiliz- ing or changing tacit knowledge (Schön, 1983). Schön further suggested that people identify tacit knowledge when they leave out unnecessary back- ground information in a conversation, assuming that the ideas are simply too basic or self-evident to be worth stating. Continual reiteration would be irritating and counterproductive. This idea is of particular relevance to curriculum design in medical education, since teaching is based on assumptions of prior knowledge; these assump- tions may or may not hold true if a significant amount of time separates learning and application. Although Schön (1983) acknowledged that some tacit structures can never be fully articulated, he believed that reflection is the key to surfacing enough of the tacit knowledge to allow it to be shared and transformed.
The type of knowledge to be shared is an im- portant factor in determining how it is best shared. Some things can only be learned through experi- ence, which is why role playing and simulation exercises are powerful teaching techniques. There are other factors that affect knowledge sharing within an organization as well. These include a) personal motivations to share, b) the power people gain by sharing or withholding knowledge, c) whether there is a reciprocal relationship between people sharing knowledge, d) the incentives for knowledge sharing, e) opportunities to share, and f) the culture of the work environment, including the level of trust in a particular context (Ipe, 2003).
Table 1. Nonaka’s patterns for knowledge creation
Tacit to Tacit Knowledge is learned through socialization as a novice would learn from an expert without mastering systematic insight. This knowledge is difficult for an organization to leverage.
Explicit to Explicit Knowledge is gained by combining discrete pieces of information into a new whole without extending or reframing the organization’s knowledge base.
Tacit to Explicit Knowledge is articulated from deeply embedded tacit understand- ings so that foundational knowledge can be shared and utilized.
Explicit to Tacit Knowledge is internalized and used to extend and reframe tacit knowledge of others. Tacit knowledge can be spread throughout an organization.
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The connection between KM and organiza- tional culture was explored by Bennett (2009) who views them as critical for virtual human resource development. She identified a reciprocal relation- ship between these two areas of inquiry, noting that culture affects how new knowledge is inter- preted and applied. Culture can be managed and potentially changed by KM processes, especially if there is an increasing emphasis on knowledge sharing. Cultures that assist knowledge-work al- low employees to take time for reading, talking, and sharing (Perez & Hynes, 1999).Technology plays a key role in knowledge sharing in medicine.
Knowledge Sharing, Technology, and Medicine
There is no doubt that technology has facilitated knowledge sharing. People now have unprec- edented access to information and to networks of experts on the Internet. Web technology is capable of sharing more forms of knowledge than text-only resources since graphical representations may evoke mood, emotion, and memories. Both HE environments and industry utilize technology to provide any-time access to courses and training content. Many aspects of the present era are predi- cated on open access to information of all kinds. Open access to information, however, is counter to traditional structures of hierarchy, proprietary knowledge, and intellectual property rights.
Technology can also prohibit knowledge shar- ing. This is especially so if people do not prefer certain forums, lack trust in the technology itself, see risk in sharing knowledge, or if people on the other side of the technical communication are unknown or untrustworthy. How people use technology to build and communicate knowledge depends upon their perceptions, values, and beliefs about the technology.
Medicine is a profession that is founded in public trust. There is an enormous risk to knowl- edge sharing, especially in clinical contexts “that are complex, because they involve a wide range
of medical facts, a multitude of circumstances, and a variety of values. Often, decisions must be reached quickly” (Jonsen, Siegler, & Winslade, 2002, p. 3). Learning in this context is challenging to say the least. Because of the risk to patients and the risk of liability, medicine has been relatively closed and protective against outside influences. To further examine knowledge sharing at the nexus of HE and workforce development, we will contrast HE and AMCs.
CONTRASTING HIGHER EDUCATION AND ACADEMIC MEDICINE
AMCs form an important part of the continuum in medical education, and they draw on aspects of both HE and clinical practice to fulfill their missions to provide quality patient care and teach the next generations of physicians. As a result, knowledge sharing is encouraged by some of the features of AMCs and discouraged by others. At play in an AMC is an organization’s culture of knowledge sharing. Tensions exist within this culture because the core HE principles of teach- ing, research, and service translate differently depending on organizational factors that affect expectations for knowledge sharing.
One cause of tension in AMCs is the lack of mechanisms to protect time for faculty to balance teaching, research, and service, which are typi- cally also found in HE. Additionally, knowledge sharing about medical errors is protected by peer review statutes in a controlled environment where the tension between inquisitive residents and ex- perienced physicians is highlighted but closed off from outsiders. Even in these closed environments, some questions from learners remain unasked where hierarchical structures are prohibitive.
Tensions between medical schools and AMCs may exist because the organizational environ- ments and business needs are quite different, especially when the AMC is independent of the medical school. Tensions between universities
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and medical schools may also affect AMCs be- cause faculty governance issues involve clinical faculty as well as tenure-track faculty. According to Halperin, Byyny, Moore, and Morahan (1995) conflict is due, in part, to the concerns of traditional university faculty (often tenure-track) regarding the high numbers of clinical faculty (often non tenure-track) that may not share academic values, yet they may affect faculty governance and benefit from salary differentials. Tensions of all kinds can complicate ME.
To further the discussion of contrasts between HE and AMCs, we will look at teaching, research, and service, peer review statutes, disclosure and apology, and academic freedom.
Teaching, Research, and Service
To be promoted, academicians are expected to demonstrate the pillars of teaching, research, and service. The reward structures of traditional HE and medicine each serve to demonstrate their ranking of these three areas. Tenure-track faculty at research institutions of HE are likely to spend 40% or more of their time engaging in research and much less time on service or teach- ing. In contrast, AMCs primarily reward faculty service. Clinical faculty must dedicate not only a large proportion of time to, but generate a certain amount of revenue from, patient care services. In economic downturns, there is even greater pres- sure for faculty to increase their clinical hours or increase the number of patient appointments per hour. In either scenario, this individual pro- ductivity in the clinic is rewarded. Of course, an AMC requires that clinical faculty teach residents and medical students, a process that inevitably decreases clinical service productivity. A tension exists, then, between teaching students and serving patients that is unique to the AMC. Most faculty navigate this tension because teaching facilitates their ability to remain connected to their AMC (Pololi, Conrad, Knight, & Carr, 2009).
A difference exists in the reward structures of HE and medicine, such that collaboration in the pillars most important to each field is not equally rewarded. For example, a physician may consult on a patient’s case without financially benefiting from that patient’s billing. However, a faculty member in HE who collaborates on a research publication benefits by including the citation on his or her professional record. HE faculty are eventually rewarded during the promotion process for this collaboration where the clinician, short on time, is less able or willing to put the time and effort into relationships that do not specifically lead to a rewarded outcome (Carr, Pololi, Knight, & Conrad, 2009). Data obtained by Pololi et al. (2009) demonstrated this apprehension as depreca- tion and disrespect between colleagues:
“I’ve seen it everywhere I’ve ever been, so it’s not unique to this university. What the university had was this hierarchy of needs that began with your ability to support yourself with grants, [and] with teaching at the bottom, and it was very explicit. Personal relationships were defined by distrust and disdain if you didn’t get a grant.” (p. 110)
This difference in reward structures informs the culture of faculty knowledge sharing and collaboration. Therefore, while clinical faculty are expected to publish research and seek grants as well as teach, the system typically does not reward these activities as greatly as service, nor does it allow a great deal of time to be spent on these activities. Therefore, they are often set aside due to service obligations. This can negatively affect sustained development of scholarship in medical education.
The authors found that the culture at AMCs more greatly emphasized finding fault than pro- moting relationships and collaborations; a culture that might date back to Halstead’s development of an apprenticeship model in surgery which empha- sized a competitive individual progression towards the single position of chief resident (Franzese &
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Stringer, 2007). According to knowledge-sharing principles, fault-finding and disrespect can reduce knowledge sharing activities.
Hierarchy
Knowledge sharing and collaboration among fac- ulty are also influenced by the nature of the organi- zational structure in which they exist. Institutions in both HE and medicine rely on a hierarchical faculty structure. Medical education uses an ap- prenticeship model to foster the development of new learners; however, the hierarchical faculty cul- ture surrounding peer-to-peer knowledge sharing in the field of medicine has been found to inhibit collegial and collaborative faculty relationships (Carr et al., 2009; Clark, 1989).
Communication with faculty “up the line” is often difficult since hierarchical structures are deeply and implicitly embedded in the tradition of medicine, and because, as mentioned, time- consuming clinical responsibilities placed on fac- ulty discourage carving out the time to collaborate (Brainard & Brislen, 2007; Carr et al., 2009). Even though professional collaboration is emphasized as part of residency training, the competitive nature of medical education otherwise discour- ages collaboration (Morrison, 2009). Motivations to be academic medical faculty may include an intrinsic desire to share knowledge with learners on the one hand and status-seeking on the other.
In researching the factors that helped faculty function at their highest potential, Pololi et al. (2009) found that themes of collaborative rela- tionships and relational aspects of organizational culture contributed to high faculty performance. They wrote, “our data suggest that serious prob- lems exist in the relational culture and that these can affect faculty vitality, professionalism, and productivity and are linked to retention” (p. 111). In fact, the authors argue that faculty experiencing this type of traditional, hierarchical culture exhibit similar behaviors and feelings as medical students exposed to a hidden curriculum, which counters
the humanistic and ethical mission of the AMC (Pololi et al., 2009). For example, the hierarchy at an AMC is often perpetuated by larger aspects of the infrastructure such as schedules, accredita- tion policies, pay structures, and status (Morrison, 2009). These are organizational variables that are more or less emphasized in different AMCs. Another variable is peer review, which we discuss in the next section.
Peer Review
In traditional HE, peer reviewed journals are critical to promotion and tenure, and the feedback from peers is highly regarded as necessary for strengthening knowledge dissemination and qual- ity research. Peer feedback is valued in clinical research as well, but the concept manifests in other ways in relation to patient care duties. Successful peer-to-peer feedback for quality improvement in AMCs requires mechanisms that protect physician reputation and liability. To this end, states offer physicians the protection of peer review statutes. These statutes protect creativity and the procure- ment of new knowledge in medicine and patient care by maintaining physician privacy (Magill, Cantinella, Haas, & Hughes, 1998), specifically during the course of patient mortality and morbid- ity (M & M) cases.
M & M conferences, in which patient cases are dissected and evaluated, were originally developed as a mechanism for physicians to determine the competence of other physicians (Adler, 1991), and they are closed to outsiders and legally protected by peer review statutes. The closed nature of the M & M process does not just protect the reputations of the hospital and the physician but, in theory, protects against information disclosure that might fuel costly lawsuits by patients and their families. However, this protection often comes at the cost of trust and knowledge sharing.
Knowledge sharing among faculty is “nega- tively related to the penalties that [an organiza- tion’s members] expect to result from sharing,”
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(Ipe, 2003, p. 348). In other words, the closed doors of a physician conference may support the perspective that physicians should never make mistakes, which may demonstrate a cultural as- sumption that inhibits knowledge sharing neces- sary for learning from mistakes and could erode trust among healthcare professionals.
Erosion of trust was one factor identified by Pololi et al. (2009) as a barrier to faculty col- laboration, and we anticipate that this would have a negative effect on learners. Literature demonstrates that a lack of trust inhibits knowl- edge sharing in organizations (Ipe, 2003) and acts as a barrier to interprofessional education (Morrison, 2009). Structural reorganization of this type of educational event fosters accepting responsibility and increasing knowledge sharing. For example, both faculty collaboration occurring for the sake of apprentice education and root cause analysis approaches for collaborative institutional problem-solving can break inhibitory barriers in subtle ways. Medicine is moving toward new cultural values that will likely increase knowledge sharing, especially through new disclosure and apology policies.
Disclosure and Apology
In a major cultural shift towards ameliorating the erosion of trust in AMCs, several institutions have undertaken measures towards transforming medi- cal culture. Some institutions have turned M & M conferences into educational experiences rather than “shame and blame” opportunities. This is done by expanding discussion of particular incidents of medical errors into processes, involving various levels of physicians and various aspects of patient care. In addition, many institutions have adopted disclosure and apology policies, encouraging their physicians to fully disclose medical errors to patients in a timely manner and apologize for those errors (Lazare, 2006).
Many disclosure and apology policies were adopted by AMCs for the sake of truth-telling and
to promote honesty with patients in the event of medical error, lessen guilty feelings experienced by physicians and encourage physician forgiveness (Kaldjian et al, 2008). Indeed, the beneficence, truth-telling, and autonomy in patient care em- phasized by these policies may serve to infuse the medical education environment with those values as well. Acts of disclosure and apology further humanize medicine in the eyes of learners and patients, and thus promote greater knowledge sharing capacities. There is a long road ahead to instill these new values. For example, Coffey, Thomson, Tallett, and Matlow (2010) found that although nearly all residents they studied could accurately identify an error in a scenario, only about 40% would definitely disclose the error. They found that the social context, including the degree of open and trusting relationships with families and other professionals, facilitated or hindered knowledge sharing about errors. The social context can become a non-punitive culture for sharing information, which promotes patient safety (Nieva & Sorra, 2003)
If clinical faculty demonstrate ways to ensure the trust of patients, so too might they inculcate this trust with their students and each other. Developing trust at an institution is key towards encouraging knowledge sharing and creativity among its faculty. Disclosure and apology is one policy specific to building trust among faculty in medicine, but HE institutions also encourage trust among their faculty through academic freedom.
Academic Freedom
A culture of trust originating from the institu- tion can also generate knowledge sharing. On a traditional HE campus, faculty might experience this trust through academic freedom to engage in scholarship. Academic freedom draws on the principles of free speech to provide faculty the ability to research topics and publish findings at their own discretion, even if such findings could reflect negatively on the faculty member’s
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institution (Kaplan & Lee, 2007). Admittedly, the academic freedom afforded clinical educators is limited, especially where ideologies are in conflict.
According to Wright and Wedge (2004), “academic freedom for clinicians is contentious because the missions of universities and their faculty differ fundamentally from those hospitals and their clinicians,” (p. 795). The protection af- forded clinicians under academic freedom is not a primary concern, as their responsibilities largely extend beyond academic research to clinical research that is often shaped by outside entities (e.g. pharmaceutical companies) and patient care. AMCs require their faculty to produce research without sacrificing quality patient care, thought- ful teaching, and consistent revenue. The tension that stems from navigating these responsibilities exists regardless of the supposed protection of academic freedom.
The cultures of traditional HE and medicine combine at an AMC. Often the degree to which these cultures have complementary or dissonant effects on knowledge sharing is demonstrated through avenues of research, teaching, and service. The hierarchical structure of AMCs is influenced by both HE and medicine and fosters knowledge sharing through teaching, but not necessarily through faculty collaboration. Structural oppor- tunities for faculty collaboration and knowledge sharing are supported through academic freedom, senior to junior staff mentoring models, and trust- instilling policies such as disclosure and apology.
The combination of HE and medicine is further complicated by the integration of sub-systems, especially for AMCs that are part of large health systems. Sheridan, Proenca, White, and McGee (1993) found that hospitals that had integrative cultures – that is cultures in which work values were shared across hospital occupational groups – had approximately thirteen months higher reten- tion rate than hospitals with differentiated culture. We can interpret from this study that knowledge sharing values can be integrated across hospital subunits, which will reinforce the act of sharing
knowledge and as well foster retention of talented members with similar values.
While traditional organizational structures can present barriers to knowledge sharing, new technologies can counteract or overcome those obstacles. AMCs are increasingly benefiting from aspects of technology that encourage faculty col- laboration and knowledge sharing at this nexus of HE and workforce development. Next we turn our attention to knowledge sharing and learning technologies.
KNOWLEDGE SHARING AND LEARNING TECHNOLOGIES
The use of technology for physician training in AMCs is highly variable. Medical schools have adopted various learning management systems and learning forums, which may be available for AMCs to use. A major barrier to adopting technology is the time necessary to surmount the learning curve towards effective instruction with technology. Un- like HE, many hospitals have opted to spend capital dollars on advanced technology for direct patient care rather than technology for learning; however, a growing emphasis on simulation education and accessibility of instructional technologies and free web applications have made inroads into medical education. The current generation of students also expects more technology integration, especially mobile technology. This chapter discusses two broad areas of technology integration: simulation education and virtual learning systems.
Simulation Education
Simulation education is defined here as curriculum that incorporates tools, techniques, and software to reproduce a real-life environment or scenario for the purpose of learning. Simulation is fast becom- ing an important part of medical education. It is used for both learning and assessment (Fincher & Lewis, 2002). Because simulation technology
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is expensive, there have been a few early adopt- ers that have established simulation as a viable instructional technique and many institutions are now incorporating at least some simulation technology in the training and privileging of physicians. Privileging in this context means that physicians have been certified as competent to do a particular procedure rather than assuming that competence always coexists with the attainment of the MD credential.
Increasingly, medical schools and AMCs are turning to simulation to provide a safe and forma- tive environment in which students, residents, and even attending physicians may practice and make mistakes in an unobstructed learning process. Simulation also offers relief from some ethical concerns about practicing and making mistakes on live patients, which is valuable since students are likely to feel less conflicted. Fincher and Lewis (2002) indicate that learner satisfaction and motivation may be higher in simulation because the environment feels more secure than in live patient-care environments.
Research into simulation is further exploring the correlation between simulation education and actual hospital behavior, such as studies on work hours and fatigue (Gordon, Alexander, Lockley, Flynn-Evans, Venkatan, Landrigan, & Czeisler, 2010) and on transfer of skills to patient care (Seymour et al., 2002) toward the development of lasting behavioral change and the develop- ment of expertise. Expertise can be woven into simulation by eliciting knowledge structures of subject matter experts, often through concept maps, and using these structures to build scenarios for simulation (Alverson, Caudell, & Goldsmith, 2008). A learner’s schema can then be compared to that of an expert, with the help of technology. Mapping knowledge structures can be time con- suming, however, and highly dependent upon the willingness of experts to share their knowledge.
Simulation works well with adult learning principles because it provides active and expe-
riential learning that touches both cognitive and emotional aspects of the learner (Fanning & Gaba, 2007). The nature of simulation training, as op- posed to the traditional M & M method, allows for knowledge sharing in a safe, reproducible, repetitive environment for individuals, groups and across institutions.
Reflection is not only important for learning from experience (Kolb, 1984) but it also helps promote meaning-making necessary for deep learning in simulation. Formal debriefing at the end of simulation drives reflective learning processes and allows for learner self-assessment as well as instructor feedback (Fanning & Gaba, 2007). If debriefing is done in a manner that promotes psychological safety, knowledge sharing and co-creation of meaning are more likely to occur; whereas, accusatory or punitive feedback will cre- ate a barrier to trust and future knowledge sharing. Additionally, where simulation is used to grade a learner’s ability rather than simply teach skills, we anticipate that there would be a reduction in the safety learners feel to share knowledge about their learning processes, especially regarding errors they make.
Both tacit and explicit knowledge are learned through simulation (Bennett, 2011). There is very little empirical research that investigates how tacit knowledge is learned through simulation; some learning is hidden from view yet critical for devel- oping medical competence. Tacit knowledge can be shared through the very design of simulation machines and scenarios in two ways.
First, experts can build in an appropriate level of haptic feedback, which simulates real-life touch and feel. For example, physicians may work with external enterprises to create synthetic material that mimics the properties of real human tissue. Haptic feedback can be provided to learners, simulating the tension, resistance, and movement a physician would feel during a live procedure.
Second, experts promote knowledge sharing by developing simulation curriculum through
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task deconstruction; that is, they dissect their own knowledge so that they can effectively share both explicit and tacit understandings with learners, some of which needs to be experienced to be un- derstood. Depending on the level of complexity, this can be a difficult and frustrating experience. Therefore, the faculty member must value the outcomes of task deconstruction in order to devote the time necessary to do it well. Similar to simula- tion education, virtual learning systems can also promote knowledge sharing through technology.
Virtual Learning Systems
Medical schools are increasingly using learning management systems to provide learning encoun- ters, as well as to create repositories of slides, pictures, graphs, x-rays, videos of standardized patient encounters, and other media that enrich learning. These on-line repositories have built- in capabilities for knowledge sharing, at least within the local academic community. Instructors can search to see the resources and formats that other instructors use in their courses, and medical students may be able to engage in self-directed learning by accessing on-line content.
Beyond repositories, though, virtual learning systems are fast becoming a media through which active learning occurs, which is a principle of virtual human resource development (Bennett, 2009) and important for workforce development. Some examples of the types of learning are:
• On-line discussion forums • Virtual action learning, in which medical
students discuss critical incidents in their clerkship (Plack, Driscoll, Marquez, & Greenberg, 2010)
• Reflective journaling about ethical dilem- mas (Bennett, O’Reilly, & Campfield, 2010)
• Virtual patient encounters
• Mobile access to academic communities and virtual team-building
Developing a team-based culture is important for the future of medical education to manage the complexities of modern patient care, and to engage a younger generation of physicians accustomed to learning within small groups and teams (Howell, Joad, Callahan, Servis & Bonham, 2009).
Trust is important for knowledge sharing but it is also critical for successful virtual teams (Colky, Colky, & Young, 2002; Jarvenpaa & Leidner, 1999; Piccoli & Ives, 2003). Leaders of global virtual teams that used traditional control mechanisms, such as weekly status reports, seemed to decrease trust (Piccoli & Ives, 2003), indicating that virtual work may defy traditional management strategies and hierarchical structures in medicine.
AMCs that are lagging behind the wave of technology will need to ramp-up quickly to utilize virtual learning systems effectively. Lack of faculty time for acquiring skills in learning technologies is a major barrier to this effort. Ad- ditionally, cultural beliefs in medicine may hamper the very knowledge-sharing that makes learning management systems valuable.
FUTURE TRENDS
The future will bring an examination of the structures of both medical education and HE as the United States prepares for future workforce needs. The role of technology will continue to grow in academics, although the focus will be on strategic and appropriate uses of technology rather than incorporating technology for the sake of novelty. We project that both HE and AMCs will turn to simulation and other virtual learning systems to enhance experiential learning and to assess essential skills for their learners. We con- clude this chapter by discussing future trends we anticipate in AMCs and HE.
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Trends in Academic Medical Centers
High student loan debt and higher costs of liv- ing are driving physician career choices toward sub-specialties (Howell et al., 2009) at a time when medicine needs primary care and family physicians. Christensen et al. (2009) suggest that this trend will usher in competition from foreign medical schools and stimulate the rise of corporate medical schools to fill the void in primary care. They predict that major integrated health systems will begin training their own doctors in the next ten to fifteen years, thus edging out the market from medical schools, simply to keep up with workforce needs. Here, ideals in HE to produce the top-notch specialists are contrary to workforce needs for general practitioners to handle everyday patient care.
The need to share knowledge openly and for the benefit of patients is important for the future of medical education. Not only are students in- creasingly technology-savvy, but patients are also entering the healthcare system with the ability and motivation to access online medical resources. For example, a recent study by Seςkin (2010) found that patients used computer-provided medi- cal information to inform healthcare decisions. Medical education will need to incorporate patients increasingly into the processes of learning and co- creating knowledge about illness and treatment. This trend may promote democratic ideals that foster knowledge-sharing and quality patient care.
Immediate access to information through elec- tronic medical records will increase communica- tion within a patient’s care team, potentially reduce patient care errors, and provide a rich resource for learning for residents, students, and other trainees as long as the information is shareable and not overwhelming in volume. Additionally, knowledge sharing will likely grow with the trend toward disclosure and apology policies that rein- force values of trust, honesty, and collaboration amongst faculty, learners, and patients.
AMCs, as extensions of HE, will need to adjust to trends in educational accountability that require evidence of educational quality, demonstrable outcomes, and well-designed curriculum. While AMCs may be ahead of the curve because they already promote extensive experiential learning, the connection between curriculum, instruction, and assessment will have to be more clearly drawn in ME, which is a weakness in the traditional ap- prenticeship model.
Faculty development programs need to promote the skills necessary to refine medical education systems as well as to leverage technol- ogy. Because faculty have high clinical loads, we anticipate that medical schools and AMCs alike will incorporate education professionals who can design curriculum, engage in educational research, and test foundational theories of learning in these settings. The ability of educationalists to integrate into the AMCs will depend on knowledge shar- ing values, especially given the suggestion that medicine is intolerant of generalists and other outsiders (Hafferty & Hafler, 2009).
Lastly, we anticipate that leveraging technol- ogy for knowledge sharing will allow experts in industrialized worlds to engage in global health initiatives. Mobile technologies are able to bypass the lack of land-line infrastructure and provide direct access to learning management systems. Knowledge-sharing will be a two-way street, as discoveries in developing and third-world coun- tries can be broadcast immediately from local contexts. Cultural and social context will clearly affect informationsharing internationally, as they do in the United States, and global health initia- tives will benefit from ethnographic approaches to address cultural concerns
Trends in Higher Education
At a time of economic uncertainty, HE in general is likely to go through a process of restructuring, starting with an analysis of core priorities. The connection between HE and workforce develop-
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ment will most certainly be examined. Part of this analysis must address how best to develop expertise in the professions. Corporate universi- ties may reduce the numbers of professionals seeking graduate degrees in HE. For example, many businesses cannot afford to pay the starting salaries of MBAs and so are utilizing corporate universities to train general managers within the context of their own business processes and cultures (Christensen et al., 2009). Christensen et al. (2009) also suggest that HE needs to move away from a fixed-time/variable-learning model to a variable-time/fixed outcomes model. This competency-based model of HE is partially in practice in residency programs across the country, and it focuses on driving advancement through performance that is graded by expectations set at various stages of training.
Economic instability will continue to drive students to programs that best prepare them for the jobs that are currently available. Some programs may no longer be sustainable if the economy recovers slowly or if the Unites States loses its competitive edge since there will be fewer tax revenues to support the present variety in academ- ics. The need to create more effective partnerships between HE and industry is also being realized in Britain where there is growing evidence of the benefit of work-based learning; however, the partnership is unequal with industry subordinated to the interests of HE (Shaw & Ogilvie, 2010).
Success in the private sector allows for a thriv- ing HE system; the opposite would constitute a downward spiral. Given that both breadth and depth of knowledge are necessary for knowledge work, HE institutions (as well as AMCs) will also increasingly incorporate inter-professional scholarship and team-based education. We believe that there will be increasing focus on building active and experiential learning techniques and knowledge apprenticeships into HE. These new trends may generate a cultural shift in traditional academia, which, if successful, can open new op- tions for knowledge creation and sharing.
CONCLUSION
HE and AMCs alike share some common issues in relation to education and the advancement of knowledge. First, cultural values and beliefs play an important role in how knowledge is created and shared. The social context in which people work and learn is integral to knowledge sharing. Second, the growing integration of technology in these environments requires new leadership skills to leverage knowledge sharing. Leadership in virtual work requires both productive power, requiring access to information, support services, and resources, as well as collaborative power that energizes people to accomplish the tasks that need to be done (Parchoma, 2005). Faculty must take time to collaborate to maximize knowledge sharing, which is a major barrier for AMCs since education and service are both year-round. There is also growing concern that technology can obscure a leader’s emotional intelligence and reduce the quality of technology-enabled commu- nication (Graham, 2009). Clearly, collaboration, trust-building, and communication skills are for academic leaders whether communication is in person or online.
Third, researchers and educators need to explore the balance between group work and individual work so that greater efficiency and quality are achieved. Knowledge work requires concentration and freedom from distraction, which is antithetical to the close quarters many organizations foster in the belief they will enhance collaboration and communication (Davenport & Prusack, 2000). Fourth, exploring how technol- ogy can promote the building and restructuring of tacit skills and create a balance between critical thinking and intuitive action is needed to develop expertise.
Finally, the academic community should open dialogues that foster appreciation of the special contributions that different sectors in HE bring to our collective cultural heritage. We are influenced by the economic times in which we live, but this
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does not mean that we have to abandon the very best aspects of HE to meet current workforce needs. Rather, appreciating the points of con- vergence and divergence may foster knowledge sharing, technology transfer, and collaboration that will allow new partnerships to emerge.
AMCs also must adapt to future trends. Wart- man (2010) suggested that AMCs need to recali- brate to meet changes in society, transform patient care, and engage in collaborations with other AMCs for mutual improvement. Correspondingly, education in the health professions is becoming increasingly important to HE as a growing sector of the economy and an increasing contribution to all of society, both of which raise the value of HE to the public (Kerr, 1972). AMCs, then, will continue to play an important role in ME and HE.
Universities and medical education have much they can learn from each other (Halperin, Byyny, Moore, & Morahan, 1995). HE can benefit from the subject matter experts in AMCs and the role of experience in reinforcing the fund of knowledge. In addition, HE can draw from the goal of AMCs to make learning “authentic.” On the other hand, AMCs would benefit by maturing their identities as institutions of HE. They should draw on the structured curriculum and assessment systems found in HE. Indeed, Flexner would criticize the emphasis that medical education has placed on the acquisition of knowledge without the correspond- ing focus on learning how to apply and assess the knowledge in a clinical setting (Corbett, 2010), especially where a staggered approach exists in traditional medical education curricula.
Going forward, as HE and AMCs learn from each other, they must avoid active inertia, which Sull (1999) defined as a learning trap in which organizations engage in a flurry of activities based on old formulas for success, rather than question- ing the essence of their mission, strategy, and practices. The tried and true may hold medical education back. Gunderman (2006) advocates for deep knowledge sharing in which we ask others to critique the mission of medical education. Indeed,
he argues, knowledge sharing is increased when a culture of collaboration is promoted in medical education. By emphasizing cultures of collabora- tion in AMCS, the nexus of HE and workforce development we have examined in this chapter provides a powerful stage for knowledge sharing and a timely response to the present economic challenges that affect us all.
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KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS
Academic Medical Center: A teaching hospi- tal affiliated with a medical school that provides education and training of medical students, resi- dents, and other healthcare professionals.
Higher Education: A system of accredited institutions providing formal post-secondary education.
Knowledge Sharing: The act of transferring various forms of knowledge to another human through a variety of communication modes.
Knowledge Management: Strategies for cre- ating, storing, disseminating, and utilizing knowl- edge, typically through the use of technology.
Medical Education: Education and training of physicians that prepares them for independent practice in the United States.
Simulation Education: Curriculum that incorporates tools, techniques, and software to reproduce a real-life environment or scenario for the purpose of learning.
Workforce Development: The use of educa- tion and employment infrastructure to prepare for future workforce needs through talent devel- opment, succession planning, recruitment, and training.
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Copyright © 2012, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
Chapter 17
DOI: 10.4018/978-1-61350-068-2.ch017
Grace Reynolds California State University, USA
Brenda Freshman California State University, USA
Technology Integration and Graduate Health
Management Education: A Review of Competency Models and
Application to Electronic Medical Records
ABSTRACT
The Commission on the Accreditation of Management Health Education (CAHME) is the accrediting body for graduate programs in Health Care Administration (HCA) in the U.S. CAHME accredited programs must adopt one of several competency models as the foundation for their HCA curriculum. This article looks at problems and opportunities associated with the implementation of EMRs in health care. We then use force field analysis to illustrate how graduate competency models can work in training graduate healthcare administration students to address technology challenges. Integrating both cogni- tive and affective domains into graduate curricula has proven to be challenging, however, competency areas such as leadership, professionalism, business skills, communication and relationship management, and knowledge of the health care environment are directly relevant to management challenges faced by administrators in implementing EMRs.
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INTRODUCTION
Expansion of health information technology, in- cluding adoption of Electronic Medical Records (EMRs) is currently an important policy topic within the larger arena of health care reform. Changes in the health care environment concerning the adoption of electronic medical records (EMRs) are being facilitated by the Obama administration’s stated support for a national adoption of EMRs. This is also being facilitated by expanded federal funding in the form of grants to states and local health jurisdictions, as well as managed care and private provider networks (Behkami, Dorr, & Morrice, 2010).
Adoption of EMRs across a nationally diverse group of hospitals, outpatient health care delivery sites, and physician practices faces huge challenges including EMR software that is largely proprietary, a lack of consensus on exactly what constitutes an EMR, and what differentiates full functionality from partial functionality when assessing health information technology. While the new high level of executive branch support and federal funding for the adoption of EMRs across the provider spectrum will provide needed resources for health informa- tion technology, financial resources alone are not sufficient to ensure broad-based adoption across all health care settings. EMRs have the potential to improve administrative efficiency and quality of health care but lack of financial resources has not been the only barrier to widespread adop- tion. Other barriers include work slowdown, lack of support from software companies, security and privacy issues (Valdes, Kibbe, & Tolleson, 2004) and an initial drop in productivity during implementation while clinicians and staff learn how to use the EMR systems; this reduction in productivity has been estimated to range from 15% to 30% (Palacio, Harrison, & Garets, 2010).
This chapter describes the application of com- petency models to curriculum design of graduate education programs for health care administrators, looking specifically at domains and competen-
cies related to EMR implementation. Health care administrators must interact with clinicians who provide direct care to patients while also adopting, embracing, learning and mastering new technol- ogy related to their own administrative positions. Adoption of EMRs must complement clinical practice or organizations will reap only limited benefits from the new technology. Health care administrators must understand EMR adoption and implementation not only from the administrative but also the clinical point of view. The Commis- sion on the Accreditation of Management Health Education (CAHME) is the accrediting body for graduate programs in Health Care Administration (HCA) in the U.S. CAHME does not advocate a single model for HCA education. CAHME pub- lishes competencies that graduate students are expected to have acquired by the time they finish their graduate education andCAHME accredited programs must adopt one of several competency models as the foundation for their HCA curricula. These competency models vary in their approach to the integration of health care technology into the graduate curriculum. Once a competency model is identified the next challenge becomes implementing the model and documenting suc- cess. This chapter presents a curriculum design process that can assist programs in defining competencies, learning objectives and assess- ment methods related to adopting and adapting to EMR. The results of the process described can provide a foundation for program development and evaluation as well as providing support for an accreditation self-study and direction for a continual quality improvement initiative.
BACKGROUND
Electronic Medical Records (EMRs)
Medical errors are the eighth leading cause of death in the United States. As Crane and Crane (2006, 2008) point out, the use of information
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technologies can contribute to preventing medical errors, particularly drug interactions. Such errors typically involve the erroneous prescription of two or more drugs whose interactions are known to cause serious side effects. With paper-based medical records a patient’s record can be scattered across different providers in different locations or even different departments within the same hospital. Oftentimes doctors have no access to a list of medications and treatments that have been previously prescribed for a patient, and no list of the patient’s allergies. Physicians often keep information about the patient’s medications in their memory and misreading of handwritten prescriptions has caused many medical mistakes (Crane & Crane, 2008).
or that reason, the use of EMRs can be benefi- cial. Having immediate access to a patient’s key information such as medications, diagnoses and allergies makes treatment safer and quicker (Mala- kar, April 2006). The ability to store requests for prescriptions, laboratory tests and other services in an EMR reduces duplication and aids patient safety. Alerts, reminders and prompts, generated by EMR software, ensure that regular screen- ings can be scheduled and help to identify drug interactions. Improved communication between health care providers improves continuity of care and timeliness of diagnosis and treatments. All of these factors can work together to reduce the frequency of adverse events (Malakar, 2006).
Murff and colleagues (Murff, Patel, Hripcsak, & Bates, 2003) conducted a study on detecting adverse events, comparing the efficacy of manual records with EMRs. They found advantages to using EMRs over paper records, with significant reductions in costs and staff time (Murff, Patel, Hripcsak, & Bates, 2003).
A study of Massachusetts clinicians who used an e-prescribing system carried out by Weingart et al. (2009), the usefulness of electronic prescribing in an ambulatory care setting was assessed and it was concluded that e-prescribing was advanta- geous to ambulatory medical practice, but that
inappropriate medication safety alerts occasion- ally generated by the system constituted a potential drawback (Weingart, et al., 2009).
From a clinical perspective, especially for short-term preventive care, using EMRs can be a valuable tool to identify patients needing specific services and furnishing reminders to the physi- cian to offer these services during patient visits (Hillestad, et al., 2005). Using EMRs to manage patients with chronic diseases enables the health care provider to better monitor the patient’s con- dition, improve patient cooperation and adjust treatment plans, in turn reducing the need for expensive acute care at a later time (Hillestad et al., 2005).
In a comparison of three information technol- ogy (IT) applications, EMRs, nurse charts and a communication system, EMRs were found to be the only health information technology ap- plication to have a statistically significant effect on patient safety. EMR use was associated with reduced infections and its benefits increased with each year of use (Parente & McCullough, 2009).
Regardless of EMRs’ advantages, not all healthcare providers understand or accept the necessity of switching from paper-based medical records to EMRs. According to an Association of American Physicians and Surgeons’ (AAPS) study of physicians in ambulatory care settings, 81% noted that their practices did not use EMRs. In fact, many of the respondents said they would rather retire than use EMRs (Robles, 2009). They listed fear of government interference as a major reason and also identified lack of privacy, insufficient return on investment, lack of capital to acquire information technology for their practices, and a preference for using hand-written notes. They did note that EMRs would be very useful during natural disasters such as Hurricane Katrina, where evacuees in shelters did not have access to their medication or medical records. Moreover, some providers viewed a change to EMRs as requir- ing more complex documentation on the part of the clinician. They considered the support and
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positive attitude of administrative leadership as essential to the smooth implementation of EMRs (Robles, 2009).
Unlike physicians, nurses were generally in favor of the use of information technology in health care, according to a McKesson survey conducted in 2005 of nurses’ perceptions of using EMRs. Nurses stated that they considered their hospital to be a safer place than it had been five years previously due to the implementation of EMRs. Nurses believed that lack of familiarity with a medication increased the likelihood of errors and that it is essential that such information be readily available to nurses administering medication in order to avoid medical errors (Harris Interactive, 2005, June).
Another survey of nurses’ perception of EMR use in a clinical setting found that one of the main concerns was that patients’ had a perception that their medical records would not be kept confi- dential if they were electronic. Nurses were also worried that using the computer during patient visits could detract from their relationship with patients. However, the nurses reported that if the patient could see the screen, they were not dis- turbed by it; in fact they found that patients were interested in being able to see their records such as blood pressure (BP) scores and prompts for vac- cinations and cancer screenings. They concluded that referring to the computer as “your record” rather than “the computer” is recommended and that explaining to the patient exactly what they were doing, including explaining at the end that they were “securing their records,” helped allay patients’ fears regarding confidentiality (Baker, Reifsteck, & Mann, 2003).
Other studies have found that the use of EMRs has limited advantages. Linder, Ma, Bates, Middleton and Stafford (2007) carried out a ret- rospective survey of physician visits in 2003 and 2004 to assess the connection between EMRs and the quality of ambulatory care. Physician respon- dents stated that the only benefit of EMRs was the prevention of prescribing benzodiazepines to
patients with depression and avoiding urinalysis testing during general medical examinations. They concluded that one of the main reasons for their findings could be that the electronic systems the physicians used may not have included the four elements of an EMR considered to be essential: electronic prescription ordering, laboratory test ordering, receiving laboratory results, and physi- cian clinical notes (Linder et al., 2007).
Singh and colleagues also conducted a survey of perceptions of doctors, nurses and administra- tive staff as to the usefulness of EMRs in a medi- cal practice. The survey did not find a perception that there were sweeping advantages to the use of EMRs in the practice. This appears to be due to the fact that paper records and electronic records were being used simultaneously and the implementation of the EMR system was incomplete. In addition, the physicians felt that the use of the computer by the physician in the exam room was likely to interfere with the doctor/patient relationship (Singh, Servoss, Kalsman, Fox, & Singh, 2004). A study on the use of EMRs in an ophthalmology practice found that EMRs in that setting did not improve patient care (Hasson, 2008).
PRESENT PERSPECTIVES
The American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009 allocated $19.2 billion dollars as an incen- tive for implementing electronic health record/ electronic medical record (EMR) systems (Klein, 2010; Murer, 2010). Electronic medical records (EMR) are generally conceived as “a computer sys- tem for storing, organizing, and retrieving infor- mation about patients.” (McGrath, Arar, & Pugh, 2007). In the early days, most of the health records were recorded on paper. In the present day, orga- nizations are slowly adopting technology, which allows them to turn health records into a digital format. Various types of information can be stored in an EMR system such as records of treatment, a patient’s medical history, lifestyle, medication
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information, test results, billing records, advanced directives, and imaging from x-rays, ultrasounds and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). EMRs can be easily accessed by healthcare providers. The HIPPA privacy act prohibits providers, insur- ance companies, government agencies, and other agencies from distributing patients health records unless there is a written consent from the patient on file (2007).
According to McGrath, Arar and Pugh (2007), in a study conducted to determine the influence of electronic medical record usage on nonverbal communication during the medical interview and their research indicated that electronic records were shown to be more understandable and leg- ible than paper records.
Purchasing an EMR system can lead to a posi- tive financial return on investment for healthcare organizations but initial costs can be enormous. According to Baharozian (2004), the initial invest- ment in an EMR system is considerable. The cost for new EMR system can range from $20,000 to more than $100,000 depending on the size of the practice and number of office locations. Besides direct cost, there are also indirect costs such as time and effort spent training new staff. However, when the system is fully implemented, it can lead to efficiency and profitability.
A study conducted to determine whether utilizing an EMR would improve the overall experience of physician and patient interaction showed that patients were comfortable using electronic systems to access their medical history. They found many benefits from using it, such as better communication with their physicians and their quality of care (Ferreira et al., 2007). EMR systems can eliminate the need for additional of- fice space, eliminate chart duplication, and reduce the frequently of misplaced medical charts. While securing the electronic data found in EMRs can be a challenge, having medical information stored in digital form may reduce the risk of losing medical records (Baharozian, 2004).
Efforts have been directed into implement- ing a national EMR system, however, there are many issues facing the implementation of such a system. Some of the issues involving with the EMR implementation are privacy and security risks (Swartz, 2005). Both the government and the public are concerned about the privacy and security risks of EMR systems. According to a Harris Interactive study (Harris Interactive, 2005,), approximately 48 percent of respondents said that the benefits of EMRs surpassed the privacy risks. Roughly 47 percent said the privacy risks are not worth the anticipated benefits. Between 62 and 70 percent of those surveyed expressed concern about privacy issues and data security. While the study indicates that approximately half of the population shows an interest in EMRs and that the benefits of EMRs would outweigh the privacy risk, a vast majority of the population are still concerned with the privacy and security issues surrounding implementation of EMRs.
There are other barriers in the implementation of an EMR system. As a result of many years in practice, some providers have become very comfortable with paper-based systems and may fear change. Another requirement for newly imple- mented systems is staff training, which requires time to learn the system, which is staff time that is not available for conducting the daily business of the practice or clinic. According to Chaudhry et al. (2006), adopting an EMR system is not an easy task and “while the benefits of health infor- mation technology are clear in theory, adapting new information systems to health care has proven difficult and the rate of use has been limited” (p. 12). Despite clear advantages, many healthcare organizations have been slow to adopt this new technology. The barriers that contribute to the slow adaptation rate are the lack of certification and standardization of software, high costs, concerns about privacy, and confusion about who pays for EMR systems and who profits from them (Hill- estad et al., 2005).
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GRADUATE EDUCATION OF HEALTH CARE ADMINISTRATOR
Issues, Controversies, Problems
Graduate education in Health Care Administra- tion is competency based. Programs accredited by CAHME may select the competency model they wish to implement, drawing from several national models. Once the competency model has been selected, faculty of the program then select courses to be offered as part of the curriculum that are relevant to the competencies, learning outcomes are specified for each course, assess- ment methods are identified for each assignment specific to the learning outcomes each course is designed to fill, and teaching, learning and assessments within each course and across the curriculum are aligned. Finally, a system is put into place to evaluate whether these education outcomes have been achieved. Bloom’s Taxonomy figures prominently in the specification of learn- ing outcomes so that they are observable, single actions that are behavior-based and measurable. Program competencies are also aligned to the program’s mission, vision and values, as well as faculty priorities and characteristics of the stu- dents targeted by and admitted to the program. Accredited programs are characterized by a focus on higher-order graduate level skills which are focused on experiential skill development (rather than passive knowledge transfer), with simulation activities, exercises and projects across the cur- riculum that are focused on career-like activities. In the alignment of assessment methods with specified learning outcomes, the development of criterion-based performance checklists are encouraged by CAHME and faculty incorporate these performance checklists whenever applicable into assessment methods. The goal is to aim for career-like processes to be deployed across the curriculum to facilitate the competency acquisi- tion process. Once a program has its competency model identified, and the curriculum with learn-
ing outcomes and assessment methods aligned, a continuous improvement process is put into place to ensure that all of the competencies identified in the chosen competency model are addressed across the courses in the curriculum, and that student achievement is measured.
The components of the best known of the gradu- ate health care management models (such as the Healthcare Leadership Alliance [HLA], St. Louis University [STL], Joint Medical Executive Skills Institute [JMESI], National Center for Healthcare Leadership [NCHL]) include:
1. Leadership (the ability to inspire excellence); 2. Communication and relationship manage-
ment (the ability to communicate clearly); 3. Professionalism (the ability to align personal
and organizational conduct); 4. Business knowledge and skills (the ability
to apply systems thinking) 5. Knowledge of the health care environment
(the understanding of the healthcare sys- tem) (Calhoun, Dollett, Sinioris, Wainjo, Butler, Griffith & Warden, 2008; Healthcare Leadership Alliance, 2005).
These five domains will be used as the basis for the curriculum model presented in this chap- ter. However, each program should conduct a comprehensive needs assessment to determine if other competency areas merit inclusion or more specificity.
Controversies
One controversy in graduate health manage- ment education is the extent to which accredited programs have been able to incorporate domains other than the cognitive domain into curricula. The cognitive domain is well-suited to the competency models however the affective and psychomo- tor domains have received much less attention. CAHME-accredited programs have been chal- lenged to actively work toward incorporating
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aspects of the affective domain into competency- based education. Affective domains from Bloom’s Taxonomy include the following:
1. Receiving/attending 2. Responding 3. Valuing 4. Organization 5. Characterization by value or value complex.
These have a place in graduate education that focuses on the management of the health care system and the health services delivered across that system where competing values, such as market justice compared to social justice, play out on a daily basis (Shi & Singh, 2004). However, incorporating affective domains into learning outcomes with measurable learning objectives and objective assessment methods has proved challenging.
Problems
Two of the top problems identified by a survey of health care administration education program directors were structural changes occurring within the health care environment and advances in information systems and technology (Calhoun, Davidson, Sinioris, Vincent & Griffith, 2002; Calhoun, Vincent, Calhoun, & Brandsen, 2008). Similarly, trends identified in the Institute of Medicine’s health professions education report included challenges of 21st century health practice and the ongoing changes in health care practice environments. This places issues related to imple- mentation and integration of electronic medical records at the center of problems and challenges facing health care management professionals.
From a curriculum viewpoint, EMR issues can be addressed in a variety of courses, depending on the structure of the program and the competency model that has been adopted. For example, under the HLA competency model, knowledge and skill development that might be considered applicable
to the implementation of EMR systems in the “real world” fall under at least two domains, with cor- responding competencies. For example, Domain 4, Knowledge of the Healthcare Environment, under which competencies include managed care models, structures, and environment; and standards applicable to information integration and interoperability; and Domain 5, Business Knowledge and Skills, under which competen- cies include broad systems connections, includ- ing internal and external systems; application software; health informatics, information system continuity, and information systems planning and implementation; information technology and IT systems selection criteria and review. However, taking a broader perspective, one that incorporates components of the affective domain into EMR readiness education, would require incorporating additional domains from across the curriculum, rather than those focused on the acquisition or mastery of technical skills. For example, (again from the HLA) Domain 1, Communication and Relationship Management, which includes com- petencies such as organizational structure and relationships; and principals of communication and their specific applications would also be nec- essary for the implementation of an EMR system across a broad range of clinical and administrative departments. In addition, incorporation of Domain 2, Leadership, with competencies such as leader- ship styles and techniques, and personal journey disciplines, are necessary to facilitate initiation and implementation of EMRs across a large organiza- tion. The Leadership domain, with its emphasis on team leadership, self-development, and the development of self-confidence, lends itself to the specification of affective domain learning outcomes (Calhoun & Gentry, 2010).
Solutions and Recommendations
Currently there is a strategic “push” from aca- demic accrediting agencies to clarify important competencies, enhance accountability for student
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learning outcomes, and identify the relevant as- sessments (Calhoun, Davidson, Sinioris, Vincent & Griffith, 2002; Calhoun, Vincent, Calhoun, & Brandsen, 2008). In practice, this requires cur- riculum designers to make clear links between competencies, training methodologies and ap- praisal methods. (Bardo, 2009). The challenge for educators is to make these links meaningful and explicit. To begin addressing these issues the current chapter applies the classic Force Field Analysis (Lewin, 1951) framework by clarifying driving and restraining forces to EMR adoption
and integration and developing the links between instruction and skill acquisition. Below is step by step strategy that can be taken to build a matrix that identifies these linkages across a program curriculum:
1. Identify barriers (restraining forces) and mo- tivators (driving forces) to EMR integration.
2. Select the domain competency in the pro- gram’s accreditation model that corresponds with the barrier or motivator.
Table 1. Barriers and motivators to EMR integration and corresponding domains and competencies
Barriers Domain Competency
Fear of Government Interference (Robles, 2009)
Knowledge of Health Care Environment The Community and The Environ- ment (Industry, Policy, Legislation)
Clinician Resistance (Robles, 2009)
Leadership Managing Change Communicating Vision
Security concerns Lack of Privacy (Valdes, Kibbe & Tolleson, 2004;Swartz, 2005)
Business Skills Information Management Risk Management
High Start Up Costs (Robles, 2009; Hillestad et al., 2005, Valdes, et al. 2004).
Business Skills Financial Management
Time loss Time it takes to learn Disrupt workflow/productivity (Valdes, et al. 2004; Palacio, Harrison, & Garets, 2010)
Business Skills General Management Planning Time Management
Need for training (Ferreira, et al., 2007)
Business Skills Professionalism
IT Skills Training Life-Long Learning
Software co. will go under Lack of Support from (Valdes, et al. 2004)
Business Skills Risk Management Information Management
Software lack of support (Valdes, et al., 2004)
Business Skills Risk Management Information Management
Preference for Paper Professionalism Life Long Learning
Concern of ability of “older” providers and staff (Ferreira, et al., 2007)
Communication and Relationship Manage- ment
Intergenerational and Cultural Com- petence
Patient concern for confidentiality (Baker, et al., 2003)
Communication and Relationship Management Knowledge of the HC Environment
Communication Skills The Patient’s Perspective
Detract from Relationship with patient (Singh, et al., 2004)
Communication and Relationship Management
Communication Skills
Lack of certification and standardization (Hillestad et al., 2005).
Business Skills and Knowledge Quality Improvement Human Resource Management
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3. Describe a knowledge, skill or ability (KSA) to overcome each barrier, and inspire each motivator.
4. Identify learning objective (LO) that address competencies taught in program curriculum, and/or develop LO if gap exists.
5. Identify an assessment method to measure level of KSA development for each leaning objective.
6. Confirm where in the curriculum the learning objective is covered.
Table 1 illustrates steps #1 and #2, by identify- ing the barriers and motivators to EMR integration. Also shown are the literature sources referenced and corresponding domains and competencies from the HLA Model (the model adopted by the authors’ academic department). Table 2 takes the next step and identifies specific knowledge, skills
or abilities (KSAs) that have the potential of ad- dressing the barriers and inspiring the motivating forces. Table 3 provides examples of step #4 by matching KSAs with learning objectives using Bloom’s Taxonomy. Care has been taken to draw from both the “affective” and “cognitive” domains, and are so noted. Steps #5 and #6 are also displayed here with columns for an assessment measure and the course where this learning objective is taught or would be a good fit. Ideally these tables would be completed with the input of as many faculty as possible. Core faculty involvement is a critical factor in successful understanding of the curricu- lum strengths and gaps with respect to preparing a workforce for EMR transitions and continual learning. Another important consideration is the staff and/or faculty time to be allocated for a programmatic coordination such as this. A person needs to be identified and held accountable as the
Table 2. Barriers and motivators matched with KSAs
Barriers Competency Specific KSA’s
Government Interference (Fear) Industry, Policy Facilitation and Negotiation
Knowledge of current legislation and policy
Clinician Resistance Managing Change Communicating Vision
Gaining buy-in Motivating Others
Security concerns Lack of Privacy
Information Management Risk Management Communication
Knowledge IT Security Contingency Planning Public Relations
High Start Up Costs (Fear) Financial Management Ability to develop budgets and financial forecasts
Time loss Planning Time Management Scheduling
Need for training Human Resource Management Ability to identify training needs.
Fear/ Lack of Desire for Training Preference for Paper
Life-Long Learning Motivating self and others, Desire to Learn
Concern of ability of “older” providers and staff
Intergenerational and Cultural Competence Ability to value diversity in workforce and patients
Software co. will go under or Lack of Support (Fear)
Risk Management Information Management
Ability to research and analyze competi- tive bids.
Patient concern for confidentiality Communication Skills Ability to Empathize with patient.
Detract from Relationship with patient Communication Skills Interpersonal dialogue and listening skills
Lack of certification and standardization Quality Improvement Human Resource Management
Ability to access compliance. Knowledge of necessary certifications for job positions.
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primary coordinator for gathering information, compiling responses, scheduling meetings and providing updates. If not, the effort is likely to lose momentum and interest. Support from the program director through personal involvement and public acknowledgement both go a long way in modeling appreciation for the process and hence can increase motivation to participate.
Since each program will have unique faculty/ student mix and will be following a a compe- tency model of their choice, the tables offered here are intended to represent only one example of a matrix formed with this strategy. Educators are encouraged to tailor their strategies to align with their program resources, culture and, learn- ing outcome goals.
Table 3. KSA, learning objectives, assessment, course/topic links
KSA Learning Objective for HCA Students Measure/assessment Courses/Topic in Curriculum
Motivating Others (a) Promote vision and ideas to team mem- bers.
Oral presentation of strategic plan- peer feedback.
Leadership Management
Self-Motivation (a)Organize a value system around personal meaning and priorities.
Self-assessment of values and priorities.
Leadership
Interpersonal Dialogue
(a)Develop techniques for supportive com- munication.
Case analysis of supportive communication techniques to be applied to a situational challenge
Management
Listening skills (a) Deliberately examine one’s personal abil- ity to listen to others.
Pre and Post Course listen- ing skill self assessment. Reflection Narratives on listening ability.
Leadership Management Human Resources.
Gaining buy-In (c)Propose methodology for identifying IT “champions” in an organization.
Case analysis Leadership
Gaining buy-in (c)Identify clinician concerns with respect to EMR implementation.
Outline of clinician barriers Organizational Behavior/Change Management
Financial research and analysis skills
(a) Form resource allocation judgments based on financial analysis of IT implementation budgets.
Budget, forecasting and decision making cases.
Finance Information Systems in HC
Financial budget- ing and financial forecasting
(c) Develop computer spreadsheets for finan- cial analysis.
Case with Excel Spreadsheet Finance
Valuing diversity (a) To assume responsibility for considering perspectives of protected classes and diverse groups when making decisions
EEO decision making cases involving protected classes.
Human Resource Management/ EEO
Valuing diversity. (a) Promote the value of how diversity can contribute to quality and patient and em- ployee satisfaction.
Diversity Initiative proposal and implementation plan.
Management/Organization Devel- opment
Valuing diversity. (c) Describe the similarities and differences between diverse groups.
Essay narrative and reflec- tion comparing min. of three cultural groups.
Human Resource management/ EEO
Identifying train- ing needs
(c) Describe each stage of the needs assess- ment and the corresponding outcome for that stage.
Case problem, needs assess- ment and training plan.
Human Resource Management/ Training
Ability to access patient safety information
(c) Identify patient safety metrics and de- scribe assessment methodology.
Case problem and essay response
Management/Quality Improvement
(a) = Verb from Bloom’s Affective Domain (c) = Verb from Bloom’s Cognitive Domain
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FUTURE TRENDS
One trend is toward certificate programs that complement the traditional master’s degree in health care administration. Certificate programs, for example, focused specifically on EMR imple- mentation and use, serve two purposes: one, they identify those courses across the curriculum with a focus on skills directly relevant to selection, deployment, implementation and training for the use of EMRs, and bundles them together so that students with a special need or interest in EMRs can easily identify the course or courses they need; and two, it provides for on-going professional education for those health care managers who are at a mid-career or advanced career level who need to increase their skills quickly in the area of EMRs. A curriculum matrix such as the one described in this chapter could provide a solid foundation for program design with learning objectives and assessment methods clearly identified.
Another trend is greater emphasis on computer laboratory exercises that simulate actual electronic medical records. This allows students to experi- ence different EMR modules and functionality along with “hands on “ experience. Because most EMR software is proprietary, creating a virtual EMR simulation lab can be costly.
CONCLUSION
In summary, preparing current and future health- care administrators for EMR integration is an im- portant objective for graduate programs to address. The case is made for the necessity of educational objectives to address competency development to facilitate continual learning around technology adaptations. A method for identifying a program’s strengths and gaps with respect to EMR adaptive knowledge, skills and abilities is presented. The creation of a program matrix demonstrated in the aforementioned tables, is only the start of quality improvement and curriculum design applica-
tions of the process. Already mentioned is the application to self-study reports for accreditation and campus review purposes. Additionally, col- laborative abilities among the faculty members can strengthen program standards and provide opportunities for coordination of tracking learning objectives across the program. An example of this type of unplanned benefit was the development of two department oral presentation rubrics (one for individual presentations, and one for groups) by the CSU Long Beach MSHCA faculty that resulted from follow up discussions on next steps in quality control. Once a basic matrix was filled out and reviewed, the value of grading rubrics that can be used to track key skill development over the time the student is enrolled the program becomes evident. Furthermore, clarifying learning objectives with a strategy to use both cognitive and affective domains of Bloom’s Taxonomy at the highest level appropriate to the student’s readiness can cause faculty to rethink the links from LO, to training methodology to assessment measures in all their courses. At least anecdotally that had been the effect on the chapter authors.
In summary, a curriculum matrix can be of value in any area where alignment between ob- jectives, methodologies and results, can benefit from clarification and program level coordination. Most graduate programs in health care manage- ment education will need to find ways to adapt to the challenges of new technology integration in health systems. The need for skills associated with electronic medical record adoption provides a good example of education’s challenge to adapt to changes in the industry. This chapter provides a model for health care management education programs to promote student development in ac- cordance with the knowledge, skills and abilities identified as factors for success.
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KEY WORDS AND DEFINITIONS
Accredited Program: Academic course offer- ings associated with a graduate degree that have been evaluated as to quality and performance through a systematic and objective external review by an external agency with recognized expertise in the subject area.
Affective Domain: Encompasses an indi- vidual’s feelings, attitudes and beliefs, including subjective assessments of relationships
Competency/Competencies: Sufficiency of skills and/or behaviors to perform in a specified arena, usually professional or work related; a col- lection of higher order skills that facilitate action and decision making
Electronic Health Record (HER): Same as below (see EMR).
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Electronic Medical Record (EMR): A com- puter system for storing, organizing, and retrieving information about patients, with functionality that allows for such actions as sending prescriptions to pharmacies electronically, sending and receiving the results of laboratory results electronically, and storing medical imaging (such as x-rays, magnetic resonance imaging [MRI] in a digital format for retrieval.
Health Care Administrator: Individual spe- cifically trained in the financial and management skills related to health care rather than clinical skills associated with direct patient care.
Learning Outcome: Observable results indi- cating that goals have been accomplished.
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Copyright © 2012, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
Chapter 18
DOI: 10.4018/978-1-61350-068-2.ch018
INTRODUCTION
Graduate student education is an important link to a well prepared 21st century workforce (Council of Graduate Schools, 2010). College and university graduate programs which actively support the adult learner account for 660,000 master’s and doctoral degrees each year (Snyder, Dillow, & Hoffman, 2009). While this figure might appear to be large it equates to only 8.8% of the U.S. domestic
population and of that number approximately 1% are doctoral degree holders (Bell, 2009b). Adult learners are commonly defined as individuals aged 25 or older and the National Center for Educational Statistics considers these learners as non-traditional students. They may have de- layed post-secondary education enrollment; are typically financially independent of parents; they work full-time; and have dependents other than a spouse (Adult Learning, 2008).
Ellen Reames Auburn University, USA
Maria Martinez Witte Auburn University, USA
Marcus Howell Auburn University, USA
Engaging the Adult Learner Through Graduate
Learning Communities
ABSTRACT
Providing a college education is important to the advancement of the United States and at the interna- tional level. A highly competitive 21st century workforce is in demand, and there is an increased need for graduate degrees but the adult learners and the learning venues are changing dramatically. This chapter addresses the need for graduate education, the trends and changing demographics of adult learners or graduate students, and the use of graduate learning communities to satisfy the changing needs of those served by colleges and universities.
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Global demands recognize the critical need for a talented, technologically savvy workforce with the social and intellectual skills to success- fully navigate an ever growing cyber commu- nity (McCarthy & Samors, 2009; McPherson & Shulenburger, 2009). Graduate schools are an important link to our nation’s mission to develop a competitive workforce. As Debra W. Stewart, (2010), President of the Council of Graduate Schools, stated,
Graduate education in the United States has been an enormously successful enterprise, serving the vital scientific, cultural and economic needs of the national and global community. Our graduate schools are epicenters of discovery, innovation, and application, leading to advancements that affect every one of us. (para. 1)
Such an enterprise can be nurtured in graduate programs (Maki, 2009) and in particular through graduate learning communities (Gardner, 2009; Rovai & Jordan, 2004; Tokuno, 2008).
Learning communities have shown great prom- ise in increasing student satisfaction, retention, enhanced academic development, strengthening of the college curriculum and teaching, connec- tiveness to faculty and peers through research and projects, engagement and motivation and increased recognition of the need to collaborate with others (Smith, MacGregor, Matthews, & Gabelnick, 2004). In learning communities the curriculum is structured “…so that students are more actively engaged in a sustained academic relationship with other students and faculty over a longer period of time than in traditional course settings” (Minkler, 2002, p. 1). Researchers have found positive results when learning communi- ties were used in the areas of retention, academic success and student satisfaction in undergraduate programs (Tinto, 2006; Zhao & Kuh, 2004) but there is less evidence available regarding the use of learning communities in graduate programs. Although it is difficult to find large national stud- ies concerning the effects on graduate programs, current studies are encouraging (Gardner, 2009; Tokuno, 2008; Pratt & Tokuno, 2008). There is a
growing body of knowledge concerning graduate learning communities which are also referred to as a community of practice (COP) (Dabbagh, 2007; Stacey, Smith, & Barty, 2004). Dabbagh (2007) stated that “members of a COP understand that a social mind is at work and that knowledge is a shared intellectual capital” (p. 220). Learning is social and a critical tenet when learning com- munities are to be implemented within distance education programs and affiliated coursework (Dabbagh & Bannan-Ritland, 2005; Wenger & Snyder, 2000).
Graduate students want programs which ac- commodate their busy lives. These adult learners are requesting class scheduling which will allow them to balance fulltime careers, family and education efforts. Distance education is proving to be one way to meet these student needs. The Sloan Consortium reported that in 2009 there were 4.6 million students enrolled in an online course (Allen & Seaman, 2010). In addition, col- leges and universities are setting goals to become more entrepreneurial and distance education is providing an avenue for success. For example, one public land grant institution reported over $5 million in revenues for 2009-2010. Higher education institutions are realizing the possibili- ties of technology and income production as well as the need to produce quality distance educa- tion experiences for learners. To do so warrants understanding demographic trends of graduate students and how they relate to best practices of adult learning theory and organizational contexts such as in graduate learning communities.
This chapter identifies current trends in graduate student demographics and suggests how graduate student needs can be met through the application of adult learning theory and the use of learning communities. In addition it will explore recent developments in the use of online learning communities. The intent is to identify how online learning communities have a strong theoretical base and can be used to engage today’s graduate adult learners.
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BACKGROUND
An increase in the number of students entering graduate school (Bell, 2009a), the expanding inclusion of a diverse group of learners, (Bell, 2009a; Redd, 2007a), the expected increase of older nontraditional graduate students for the next two decades (Bell, 2009b; Redd, 2007b), the rising graduate school costs, attrition rates, and the increased use of distance education graduate programs (Bates, 2005) are all trends affecting higher education institutions, faculty, and ad- ministrators. In order to focus on these trends, it will be important to create or adapt existing organizational processes used to attract, retain, and graduate students. Graduate programs and higher education institutions can address and meet these needs through the use of online learning communities.
Graduate programs have consistently expanded from the mid 1980’s to 2006 and administrators are challenged to meet the unique needs of a dramati- cally changing pool of students. Total graduate enrollment in 2007 was 2.3 million as compared to 1.5 million in 1987 (Bell, 2009a; Redd, 2008a). Graduate school overall enrollment continues to climb and is predicted to do so through 2017 (Bell, 2009b). Master’s programs have three times as many students (74%) as enrolled in doctoral programs (26%). Women comprise 59% and men comprise 41% of the graduate student body. In 2008, 3.2% of Hispanics, 5.4% of Blacks and 8.8% of Whites held graduate degrees. This is a slight increase in the graduate student population during 1998 which consisted of 2.4% Hispanics and 3.8% Blacks. Characteristics of the typical graduate student have changed during the last two decades and will continue to do so. There has been an increase in the number of women and minorities entering graduate programs.
Attrition rates for graduate students are another important factor. In graduate programs, the dropout rate for doctoral students is 50% and there is a 40% attrition rate within the first year (Denecke
& Frasier, 2005; Smallwood, 2004). For master’s students, Tokuno (2008) found a 20% attrition rate. Graduate schools must be diligent in recognizing underrepresented populations and the special needs these students may have.
Graduate students are also getting older. In 2007, 22% of all graduate students were 40 years of age and over, compared with 18% in 1987. Typically, students have entered graduate school within a few years of completing an undergraduate degree and have completed their master’s degree prior to their 30th birthday. However, there has been a large increase in the numbers of older graduate students. Between 1987 and 2007, the number of graduate students 40+ years of age increased 87%, from 267,000 to 500,000. From 1995 to 2005 alone there was a 40% increase in graduate students over the age of 40. This trend is expected to continue over the next two decades (Knable, 2000; Redd, 2008b). For older students age 40+, as well as those below age 30, a degree in education is the most common graduate school degree. Business and management is the second most popular degree and science, engineering and mathematics (SEM) is third (Redd). Overall, 48% of older women are education majors and 36% of older men are business and management graduate students. One interesting trend for those students 40+ years old is that they are more likely to be enrolled in non-degree seeking courses. This suggests that this segment of the graduate student population may be less interested in degrees and more interested in specific content, personal enjoy- ment or enhanced job marketability (Redd, 2007b).
Additional complexities in describing gradu- ate students should consider the generational blending in graduate classrooms such as Baby Boomers, Generation X, and Millennia students. These age groups learn differently and coupled with technology and distance classrooms the experiences appear very unique for these diverse groups (Holyoke & Larson, 2009). In addition, a growing number of students are part-time with busy lives outside of school. They hold fulltime
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jobs, have families and must balance these with the high academic expectations of graduate school. Another important factor to recognize is the current economic conditions of the U.S. economy. Cost is a factor and graduate student financial support is a top issue facing graduate deans in 2010 (Bell, 2010). The cost of public university education is less than private but most students can expect to pay between $10,000-$25,000 for public schools and $40,000 for private schools per year. It is not uncommon for several generations within one family to be in graduate school at the same time.
Distance education programs add to the com- plexity and are growing at a staggering pace. Allen and Seaman (2010) reported that online enrollments are increasing yearly at a rate higher than post secondary education institution enroll- ments. The seventh annual Sloan Survey of Online Learning reveals that online enrollment rose by nearly 17 percent from 2008 to 2009. Using results from more than 2,500 colleges and universities nationwide, the report indicated approximately 4.6 million students were enrolled in at least one online course in fall 2008. This translated to over 25% of post secondary students, 87% of undergraduates, and 14% of graduate students had taken distance education classes (Allen & Seaman, 2010).
The growing numbers of students entering graduate school (Bell, 2009a), the expected in- crease of older nontraditional graduate students for the next two decades (Bell, 2009b; Redd, 2007b), increased access and reliance on distance educa- tion by colleges and universities (Bates, 2005) and the expanding inclusion of diverse groups of learners will all impact the graduate student learning environment (Bell, 2009a; Redd, 2007a). Faculty and administrators will need to understand these trends, and adapt organizational processes to address important institutional outcomes such as recruitment, retention and graduation. Devel- oping graduate online learning communities and integrating these with adult learner andragogical practices are promising possibilities.
ADULT LEARNING THEORY
U.S. colleges and university graduate programs are most effective when based on best practices of adult learning theory. Malcolm Knowles (1977) popularized the concept of andragogy which, un- like pedagogy, emphasizes the teaching process and not the content. Andragogy is defined as the “art and science of helping adults learn” (Knowles, Holton, & Swanson, 2005, p. 61). Andragogy, although sometimes contested, continues to be an adult education hallmark which tends to empha- size the process of teaching over the content that is being taught. The model is part of a learning theory system and includes six assumptions about adults: (1) the need to know; (2) the learners’ self- concept; (3) the role of the learners’ experiences; (4) readiness to learn; (5) orientation to learning; and (6) motivation (Knowles, Holton, & Swan- son, 2005). Bloomberg (2008) reiterated that the principles and tenets of adult education reinforce the dialogical approach in the development of an effective learning community. Whereas, a didactic teaching style may negatively affect the growth of a learning community since it may reduce com- munication and interaction.
Adults have accumulated life experiences and knowledge that includes previous work, family and educational experiences. They need to be able to connect new learning to these experiences. Adults are also goal and relevancy oriented and are focused when they enter a course and appre- ciate organized and clearly defined curriculum. Adults must see a reason for learning something and it needs to be applicable to their work or other responsibilities for it to be of value. Objectives need to be clear from the beginning and projects should reflect the adult learners’ specific inter- ests. Adults are also practical and most are not interested in knowledge for knowledge’s sake. There should be an explicit connection between the content and how it can be used. Adults are typically autonomous and self-directed and prefer to direct their own learning experiences. College
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or university faculty would benefit from including the learner in the learning process and acting more as a facilitator or guide and allow adult graduate students to participate in projects that reflect their interests. Adults, as do all learners, need to be shown respect. Faculty should acknowledge the wealth of experiences the adult learner brings to the classroom (Knowles, 1977; Knowles et al., 2005; Zachary, 2005).
Supportive of this seminal adult learning theory are the adult learning motivational best practices suggested by Wlodkowski (2008). To engage adult graduate students, faculty must find ways to:
• include all learners in the process and en- courage mutual respect and collaboration so that all are considered equal partners
• support student dispositions that encourage learning and relevance of curriculum and
• promote student association of learning with the larger social arenas in which they live and work.
There are at least five factors which serve as motivators for the adult learner. First is the expectation of new social relationships because adults see the need for friendships. Second, adults want to be promoted to advance in the work place. They frequently use education to stay competitive in the job market. Third, adults want to relieve boredom and they seek stimulation to provide a contrast to their routine. They will look for new interests and learning opportunities. Fourth, many adults appreciate formal authority and they welcome complying with instructions from oth- ers. Fifth, adults understand the importance of giving back and see furthering their education as a way of improving connections to community (Wlodkowski, 2008).
Knowing that the adult learner has such unique motivational requirements can help faculty and administrators find contextual ways to enhance their experiences. One way is through the use of learning communities. Learning communities in
higher education are increasingly popular because they help facilitate and increase graduation rates, enhance learning experiences and model collab- orative practices of a global society (Cross, 1998; Pike, 2008; Tinto, 2002). Learning communities in graduate settings can also address the moti- vational needs of the adult learner suggested by Wlodkowski (2008) and Knowles et al. (2005). Adults tend to be self-directed, more collabora- tive and tend to attach deeper meaning to their group learning experiences. Adults want to be responsible for their own learning experiences and have a strong tendency to scaffold new knowledge and experiences with what they already know (Knowles et. al, 2005). Learning communities have a proven track record in graduate degree programs such as teacher education (Lee et al., 2005; Mathieu, 2008), educational leadership (Davis, Darling-Hammond, LaPointe, & Mey- erson, 2005; Reames, in press; Singh, Basom, & Perez, 2009; Twale & Kochan, 1998; 2000), engineering (Coll, 2008; Zhao & Kuh, 2004), public administration, (Schuhmann & Skopek, 2009); business (Reynolds & Sitharaman, 2000) and nursing (Blauvelt & Spath, 2008).
LEARNING COMMUNITIES
Graduate learning communities and adult learning theory are based on complementary principles. Challenges for graduate students such as difficult coursework, thinking in more participatory ways, and transitioning from undergraduate to gradu- ate work can be supported by peer and faculty relationships and the institution.
Graduate learning communities assist with student retention. Learning communities can model important andragogical practices and they can reflect positive interests of students, faculty, colleges/universities and society. In research ex- amining graduate learning communities, Twale and Kochan (2000) found the participants to be more engaged. Students reported that the learning
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community enhanced their academic growth and helped develop them into an expert researcher. As Gardner (2009) stated, “In these communities of learners, doctoral students also seek experiences that verify their experiences and incorporate their learning needs, which are key tenets of adult learn- ing” (p. 51). In addition, students formed close bonds with their peers and professors and increased their capacity to collaborate in the program and in their personal and professional lives. Using learning communities positively impacted peda- gogical practices, strengthened the curriculum, and created constructive professional relationships for professors and instructors (Reames, in press; Twale & Kochan, 2000).
In past efforts to describe learning communi- ties researchers have tended to focus on the word cohort. It was not until the 1990’s that the term cohort and learning communities began to be recognized as synonymous (Singh et al., 2009). Learning community activities, and in particular, group work is important for adult learners because of the development of trust and support. Learn- ing communities typically rely on teamwork. In theory, learning community student can form a tight-knit community which many times lasts longer than anticipated and becomes deeper than originally intended. Research stipulates that learn- ing communities can be useful for specific short term activities, semester long courses, or program length involvement. Based on these assumptions, learning communities can reduce attrition, provide academic and psychological support and motivate adult students to persist to graduation.
HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVES OF LEARNING COMMUNITIES
Learning communities can be traced to the 1920’s Experimental College at the University of Wis- consin where the creator, Alexander Meiklejohn, started the first residence-based program. Students lived in a residence hall, took classes together as
a group, and were allowed to follow expectations somewhat different from the traditional student. Today’s higher education learning communities date back to the 1980’s. Currently, there are about 250 learning communities listed in the Washington Center’s National Learning Commons Directory (Evergreen, 2010). Smith, Eby, Jeffers, Kjellman, Koestler, Olson, and Smilkstein (2006) suggested over 600 educational institutions are engaged in a multitude of learning community formats and structures.
Learning communities are a popular strategy within higher education institutions. Theoretical assumptions and research have guided the develop- ment and research of learning communities within higher education (Gabelnick, MacGregor, Mat- thews, & Smith, 1990; Shapiro & Levine, 1999; Smith, 2001; Tinto, 1995). Cross (1998) described a higher education learning community as “groups of people engaged in intellectual interaction for the purpose of learning” (p. 4). Members of learning communities share many of the same beliefs and values. They learn from each other and with each other (Evergreen, 2010).
Learning communities for graduate students was evidenced in the literature as early as the 1960’s and 1970’s. The use of learning communities has continued to grow in graduate school settings as institutions have addressed the unique needs of the 2.3 million master’s, specialist and doctoral stu- dents (Bell, 2009b). While learning communities are not new in higher education they have become more sophisticated as they have grown to serve a number of adult learners contextual needs. In general, higher education needs include: retention to graduation, engagement/motivation, and build- ing social and intellectual community. When the adult learner returns to graduate school there may be additional complexities. Two such complexi- ties could be generational blending, such as Baby Boomers, Generation X and Millennia students, in the same classroom (Holyoke & Larson, 2009) and inclusion of information technologies (Lee et al., 2005). The generational differences translate
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into patterns that allow predictions about future collective behavior for each generation.
Three basic learning community models are used in graduate programs: cohort, linked courses or cluster and coordinated studies (Evergreen, 2010; Inkelas, Szelenyi, Soldner, Brower, & Craw- ford, 2007; Lenning & Ebbers, 1999; MacGregor, Smith, Matthews, & Gabelnick, 2002). Cohort models allow for students to enroll in large classes within a self-contained small group. This model does not involve faculty coordination of curricu- lum or instruction and the main purpose is to build intellectual connections and community within a small group of students (Gabelnick, MacGregor, Matthews, & Smith, 1990; MacGregor, et al., 2002). These have been used with new graduate students to help with adjustment and advanced course content.
Linked or cluster cohort models involve two or more classes which are grouped by theme or content and the cohort co-registers. Faculty and instructors plan the program collaboratively through this type of blocked scheduling. A review of the literature suggests that this is a popular con- figuration among graduate programs (Blauvelt & Spath, 2008; Evergreen, 2010; Lee, Carter-Wells, Glaeser, Ivers & Street, 2005; Mathieu, 2008; Reames, in press; Schuhmann & Skopek, 2009; Singh et al., 2009).
Models using coordinated studies are inter- disciplinary experiences in coordinated multiple classes. Usually three or more courses are taught by a faculty team in an integrated program. The goal is to provide students with immersion in interrelated topics, a theme or question. Faculty will typically team teach and course work is em- bedded in an actual program or major.
ONLINE LEARNING COMMUNITIES
Combining learning communities with distance education formats represents an important iteration in graduate studies. Rovai (2002a) challenged the
traditional face to face higher education learning community by defining community as “mutual interdependence among members, sense of be- longing, connectedness, spirit, trust, interactivity, common expectations, shared values and goals, and overlapping histories among members” (p. 2). There is no mention of shared physical space. As Rovai stated, “when community is viewed as what people do together, rather than where or through what means they do them, community becomes separated from geography, physical neighbor- hoods, and campuses” (p. 2). Rovai identified spirit, trust, interaction and common expectations as the elements needed to create distance learning communities.
Spirit is regarded as group identity and rep- resents relationship building. In learning com- munities members bond when there are common activities and projects. These activities give students and faculty reasons to interact and form relationships. As time passes social relationships develop and become deeper and more personal. Friendships also evolve throughout the learning community membership. Trust is built and is an important element in the formation of learn- ing communities because it allows members to openly express thoughts related to content and about group members. This open expression or dialogue is absolutely critical to foster personal and professional relationships. Individuals must trust that the group members will be supportive of each member of the group. Members of online learning communities must also have quality interactions and common expectations. Rovai (2002a) described these expectations as a “com- mitment to a common educational purpose” (p. 3). As members participate, the learning becomes more valued and important (Rovai; Rovai, & Jordan, 2004). Other researchers would concur that these are important concepts of any learning community whether in a distance education or face to face format (Cross, 1998; Lee et al., 2005; Pike, 2008; Reames, 2010; Tinto, 2002; Wilson, Cordry, & King, 2004).
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CREATING ONLINE LEARNING COMMUNITIES
Online learning communities are not only possible but may already be occurring naturally (Lee et al., 2005; Rovai & Jordan, 2004; Schuhmann & Skopek, 2009). Online learning communities are defined as a group of students and faculty who pursue a common body of knowledge through virtual communications and remote activities. In many cases these members will have a common interest such as a major. Online learning com- munity members primarily operate in a virtual environment (Lee et al.). Characteristics of suc- cessful online learning communities include a sense of belonging, (Rovai, 2002a), established learning objectives and community norms (Mor- rison & Shrivastava, 2001), social networking and collaboration (Exter, Korkmaz, Harlin, & Bichelmeyer, 2009). Students recognize the level of interaction with peers and faculty. Students and faculty will usually continue the friendships that develop and foster as established through these learning communities.
There are ways of creating effective online learning communities. One of the steps is to in- crease interaction between students and faculty (McGee & Green, 2008; Palloff & Pratt, 2004). Using technology, including videos (record- ings of classes or individualized feedback from professors), teleconferencing, Skype, chat ses- sions, discussion forums, and e-mail can all be used by faculty to increase interaction among class members. Another possibility to increase interaction for online learning communities is to include on-campus events or sessions. These can be weekend or week long seminars when all students are invited to meet. In addition, faculty can use web-conferencing. This provides students the opportunity to meet with professors and other members in a real-time setting. Group assign- ments can also encourage interaction among students. The use of social networking sites such as Facebook or a web site specific to the program
with discussion forums and blogs offers students and faculty an opportunity to interact and share personal and professional experiences.
It would be vital to establish online learning community norms early in the class. These norms would include the pedagogical practices students and faculty must understand to maintain an effec- tive learning environment (Rovai & Jordan, 2004). This includes taking individual responsibility for creating a sense of community for themselves, their peers and faculty. Distance learning com- munity members must reach out to each other. Faculty and learning community members can also consider some of the following activities to assist in developing learning community norms. These activities include using the initial group activities to establish positive relationships in the group. Develop activities and assignments that encourage teamwork and continuous involvement (Rovai). Individual assignments should be balanced with the group activities and assignments. Challenge members to do their most creative work. Class activities can be combined with social gatherings. It would be beneficial to hold events on and off campus that incorporate social, academic, and networking features. The use of smaller learning community projects would encourage the ap- plication of important program themes and the opportunity to work with community-university partners (Parker & Martin, 2010).
Some examples of successful learning commu- nities can be found through the work of Bloomberg (2008), Kabes, Lamb, and Engstrom (2010), and Ritter, Polnick, Fink, and Oescher (2010). Bloom- berg reported the learning experiences of Jewish education Master’s degree program learning community participants. The program is offered through videoconferencing technology and the findings from this study reported that the learning community fostered openness to new perspectives and an appreciation for collaborative learning and reflective thinking. Kabes, Lamb, and Engstrom identified a Master’s Learning Community Pro- gram at a Midwestern university which has been
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in existence since 1996. This study examined the impact of learning communities and was collected over a period of five years--2005-2009. There were twelve central elements with consistently high scores on the learning community survey which were: best practices, learning environment, effec- tive teaching strategies, research-based decision making, scaffolding, peer collaboration, learning community philosophy, professional growth, em- powerment, reflective practitioner, inquiry, and transformational leader (change agent). Ritter, Polnick, Fink, and Oescher explored the percep- tions of educational leadership graduate students through the use of a Classroom Community Scale (CCS) instrument. The instrument measured the elements of connectedness and learning within a sense of community. Even though there was a greater sense of community and connectedness within face-to-face and hybrid classes than in online classes, the majority of the participants experienced a somewhat positive sense of com- munity, connectedness or learning in their classes.
TECHNOLOGY TOOLS FOR LEARNING COMMUNITIES
Lev Vygotsky (1978) espoused that people natu- rally learn from each other in a collaborative envi- ronment. Learners merge into a problem-solving team that comes to rely more on each other to locate answers than leaning on the instructor for guidance (Bruffee, 1998). Engaging in social learning is the bedrock of establishing learning communities. Online interaction among students and facilitators, in a constructivist setting, has the potential to strengthen writing and reflection skills (Rovai, 2007). Lebow (1993) identified the following attributes found in a constructivist learning community:
• Construction of knowledge • Encouragement of self-awareness during
knowledge construction process
• Engage views of all learners during the experience
• Make the learning relevant to the lives of the participants
• Empowerment of the learners • Ingrained in social interaction • Multiple modes of representation
Bloomberg’s (2007) study of adult learning experiences reinforced that what may be missing in electronically mediated communication was the lack of a physical presence of their peers. This sense of disconnection can be re-established through the encouragement of online communica- tion and collaboration. According to Weller (2002), structured online activities can lead to a level of involvement that engages the learners in success- ful learning. Effective learning communities need to provide supportive learning environments that students and the facilitators are familiar with us- ing in order to create a climate of understanding and trust (Jonassen, Mayes, & McAleese, 1993).
Since 2005, the Internet has become the realm where consumers are now also contributors. Throughout the progression of internet services and technology there is now a platform called Web 2.0 that enhances open source mediums and allows users to communicate and build online communities. Web 2.0 refers to the services that are available on the World Wide Web that allow individuals to collaborate and share information via online formats. Graduate students are coming to college with the know-how to share and publish content in a variety of forms. These forms can include video (YouTube, MySpace), text (wikis, blogs), images (Picasa, Flickr) and audio (podcast, streaming). Users can collaborate using many of these web-based products in order to share, generate dialogue and solve problems (Albion, 2008). According to Kerawalla, Minocha, Kirkup and Conole (2008), there is growth in the number of higher of education institutions using Web 2.0 tools in the classroom.
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Online social networking such as Facebook, MySpace, and Twitter are technology tools gradu- ate students may already be using. These technolo- gies include such devices as iPods, cell phones, and personal computers (Dziuban, Moskal, Brophy, & Shea, 2007). Online social networks are interactive websites that allow users to build a profile and then connect and share with other people concerning a mutual interest (Boyd & Ellison, 2007; Carter, Foulger & Ewbank, 2008). There are a number of online social networks available. For example, MySpace, Facebook, YouTube, Ning and LinkedIn encompass the major share of the online social network traffic (Carter, Foulger, & Ewbank, 2008; Crook, 2008; Pascopella & Richardson, 2009). The skills and familiarity with the structure of the programs may better serve students needs through distance learning coursework.
Some businesses and other organizational entities have discovered that online social net- working is a tool for employees to seek solutions in a secure, learning community (Perez, 2009). NASA has been following the trend toward online collaboration and has created its own se- cure social community called Spacebook. Linda Cureton, CIO of NASA (2009), indicated that Spacebook has allowed them to create a culture of engagement and collaboration that in turn makes each individual employee much more effective. Spacebook represents an area for creation and feedback outside of normal work hours (Ludden, 2010). Just as NASA has discovered, flexibility is a key ingredient in meeting the learning needs of the learning community. By offering an avenue for empowerment, online learning community members can contribute to academic discussions outside of the normal parameters of a physical classroom.
Discussion boards have evolved from elec- tronic mailing lists. Currently, discussion boards have the capability of displaying threaded topics or conversations. E-learning management systems such as Blackboard and Pearson’s eCollege pro-
vide a discussion or message board for facilitating learning. Woods, Baker and Hopper (2004) discov- ered that in responses from 862 faculty members at 38 institutions of higher learning, most instructors used the course management software to distribute course documents to students and manage course grades. As online social networking continues to grow in popularity, it is suspected that online social networks may help to stimulate use of the social aspects of the software management systems used by colleges (Malikowski & Theis, 2006). Accord- ing to Levine (2007) there are several conditions that help to integrate discussion boards into the learning communities:
• A conducive environment that allows the learner to become familiar with the equipment, fellow learners and establish parameters
• Meaningful threads need to start with mean- ingful questions posed by the facilitator
• Discussion needs to elicit critical think- ing skills and encourage participation and reflection
Wikis are another Web 2.0 tool that can provide an impetus for collaboration. Wikis are websites that allow users to add and edit content collectively through their browser. These web pages can be altered by any reader, at any time and can be a convenient way to disseminate information within an organization (Anderson, 2007; McAfee, 2006). Hatzipanagos and Warburton (2009) identified the following positive attributes of wikis: power, dialogue, timeliness, visibility, and reflection.
Klobas (2006) pointed out that wikis can be part of an online learning community’s shared goals. According to King (2007), some large corporations such as Intel, Amazon, Google, Sony and Nokia use wikis for wide-ranging activities such as tracking industry news, setting meeting agendas, posting corporate procedures and poli- cies, and creating strategy documents. This same
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degree of cooperation, accessible editing, and transparency is necessary in learning communi- ties when learners interact with one another and collaborate on projects with multiple authors in a distance format.
Dekeyser and Watson (2006) noted that learn- ers can collaborate on a document simultaneously with online text editors through a tool such as Google Docs. This type of collaboration can be advantageous to individuals engaged in distance education formats. Google Docs storage and file sharing provides another advantage over emailing files. Google provides users a generous amount of space to upload and download documents at no cost. The popularity of Google applications in the mainstream, particularly Google Scholar (Jamali & Asadi, 2009), translates into more students with prior knowledge of file sharing.
Spanbauer (2007) advises collaborators to also consider Huddle as an alternative to Google Docs. Huddle provides file sharing and management software similar to Google. They also offer a vari- ety of collaborative tools such as chat, discussion board, whiteboards, an Iphone application, and a social network feature that might be attractive to learning communities.
Dropbox makes use of cloud computing in a safe storage site and sharing of files across multiple computers and with multiple individuals. Users establish an account and download the Dropbox application for all their devices. The Dropbox software stores and duplicates the files in the folder on one technology device with the other devices shared by the user. This relieves the user of hav- ing to email or transfer files via a storage device. Dropbox users can share their materials with other people instantaneously. Learning communities can create shared folders that would serve as an avenue for transferring resources such as pdfs, videos, and images. Members are provided two gigabytes of free storage and additional storage is available on a fee basis (Barret, 2010). Accord- ing to Wauters (2010), Dropbox has more than 4 million users. These file-sharing applications are
giving rise to an online community of document sharers on a global scale.
FUTURE TRENDS
The future looks promising for online learning in higher education. According to Lokken, Womer and Mullins (2008) there has been an increase in distance education enrollments at higher institu- tions. This increase has spurred on professional training among college faculty and instructors to provide the necessary instruction and increase the number of class offerings or degree options using distance education venues. According to Lorenzo (2010) there has been a movement to rethink an educational institution’s mission and how they can better serve a technological savvy student body that may be seeking flexible options.
Rovai’s (2002b) characterization of a commu- nity is determined by what individuals do together rather than where or through what means they do them. A campus is no longer a physical limitation for creating learning communities. Web-based tools that allow for collaboration fits in with the needs of college students whose scheduling requirements require flexibility and who need instant access to their instructors and fellow students. This flexibility follows the increasing globalization of collaboration where researchers and students are able to interact from around the world in a meaningful way.
It will take more than the sharing of files and text to successfully integrate distance learning into the college repertoire. Distance learning programs may serve different student populations in different geographical regions. Programs may overlap in their traditional geographical regions. Competition may drive course offerings and flexibility of classes. Higher learning organiza- tions will also have to be aware of the shift from traditional educational efforts to a broader concept of focusing on effective instructional methods (AACSB, 2007). Online learning will require
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consistent, substantial financial support to setup and maintain the infrastructure of the program. These costs will include IT support staff and technicians to train, assist and repair both on and off-site. Instruction and assistance will need to be provided to instructors and students in the use of software and hardware.
Traditional lessons may not automatically translate into the electronic realm of online learn- ing (AACSB, 2007; Deubel, 2003). Distance edu- cation programs and courses are causing a shift as to how lessons are delivered with an emphasis on finding the most effective instructional methods. This change in instruction is an important future trend in the direction of technology enhanced instruction. Stakeholders in the process will need to be empowered so that there is a successful transition between traditional classroom offerings and online learning courses. Faculty and student feedback will be necessary in order to evaluate the delivery of instruction and to allow for adjust- ments to this process (Menchaca & Bekele, 2008).
The future also looks bright for the growing popularity of Web 2.0 applications such as Face- book and Twitter and the use of these tools in collaborative classroom efforts. The accessibility of the Internet through wireless hand-held devices is changing the way we access information and work (Fernandez-Villaviencio, 2010). Click and Petit (2010) revealed that smart phones and related applications are available even in the poorest of countries. They also noted that social networking is breaking down traditional limitations to commu- nications and has allowed for the rapid exchange of ideas and concepts on a global scale. Digital natives will continue to change the educational strategies of institutions and cause educators to rethink their approach to coursework, collabora- tion, empowerment and problem solving. This will spur on the learning needs of the digital immigrants causing higher learning institutions to stay current in the preparation necessary to delivering distance education to a diverse audience.
CONCLUSION
Individuals are encouraged to pursue post-sec- ondary education to enhance lives and society at large. Without advancing their education, indi- viduals will be unable to compete with others or to advance to higher skilled jobs or wage earnings. Competing internationally is also dependent on the skills of our workforce (Adult Learning, 2008). Adult learners are continuing their education and graduate schools are the vehicle to maintain this momentum for increased graduate education and learning. Adult learner demographics have been changing over the past two decades to include an increase in the number of women and minori- ties entering graduate level programs. Graduate students are now older and that trend is expected to be maintained.
Graduate distance education venues are being used to accommodate adult learner’s needs. “In the 21st century, online learning will constitute 50% of all learning and education. The rapid rise of learning on the internet is occurring not because it is more convenient, cheaper, or faster, but because cognitive learning on the internet is better than learning in-person” (Draves, 2002, p. 5). This trend has implications for higher educa- tion faculty and administrators to sustain graduate student recruitment, retention and graduation rates. Attracting and retaining graduate students can be enhanced through the use of learning communities.
Learning communities are more effective if implemented using the best practices found in adult learning theory. Knowles presented a set of core adult learning beliefs that are based on the unique characteristics of adults as learners. These beliefs are based on a learner’s need to know, their self concept, prior experiences, readiness to learn, orientation to learning, and motivation to learn (Knowles, Holton, & Swanson, 2005). Using learning communities creates the opportunity to develop partnerships and to share ideas and in- formation among students and faculty. It can also provide the context for meaningful discussion and
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study. This type of group work is significant in establishing trust, support, and motivation. Using learning communities within distance education settings can be even more powerful and can elevate interaction and common expectations. Online learning communities should create a sense of belonging and provide a framework for social networking and collaboration.
Creating effective online learning communities supports the use of technology to increase interac- tion opportunities. Technology tools include the use of social networking sites such as Facebook, MySpace, YouTube, and discussion forums, blogs, wikis, Google docs, Dropbox, and other course management software (e.g., Blackboard). Faculty in higher education would benefit from designing courses to be more effective and to significantly improve the quality of the institution’s educational programs. The use of learning communities assists with reducing barriers and overcoming the isola- tion of students within the teaching and learning environment.
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KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS
Adult Learner: An adult, considered mature in status and experience, in a formal or informal learning process.
Blackboard: A teaching and learning system that is used to deliver online resources and learn- ing activities. Other course management systems include eCollege, Vista (formerly WebCT), De- sire2Learn, LearningSpace, and Virtual-U.
Dropbox: A file hosting service that allows users to store and share files via the internet.
Facebook: A social networking website that allows sharing of information by a common inter- est user groups.
Generational Blending: Baby Boomers are individuals born between the years of 1944 and 1964. Generation X are individuals born between the years of 1965-1981. Millennia students are individuals born between the years of 1977 and 1998. Computers, cell phones, PDAs, and other mobile technology have been a natural part of their lives and they are considered technologi- cally literate.
Google Docs: A web-based storage service offered through Goggle and allows users to create, edit and share documents online.
Learning Communities: A learning commu- nity is a group of individuals that share common values and beliefs and who are actively engaged in learning together from each other.
Twitter: A free social networking and micro- blogging service that allows users to post messages known as tweets. Tweets are text-based posts 140 characters or less that are posted on the subscriber’s page and then distributed to all those following the subscriber.
Web 2.0: An electronic platform that con- nects Wide World Web open source mediums and allows users to communicate and build online communities.
Wiki: A website that allows creating and editing a number of interlinked web pages that are intended for note taking or to serve as col- laborative websites.
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Copyright © 2012, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
Chapter 19
INTRODUCTION
In today’s interactive world, the nature of leader- ship is changing. In many entities, stakeholders want to share and generate knowledge; they want more of a voice and shared decision-making. Ef- fective educational leaders know how to leverage such participation to develop a collaborative com- munity that facilitates continuous communication and improvement.
Technologies, particularly Web 2.0, can optimize such purposeful interaction, and help coordinate efforts so that educational leaders can focus on their important tasks of overseeing the health of the organization. This chapter examines the nature of current educational leadership, and details Web 2.0 technologies that support leaders.
Lesley Farmer California State University, USA
Web 2.0 Technology and Educational Leadership
Communication
ABSTRACT
In today’s interactive world, leadership is becoming more broad-based. Effective educational leaders know how to leverage such participation to develop a collaborative community that facilitates continu- ous communication and improvement. Technologies, particularly Web 2.0, can optimize such purposeful interaction, and help coordinate efforts so that leaders can focus on their important tasks of overseeing the health of the educational organization. This chapter examines the nature of current educational leadership, and details Web 2.0 technologies that support such leaders.
DOI: 10.4018/978-1-61350-068-2.ch019
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BACKGROUND
For educational institutions to succeed, they must be guided by effective leaders. A number of theories under grid leadership, and several aspects of leadership pertain to educational situations. Increasingly, leadership is seen as a collective process in which leadership is distributed in order to optimize the organization’s effectiveness.
Educational Leadership Qualities
Who is a leader? Someone who can manage, moni- tor, and evaluate. Someone who is committed to a vision and can communicate it. Someone who has technical competence and people smarts. Someone who is creative and innovative. Heifitz’s 1994 list of leadership qualities focuses on a “balcony perspective”:
• working as a team member within social systems
• thinking creatively and using appropriate evidence-based practices
• differentiating between technical, known solutions and developing new solutions collaboratively.
James Weber (1989) identified five main func- tions of educational leadership:
• defining the school mission • promoting a positive learning climate • observing and giving feedback to teachers • managing curriculum and instruction • assessing the instructional program.
The American Association of School Admin- istrators (1983) identified seven competencies for educational leaders:
• designing, implementing and assessing a school improvement program to attain school goals
• understanding and applying political theo- ry in building support for education
• planning and implementing instructional management systems that foster student achievement
• designing staff development and evalua- tion systems to facilitate staff effectiveness
• allocating human and material resources to ensure student achievement
• conducting and applying research for mak- ing decisions that improve school pro- grams and optimize student learning.
Theories of Leadership
Early theories about leadership examined inborn leader attributes and observable behaviors, which apply to educational leaders. Since then, leadership theories have focused on dynamic interactions between leaders and their organization, most recently on leading vision and organizational change (Williams, Ricciardi & Blackbourn, 2006).
Several situational leadership theories focus on environmental contexts. Contingency theorist Fielder (1958) asserted that leaders were either task- or relations-oriented. Interaction theory is grounded in social learning, with leaders emerg- ing as a result of interactions between demands of individuals and situations; Stogdill (1974), for instance, studied how leaders initiated interactive structures and expectations. Participative leader- ship focused on decision processes that include follower input and fosters their empowerment (Vroom & Yetton, 1988).
Transformational leadership, based on Burns (1978) and Bass (1998), asserts that leaders try to change and transform individuals to greater motivation and better performance. Leaders en- courage people to transcend self-interest to achieve organizational goals. Such motivation is based on followers’ respect, trust and loyalty to the leader.
Cultural leadership is based on the notion of organizations as cultural entities where the meaning of behavior is more important than the
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behavior itself (Schein, 2005). As leaders try to change organizations, they need to transcend the visible artifacts of organizations and uncover the often unspoken internal cultural assumptions. In additional, interpersonal relationships need to be addressed.
Complexity leadership theory emerges from the science of dynamic and interactive networks (Lichtenstein, et al., 2006). Organizations are seen as complex systems that are moderately coupled and adaptive, changing from the bottom up. Com- plex leaders serve as catalysts to set up conditions that foster creativity and flexibility. Such leaders facilitate interaction, interdependence, pressure to perform.
Increasingly, educational leadership that reflects a more collective process, particularly when change is complex; one person cannot move a mountain. In functional educational organiza- tions, participatory and transformative leadership theories tend to be the most effective. Chrislip (2002) promoted the idea of leaders operating in an inclusive manner whereby they provide pertinent information, facilitate a shared understanding of issues, and provide an open process for develop- ing a collective vision and supporting strategies. This collaborative leadership model differs from traditional leadership in that it requires broad- based community empowerment, both content and process expertise, and particular attention to the affective side of power. When people are empowered, they feel they are a significant part of a community; their work becomes exciting, and they believe that learning and competence matter (Bennis, 1985)
Nissen, Merrigan, and Kraft (2005) posited four approaches in implementing collaborative leadership:
• acknowledging existing leaders within the organizational community
• planning for collaboration • identifying collaborative leadership tasks
and functions
• balancing short-term and long-term outcomes.
Communities of Practice
The concept of collaborative leadership melds well with the concept of communicaties of practice: groups of individuals who work together over time to achieve a common goal. Increasingly, the workplace is adopting the concept of communi- ties of practice as a way to cope with internal and external change. Learning communities of practice have several benefits (Wenger, 1998).
• New employees are trained more efficient- ly because they can get help from mentors and other experts.
• Institutional knowledge is shared so that operations can function successfully if em- ployees are absent or leave.
• Employees can keep current in their fields by sharing their learning experiences, such as conferences and professional reading.
• Individual learning and group learning in- form each other.
• Camaraderie and interdependence are fa- cilitated through joint, meaningful actions.
• Employees can analyze and reflect on their practice with the aim of improving indi- vidual and organizational efforts.
As Laiken (2001) noted in her study of orga- nizational learning models,
“A focus on information organizational learning contributes to employees’ collective ability to move beyond simply coping with stress to engag- ing in creative action, for the benefit of both the individual members and the organization as a whole”(p. 4).
Basically, a community of practice begins with members with common values and goals. In a school, that could include teaching faculty, sup-
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port personnel, administrators, and even students and families. Within that arena, the faculty may constitute a community of practice, reflecting various perspectives about education. Over the years, each person learns what methods work well with students and peers; this tacit knowledge can be made explicit, thus building a joint body of knowledge that can streamline communication and school improvement. Indeed, the concept of improvement constitutes a critical feature of a community of practice; otherwise, the group may stagnate, not acting upon their knowledge, or identifying themselves with positive change. Such a stale group does not meet the criteria of a community of practice. Thus, a community of practice is usually self-identified rather than for- mally designated, and reflects actual norms and behaviors rather than mandated characteristics.
Internal leadership is usually distributed throughout the group, and may be based on exper- tise, organizational function, or social influence. These leadership roles may be formal or informal, and are apt to fluctuate, depending on the needs and activities of the community (Wenger, 1998).
Top educational leaders should support these communities of practice because these groups provide an identity base for individuals, facilitate professional growth and expertise, influence par- ticipation in the educational institution as a whole, and suggest strategic directions.
LEADERSHIP PURPOSES FOR COMMUNICATING
Educational programs have little impact if no one knows about it. Leaders need to articulate their program’s mission and their vision with their stakeholders and beyond. Maintaining effective relationships is another central priority for leaders: creating alliances and working with opponents. Thirdly, leaders need to optimize communication to ensure that efforts achieve strategic goals. Col-
laborative leadership and communities of practice foster communication and mutual interdepen- dence. In short, organizational communication is essential in leading a successful educational program (Harris, 1993).
For communication to be effective, the mes- sage has to be conveyed clearly, accurately, and usually succinctly. The communication needs to consider the target audience—clientele, staff, administrator—in order to customize the message to facilitate understanding and persuasion. The communication channel also has to be chosen carefully to align the content/message with the audience and the intent. For instance, posters serve as quick reminders while reports can offer in-depth analysis (Wood, 2007).
Communication should be ongoing and inter- active, building on each one’s efforts. Although communication is both a one-way and two-way endeavor, all stakeholders should be sharing infor- mation in order to improve the organization as a whole and each person in particular: a community of practice. In the process, new information can be generated; information is not just transferred between people in a closed loop but is open to new possibilities (Wenger, 1998).
Leaders should also foster communication in support of knowledge management Caldwell, 2003). This term refers to the process of systemati- cally gathering organizational wisdom, organizing those ideas, archiving them, and providing for their easy retrieval and dissemination. The underlying concept is that people learn specialized skills and concepts on the job, which improve their own per- formance. Examples of such competencies include management techniques, effective communication with employees, diagnosis skills, methods for engaging groups, and tips in videotaping. This practical knowledge becomes internalized, but sometimes it never becomes explicit. Knowledge management codifies these insights and facilitates their use by others so the overall organization can benefit (Smith, 2001). Additionally, it provides
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a mechanism to sustain learning communities because the shared documentation can outlast an individual’s presence within the organization.
Technology’s Role in Leadership Communication
In researching information communication tech- nology and school leadership, Afshari and his col- leagues (2008) asserted that technology impacts leader–related communication in several ways.
• Communication and actions can be record- ed more easily through emails, online cart, and videoconferencing.
• Documents can be digitized for easier ac- cess, storage, and retrieval.
• Information can be easily modified and repurposed for different audiences and objectives.
• People can communicate anytime, any- where either instantly or asynchronously, relatively free from the constraints of time and space.
The use of technology itself can be optimized through collaborative leadership as more tech- savvy personnel can help tech neophytes use tech tools in meaningful tasks (Daniel & Wall, 2009). This kind of coaching exemplifies the nature of professional development within a community of practice because it recognizes the need to continue to learn about one’s practice. Nonetheless, leaders need to be aware of people’s access to technology, and plan for the lowest common denominator. For instance, if clientele have dial-in Internet ac- cess, then the use of podcasting might need to be minimized. If their computers have no webcam or microphone options, then Skype sessions might need to be limited to online chat.
The possible communication format choices are impressive: desktop publishing, databases,
spreadsheets, presentation programs, telecommu- nications, Internet, digitized images, audio, video, and mixed media. With the advent of Web 2.0 and the concept of interactive technology, another di- mension is added as messages are co-constructed and continue to evolve, thanks to technology. As a result, communication is as much a process as a product. Web 2.0 tools in particular provide educational leaders much needed tools to lead, inform and engage their communities. “Web 2.0 is transforming the Web into a space that allows anyone to create and share information online—a space for collaboration, conversation, and interac- tion; a space that is highly dynamic, flexible, and adaptable” (Coombs, 2007, 17).
Web 2.0 Communication Tools for Educational Leaders
Probably the most recent influential change in technology integration has been the introduc- tion and increasing acceptance of interactive Web 2.0. This term is given to express the idea of interactivity that now marks some web-based collaborative tools such as wikis and blogs. Knowledge is collaboratively built and shared. Whereas earlier decades focused more on expert- produced content, which could involve high-level technical expertise, Web 2.0 tools are often easy to use so that content can regain intellectual focus. Web 2.0 tools facilitate group communication, collaboration, and generation of knowledge. In studying information management systems, JISC and SCONUL (2008) noted the impact of Web 2.0 in: 1) concentrating the aggregation of information; and 2) diffusing the dissemination and reuse of content. Educational leaders can take advantage of Web 2.0 tools not only to manage but to facilitate collaborative leadership through engaging the entire organization in communicating and creating knowledge.
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Push and Pull Technology
“Push technology” refers to telecommunication that can be “pushed” to a specific audience auto- matically whenever an event occurs or at regular intervals. The recipient activates push technol- ogy’s process, unlike much of spam e-mail; in that respect, the user is initiating the “pulling” of infor- mation. Push technology provides timely relevant information to the stakeholder, and demonstrates the power of accumulated information that is shared. Stakeholders appreciate the convenience of having new content pulled from Web sites and delivered to them immediately once it becomes available without having to constantly navigate those sites to locate the same information. On the other hand, leaders appreciate the ability to push content directly to their stakeholders rather than waiting for them to visit the organization’s site to discover new content (or worse, never finding it at all) (Diamente & London, 2002).
RSS is one such “push” technology. RSS stands for Really Simple Syndication or Rich Site Summary. RSS allows users to subscribe to many sources on the Web. To receive RSS feeds, the user needs a feed reader, also known as a feed aggregator or news aggregator. Most major Web sites, especially commercial sites, now offer feeds for their users to subscribe to using a feed aggregator such as Google Reader.
By making sure that RSS feeds are including on their organizational Web site, educational leaders provide a mechanism to ensure that stakeholders will know about upcoming events and deadlines. This promotes more effective communication and ultimately improves the organization. In addition, educational leaders can create their own RSS feeders in order to keep current on information about stakeholders and competitive intelligence (West, Whitehurst & Dionne, 2010).
Blogs
The term “blog” comes from the phrase Web log. The early uses of mainstream blogging focused on creating online journals. Later, blogs began to incorporate reader comments in blog entries. While a simple blog can still be set up and be “live” within minutes, many of today’s blogs resemble full-fledged Web pages, with areas for static and live content, professional looking templates, and the ability to customize virtually all aspects of the blog through modifying the source code. Farmer and McPhee (2010) listed several blog features.
• Blogs tend to have topical entries, which are arranged chronologically.
• Blogs are often personal perspec- tives, although they can include several contributors.
• By default users can comment on entries. However, comment on entries can be en- abled, disabled, or require moderation.
• RSS feed is available to push out new en- tries to subscribers.
Educational leaders can use blogs to commu- nicate regularly about the organization’s vision and strategies to actualize that vision (Carr, 2007). Blogs offer a personal tone so that the leader can appear more human and approachable. The leader can also engage the community in discus- sion through the comments feature, which can be monitored. To be effective, however, blogs need to be timely, continually updated with new entries, so leaders need to write regularly if the blog is to be credible – and followed.
Wikis
Wikis exemplify participatory leadership Web 2.0 practice (Mayfield, 2000). Wikis (based on the Hawaiian term “wiki wiki,” which means “fast”) are Web pages that can be generated without markup language knowledge. Wikis are probably
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best known because of Wikipedia, a user-built web-based encyclopedia. The underlying concept of Wikipedia is that experts around the world can contribute to the body of knowledge; the ability of individuals editing each other’s works result in higher quality information. Furthermore, most wikis have a feature that allows participants to see the page’s history, so that contributions can be tracked accurately. These two features, collab- orative editing and tracking, make wikis a useful communication tool for collaborative leadership.
Overall, blogs and wikis provide easy-to-use methods for broadcasting information, increasing two-way communication and providing clientele with a voice. When utilizing Web 2.0 technology such as blogs or wikis, educational leaders should establish and oversee communication policies that dictate proper use of the technology.
Online Groups
Online groups are another tool that leaders can implement to support effective communication. Online groups are specialized Web sites for users who share a common interest. Individuals partici- pate in the group by joining the group through a registration process. Three of the most popular free online groups are Google Groups, Yahoo! Groups, and MySpace, Online groups usually use a shared Web site for sharing and archiving information, including personal profiles. Unlike the maintenance of distribution lists, online groups are usually self-managing. Nevertheless, oversight and policies are needed to monitor the appropriate- ness of contributions (Farmer & McPhee, 2010).
Text-Based Interaction
The term “chat” typically refers to typewrit- ten communication (i.e., text chat) that occurs in real time; as the keystrokes are typed, they are relayed to the other party. Chat rooms were popular in the 1980s, and pre-dated instant text messaging (IM). While two people can chat with
each other, chat can accommodate small groups of people (beyond ten people, it becomes hard to keep track of conversation “threads” unless the structure of the chat focuses on presentation rather than lively interaction). Real-time online chat, such as http://www.tappedin.org, offers a way to provide guided group discussion; the chat is recorded and archived, and virtual offices store group documents. Chat usually requires just an Internet-connected computer, a chat “location” (usually a Website), and a specified time. Online chats are a simple way for leaders to discuss issues with their stakeholders on a regular basis without having to meet physically in the same place. The storage feature of chat services also enables mem- bers to store and transfer files centrally.
Particularly for one-on-one communica- tion, IMing is a popular form of text chatting (Courtney, 2007). Either on the computer or on mobile devices, IMing provides quick and easy short communication that can be synchronous or asynchronous (such as leaving a message). In- creasingly, organizations are incorporating IMing into their portals as a way for users to quickly and conveniently contact an expert at point of need. Particularly when leadership roles are decentral- ized, each function can have a point person to provide immediate advice.
The newest trend in IM service is short mes- saging service (SMS) that employs microtexting: typing fewer than 200 characters (Courtney, 2007). Made popular in text-supported cell phones, micro- texting enables one to send a short message, and anyone who “follows” the messager instantly gets that message. Technically, SMS is not interactive in that it is basically just broadcasting a little bit of text, but receivers may well respond in kind. The most known SMS application is Twitter, which is currently free. Its main usefulness lies in announcing events to people who follow the organization’s or leader’s Twitter. However, if a leader has a good social network, SMS can be valuable for just-in-time information or advice.
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Voice-Over IP
For people who prefer talking to texting/typing, voice-over IP (VOIP) is an attractive option for easy real-time conversation (Farmer & McPhee, 2010). VOIP might be considered as a computer- based telephone; the user clicks (rather than dials) the intended VOIP number, and then speaks using a microphone to the person on the other end of the computer line. VOIP is particularly useful for longer international calls because the cost is absorbed in the Internet Service Provider fee rather than as a separate and sometimes expensive bill. The disadvantage of VOIP is that the party on the other end either has to keep their VOIP application open constantly, or they need to know ahead of time when the “call” will commence so that they can open the VOIP program in time. The most popular VOIP program is Skype, which is free (and can be upgraded to a more sophisticated program for a fee). Skype not only supports VOIP, but also includes chat and video. Users can instant message other Skype members, which facilitates scheduling the conversation. As with chat, VOIP offers a way for leaders and stakeholders to ex- change ideas in real time without having to be in the same physical location.
Virtual Realities
Virtual realities (VR) resemble real environments, but are digitally developed and hosted. Currently, most VR environments display three-dimensional simulated spaces. Multi-user virtual environments (MUVE), such as Second Life, enable participants to synchronously chat, speak and “move” using avatars to represent themselves in visually rich computer-generated. Documents may be stored in these environments. Leaders should venture into VRs cautiously because several management issues are involved. The most obvious issue is the technology itself, which needs to be capable of supporting such programs. Additionally, many schools block VRs as inappropriate because they
are very difficult to control, and predators can hide behind their avatar appearance. Thirdly, most adults experience a steep learning curve in these VR venues. Nevertheless, virtual environments hold some promise as a novel communications venue, particularly in educational organizations that have broad-based leadership; steering com- mittees and stakeholders can feel that they are together physically, and are likely to interact more informally (Courtney, 2007).
Webcasts
Webcasting is a more general name for web- based broadcasts. Essentially, the Internet is used to transmit an audio or video broadcast, similar to a television or radio broadcast. The Webcast happens in real time, and can be recorded and archived for later viewing. The term “streaming” refers to “live” transmission, whereby the signals are sent on an ongoing “feed.” Once the Webcast is recorded and stored, it can be downloaded as a complete file. While the biggest Webcasters are commercial mass media, educational organiza- tions are increasingly using Webcasts as a cost- effective way to transmit and share information across distances (Syed, et al, 2009).
The Webcast format can vary greatly: from streaming audio to an interactive Web page that supports desktop sharing and group discussion. Real-time, interactive, enhanced Webcasts gener- ally include the following features: chat, VOIP, some kind of “whiteboard” or shared space where the moderator –and sometimes participants—can share presentations, Web sites, or other types of files. Most Webcast applications enable partici- pants to communicate via polls or surveys, and many Webcasts also enable the moderator—and sometimes participants—to communicate via video. In any case, the broadcaster and the audience need to have the same basic program to transmit and receive the Webcast. The more sophisticated the product, the more likely that the user has to download plug-ins (i.e., tiny applications) such as
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Java. High-end products may also require training for participants and presenters. Webcast software licenses can also be expensive if used by many sites; however, free open source applications are available, at least for smaller groups.
In education, webcasts tend to be implemented more for one-way communication, although the capacity is available for group interactivity (Syed, et al, 2009). Typically, educational leaders use this tool to introduce a new project or to orient newcomers. The interactive tools provide a quick way to check for understanding and to clarify points. Groups can use webcasts to share and edit documents, which can be an effective channel for steering committees.
Videoconferencing
Videoconferencing (VC) as a collaborative tool for education to provides a way to address some of the limitations of virtual communities. Using cameras, microphones, network connection and supporting hardware, two or more parties can see and hear each other in real time. Current technolo- gies make it possible for people to conference from their computer work stations for free with very little technical set-up. The Video Network Initiative gives good technical guidelines (www. vide.net/cookbook/).
Videoconference has several benefits for lead- ers to facilitate communities of practice (Wainfan and Davis, 2004):
• Current technology provides high-reso- lution images with little if any time delay for voice synchronization. Participants feel included because they can experience ev- eryone, including body language.
• The live atmosphere is more informal than an audio or text-only setting, and encourages more discussion and better problem-solving.
• Live demonstrations can simplify in- structions, and questions can be handled immediately.
• Documents and realia can be shared more easily. External resources can be incorpo- rated: computer, document stand, white- board, telephone link, dataconferencing link.
In their research on virtual communication, Wainfan and Davis (2004) found that videocon- ferencing has greater impact when participants know each other, and are committed to a sustained professional relationship that includes other types of communication channels as well. Additionally, videoconferencing group roles and expectations need to be more explicit than for face-to-face groups. Managing videoconferencing communi- cation requires thorough planning, especially if technology support is not handy. Nevertheless, VCs offer a more personal, relational online learn- ing environment for meaningful group interaction than other computer-mediated or audio medium. Therefore, when education leaders oversee several locations, VCs can bring groups virtually together without the physical logistical costs.
FUTURE TRENDS
Web 2.0 technology already influences educa- tional leadership, especially participatory styles, as it facilitates multiple-way communication and group-developed content. Emerging technology tools expand the possibilities of Web 2.0 to broader leadership participation and impact.
In terms of tools, mobile technology will play an increasing role in leadership communication. The equipment is becoming smaller and more sophisticated, and their storage capacity is also increasing. Smart phones are just the start as these mobile devices include visual/video tools as well as access software programs. Particularly as mil- lennials are used to cell phones, the ability to use
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them to advance group knowledge, not just share two-way conversation, can be an appealing and feasible strategy to promote collaborative leader- ship (Sharples, 2007).
Elearning space is another coming trend that is starting to impact educational leaders (Oliver & Carr, 2009). These virtual reality environments provide virtual entryways, teaching e-spaces, social e-spaces, areas for individual documenta- tion, online public spaces for collaborative work, communication “surfaces” such as web-based whiteboards, and groupware and interfaces such as wikis to generate knowledge collectively (JISC Development Group, 2006). These spaces can be customized and personalized so that each organi- zation can structure information according to its own needs, which can facilitate communities of practice. Trying to lead such groups can be chal- lenging, and leaders will need to monitor their alignment with organizational goals.
educational organizations become globalized, their leaders can use Web 2.0 tools to facilitate cross-cultural collaboration. On the other hand, Web 2.0 communication can also lead to misun- derstandings between cultures. In this situation, educational leaders will need to focus on intercul- tural communication, which can be facilitated by the same tool that can foster conflict: Web 2.0 tools.
As for the nature of leadership itself, the influ- ence of technology and globalization may make leadership become more dynamic. Particularly since different cultures have different expecta- tions of leaders and leadership, a new paradigm about leadership flexibility as opposed to leader flexibility may emerge.
CONCLUSION
Educational leadership is becoming more collab- orative at the same time that technology is also becoming more collaborative. Web 2.0 tools en- able educational leaders to facilitate broad-based governance and organizational improvement. One
of the central functions of leaders is to facilitate organizational relationships, which requires ef- fective multi-way communication, which Web 2.0 supports. Collaborative leadership also blooms with the incorporation of these interactive tools. Each Web 2.0 tool has unique features that advance the educational organization, which necessitates the wise choices of educational leaders to match the goals and the communication goal.
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KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS
Blog: Web log; a Web diary. Collaborative Leadership: The collaborative
process of developing and implementing ideas to achieve positive change in an organization.
Instant Messaging: The exchange of text mes- sages through a software application in real-time.
Knowledge Management: The process of systematically gathering organizational wisdom, organizing those ideas, archiving them, and pro- viding for their easy retrieval and dissemination.
Learning Community: A group of individuals participating in communal activity, with a shared identity and goal, who collectively contribute to the learning of their community.
Podcast: Broadcast audio files. RSS: Really Simple Syndication or Rich
Site Summary; a Web-based way to disseminate information.
Virtual Reality: A computer-simulated envi- ronment, whether that environment is a simulation of the real world or an imaginary world.
Web 2.0: Interactive Internet technology and applications including blogs, wikis, RSS and social networking Websites.
Wiki: A Web site that allows for easy creation and editing of Web pages.
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Copyright © 2012, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
Chapter 20
INTRODUCTION
While the impact of technology on training can be examined very generally, the uniqueness of leadership training requires a specific investiga- tion. Technology is often considered to be effective for certain subject matter and often ineffective in more human resource oriented skills such as those essential to leadership. One of the advantages of technology is often considered to be its usefulness in providing information and training over long distances but when those distances cross political
and cultural boundaries, consideration of cultural dimensions offers additional insights.
This article will investigate the essential aspects of leadership training and the impact that technol- ogy has had on distributing it across borders. It will include examples of leadership training for those in formal leadership roles within organizations but also for those who are expected to perform in more informal roles as team leaders or subject matter experts. Examples will illustrate the role of technology and the implications of Hofstede’s cultural dimensions in the training design and implementation.
Judith Parker Columbia University, USA
Global Leadership Training and Technology
ABSTRACT
In today’s world, where organizations’ leaders can come from dispersed geographical and cultural backgrounds, leadership training must embody cultural as well as leadership content. This article will investigate the impact technology has had on distributing leadership training across borders and will provide examples of how it can be done effectively.
DOI: 10.4018/978-1-61350-068-2.ch020
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BACKGROUND
Leadership and Culture
While leadership and culture are often considered independent topics, it is important to consider the influences of one on the other, especially when considering global leadership training. Schein (1985) begins the discussion of the connection between leadership and culture by suggesting that “the endless discussion of what leadership is and is not could, perhaps, be simplified if we recognized that the unique and essential function of leadership is the manipulation of culture. It is this function that provides the most difficult challenge for leadership. It sometimes involves nothing less than surmounting one’s own taken- for-granted assumptions, seeing what is needed to ensure the health and survival of the group, and making things happen that enable the group to evolve toward new cultural assumptions” (p. 317). Kouzes (1999) notes that “my colleague Barry Posner and I have been collaborating on leadership research for fifteen years, and we keep learning the same thing over and over. We keep rediscovering that credibility is the foundation of leadership. People don’t follow your technique. They follow you – your message and your embodiment of that message” (p. 39). This individualistic character of leadership would suggest the importance of the cultural background of the leader.
Schein (2010) delineates four categories of cultures. Macrocultures: nations, ethnic and religious groups, occupations that exist glob- ally. Organizational cultures: private, public, nonprofit, government organizations. Subcul- tures: occupational groups within organizations. Microcultures: Microsystems within or outside organizations. He then discusses the culture and leadership connection in more detail. Schein (2010) notes that “the connection between culture and leadership is clearer in organizational cul- tures and microcultures. What we end up calling a culture in such systems is usually the result of
the embedding of what a founder of leader has imposed on a group that has worked out. In this sense, culture is ultimately created, embedded, evolved, and ultimately manipulated by leaders. At the same time, with maturity, culture comes to constrain, stabilize, and provide structure and meaning to the group members even to the point of ultimately specifying what kind of leadership will be acceptable in the future” (p. 3). The situ- ation becomes more complex when the national macroculture is present.
Hofstede (2001) extensively researched these national cultures and determined several cultural dimensions: power distance, uncertainty avoid- ance, individualism/collectivism, masculinity/ femininity and long versus short term orientation. He also studied organizational cultures but it is Schein (1985) who provides an example of the interactions between national and organizational culture. Schein (1985) recounts his experiences on a trip to Australia and Singapore and how they “reinforced this sense of difference across countries, but, at the same time, I noticed another phenomenon: that companies operating in the multinational context sometimes did things in dramatically similar ways, even in widely differing cultures. Companies thus seemed to have cultures of their own that were sometimes strong enough to override or at least modify local cultures” (p. ix). Examples of this will be given later in this chapter.
Schein (2010) adds a broader perspective to the discussion. He suggests that “if we remember that culture is our learned solution to making sense of the world, to stabilizing it, and to avoiding the anxiety that comes with social chaos, then we have taken the first important step toward deeper cultural understanding” (p. 400). This might sug- gest that the first step has been taken toward more effective leadership.
Inventories for Insights
The recognition of the importance of leadership and culture have lead to numerous attempts to
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quantify the characteristics of culture and leader- ship using inventories applicable to individuals and organizations. Kouzes and Posner are two researchers who have developed a leadership in- ventory that has been available for several decades to assess the leadership characteristics of individu- als. Most recently technology has impacted their efforts. They have made an online version avail- able that can be completed and submitted online. The individual then receives the electronic results and analysis of their inventory. Hofstede’s (2001) inventory of cultural dimension has also been available for decades and his research replicated by numerous individuals.
On a similar familiar note, in the field of educa- tion, inventories have been used to provide learners and teachers with insights into student’s strengths and weaknesses. Wiseman and McKeown (2010) remind that as early as “1904, a test of intelligence that later evolved into the IQ test was developed by French researcher Alfred Binet as a tool for as- sessing the learning progress of French schoolchil- dren. His assumption was that lower intelligence signaled a need for more and different teaching, not an inability to learn. This tool quickly became ubiquitous as a unilateral determinant of intellec- tual horsepower. Much work has been done over the last two decades by cognitive psychologists around the world, offering additional methods for identifying and developing intelligence. Whether it is Harvard professor Howard Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences, Daniel Goleman’s work on emotional intelligence, or Stanford professor Carol Dweck’s work on the effect of mindsets on capability, the message is clear: IQ is a practical but limited measure of the true intelligence of our species. We are simply smarter in more ways than can be measured through an IQ test” (p. 44). This advice must also be applied to the interpreta- tion of leadership inventories. While useful, it is important to consider that leadership is at least as complicated an idea as IQ and its complexity cannot be minimized.
Wiseman and McKeown (2010) explain that in today’s world of instant information access, “it isn’t how much you know that matters. What matters is how much access you have to what other people know. It isn’t just how intelligent your team members are; it is how much of that intelligence you can draw out and put to use” (p. 10). Since this describes a skill that is a key ele- ment of leadership, it emphasizes the importance of organized formalized leadership training.
Leadership Training
This leadership training can take many forms. Traditionally it has been the subject of multi-day workshops or training activities distributed over longer periods of time. It has encompassed lec- tures, case studies, inventories and discussions One method that is especially appropriate for this type of training is action learning. The ideas behind action learning were pioneered by Rag Ravens (1982) as a way of combining reflection with work on real world problems, tasks and projects by developing a learning cycle of action, reflection, theorization and application. Numerous practitioners and theorists have added to the pro- cess over the decades including Mezirow (1990) who delineated the three essential components of action learning as action, critical reflection, and the building of one’s own theories. Mumford (1997) later included the idea that learners are expected to try out new behaviors, to reflect critically on their experiences, to distil some generalizable principles and to try out the results in other similar contexts. He cites “recognized ignorance not programmed knowledge as the key to Action Learning; people start to learn with and from each other only when they discover that no one knows the answer but all are obliged to find it” (p. 3). Marsick (1999) describes action learning as a process in which “people take action while they are learning, and bring the results of their experiments to the group for discussion, as would happen in an action re- search project but is quick to clarify that unlike
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action research, equal (and sometimes more) attention is paid to the personal learning than to problem solving” (p. 120).
This balance of action, reflection and theory building seem to be particularly applicable to leadership training. It is also obvious that action learning is a process that will take time to develop and work through. Therefore even if sections of the training are classroom based, the use of technology however simple or sophisticated would be a huge asset to the process. However, before deciding how best to integrate today’s technology into leader- ship training, it would be useful to step back and consider the pros and cons of such an integration and how technology has impacted learning and training in the past and how it influences culture.
Technology’s Developing Impact on Leadership Training
The previous sections denote a long history of attempts to clarify leadership, discover cultural dimensions, and investigate models for leadership training. But training has always been influenced by emerging technology. Lesgold (2000) recalls that learning preceded technology. “Prior to the 15th century, codified knowledge was extremely rare” and “direct discussion with a wise person was the primary way of gaining knowledge” (p. 399) and a useful method of learning to be an effective leader. Before the printing press, books were not easily replicated and therefore were rare. Even after Gutenberg, only selected books were widely reproduced. But even with these limita- tions, the source of knowledge to include more widely distributed printed materials impacted learning. Knowles (1989) credits the invention of the printing press as having a great “impact on the advancement of adult education” (p. 62).
Printed materials became more widely dis- tributed and their impact on learning, including leadership, became widespread. However, the next incremental development in technology to impact learning and training was not to appear
for nearly 400 years. Shea-Schultz and Fogarty (2002) note that this development didn’t begin until the late 1960’s when the U.S. Department of Defense initiated a project (Advanced Research Projects Agency Network: ARPA-NET) to create a nation-wide computer network using phone lines. However, for over the next two decades, this network became the “province of academic institutions, scientists, and government employees engaged in research and communications” (p. 7). While it allowed this select group to share data by connecting to each other’s computers, the lack of standards was a problem for widespread use. It wasn’t until 1989 that “Tim Berners-Lee led a team at Switzerland’s European Particle Physics Laboratory (CERN) in developing what he dubbed World Wide Web standards” (p. 8). Now that ac- cess was expanded outside the scientific would, it could begin to influence training in general and especially leadership training.
Shea-Schultz and Fogarty (2002) continue the story by noting that 1992 produced the next “great innovation for the Web” when program- mers at the National Center for Supercomputing Applications (NCSA) at the University of Illinois developed the Mosaic browser which displayed embedded graphic elements as well as text (p. 8). It is easy to see how important graphics would be for training materials which include diagrams and models. They also noted that in the same year, the U.S. government decided to “bail out of network management” (p. 9) freeing the web for commercial use. A parallel advancement to this increased access to the web occurred with the availability of increasingly powerful reason- ably priced personal computers fueled by silicon microchip processor technology. At this stage, the development of technology had advanced to a point where training could be distributed across the globe. But these opportunities brought with them a certain amount of chaos.
Fertik and Thompson (2010) label this next series of events in upcoming years as the Wild West of the Internet. “The similarity between the
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original Wild West and the Internet of today is striking. Both started as outposts at the edges of civilization that were known for their lawlessness: gambling, prostitution, and petty scams dominated both the American West and the early Internet. Both were known for having wide-open societies that tolerated behavior previously condemned by ‘civilized’ society. Both enabled the creation (and loss) of spectacular fortunes, and both prompted the development of many wondrous new technolo- gies. But as more people migrated to the American West and more people started to connect to the Internet, law enforcement started to catch up to the outlaws. Entrenched interests began to slow the growth of new industries. It became harder to strike it rich overnight. And a flood of late ar- rivers from the ‘old world’ brought morals and social norms that clashed with the frontier’s wild ways” (pp. 31-32). Developers of training were among those who joined the Gold Rush, imagin- ing fortunes to be made by delivering training materials to a broader global audience. Generic training programs on leadership as well as other knowledge and skill based training topics were made available to audiences without consideration of their national or organizational culture. Ac- cess seemed more important than effectiveness. However, “civilization” soon began to prevail in the training industry as well.
Fertik and Thompson (2010) continue the comparison by suggesting that “just like the Old West, the Internet had its own gold rush that opened the frontier to all. In the early 1990’s, the World Wide Web was invented, allowing users to navigate the Internet visually instead of by typing arcane commands into a text interface. Entrepre- neurs recognized an opportunity and started to find ways to profit from the accelerating growth of the Internet. On August 9, 1995, Netscape was the first Internet company to go public. Its initial public offering (IPO) marked the official start of the Internet gold rush” (pp. 32-33). This brings us to the 21st century.
Technology’s Impact on Leadership Training Today
Wheatley (1999) notes that a great deal has changed since the early days of the internet. “Chaos and complexity have emerged as serious branches of science. The systemic nature of life – the vast webs of interconnections so well-described in the new science – has become part of our modern consciousness. Cyberspace and electronic com- munication have changed how we work together, do business, and relate to one another. Our digital world has increased the speed of life for many of us, and led to paradoxical feelings of connection and alienation” (p. ix).
Through all the development, Anderson and Wolff (2010) bring us to today when “The Web is now 18 years old. It has reached adulthood. An entire generation has grown up in front of a browser” (p. 127). This generation is today’s emerging leaders. Their expectation for effective and efficient training has been formed by their experiences with technology.
Anderson and Wolff (2010) continue to explain that “The exploration of a new world has turned into business as usual. We get the Web. It’s part of our life. And we just want to use the services that make our life better. Our appetite for discov- ery slows as our familiarity with the status quo grows” (p. 127). Part of that status quo allows for stepping back and examining the reality of individual lives, organizations and leadership. Anderson and Wolff (2010) observe that “we’d rather lean back to read books with our Kindle or iPad app than lean forward to peer at our desktop browser” (p. 164) and that now “they use the Net, but not the Web. Fast beats flexible” (p. 125). “The explosion of information technology and the ensuing networking of the entire globe are changing the nature of how work is defined, how work is done, and how organizational boundaries are drawn. If the growth and evolution of culture is a function of human interaction, and if human interaction is undergoing fundamental changes,
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then culture formation and evolution will itself change in unknown ways” (p. 4).
These changes all occur within existing bricks and mortar infrastructures. Schein (2010) notes that “when buildings and offices are designed in terms of certain intended work patterns, both distance and time are usually considered in the physical layout. These design issues get very complex, however, because information and communication technology is increasingly able to shrink time and space in ways that may not have been considered” (p. 140).
At this point one is tempted to add the cliché that the rest is history. However history in this case has become a quickly moving target. Wiki’s and blogs have become a part of our everyday vocabu- lary, and Web 2.0 surfaces in discussions as online social networks become more commonplace. It becomes ever more important that we take the advice of Kasworm and Londoner (2000) “to ac- cept and embrace the possibilities of technology” (p. 225). These possibilities offer both positive and negative influences on leadership training. While the literature often addresses the issues of leadership, leadership training, technology and globalization as separate issues, in reality they combine in various settings to create a complex arena for today’s leaders. Examples can be seen in the two examples below: one for formally appointed leaders and one for informal leaders.
PRESENT PERSPECTIVES
Leadership Training For Formally Appointed Leaders
The venue for the first example was a Fortune 500 company founded in Minnesota over 100 years ago and currently operating in 63 countries worldwide. The rapid business growth in the Asia region resulted in nearly exponential growth in staff numbers. This in turn resulted in relatively young, inexperienced employees moving from
their role as individual contributors within the organization to being promoted to new leader- ship positions. Within the technical community, country nationals with science and engineering degrees managed the technical center in each of their home countries. The function of these techni- cal laboratories was to support the business plans at the country and regional levels. There was an urgent need for leadership training.
To meet this need, a learning forum was established with the twelve technical managers who headed technical centers and laboratories in China, Hong Kong, India, Philippines, Singapore, South Korea, Taiwan, Thailand and the regional technical managers from the regional headquarters of 3M in Asia under the direction of two trainers. Geographically, the participants and trainers were located across three continents, 10 countries and 5 time zones. While the participants represented culturally diverse groups they had very similar problems in their quickly growing technical cen- ters. The objective of the learning forum was to enhance management and leadership competen- cies of the technical managerial team in the Asia region in order to enhance their performance and advance their careers. Their academic background had prepared them for the individual contributor role but not for their new leadership role. They were still functioning as 80% technical and 20% leaders/adult learners. The task of this training program was to provide them with the knowledge and skills to be comfortable and competent in their new roles which required them to function at 20% technical and 80% leaders/adult learners.
While training is often considered a first solution for rapidly strengthening management capacities within local subsidiaries, to carry out traditional training in a non-western context could have inherent difficulties. Hofstede (2001) reports that numerous studies indicate that the transfer of management know-how to a non-western business environment has proven to be difficult. Senge (2006) notes that this type of organization learning requires changes of mental models and
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behavioral responses. In the context of this Asia Technical Managers’ Learning Forum (ATMLF), the linkages between action and reflection were explicit. Managers were asked to work in 2 peer groups. One task oriented group worked on a real management related project with the objective of formulating recommendations based on research and data analysis (action research). The other group shared reflections on the process itself. The entire development, delivery, and manage- ment of the learning experience took 3 months to prepare and 15 months to implement through an on site workshop and online activities. Yiu and Parker (2005) provided a strategic model which integrated numerous distance learning elements such as electronic forums, video/phone confer- ence meetings, email and a virtual graduation into an action learning program on leadership. The entire learning process consisted of outlin- ing the activities in line with Raven’s (1982) action-learning model, identifying issues and sites for the projects, involving participants in self-assessments, managing the process of online activities, compiling project reports for discussion and general dissemination, and commencing a virtual graduation ceremony.
The instructors continually emphasized that the learning was to be both informational and experiential so they would be able to learn new skills and practice them on a real life issue. Senge (2006) notes that organization learning and on- going adaptation require changes of mental models and behavioral responses. However, such changes cannot be accomplished through managerial decisions only. Rather they have to be rooted in individual learning processes with are based on acquiring task-relevant information, carrying out critical reflection and initiating appropri- ate actions. Learning was perceived as a social process where learning groups formed the basic unit for management development intervention. In a learning team, individuals were better sup- ported in acquiring new information, checking out underlying assumptions, testing solutions and
forming new routines. In addition, the team meet- ings themselves became vehicles for significant interpersonal learning.
Leadership Training for Informal Leaders
While formal leadership positions are necessary within organizations, equally important are the self-directed, peer leaders that emerge within groups. These are often the employees whose expertise in an area set them apart as mentors and role models. The rapid growth in the Asia region resulted in an example of such leadership. The technical center in each country employed mostly recent college graduates in science and engineering who functioned as technical service engineers. Their major responsibility was to be knowledgeable about the technical aspects of the products and to train customers, sales/marketing people, etc on these new products. These technical service engineers, however, had no knowledge or experience in developing and delivering success- ful training. While providing this skill set through training was the logical solution, these employees were located throughout the Asia region from as far north as Shanghai and Korea to as far south as Singapore and Malaysia and as far west as Thailand with most traveling only in their own country.
Several options were considered. One option would have been to designate an itinerate trainer to travel to each country and deliver the training. However this lacked several essential elements that would be beneficial to a developing business in a country. The decision was made to designate a master trainer in each country who would be invited to a train-the-trainer course held in the Asia region. The regional technical manager in consul- tation with the country business manager selected one or two experienced technical service profes- sionals to attend the training. This choice would develop sustainable training expertise within the technical community itself in each country. This master trainer would also be the training leader
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within the technical service group but also a role model and mentor to new engineers. This leader would be available to conduct future courses and provide continuing support for the technical service engineers in their new role as trainers.
A train the trainer course was designed to ac- complish these goals and Singapore was selected as the site. Singapore was the regional head- quarters and as such employed a large enough number of technical service engineers needed for the workshop design. This design included a series of steps spread over a two week period. For the first ½ of the first week of onsite training the instructors taught the basics of adult learning theory and its applications in the technical service environment. During the second ½ of that week they taught the methodology of how to teach the course that they had just participated in. During the second week, actual classes of employees at the Singapore technical center were scheduled.
The new trainers were grouped to co-train these classes under the supervision of the instructors. At the end of each day, the new trainers received feedback from their peer trainers and the instruc- tors who observed their classes. In addition to providing an opportunity for the new trainers to practice their skills, it provided an opportunity for the new trainers to critically reflect on their previous assumptions about training, their new role as a trainer and their emerging leadership position of master trainer in their home country. Since the participants had been selected for this training as a tribute to their experience and the confidence that their country technical manager had in them, there was a high level of motivation to succeed. They were then encouraged to adapt or integrate any country/culture specific activities as they prepared to deliver the course in their home country. Upon returning to their home techni- cal center, the new trainers scheduled their own classes. After completing their first training, the new trainers either video-conferenced or audio- conferenced their follow-up session with one of the instructors. This included both questions on
the content and the opportunity for reflection on the process. Only at the completion of all the steps were they awarded a plaque as a certified instructor. Technology played a critical part in ongoing coaching for their training experience. Shared experiences through technology were also an important element of their learning.
Two years later the group reassembled in Pat- tyea, Thailand for advanced training. They shared the cultural adaptations they had experimented with as well as their successes and failures. This was followed by additional training in more ad- vanced training techniques.
Whether leaders are formally appointed through an organizational hierarchy or informally assume leadership roles among a group of peers, they transition they will certainly depend on a plethora of technological advances to transition to their new responsibilities. Some of these advances and their influences are mentioned below.
FUTURE TRENDS
The future of global leadership training will face several influencers. Some of these will be organiza- tionally driven while others will be technologically driven. On the organizational front, Schein (2010) predicts that “the more turbulent the environment, the more likely it is that the organization with the more diverse cultural resources will be better able to cope with unpredicted events. As the world becomes more complex and interdependent, the ability to think systemically, to analyze fields of forces and understand their joint causal effects on each other, and to abandon simple linear causal logic in favor of complex mental models will become more critical to learning” (p. 370). In a concrete example of this turbulence, Manjoo (2010) reports that “on Wednesday, May 26, 2010, just after 2:30 p.m., the unthinkable hap- pened: Apple became the largest company in the tech universe, and, after ExxonMobil, the second largest in the nation” (p. 70). The unthinkable now
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needs to be considered when training leaders and when considering the implications of technology.
On the technological front, Anderson and Wolff (2010) note that “Today, the content you see in your browser - largely HTML data delivered via the http protocol on port 80 - accounts for less than a quarter of the traffic on the Internet…and its shrinking. The applications that account for more of the Internet’s traffic include peer-to-peer file transfers, email, company VPN’s the machine- to-machine communications of APIs, Skype calls, World of Warcraft and other online games, Xbox Life, iTunes, voice-over IP phones, iChat, and Netflix movie streaming” (p. 125). This might suggest that the technology that is such a focal topic of discussion and publication is becoming transparent within daily activities. If one attends a training program today, it is assumed that it will include some handouts and discussions and use some technology. We expect the content and activities to be focused. But Anderson and Wolff (2010) see a more “machine-to-machine future that would be less about browsing and more about getting” (p. 125) suggesting a need for more in- stant answers for leadership issues and more apps for coaching. They warn that “the shift is only accelerating. Within five years, Morgan Stanley projects, the number of users accessing the Net from mobile devices will surpass the number who access it from PCs” (p. 125). Leadership training may become less of an event and more about the answers at the leader’s fingertips and the ability to make instant decisions anywhere on the globe.
CONCLUSION
Leadership training shares many features with other types of training which demand that effective design and delivery are essential. For example, Nilson (2003) observed that students learn best when they are actively engaged, when learning evokes emotional not just intellectual involve- ment. Palloff and Pratt (1999) emphasized that
“The creation of a learning community supports and encourages knowledge acquisition. It creates a sense of excitement about learning together and renews the passion involved with exploring new realms in education” (p. 163). While these comments are all true for effective leadership training, Web 2.0 has expanded the boundaries of that learning community and complicated the cultural issues that need to be attended to in a global community.
Leadership was originally confined to the geographical space in which the leader could influ- ence. International organizations have demanded that their leaders exhibit an expanded awareness, comfort and effectiveness in culturally diverse settings. Advances in technology have facilitated the access to larger geographic space but have in- troduced additional challenges. Malcolm Knowles (2005) sees technology as providing learning op- portunities in the “andragogical tradition” (p. 237) and as consistent with the adult learning idea of self-directedness. But is a new Wild West on the horizon for technology and leadership training?
REFERENCES
Anderson, C., & Wolff, M. (2010). The Web is dead. Long live the internet. Wired, 18(9), 118- 127, 164, 166.
Fertik, M., & Thompson, D. (2010). Wild west 2.0. New York, NY: American Management As- sociation.
Hofstede, G. (2001). Culture’s consequences: Comparing values, behaviors, institutions, and organizations across nations. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Kasworm, C. D., & Londoner, C. A. (2000). Adult learning and technology. In Wilson, A. L., & Hayes, E. (Eds.), Handbook of adult and con- tinuing education (pp. 224–242). San Francisco, CA: John Wiley & Sons.
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Knowles, M. (1989). The making of an adult educator. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
Knowles, M., Holton, E., & Swanson, R. (2005). The adult learner. Burlington, MA: Elsevier.
Kouzes, J. (1999). Finding your leadership voice. In Hesselbein, F., & Cohen, P. (Eds.), Leader to leader (pp. 37–42). New York, NY: The Peter F. Drucker Foundation for Nonprofit Management.
Lesgold, A. (2000). What are the tools for? Revo- lutionary change does not follow the usual norms. In Lajoie, S. (Ed.), Computers as cognitive tools (pp. 399–408). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Lojeski, K., & Reilly, R. (2008). Transforming leadership and innovation in the globally inte- grated enterprise. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons.
Manjoo, F., & Apple, N. (2010)... Fastcompany, 147(112), 68–76.
Marsick, V., & Watkins, K. (1999). Facilitating learning organizations. Brookfield, VT: Gower.
Mumford, A. (1997). Action learning as a vehicle for learning. In Mumford, A. (Ed.), Action learn- ing at work (pp. 3–24). Hampshire, UK: Gower.
Nilson, L. B. (2003). Teaching at its best. San Francisco, CA: Anker Publishing.
Palloff, R., & Pratt, K. (1999). Building learning communities in cyberspace. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
Schein, E. (1985). Organizational culture and leadership. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass Publishers.
Schein, E. (2010). Organizational culture and leadership (4th ed.). San Francisco, CA: Jossey- Bass.
Senge, P. M. (2006). The fifth discipline: The art and practice of the learning organization. New York, NY: Doubleday Currency.
Shea-Schultz, H., & Fogarty, J. (2002). Online learning today: Strategies that work. San Fran- cisco, CA: Berrett-Koehler Publishers.
Wheatley, M. (1999). Leadership and the new science: Discovering order in a chaotic world (2nd ed.). San Francisco, CA: Berrett-Koehler Publishers.
Wiseman, L., & McKeown, G. (2010). Multipli- ers: How the best leaders make everyone smarter. New York, NY: HarperCollins Publishers.
Yiu, L., & Parker, J. (2005). Cyber action learn- ing and virtual project teams for leadership and management development. In Jacobs, R. L., & Osman-Gani, A. M. (Eds.), Workplace training & learning: Cases from cross-cultural perspectives (pp. 1–14). New York, NY: Pearson/Prentice Hall.
KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS
Action Learning: a methodology which involves reflecting on and analyzing real life problems and directing one’s learning in order to achieve a specific goal or solve a specific real problem.
Culture: the shared attitudes, beliefs, practices and values that characterize a group.
Educational Technology: those tools that are used in an attempt to improve student learning.
Leadership: the quality displayed by anyone who facilitates progress toward some desired outcome within an organization or group.
Learning Community: a group of students committed to learning collaboratively.
Social Networks: informal groups of learners who interact regularly for the purpose of learning.
Web 2.0: the second generation of the inter- net particicularly known for its enhanced social networking features.
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Copyright © 2012, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
Chapter 21
INTRODUCTION
Public health organizations worldwide are un- dergoing major changes in structure, size, tech- nology, and human resources (Gebbie, Raziano, & Sterling, 2009; Kirkpatrick, 1998; Petty, & Brewer, 2008; Phillips, 1997; Yelon & Sheppard, 1999). These changes, along with moving from an industrial age to an information age and from
national to global competition require an upgrade of worker skills (Gebbie, Raziano, & Sterling, 2009; Swyt, 1995; Yu, 2008).
According to Meister (1994), employee skills, knowledge, and attitudes have changed over the past 20 years and will continue to change well into the 21st century. He wrote that, “three broad movements affecting industry: (a) flatter corporate hierarchies, (b) broader roles required of both workers and managers, and (c) a more culturally
Gregory C. Petty University of Tennessee, USA
Mark S. Farris Y-12 National Security Complex, USA
Multiple Factors of Workforce Development that Affect the
Efficacy of Training Transfer to the On-the-Job Performance of Public Health Care Workers
ABSTRACT
This article investigated the multiple factors that affect the transfer of training of classroom instruction to on-the-job performance. There has been a lack of information relative to the effect of multiple factors related to the transfer of training, particularly in the area of public health workforce development. This study was conducted to investigate the multiple modalities that hinder or encourage transfer of training.
DOI: 10.4018/978-1-61350-068-2.ch021
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diverse labor force have combined to create a workplace unrecognizable from that which existed in the not so distant past” (p. vii). Human resource specialists will need to address these movements that are bringing changes in employee training and putting greater emphasis on the effectiveness of transfer of training (Foxon, 1997; Garavaglia, 1996; Phillips, 1997).
Workers and managers throughout American industry and particularly in public health are increasingly faced with the reality of skill devel- opment (Chávez, Turalba, & Malik, 2006). Skill upgrading is paramount to public health manag- ers and educators (Petty, & Carter, 2011). Proper employee development will facilitate corporate success (Aburdene, 2005; Yu, 2008).
Meister (1994) reported that workers must make the necessary adjustments to maintain a competitive edge. These adjustments include (a) proper performance of the technical aspects of their jobs, (b) reaction to outside pressures, (c) meeting customer expectations, and (d) integration of new technologies. Rosow and Zager (1988) concurred, pointing out American industry’s awareness of the need for increased job performance and the resulting increased expectations in classroom training. Goldstein and Gilliam (1990) agreed, suggesting improved job performance through technical skill development.
Transfer of training is defined as the linkage of attitudes, skills, and knowledge learned in the classroom to the job environment (Newstrom, 1984; Wexley & Latham, 1991). Other researchers (i.e., Kirkpatrick, 1998; Milheim, 1994; Redding, 1990; Yelon & Sheppard, 1999) expanded on this definition by describing training transfer as the accumulation of specific problem-solving skills that are transferable back to the job.
BACKGROUND
The ultimate purpose for having training programs in place is to increase job performance (Camp-
bell, 1988; Druckman & Bjork, 1994; Wexley & Latham, 1991). According to Campbell (1988), transfer of training is a part of the phenomena of the classroom learning experience. Baldwin and Ford (1988) concurred by writing, “for transfer [of train- ing] to have occurred, learned behavior must be generalized to the job context and maintained over a period of time” (p. 63). Kraiger, Ford, and Sales (1993) wrote that training transfer is facilitated by addressing such factors as the work environment and individual characteristics and their immediate effects on training outcomes. Clearly, the factors that inhibit or facilitate transfer of training and the perceptions of trainees toward these factors are critical components to effective training and increased job performance (Beirsner, Ryman, & Rahe, 1977; Petty, Lim, & Zulauf, 2007). The problem addressed in this chapter therefore, was to determine how multiple factors affected the transfer of training of classroom instruction to on-the-job performance. This chapter is based on original research conducted in part by Mark S. Farris (Farris, 2001) in an attempt to develop benchmarks for transfer of training of job com- petencies from the classroom to the job.
PRESENT PERSPECTIVES
Most studies have focused on the actual training experience rather than the transfer of trained tasks back to the job and task maintenance over time (Huczynski & Lewis, 1980; Petty, 1995). Noe (1986) concurred by writing, “the majority of applied work and academic research has focused on the appropriateness of various instructional methods, needs assessment, and evaluation of methodology” (p. 736). Researchers and practi- tioners have primarily focused their attention and effort on classroom training and have placed little attention on the transfer of skills back to the job (Petty, & Loboda, 2011).
Increasingly, organizations are experiencing problems because skills acquired in classroom
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training are not being applied on the job (Bartee, Winnail, & Olsen, 2003; Ford & Weissbein, 1997). This is often referred to as a transfer of training problem. Foxon (1994) wrote that the phenomenon of transfer is a process in itself and why it occurs or does not occur is not altogether clear. Baldwin and Ford (1988) concurred, writing that research- ers need to explore transfer from a progressive stand point to adequately explain how certain input variables under different contexts cause the oc- currence of transfer. According to Yelon, Reznich, and Sleight (1997), “most researchers agree that transfer is the result of a complex interaction of variables” (p. 134).
Researchers (Foxon, 1995, 1997; Tracey, Tan- nenbaum, & Kavanaugh, 1995) have developed models that “single-out” pre-learning and pre- training characteristics and trainee motivation. Existing empirical research has generally treated work-related factors as being fixed and not related to individual characteristics (i.e., motivation and self-efficacy). Past research generally revealed that independent individual characteristics were treated as being separate from transfer environ- ment characteristics (Gist, Bavetta, & Stephens, 1990).
A review of the research revealed a need to produce studies addressing various work factors, research frameworks, and transfer barriers/facilita- tors relating to individual characteristics and their effect on the transfer process. More research is needed to ascertain whether a transfer problem exists and, if so, how to overcome it. Additionally, the results of this study will enable related instruc- tors of information, workplace supervisors, and others to recognize factors that inhibit or facilitate the transfer of related training.
Joyce and Clift (1984) described transfer of learning as the effect of learning a particular skill on the ability to learn something different at another time, perhaps in the near future. They expanded on this notion by suggesting that transfer of learning thus far focused primarily on cognitive strategies. Ellis (1965) wrote that previous learning had an
effect on new learning starting at an early age. An example given by Ellis was of college students who reacted a certain way to a new course based on their experience in a previous course. He sug- gested that attitudes learned in one scenario may transfer to another. “It is difficult to think of any adult learning that could not be affected by earlier learning. We might, in fact, regard all studies of learning beyond a very early age as studies of transfer of learning” (p. 5).
Instrumentation
A list of 36 barriers/facilitators collected from the literature was used to construct the pilot instru- ment. Additionally, Converse and Presser (1986) offered the following suggestions: (a) each item must use language that is understandable, (b) each item must be short, and (c) each item must be clear and understandable. Issac and Michael (1995) concurred, suggesting that the items must (a) be appropriate, (b) relate back to the research, (c) be clear, (d) not be leading in nature, (e) ask for knowledge possessed by the respondent, and (f) not ask for information that is too sensitive to the respondent. According to Spector (1992) each question should contain only one idea and must consider the reading level of the respondent.
Specific steps for the development of the pilot instrument are listed below:
1. The review of literature yielded 127 barriers/ facilitators thought to affect the transfer of related training.
2. Each barrier/facilitator was written in the form of a statement.
3. Using previous research, titles of factors were changed and adapted to better reflect the list of barriers/facilitators.
4. The statements were organized and vali- dated by the panel of experts to eliminate redundancies and to identify classifications for each of the five factors. The original list of 127 barriers/facilitators was reduced to
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36 items by the panel of experts. Those that were similar were categorized under each of the identified factors.
5. The panel of experts confirmed the list of barriers/facilitators. The researchers deter- mined that commonalities did exist within the list of barriers/facilitators.
6. Each statement (barrier/facilitator) was placed in alphabetical order and then ran- domized using a random number table.
7. The pilot instrument was formatted.
The pilot instrument contained two parts. The first part contained the final 36 barriers/facilita- tors that affect the transfer of training. The format used a 5-point Likert scale to determine the degree that each barrier/facilitator helped or hindered the transfer of related training to the job. The second part requested demographic information from respondents including (a) age, (b) formal educa- tion, (c) gender, (d) marital status, and whether your spouse works (e) military service, (f) number of children, (g) year in the training program, (h) number of trainees working with respondent, (i) number of days lost during the past 12 months, (j) the format of related classroom training offered, and (k) previous technical training.
Descriptive statistics (i.e., means, frequen- cies, and standard deviation) were generated for the demographic items. The selected targeted population for this study was 32,480 trainees in a national training program. A list of 36 barriers/ facilitators was used to construct the pilot instru- ment. A preliminary pilot test was performed and data were collected and analyzed for readability and accuracy. As a result of this test, appropriate changes were made to the final approved version.
The descriptive analysis and the results of the panel of experts Delphi probe were used to determine the multiple factors of workforce devel- opment. The descriptive patterns, commonalities, and relationships were explored between variables. This analysis was used to study the perceptions
of barriers/facilitators that affect the transfer of training and was exploratory in nature.
FUTURE TRENDS
Identification and quantification of the barriers and facilitators that affect the efficacy of training transfer to learners’ on-the-job performance will allow a great leap forward for public health trainers and professionals. Resources invested in related public health classroom training are of little ben- efit and wasted if knowledge, skills, and attitudes do not transfer to the job. According to Phillips (1996), less than 25% of training professionals are evaluating training programs, especially at levels three, four, and five. Future studies relating to the evaluation of training, especially the transfer of training to the job, are critically necessary to ensure organizations are getting the most value out of their training programs.
The study that was the basis of this chapter was accomplished by using a survey instrument developed by the researchers termed the Transfer of Training Inventory (TTI). The TTI can be used by public health professionals responsible for future training programs to study and improve the efficacy of their training.
Future studies can better understand the transfer process by investigating the perceptions of identified factors and barriers/facilitators and their contributions to the transfer of training (Petty,
Table 1. Rankings, mean scores, and standard deviations for each transfer factor
Rank/Factor Mean Standard Deviation
1. Motivation 3.78 .5413
2. Peer Support 3.74 .6509
3. Supervisory Support 3.48 .6797
4. Organizational Environ- ment
3.40 .6316
5. Self-Efficacy 3.33 .5148
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2009). In this study, a review of literature identi- fied five factors and 127 barriers/facilitators that have been reported to affect the transfer of related training received in a classroom setting to the job.
Future research should focus on the following factors reported in Table 1 that formed the core or basis of the investigation and the instrument development. These five factors were the core of
Table 2. Rankings of mean scores, and standard deviations for each transfer of training barrier/facilitator
Ranking/Item Number of Barrier/Facilitator Mean Standard Deviation
1. 14. A challenging job assignment is important to me. 4.24 .81
2. 27. I am ridiculed by other trainees when using newly learned skills. 4.21 .8709
3. 1. I prefer the variety of work offered. 4.18 .79
4. 13. I lack confidence to use what I learn in the classroom. 4.07 .9963
5. 31. I am distracted by my personal problems. 4.02 1.0380
6. 15. I am unsure what is expected of me. 3.99 1.0496
7. 26. I lack knowledge for using what I have learned. 3.92 .9603
8. 3. I have motivation to use the information I have learned in the classroom. 3.88 .94
9. 6. There is inconsistency with my supervisor’s view of my work. 3.81 1.0718
10. 5. I find it frustrating to use the information I have learned. 3.80 1.0590
11. 2. I find the related training difficult to learn. 3.79 1.0198
12. 17. I lack on-the-job reinforcement from my supervisor and trainer. 3.77 1.0359
13. 29. I am unaware of my on-the-job strengths and weaknesses. 3.76 1.1152
14. 28. I am unable to concentrate while attempting to learn related theory. 3.75 1.0806
15. 9. I have support from other trainees when using new information. 3.70 .95
16. 35. The application of skills on my job is considered a low priority by my employer. 3.69 1.1268
17. 25. Supervisors, trainers, and myself disagree on how I should use what I have learned. 3.60 .9719
18. 7. My supervisor and trainer support training so we can do new types of work. 3.57 1.09
19. 30. I prefer habits or old ways of doing things. 3.56 1.0311
20. 12. My supervisor and trainer do not teach me to use what I have learned in the classroom. 3.49 1.1879
21. 33. I am allowed to apply related instruction. 3.48 .96
22. 32. Existing work demands are in conflict with the training. 3.44 1.1204
23. 8. What I learn in related training does not relate to work practices. 3.41 1.2221
24. 16. What I learned is not relevant to the tasks I perform. 3.41 1.2320
25. 20. I feel pressure to keep old methods of doing my job. 3.38 1.0111
26. 19. I have the opportunity to use what I learned in the classroom. 3.36 1.14
27. 34. Most jobs have proper tools and equipment to apply the training to the job. 3.35 1.21
28. 4. My employer has policies and procedures to support training. 3.34 1.06
29. 18. My co-workers resist changes in work practices. 3.31 1.0781
30. 22. Supervisors and trainers encourage me to use what I learn in the classroom. 3.28 1.11
31. 21. I lack time to use the classroom instruction on the job. 3.23 1.1073
32. 10. I experience pressure to do more on my job. 3.21 1.2226
33. 23. I find it difficult to complete homework assignments. 3.18 1.2916
34. 24. Too much time passes between the training and its use on my job. 35. 11. I find that supervisors and trainers resist change in work practices
3.00 3.00
1.1722 1.1356
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Table 3. Factors and corresponding barriers/facilitators categories verified by the panel of experts
Organizational Environment
4. My employer has policies and procedures to support training.
10. I experience pressure to do more on my job.
15. I am unsure what is expected of me on the job.
16. What I learned is not relevant to the tasks I perform.
20. I feel pressure to keep old methods of doing my job.
21. I lack time to use the classroom instruction on the job.
24. Too much time passes between the training and its use on my job.
32. Existing work demands are in conflict with the training.
34. Most jobs have proper tools and equipment to apply the training to the job.
35. The application of skills on my job is considered a low priority by my employer.
Supervisory Support
6. There is inconsistency with my supervisor’s view of my work.
7. My supervisor and trainer support training so we can do new types of work.
11. I find that supervisors and trainers resist change in work practices.
12. My supervisor and trainer do not teach me to use what I have learned in the classroom.
17. I lack on-the-job reinforcement from my supervisor and trainer
19. I have the opportunity to use what I learned in the classroom.
22. Supervisors and trainers encourage me to use what I learn in the classroom.
25. Supervisors, trainer, and I disagree on how I should use what I have learned.
33. I am allowed to apply related instruction.
Peer Support
9. I have support from other trainees when using new information learned in the classroom.
18. My co-workers resist changes in work practices.
27. I am ridiculed by other trainees when using newly learned skills.
Motivation
1. I prefer the variety of work offered.
2. I find the related training difficult to learn.
3. I have motivation to use what I have learned in the classroom.
5. I find it frustrating to use the information I have learned.
8. What I learned in related training does not relate to work practices.
14. A challenging job assignment is important to me.
23. I find it difficult to complete homework assignments.
30. I prefer habits or old ways of doing things.
31. I am distracted by my personal problems.
Self-Efficacy
13. I lack confidence to use what I learn in the classroom.
26. I lack knowledge for using what I have learned.
28. I am unable to concentrate while attempting to learn related theory.
29. I am unaware of my on-the-job strengths and weaknesses.
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the transfer of training and their relative impor- tance is demonstrated in this table.
Results of further investigation from a na- tional survey using the TTI instrument described in this study are presented in Table 2. These fac- tors are ranked (1 to 5) from a level of importance by the respondents. Knowledge of these items and their importance to trainees will allow public health professionals in the future to improve their training by considering these factors in the design and evaluation of their training programs.
Table 3 provides the final five factors and the corresponding barrier/facilitator categories that were verified by the panel of experts. The factors are: Organizational Environment; Supervisory Support; Peer Support; Motivation; and Self- Efficacy.
CONCLUSION
This study focused on the multiple factors of workforce development. In particular, this chapter focused on those aspects that affect the efficacy of training transfer to the on-the-job performance of public health care workers. The aspects of training (factors) that inhibit or facilitate the transfer of related training can affect the on the job perfor- mance of workers. These factors are: 1) motiva- tion; 2) peer support; 3) supervisory support; 4) organizational environment; and 5) self-efficacy.
It is the goal of professionals in public health involved in training the workforce to (a) improve knowledge, skills, and attitudes of workers; (b) increase worker on-the-job performance through training; and (c) improve the overall effectiveness of workers resulting in an improved workforce. Hopefully, this study will help those preparing public health professionals to better understand the problem of transfer of training.
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KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS
Barriers to Transfer: “The set of actual and perceived factors that inhibit the success of training and development efforts and act as impediments to the transfer of training” (Broad & Newstrom, 1992, p. 172).
Locus of Control: Individual perception that success or failure is based on personal initiative or lack thereof.
Maintenance of Transfer: The length of time skills, attitudes, and beliefs are used in the workplace.
On-the-Job Training (OJT): “Workplace- based training setting in which trainees learn and demonstrate mastery of skill objectives through
structured training normally conducted in the job environment” (Blair, 1996, p. 26).
Peer: As operationally defined for the purpose of this study, a peer is a person who is equal to another, in this case, a co-worker.
Public Health: “the science and art of prevent- ing disease, prolonging life and promoting health through the organized efforts and informed choices of society, organizations, public and private, com- munities and individuals.” (Winslow, 1920 p. 23).
Self-Efficacy: The belief in one’s capability to mobilize the cognitive resources, motivation, and courses of action needed to meet task demands (Bandura, 1986, p. 391).
Supervisor: A person in charge of subordinates or employees in a work setting.
Task: A unit of work that has a beginning and an end and is comprised of one or more elements.
Theoretical Framework: A model that de- signs the framework for the development of the instrument and a factually based structure.
Training: A planned learning experience designed to permanently change an individual’s knowledge, skills, and attitudes. Additionally, training is designed to develop or improve an individual’s on-the-job performance (Blair, 1996, p. 28).
Transfer of Related Training: For the purpose of this study, transfer of related training refers to all of the skills taught and/or acquired during a student’s training program.
Transfer of Training Inventory (TTI): An instrument designed by the researcher for the purpose of gathering data regarding apprentice perceptions of barriers/facilitators that affect the transfer of training.
Work Group: A group of peers bound together by a department or unit.
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Copyright © 2012, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
Chapter 22
INTRODUCTION
Technology has opened the door to greater educa- tional opportunities for all students than has ever existed before. Globally, countries are promoting the distribution and use of technology in educa-
tion (Baldwin, Mehlinger, Powers, & Williams, 2002). In Europe, e-learning has been identified as a tool that will improve competitive ability in today’s knowledge economy (Wallace, 2006) In the United States, roughly 4.6 million students in higher education were enrolled in an online
Kristine Holloway California State University, USA
Fair Use, Copyright, and Academic Integrity in an Online
Academic Environment
ABSTRACT
Technology has changed the way Fair Use is determined in an educational environment. Administrators face issues of ownership and copyright when making instructional materials available electronically. Planning for copyright issues, negotiating fair contracts with faculty and vendors, collaborating with stakeholders, and re-thinking Fair Use policies for online learning must occur when transitioning to an electronic library. Instructors and school leaders must understand Fair Use and the legal issues involved. They must deal with issues of academic integrity in an electronic environment and offer instruction on how to avoid student and faculty miss-use of materials. Ownership of intellectual property should be clearly defined to avoid conflict between online instructors and administration. Administrators must understand fair use and copyright issues and create policies and plans for dealing with issues that will inevitably arise as they work with course materials, faculty, and students in an online environment.
DOI: 10.4018/978-1-61350-068-2.ch022
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course in the fall of 2008 (Allen & Seaman, 2010). The United Nations (1948) stated that access to education should be a universal human right ac- cording to the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. Online courses offer the opportunity for anyone regardless of geographical, economic, or physical restrictions to get an education.
Universities benefit by offering e-learning. DiRamio and Kops (2004) noted that universities are able to include greater numbers of students in online courses often with less expense to the university than in a traditional classroom. The initial expense to the university in creating an on- line course can be high due to the need to provide institutional support e.g. web designers, course management software, instructional technology specialists. Once the course is functional the costs associated with maintaining it should decrease. In a traditional course a classroom would need to be provided, if at a distance, mileage would be paid to instructors, and ongoing support such as photo- copying, and Internet access would be considered as part of the total cost. A traditional classroom is limited by the amount of space available for seating. An online classroom does not have the same issue. Kranch (2008) noted that financial efficiency on the part of the university becomes more important as state budgets continue to de- cline. Offering online instruction has the potential of benefit of increasing a university’s revenue due to greater student enrollment (Malonis, 2002a). E-learning offers a convenient alternative for students who are unable to relocate, have work or family responsibilities, or who suffer from a disability.
In order to ensure the success of their institu- tion, many administrators attempt to accommo- date and promote online learning. Gayton (2009) conducted a series of interviews with university administrators to discover that the vast majority of those studied support and promote online courses and had noticed an increase in the number of students taking online courses. With the promise of online learning there are also challenges that
administrators must consider. The administrators that Gayton interviewed were concerned with preserving the quality of education in an online classroom and ensuring academic integrity among online students. Along with academic integrity, administrators face having to ensure that materi- als are used appropriately and obey copyright law while also taking advantage of free use to enhance education and research for students and faculty. Complicating matters are varied interpretations of free use in an electronic environment, attribu- tion of ownership of materials, and institutional support for course creation. Creating policy and specifying contractual obligations is necessary in order to prevent ill will and costly litigation.
Training in how to prevent plagiarism and how to function effectively in an online environment should be offered both for students and teachers. It is vital for those working with distance courses in an administrative capacity to understand the issues and legal foundation of fair use and copyright as it pertains to e-learning. Without information on how fair use is applied in an electronic environment, administrators will risk conflict with teaching faculty, possible litigation through mistakes in ascribing fair use, and may add to the confusion felt by educators and students on how to apply fair use guidelines when using copyrighted works.
BACKGROUND
Businesses and educational institutions have ad- opted new technologies and revitalized existing technologies to support online students. Some institutions have responded to their mission of opening education to all by offering course ma- terials to the general public without cost as with the MIT Open Courseware Project (Blanchard, 2010; Caswell, Henson, Jensen, & Wiley, 2008). Electronic learning has made the ownership of intellectual property less clear. “Web-based courses and distance learning courseware require more technical support, faculty setup, and campus
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resources. As a result, universities are increasingly becoming de facto courseware owners” (Talab, 2007, p. 9).
Blanchard (2010) pointed out that online instructors’ intellectual work can be considered work-for-hire making it the property of the uni- versity. In a traditional course, the same work would have been considered to be owned by the instructor. Blanchard defines work-for-hire as work that falls under the employee’s contract, is intended to serve the employer, and is done dur- ing work hours. DiRamio & Kops (2004) also noted that online courses have a tendency to be considered works-for-hire in that the instructor may be interchangeable as long as the materials of the course are retained in the course software and are able to be used by students. A global economy demands that cooperation and competition thrive in every industry including education. The ability to make resources available electronically forces the question of how to accommodate fair use and copyright law in an online academic environment. As Blanchard (2010) pointed out, policies that are fair to both the institution and the faculty can save a university litigation expenses.
Industry has created tools to meet the challenge of adhering to copyright legislation; including making only a portion of a book under copyright available at any given time, limiting document print and save functions, and making materi- als available for only a limited period of time through student accounts. The Digital Millennium Copyright Act (DMCA) of 1998 was intended to incorporate issues having to with the Internet into United States copyright law. This act prohibited circumventing technology intended to prevent access to web-based material under copyright (Malonis, 2002b). Controls to limit access are in place currently to confine use to a select group thus adhering to fair use guidelines. Myers (2005) discusses types of access controls currently in use including: passwords, digital signatures, and smart cards. Biometric scans may also be used more as the technology develops.
Digital Rights Management is used to control whether material can be printed, copied, and to determine how much can be viewed at any given time and how often it can be viewed (Myers, 2005). Programs to fight plagiarism are readily available for a fee. These are all reasonable mechanisms to promote fair use.
Unfortunately, as soon as a solution is found there will be a technology created to circumvent it. This forces a greater impenetrability from in- stitutions attempting to make materials available to their students or workers. The school must also instruct students in how to access resources and how to use them without violating copyright law. School administrators must consider these issues and the resources required to adequately support students and instructors when structuring online programs.
FAIR USE IN ONLINE INSTRUCTION
In many universities there is no designated depart- ment assigned to disseminate information and make decisions regarding copyright issues. The task of instilling academic integrity and instruc- tion on copyright and fair use has largely fallen to individual instructors and librarians. A growing trend noted by Myers (2005) and Davis (2006) in some universities is to establish departments whose function it is to inform faculty and students on issues of copyright and permissions. DiRamio and Kops (2004) advocate for the creation of distance education policy followed by the dis- semination across campus of instruction on fair use, the Technology, Education, and Copyright Harmonization (Teach) Act, and copyright.
Schools will continue to face challenges in ensuring that online students take the information presented and apply it to their coursework. As Ma, Guofang, & Lu (2008) noted, it is easy to cheat in an electronic environment and students often fail to consider or understand the seriousness of academic dishonesty. Schools that are able to suc-
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cessfully pursue academic integrity initiatives in an online environment will find that they must ap- proach the problem with a top-down approach that effectively demonstrates administrative support for university-wide programs educating students on fair use, copyright, and academic integrity in an online environment.
Instructional Technology
Carlson (2006) describes instructional technology as the systematic application of processes to solve instructional problems. Instructional technology tools include computers, software, and other tech- nological tools used in education. Definitions of instructional technology have evolved over time, and other terms are often used to describe the same idea (Carlson, 2006). In online education, the role of instructional technology will continue to evolve as new innovations are made and as the role of technology in education is explored.
Technology has a long history of applicabil- ity to education. In the early 1900’s, Thomas Edison is famously known for stating that the moving picture would revolutionize education in America. Over time, technological applications in evaluating, assessing, and improving learning made technology integral to education (Carlson, 2006). Improved technology in the 21st century has enabled instructional technologists to cre- ate models supporting teaching and assessment in web-based programs. Instructional support, knowledge management and the ability to rapidly prototype improve the learning experience for the student or trainee. Educational technology will continue to improve as technologists collaborate with scientists and educators to take what is known about cognitive function and apply it to academic or training programs (Carlson, 2006).
Intellectual Property
The dominance of the Internet in teaching and doing research has opened the door for distance
students and created a more accessible educa- tional system. At the same time, the use of the Internet makes it easier to violate copyright law and steal intellectual property. Intellectual property refers to ownership ascribed by the law of intangible property such as literature, art, or course material (Bonner, 2002). Copyright law protects the interests of the owner of intellectual property. There is a patent and copyright clause in the United States Constitution (1787) to protect the authors of creative work from theft by those who would copy or steal intellectual work. “The Congress shall have power to… To promote the Progress of Science and useful Arts, by securing for limited Times to Authors and Inventors the exclusive Right to their respective Writings and Discoveries” (Art. 1, sec. 8, clause 8).
Faculty members are generally considered to have ownership of their intellectual property when they create syllabi and other course materials. Ownership of an instructor’s work can be disputed when it is considered a work-for-hire. Work-for- hire suggests that the individual completed the work as part of his or her contract with the em- ployer. In this scenario, it is the employer who is considered to own the property under the copyright act of 1976 (Bonner, 2002). Talab (2007) points out that new agreements regarding ownership are being explored between some administration and faculty, with both the university and faculty wanting to claim ownership over a course. Taleb (2007) uses the phrase ‘substantial resources’ to refer to the investment made by the university that can justify claiming ownership over what would otherwise be the instructor’s property.
Fair use allows for reasonable use of a work under copyright. Items that fall under fair use privilege can be used without permissions or fees. For an item to be covered by fair use, it must adhere to these four criteria found in Sec- tion 107 of the United States Copyright Act: the work should be used for non-profit, educational purposes, the nature of the work to be used, the portion of what is to be used in comparison with
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the overall size of the work, and that the use will not hurt the market value of the item being used (2010). Fair use is necessary to education in that the inability to photocopy or distribute material to students would impose significant frustration on the student and the teacher (Bonner, 2002).
Innovations such as wireless fidelity allow roaming internet access. Peer-to-peer networking allows for the creation of local area networks or web use to share files. Peer-to-peer networking can be adapted to increase collaboration and provide shared content in academic sessions. Farenga and Ness (2005) stated that education will continue to experience enormous change as new and better innovations emerge. Trends that will influence the future of instructional design are: improvement of networking function, student access to better technology, and improved methods of internet searching. Thoughtful strategic planning and collaboration with stakeholders will be necessary for learning institutions to successfully adapt to these changes.
Use of copyrighted material has become the norm in teaching. Until recently, copyright law had not kept up with distance education. The last major revision of copyright law in 1976 indicated that the instructor and student had to be in one place in order for materials to be considered exempt from violating copyright law. Transmis- sion of copyrighted audiovisual work was not allowed without written permission or payment (Simpson, 2005). Copyright legislation continues to evolve through case law. School administra- tors and personnel must stay abreast of copyright litigation and technological development in order to ensure that there are no grounds for litigation due to improper use of materials (Myers, 2005).
Technology, Education, and Copyright Harmonization (Teach) Act
The Teach Act amended copyright law to allow faculty to use copyrighted work in their online
classes so long as reasonable effort to prevent dissemination of copyrighted materials is used by educators (DiRamio & Kops, 2004). The Teach act evolved from the Digital Millennium Copy- right Act. Initially, the Register of Copyrights developed guidelines on fair use for distance education. This later became the Technology, Education, and Copyright Harmonization Act. The Teach act became law in 2002 (Simpson, 2005). In order for the Teach act to apply when determining fair use, certain requirements must be met. These requirements include: institutional adoption of a copyright policy, the school must provide evidence that educators, staff, and students have been given training or instruction on issues pertaining to copyright, and access to copyrighted works must be restricted to enrolled students (Simpson, 2005).
Under the Teach act, distance educators can make copyrighted audio-visual material available electronically so long as certain conditions are met. The conditions that must be met are: that the materials must be used for direct instruction, the materials must be removed quickly by both the transmitter and the student, that only registered students may view the materials and that the ma- terials are password protected (Simpson, 2005). The school ultimately is responsible for ensuring that copyright is followed and the school will be held responsible if these conditions fail to be met (Simpson, 2005). The Teach Act is not limited to distance learning as it exists now and can also apply to hybrid courses so long as the course has an online component. Online courses need to have a recognizable comparison to traditional courses including: having an instructor, a beginning and end time for the course, and specific installments or learning modules within the course in order to be exempt from seeking permissions for the use of works under copyright (Simpson, 2005). Legal responsibility for adhering to the Teach act falls to the administration, to educators, and to information technology staff (Simpson, 2005).
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Fair Use and Copyright
“In the United States, copyright ownership is extended to anyone who fixes an original work of authorship into a tangible form of expression” (Myers, 2005, p. 16). Teaching faculty who make copyrighted materials available in a controlled environment to a limited number of students can be considered to be operating under the principle of fair use (Caswell et al., 2008). The educational institution has the responsibility to ensure that students do not gain long-term access to materi- als, that copyright information is included with the material, and that access to data is secure and materials are encrypted if necessary (Simpson, 2005). When legally challenged it is important for an institution to be able to prove that it has done its due diligence to ensure that Fair Use Guidelines are followed and Copyright is not infringed upon. Even small lapses by individuals can over time build to an actionable suit (Wallace, 2006). Faculty, students, and staff may be fined up to $150,000 for violating copyright agreements (DiRamio & Kops, 2004).
Establishing Policy on Copyright
Harvard law professor, Arthur Miller, sold a taped lecture series that he had done to a law school offering classes online. Harvard argued that the sale to another school was a conflict of interest and wanted to share in the revenue. Miller claimed that it was comparable to doing a lecture series at other universities. Harvard has since changed this policy and requires instructors to seek permission before selling and distributing materials to other institutions. In this case, the instructor maintains ownership of the materials (Blanchard, 2010). There is some concern that the teacher excep- tion to the copyright act may not survive online courses. In order to avoid this type of conflict, Blanchard argues that written conflict of interest and intellectual property policies for copyright retention are necessary in an online environment
that allows for the easy transfer of materials to a globally competitive educational market.
Gould, Lipinski, & Buchanan (2005) noticed that school policy in applying fair use guidelines may differ significantly from school to school. They surveyed university libraries in an effort to determine how policies developed, if they did develop from the Fair Use guidelines. They found that many schools did not deviate from the recommended guidelines at all in the creation of their own policy. This was unfortunate in that they found universities could be too narrow in their interpretation of copyright law and fair use guidelines. This lack of understanding of the law created greater difficulty in accessing and using copyrighted material than was necessary (Gould et al., 2005). The need to request copyright per- missions can make reserve packets expensive to produce. When the law is interpreted to deny ac- cess to items that should be available to instructors and students than instructors may find that they are unable to make some materials available to their students. For this reason, it is important that all potential stakeholders be included in creating policies for an institution.
University administrators tend to react to problems as they occur rather than developing policy that will prevent legal issues in copyright protection (Wallace, 2006). It is in the best inter- ests of the school or organization to have policy and guidelines set before a problem occurs. Oye (2007) argued for using clear language when establishing a copyright policy so that personnel and students are more likely to follow the policy. Myers (2005) suggests having a go-to person for copyright concerns, and notes that some academic libraries have copyright departments assigned to be a resource on information about copyright. An example of this is Hazel Davis, a librarian at Rio Salado College. Ms. Davis heads a distance learning copyright permissions department that serves to vet materials prior to their inclusion in courses. Faculty members submit the desired materials to the department. These are then
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evaluated as to whether they are available in a subscription database, covered under Fair Use, or would require copyright permission in order for the item to be used. Davis (2006) also provides front-end instruction by working with course developers so that they are aware of resources that are easily available and trainings for faculty teaching online courses.
Many schools use software such as ILLiad for Interlibrary Loan and Docutek for course reserves to provide digital communication of articles and scanned works that can be made available un- der Fair Use guidelines. This software makes it easier to follow Fair Use guidelines by including copyright permissions with the document (Myers, 2005; Oye, 2007). Digital management software allows for easier tracking of how copyright is being applied in an institution and imposes consistency from university to university in how materials are delivered and used. The Digital Millennium Act of 1998 addressed a broad range of copyright issues and made clear that not every educational use would fall under fair use (DiRamio & Kops, 2004). Myers (2005) points to the library as the traditional interface between educators and copyright and argues for administration to enlist university librarians in providing information, instruction, and guidelines on Fair Use in an online environment.
Students use copyrighted materials heavily and need to be educated on the legal and fair use of these materials. Universities receive cease- and-desist orders from the holders of copyright who find that materials retrieved through the university’s networked access have been made available from student computers and shared through peer-to-peer file sharing (Myers, 2005). Copyright policy needs to be adhered to by both faculty and students. Academics who may have limited time and resources need guidance in fol- lowing copyright that is specific to their need at the point of use (Wallace, 2006). For instance, faculty may be encouraged to find suitable materials in electronic databases already subscribed to by their
university in order to limit the number of copyright permissions needed and to reduce expense (Pike, 2005). Case law will likely continue to be a major component in establishing Fair Use guidelines.
The 1976 amendment to the 1909 copyright act gave faculty ownership of their work. Case law has supported this supposition through such legal battles as Weinstein v. University of Illinois (1987) and Hays v. Sony Corporation (1988) (Blanchard, 2010). When the institution has been favored as in Vanderhurst v. Colorado Mountain College District (1988) it has been due to the interpreta- tion of what could be reasonably be considered to belong to the institution e.g. course materials and preparation. University of Colorado Foundation, Inc. v. American Cyanide Co. (1995) found for the university as well due to the courts understanding of the product created by the instructor at the behest of the university making it a work-for-hire effort (Blanchard, 2010). When intellectual property is made available on the internet the concept of fair use ceases to apply and copyright permissions must be obtained (Caswell, et al., 2008).
DiRamio and Kops surveyed various institu- tions offering distance learning and found that policies for distance education vary widely across institutions. Some institutions grant faculty full rights over their intellectual property. Other insti- tutions assign joint ownership to both faculty and the institution. The majority (58%) of institutions surveyed did not have a distance education policy. Generally, they found that distance education was led by the administrative body. DiRamio and Kops argue for shared governance in crafting distance education policy and creation of a distance edu- cation program.
Online courses can be reproduced for very little cost. The major cost of developing an online course is felt at the beginning when the course is being designed. This initial investment is usu- ally made by the university. Once the course has been developed, it may be put online and man- aged electronically with little ongoing cost to the university (Caswell et al, 2008). This can raise a
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concern for faculty who may find that their work can continue without them. Copyright can be held by either the instructor or by the institution in a university setting. When ownership is unclear, there may be conflict between administration and faculty. DiRamio & Kops (2004) note that the Copyright Act of 1976 stated that ownership of a work resides with the author of that work and cannot be transferred without the author’s consent.
Online courses are created with institutional funds and support making the designation of own- ership less clear (Blanchard, 2010). Additionally, the portability of online courses makes them a potentially valuable commodity whether for the teacher or the institution. Institutions may fear that the course may be sold to their competitor. Faculty members feel that they should reap the profit from their intellectual property (Blanchard, 2010). De- termining ownership of intellectual property can to some extent be determined by whether or not a work is creative or technical. Technical works tend to be attributed to the university. More cre- ative work is usually considered the property of the instructor (DiRamio & Kops, 2004). Whereas administrators see online education as requiring institutional support staff and spending, faculty see themselves as responsible for course creation (DiRamio & Kops, 2004). Involving faculty in formulating policy and ownership rights can prevent conflict later (DiRamio & Kops, 2004).
An example of shared ownership exists at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT). Various stakeholders, including faculty, students, and administrators, met to determine how MIT would meet the challenge of distance education. From those meetings, Open Courseware, the idea of sharing course materials without cost in order to promote education on a world-wide scale was developed (Caswell, et al., 2008). Contributions are voluntarily made by instructors who sign a release granting MIT the right to publish their materials while retaining their rights of ownership (Caswell et al., 2008). A growing number of fac- ulty use Creative Commons or similar companies
to license their work as being attributable to the author while the material itself can be legally reused for educational purposes (Caswell et al., 2008). The Creative Commons website (2010) indicates that when an author obtains licensing from Creative Commons, authors will maintain their copyright but give other users the right to use their resources so long as proper attribution is given to the author.
Academic Integrity
Academic dishonesty has become increasingly facile with the domination of the Internet. Ad- ministrators and faculty members share common ground in their desire to stop students cheating (Selwyn, 2008). Universities have invested mil- lions in technological resources designed to force academic integrity (Selwyn, 2008). Students continue to find ways to cheat. In a survey of students, 61.9% acknowledged committing some form of online plagiarism within the preceding year. This could be attributed to the ease of cheat- ing via the Internet. Other factors play a part as well. Ma et al. (2008) noted that often students who cheat have observed other students cheating. It becomes an acceptable offense. A survey was done of 60 universities by the Center for Academic Integrity. Students surveyed indicated a general lack of concern about copying and pasting a few lines without giving attribution to the author (Ma, et al., 2008).
If some students fail to understand the serious- ness of cheating, others may be confused by how plagiarism is defined. International students may not have the cultural understanding of the concept of plagiarism or may be uncertain in their ability to write in a different language and so may cut and paste large portions of text (Breen & Massen, 2004). Students also experience inconsistencies in how cheating is defined from one department to another leaving students with some confusion as to what plagiarism is and how to avoid it. Breen and Massen (2004) suggest training and
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instruction to make the concepts involved in academic dishonesty more clear to staff, faculty and students. They also recommend better and clearer channels of communication on matters of academic dishonesty so that the school can have a better idea of where the problems lie in dealing with and preventing academic dishonesty.
Software such as Turnitin or OrCheck can iden- tify similarities in text to determine if plagiarism has occurred (McKeever, 2006). This software is particularly useful because students can use the software to identify any problems prior to submit- ting their work. The process of using something like Turnitin also forces students to think about plagiarism and academic integrity while they are inputting their papers allowing students to be more educated about plagiarism generally. Another service to detect plagiarism is from Gatt Plagia- rism Services. This software forces the author to recreate portions of his or her work which may be more effective in detecting plagiarism than Turnitin but is time-consuming for the author of the work. Gatt also offers training on how to avoid plagiarism (McKeever, 2006). Software intended to detect cheating, looks at collusion as when one student copies another’s work (McKeever, 2006). This type of detection can be particularly useful in an online environment as students are often asked to share their work with the online class and that work could easily be stolen by another student.
FUTURE TRENDS
It is important for universities to develop univer- sity-wide training for both faculty and students on how to identify and avoid plagiarism. Consistency in policies having to do with academic integrity will make it easier for students and faculty to be clear on what cheating is and what the conse- quences are likely to be for academic dishonesty. Just as in developing university wide policies for fair use and copyright, it is important for admin-
istrative efforts in developing this type of policy to be proactive rather than reactive. It is also im- portant, again just as with fair use and copyright, for all stakeholders to have the opportunity to be involved in creating and refining policy.
There will continue to be exciting changes in e-learning. The use of technology to support teaching will continue to grow as educators work with instructional technologists and as technology becomes more accessible to educators. Copyright law will continue to adapt to cover uses of multiple media e.g. video, music, and text. Copyright law may be more easily enforced as the technology improves to allow for immediate recognition of improper use of a copyrighted work.
Online instructors and administrators will likely continue to debate ownership. Talab (2007) stated that the City University of New York faculty won the right to include intellectual ownership as part of their collective bargaining negotiation. As these issues are debated through litigation and contract negotiation it can be hoped that in most instances a reasonable compromise will be reached. Educational institutions are currently us- ing social networking tools to communicate with students. This will likely continue and may grow into the more interactive communication that is in use for Wikipedia, Second Life, and Facebook. There is tremendous potential for competition and gain in online education as the schools can reasonably anticipate finding students all over the world (Talab, 2007). In response to this, universi- ties may become more student-centered and more commercial in an effort to attract students.
Business models that encourage collaboration of personnel and student participation through social networking applications will form a foun- dation upon which change can occur. Educational institutions potentially have access to a tremendous amount of data on their student population enabling them to target marketing more effectively. Models such as Wikipedia and Dell’s IdeaStorm allow the student to participate in the growth process and
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would serve as a model for collaboration. From an economic perspective, schools will have to offer more services to attract students while operating with decreased funds. This will force schools to push for the most value for their dollar when making expenditures.
Resource sharing, as with Open Courseware and Creative Commons, may become more com- mon. Journal, music, and video packages that are obtained from vendors will still be the primary source for research data. Collaboration will be the key to ensuring that technological innovations add real value to the company. The fear of litigation will likely push many universities into creating departments to ensure that faculty and students are obeying copyright policies and that the school itself does not have liability. Many universities will also form committees to solicit input from all stakeholders in devising policy and managing instruction in copyright and fair use.
CONCLUSION
Technology has revolutionized how education is offered. It is important to understand that trans- ferring traditional courses to an online format involves more than making materials available electronically. Stakeholders in education should approach offering distance education with coop- eration and collaboration in mind. Written policies and open communication will go a long way in preventing conflict and litigation. Measures to ad- dress copyright issues and to educate students and personnel regarding fair use should be university- wide and consistent. Efforts to work with chang- ing copyright and fair use issues as technology continues to develop will require thoughtfulness, flexibility, and a clear understanding of the im- portance of copyright in protecting intellectual property rights and in promoting creativity and ingenuity in academia.
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Baldwin, R., Mehlinger, H., Powers, S., & Wil- liams, S. (2002). Technology in education. In Guthrie, J. W. (Ed.), Encyclopedia of education (2nd ed., Vol. 7, pp. 2509–2526). New York, NY: Macmillan Reference.
Blanchard, J. (2010). The teacher exception under the work for hire doctrine: Safeguard of academic freedom or vehicle for academic free enterprise? Innovative Higher Education, 35, 61–69. doi:10.1007/s10755-009-9124-1
Bonner, K. (2002). Intellectual property rights: Technology in education. In Guthrie, J. W. (Ed.), Encyclopedia of education (2nd ed., Vol. 7, pp. 1186–1190). New York, NY: Macmillan Refer- ence.
Breen, L., & Massen, M. (2005). Reducing the incidence of plagiarism in an undergraduate course: The role of education. Issues in Educa- tional Research, 15(1), 1–16. http:// www.iier. org.au/ iier15/ breen.html.
Carlson, R. (2006). Instructional technology. In English, F. W. (Ed.), Encyclopedia of educa- tional leadership and administration (Vol. 1, pp. 512–513). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Reference.
Caswell, T., Henson, S., Jensen, M., & Wiley, D. (2008). Open educational resources: Enabling universal education. International Review of Re- search in Open and Distance Learning, 9(1), 1–11.
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Davis, H. (2006). Copyright in the online course environment. Journal of Library Administration, 45(3), 513–515. doi:10.1300/J111v45n03_13
DiRamio, D., & Kops, G. (2004). Distance educa- tion and digital intellectual property issues. Plan- ning for Higher Education, 32(3), 37–46.
Farenga, S., & Ness, D. (2005). Instructional technology: The near future. In Sharpe, M. E. (Ed.), Encyclopedia of education and human development (Vol. 1, pp. 204–208). Armonk, NY.
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Gould, T., Lipinski, T., & Buchanan, E. (2005). Copyright policies and the deciphering of fair use in the creation of reserves at university librar- ies. Journal of Academic Librarianship, 31(3), 182–197. doi:10.1016/j.acalib.2005.02.001
Kranch, D. (2008). Who owns online course intellectual property? The Quarterly Review of Distance Education, 9(4), 349–356.
Ma, H., Guofang, W., & Lu, E. (2008). Digital cheat- ing and plagiarism in schools. Theory into Practice, 47, 197–203. doi:10.1080/00405840802153809
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McKeever, L. (2006). Online plagiarism detec- tion services – Savior or scourge? Assessment & Evaluation in Higher Education, 31(2), 155–165. doi:10.1080/02602930500262460
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KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS
Academic Freedom: This is the right that academics and academic institutions have to freely explore thoughts and research without fear of repercussion stifling the creative process.
Academic Integrity: This refers to the use of ethical principals when using intellectual property for research. It includes the need to give proper attribution when using resources in order to pass off work as one’s own.
Copyright Law: A series of Acts intended to establish guidelines for protecting ownership of intellectual property. Much of this legislation develops through case law.
Courseware: These are course management systems made available to faculty by the admin- istration. Faculty may load their course materials into these systems to expedite online instruction.
Fair Use: The ability to use an item that is under copyright for educational purposes when various conditions are met including: limiting access to the item and that use will not limit the owner’s ability to sell the work.
Intellectual Property: Property that is essen- tial intangible because it is creative or knowledge based work and as such is usually owned by the person creating the work.
Online Course: This is when course instruc- tion and interaction between instructor and stu- dents is primarily online.
Plagiarism: This is stealing another’s work and claiming it as one’s own.
Resource Management Software: ILLiad and Docutek are two examples of this. These software systems streamline delivery of resources and track copyright permissions. This can be useful in showing evidence of obeying copyright law.
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Copyright © 2012, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
Chapter 23
INTRODUCTION
Self-development is of particular relevance for executives: We know from school research that there is a direct connection between the self- development of teachers and the achievements of learners (Drago-Severson, 2009). Analogous to this, this correlation transfers from the learn- ing-achievement relationship of managers with employees. Leading employees thereby requires
personal reflection by managers on their own personality.. Self-development is relevant for managers not only from a theoretical perspective, but rather also because of a manager’s typical mode of self-regulation: We can assume that this is characterized by a discrepancy between motive and goals (Kehr, 2004a, 2004b) and by extrinsic aspirations (Windolf, 1992). The compensatory model of work motivation and volition suggests that a congruence of motives and goals is asso- ciated with low intrapersonal conflict, intrinsic
Käthe Schneider Friedrich-Schiller University of Jena, Germany
Assessment Methods for Self-Development Goals of Executives
ABSTRACT
There is a complex relationship between self-development and self-awareness. The individual needs to develop an awareness of herself and her self-development goals before being able to identify circum- stances consistent with these goals and to make decisions that will bring about personal development. There are different approaches and methods for assessing these goals. The types of self-development goals range from images of the self to personal projects. This article examines methods for exploring the self-development goals of executives, because this is of particular relevance today. The findings suggest an instrument for exploring self-development goals for executives.
DOI: 10.4018/978-1-61350-068-2.ch023
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motivation, and successful performance (Kehr, 2004b). According to the self-determination theory and the Aspiration Index developed by Kasser and Ryan (1993) growth is one dimension of the intrinsic motivation: We conclude that the congruence of goals and motives indirectly cor- relates with growth. Extrinsic aspirations detract from self-development (Kasser, Ryan, Zax, & Sameroff, 1995).
It is becoming clear that in adult education and personal development of executives there is a need to enhance self-development. The significance of intentionality for self-development is evident in that the development of the self produces inten- tionality, and vice versa development in the course of life becomes increasingly the object of inten- tional action (Brandtstädter, 2007). The individual needs to develop an awareness of the self and the self-development goals before being able to make decisions that will bring about self-development and to identify circumstances consistent with these goals. Studies show that people are typically not aware of self-development goals (McClelland, Koestner, & Weinberger, 1989).
There are different approaches and methods for exploring self-development goals depending on the operationalization of the construct: The types of self-development goals range from images of the self to personal projects. This article examines the construct of self-development goals in order to develop methods for exploring them. Starting from a theoretical foundation of self-development, I will show the current state of research on methods of operationalizing and assessing self-development goals in order to work out a system for exploring self-development goals for executives.
BACKGROUND
To operationalize the construct of self-devel- opment, we need a theory which describes the structure and attributes of the development of the self. Baltes (1997) understands development
as any change in the adaptive capacity of the organism. According to Baltes, the concept of development describes a joint product of gains and losses. Unlike Baltes (1997), here we specify development as a change in organic capacity in the sense of growth. With Daloz (1999, p. 23) development “… is more than simply change. The word implies direction”. In order to classify what we should understand as growth it is neces- sary to take into account subjective and objective criteria. Here we focus on objective criteria which are to be identified drawing on theories of self- determination, self-development, and subjective well-being.
A theoretical foundation for self-development is provided by Kegan’s theory of the ontogenesis of the self. Following Kegan the “self” refers to a system that creates meaning, a process to which subjective well-being is linked (Kegan, 1982, 2000). Fingarette (1963, p. 62) considers the creation of meaning as a process that reflects the personal existence, in which a person creates a new viewpoint that implies specific duties for that person.
Kegan relates growth to a gain in the complex- ity of the meaning-forming system: a specific subject-object relationship characterizes meaning formation (Kegan, 2000): The subject is what the person is involved in, that with which she identifies and with which she is so “fused” that she experiences it as herself. The object, to the contrary, represents what the person can examine, about which she reflects and that she can change. If meaning formation changes, a transformation takes place: The subject becomes the object. Such an objectivation process takes place over the entire lifetime and is a process of becoming conscious: The person creates objects. Simulta- neously, a loss of the subject occurs which leads to self-determination, for at each new stage in ontogenesis the person is more able to recognize who she is, because she can observe and change more of herself. According to Kegan (2001, p. 194): “… the basic underlying principle of ‘com-
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plexifaction’ of mind is not the mere addition of new capacities (an ‘aggregation model’), nor the substitution of a new capacity for an old one (a ‘replacement model’), but the subordination of once ruling capacities to the dominion of more complex capacities”. Related to the self the com- plexification means that the image of oneself and the meaning that one assigns to oneself become more complex.
Even if with Kegan (2001) a gain in complexity causes acquired abilities to be absorbed into more complex abilities, self-development as meaning creation cannot be adequately explained by an increase in complexity. Fingarette’s (1963) defi- nition of meaning creation, which Kegan draws on, states that this process, which reflects one’s own existence, creates a new viewpoint tied to new obligations for the person. However, not all of the obligations arising from this, with Deci and Ryan (2000), contribute to basic human needs that are relevant for personality growth. Besides the increase in complexity, processes of self- integration are indicators of growth (Sheldon & Emmons, 1995; Labouvie-Vief & Diehl, 1998): For Labouvie-Vief and Diehl (1998) it is not ob- vious that processes of self-fragmentation can be depicted in the mode of a hierarchy of complex- ity. Fragmented self-concepts can display a high degree of complexity. “Selfing” in the sense of unifying the fragmented and synthesizing selves (McAdams, 1997, p. 56) is a synthetic function of the process of creating meaning. “Meaning comes from involvement in personally fulfilling goals, the integration of these goals into a coherent self-system, and the integration of these goals into a broader social system. It is meaning that gives life unity and coherence… Goal attainment per se will not lead to subjectively satisfying long-term states unless these goals are intrinsically meaning- ful and integrated within an overall structure of the individual in his or her social context” (Em- mons, 1996, p. 333). Comparable to the theory of subjective well-being (Emmons, 1996) the self-determination theory (Deci & Ryan, 1991)
postulates that optimal further development and well-being are present where there is intrinsic motivation. In self-determination theory, goals are assigned central significance on the level of abstract life goals, also called aspirations. The contents of these aspirations influence the extent to which goal-oriented behavior satisfies basic psychological needs and contributes to health, well-being and growth. According to self-determi- nation theory (Deci & Ryan, 2000) there are four intrinsic or respectively need-congruent goals – the striving for self-acceptance, social relatedness, the improvement of society and health. These goals increase well-being and further integration processes, whereas a relatively higher valence of extrinsic or respectively need-congruent goals, such as, e.g., wealth, external attractiveness and fame, leads to alienation and impedes natural growth tendencies. The extrinsic goals do not, or only modestly, help to meet basic human needs; they are tied to fears, depression, narcissism, physical symptoms and negative affect. If extrinsic goals have a higher status, this causes alienation from fundamental needs, retards natural growth tendencies and has negative effects on well-being. From the perspective of the theory of the onto- genesis of the self, the self-determination theory and the theory of subjective well-being it becomes clear that the growth of the self is manifested in increasing complexity and in the involvement in intrinsically meaningful and integrated goals: Self-development in terms of growth describes the process in which the subjects creates objects that accord with a person’s intrinsic and integrated aspirations.
The analysis makes it clear that the research construct of self-development goals should be operationalized with intrinsic goals that address an increase in complexity and integration in regard to the image of one’s own person and the meaning connected with this for oneself.
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SELF-RELATED GOAL CONSTRUCTS
In the relevant literature, there are numerous constructs for operationalizing self-related goals. We can name the following as self-related goal constructs:
• McAdams (1993): Imagoes; • Markus and Nurius (1986): Possible selves
(e.g., being motivated); • Ford and Nichols (1987): Human goals; • Emmons (1996): Personal strivings (e.g.,
making life easier for my parents); • Deci and Ryan (2000): Aspirations (e.g., to
be physically attractive); • Klinger (1977): Current concerns; • Cantor and Kihlstrom (1987) Life tasks; • Little (1983): Personal projects (e.g., sav-
ing money); • Specific action units (e.g., opening a bank
account);
These self-related goal constructs differ above all in the extent of their complexity and in their temporal orientation (Wadsworth & Ford, 1983). For this categorization, imagoes are the most gen- eral and complex goal constructs, whereas action units are comparatively specific: An imago is “an idealized and personified image of the self.” Ima- goes are the central elements of a person’s identity and represent instantiations of two fundamental thematic lines: agency (power, mastery, separa- tion) and communion (intimacy, surrender, union). Imagoes are broad, higher-level constructs which encompass personal styles, values and beliefs, and personal needs and motives (McAdams, 1993).
A construct similar to the imagoes is that of possible selves: These are images of a person in the future that he can conceive of as higher “system”-level goals within a control hierarchy (Carver & Scheier, 1981). Possible selves are representations of desired future states.
Human goals are goals located on an abstract level and possess the character of higher-level goals. Human goals are oriented to the long term, can act across time and contexts and give action stability and consistency (Ford & Nichols, 1987). The current meaning of a human goal can change in the course of life. These goals are oriented to achieving states and events that a person con- sciously strives for and that people presumably form in their youth. Besides needs, these goals also reflect socio-cultural demands. Human goals, as circumstances and events that bestow direction, energy and purpose to behavior (Pöhlmann & Brunstein, 1997), include cognitive, affective and behavioral components. The cognitive compo- nents that represent the anticipated state, as well as strategies and plans, refer to ways to achieve the anticipated state. The affective components describe the emotional stimuli, as for example expected pride in successful achievement. This goal element gives goals a behaviorally motivated quality, and the cooperation of linked instru- mental actions forms the behavioral components performed in order to approach the strived-for goal state.
Personal strivings are likewise the relatively lasting behavioral modes typical of a person. Striv- ing is a “... unifying construct; it unites what may be phenotypically different goals or actions around a common quality or theme” (Emmons, 1989, p. 92). Striving is considered to render subordinate goals functionally equivalent for the individual (Emmons, 1989, p. 92). Striving does not end with actions, but rather is lasting, in contrast to “current concerns,” “life tasks” and “personal projects”. Personal strivings occupy a level of abstraction be- low broad motives but above concepts like current concerns, life tasks or personal projects (Emmons, 1989, p. 93). Personal strivings are to be located on a level comparable to aspirations, according to Deci and Ryan (2000). Deci and Ryan (2000) view aspirations as either intrinsic or extrinsic. They operationalize intrinsic aspirations according to sub-goals of personal growth (personal develop-
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ment and autonomy), the construction of social relationships (good relationships with friends and family), society (intention to improve the world through personal activity) and health-related goals. Extrinsic aspirations, in contrast, include the goal areas of welfare (becoming rich), fame (becoming famous and admired) and external attractiveness (to be attractive to other persons). We can view strivings and aspirations as mid- level goals, while imagoes, possible selves and life goals are high-level goals. Current concerns, life tasks, and personal projects are located on a lower goal level.
Current concerns refer to a hypothetical moti- vational status between two time points: “the state of an organism between commitment to a goal and either attainment of the goal or disengage- ment from it” Klinger (1977). This status guides a person’s ongoing thoughts, emotional reactions and behavior.
Life tasks are to be located on an abstract level comparable with current concerns: They describe problems on which people are currently working (Cantor & Kihlstrom, 1987). Life tasks give life meaning and are especially evident in transitions.
“Personal projects are … interrelated se- quences of actions intended to achieve some personal goals” (Little, 1983). Personal projects include personal and situational parameters as interactive units. Individual life tasks, personal projects or current concerns can be grasped not only idiographically, but also nomothetically. We can make comparisons regarding values, achiev- ability and, for example, with regard to affective, cognitive and behavioral results. The problematic of these three constructs lies in that we cannot clearly distinguish among them. Finally, in the goal hierarchy we can locate action units on a very low level, as regards complexity, and we can understand them more as short-term goals. Based on this goal hierarchy, the question arises of which of the listed goal constructs are suitable for the operationalization of self-development goals.
CAPTURING SELF- DEVELOPMENT GOALS
In the following section, I show how integration and the increasing complexity of goals can be operationalized to indicate on this basis suitable assessment methods. I describe integration as hierarchical, drawing on Sheldon and Emmons (1995). Such goal integration is present if a goal on a lower level is useful in achieving a goal on a higher level. Sheldon and Emmons relate integra- tion to two concrete types of goal, namely “as the extent to which personal strivings are helpfully linked to desired possible selves” (Sheldon & Emmons, 1995, p. 40). To operationalize integra- tion, Sheldon and Emmons (1995) relate personal strivings and possible selves to each other after ascertaining them. To capture whether goals are or are not useful in meeting intrinsic goals, we will use instead of the mid-level goal construct “personal strivings” the construct of the aspiration according to Kasser and Ryan (1993) which will also be related to the possible selves.
Theoretically, degrees of complexity can be depicted in terms of what a person experiences as the subject and what she can observe as the object (Kegan & Lahey, 2009): “Each different level of mindset complexity differently draws the line between what is subject and what is object. Greater complexity means being able to look at more (take more as the object). The blind spot (which is the subject) becomes smaller and smaller” (Kegan & Lahey, 2009, p. 22).
How then can we methodically grasp integra- tion, complexity and intrinsisc motivation? In the literature, there are nomothetic and idiographic approaches, as well as mixed forms of both ap- proaches for ascertaining self-development goals. Idiographic procedures seek to identify the par- ticularities of a person’s goal striving from her own perspective. Nomothetic approaches such as questionnaire procedures include demographic goal lists through which we compare people with each other regarding their evaluation of identical
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goals. They require no free reproduction of goals and can directly address life goals with less social desirability.
The aspiration index – a nomothetic approach – is a questionnaire using self-determination theory, which distinguishes general life goals and aspirations as intrinsic or extrinsic. There are 7 categories of aspirations, with five specific items within each category. The seven categories include: the extrinsic aspirations of wealth, fame, and image; the intrinsic aspirations of meaningful relationships, personal growth, and community contributions; and the aspiration of good health, which turned out to be neither unambiguously extrinsic nor intrinsic. Participants rate: 1) the importance to themselves of each aspiration; 2) their beliefs about the likelihood of attaining each; 3) the degree to which they have already attained each. The scales of the aspiration indices show internal consistencies ranging from satisfactory to very good. The authors repeatedly confirmed the factorial structure, and they present evidence of validity. We can find various approaches to data analysis in research articles such as that of Kasser and Ryan (1996).
Analogous to the measurement of the integra- tion of strivings and possible selves (Sheldon & Emmons, 1995), we relate aspirations to possible selves. On the basis of the quantitative estimates of the relationship an index is calculated: The possible selves are determined in the manner of Sheldon and Emmons (1995). Subjects receive a questionnaire listing 131 possible selves (Markus, 1987) that they are to evaluate in terms of whether or not they are characteristic of the subject her- self. In the positive case, the subject is then asked how often she thinks of each of the selves that characterize her. The possible selves stand for global characteristics, but they also represent spe- cific occupational roles, such as “good-looking”, “sympathetic”, “motivated” or “housewife”. In order to measure “goal integration” each of the subjects chooses the ten selves that they think of most often. They relate the aspirations to selves
characteristic of them by listing the selected ten aspirations at the top of the page, the possible selves at the bottom. Then they draw lines between the selves and aspirations if from their viewpoint an aspiration has an effect on their self. They give the lines numbers that range over a scale from minus 2 to minus 1 and plus 1 to plus 2 and show the strength of the effect: Thereby 2 has a strong positive effect and minus 2 a strong negative ef- fect. In order to gain an index for the extent to which aspirations are useful to the selves, all the ratings are added together. Incidentally, for the strivings Sheldon and Emmons (1995) were able to show that persons who display a higher rate of integration were also more committed to these strivings and display more success in realizing these strivings.
In summary, we study the respective integration of aspirations which distinguishes aspirations as intrinsic or extrinsic with regard to possible selves in order to calculate a relationship value. For this index, a relationship value is likewise calculated which shows the extent to which integrated as- pirations also correspond to intrinsic motivation. To measure whether goals display an increase in complexity and thereby also fulfill the second criterion for self-development, the ninety-minute “Subject-Object Interview”, developed by Lahey, Souvaine and Kegan (1988), was chosen. “The as- sessment instrument has proven to be quite subtle: it can identify, with high degrees of interrater reliability, fully five different transitional places between any two mindsets” (Kegan & Lahey, 2009, p. 22). The interview is made up of two parts: In the first part ten hint stimuli were given to the interviewees, such as, i.e., angry, anxious, nervous, success, sad, important, to which they should respectively note at the time of the interview the situations they found themselves in during the past weeks and what comes to mind thereby. Then there is a systematic survey according to so-called “whats” (i.e., what made the person feel angry or successful) and an exploration of the reasons for the specific experience. Kegan
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and Lahey choose this question approach because research has shown that answers to these questions very well elicit the limits and forms of the art of constructing reality (Kegan & Lahey, 2009, 23). “A trained interviewer can probe such material to learn the underlying principle governing what the person can and cannot see (the blind spot)” (Kegan & Lahey, 2009, 23). With this interview the complexity of the person’s self-development, thus an is-state, is depicted, but no state of the striving for goal setting. In order to grasp goal orientation in regard to the extent of increasing complexity, the detected self-related “whats” and reasons for the experience are transformed into goals. Comparable to the aspirations these goals which aim to overcome limits on constructing reality and on creating meaning are also to be related to the possible selves in order to determine if they are integrated.
The assessing process leads to the following results:
• Executives rate the importance and the perceived attainability of their specific intrinsic and extrinsic aspirations and in terms of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation in general.
• Executives become aware of their possible selves.
• A relationship value shows the extent to which integrated aspirations also corre- spond to intrinsic motivation.
• Executives explore goals of increasing complexity in terms of creating meaning
• A relationship value shows the extent to which goals of increasing complexity are also integrated.
Such an instrument would then be in the posi- tion to determine what goals actually further the growth of the person and are worth being pursued by the person.
This approach asks about the extent to which through goals subjects strive for a change in the
explored limits, and to which these goals are useful for the person’s values and basic needs. Previous sentence is unclear.
FUTURE TRENDS
On a theoretical basis, I have conceptualized an instrument that captures those meaning making goals of increasing complexity that are integrated into possible selves and that serve intrinsic hu- man needs. Desirable for research for this study is the question to ask if the assessment of self- development goals cannot also be done using electronic technology. The previous sentence is unclear. The executives could better integrate such a survey into their everyday work by employing media with which they operate every day, as for example the personal computer or iPhone. We know that people are more likely to fill out ques- tionnaires when they are available to the subject being questioned in electronic form rather than in print. Such an electronic information gathering setting would thus motivate managers to regularly engage in self-exploration and thereby to become further conscious as part of their self-development. The integration of learning into the work context could thereby be taken into account. The interview could be held via an Internet call. For market re- search in general, online-surveys are increasingly being employed. In this procedure a questionnaire is presented in the ‘Net’. The questionnaire can be accessed by means of a link (e.g., by email). An electronic setting is recommended, even if the purpose is to capture self-development goals that contribute to self-exploration and personal- ity development. Beyond this, the advantages of such an electronic medium lie in the rapidity with which a survey can be implemented and in the lower implementation costs
In the future, we should study the manner in which we can further complexity and integration in managers. Becoming conscious is an initial and necessary process: To be able to contemplate the
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subject as object, the subject-object transforma- tion, can represent with Kegan a condition of inten- tional change. Kegan and Lahey (2009) appeal to research by Piaget, Inhelder, Baldwin, Werner and Kohlberg which determined the optimal conflict as a condition for successful subject-object trans- formation: This is characterized by a “persistent experience of some frustration, dilemma”. The optimal conflict has the effect that we “feel the limit of our current way of knowing” (Kegan & Lahey, 2009, p. 54). In a certain regard, conflict contributes to our taking care, but at the same time, however, there must be a certainty that there is adequate support to be able to master this conflict and not avoid it (Kegan & Lahey, 2009, p. 54). Integration can be furthered through narra- tives in which various possible selves are unified through meaning creation (McLean, Pasupathi, & Pals, 2007).
CONCLUSION
With the instrument developed here, which should be worked into a Personality Development Program for executives, an empirically founded contribution would be made to the furthering of personality development in employees. Such an instrument can contribute to the professionaliza- tion of executive education. The ability of these goals to support self-development, the ability to explore the self-development goals, is a mile- stone for education. On the learner’s side, it is fundamental for their education and personality growth to know self-development goals in order to pursue them. On the side of adult education, such an instrument represents a wide-ranging further development on the level which concerns adult education, for to know and be able to further the goals of a learner, which support his personality development, is a fundamental concern of an essentially dialogically constructed adult- and further education.
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Sheldon, K. M., & Emmons, R. A. (1995). Com- paring differentiation and integration within personal goal systems. Personality and Individual Differences, 18(1), 39–46. doi:10.1016/0191- 8869(94)00131-B
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KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS
Aspirations: Long-term goals. Development: Growth. Executive: Person having administrative or
managerial authority in an organization. Hierarchical Integration: The extent to which
personal strivings are helpfully linked to desired possible selves.
Possible Selves: Representations of desired future states of a meaning making system of the person.
Self: Meaning making system of the person. Strivings: Construct which unites phenotypi-
cally different goals or actions around a common quality or theme.
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Copyright © 2012, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
Chapter 24
INTRODUCTION
Read any job description for an administrative (leadership) position at an institution of higher learning, and the following characteristics are probably listed:
1. We are looking for leaders who are visionary and must take the university or program to a new height.
2. We are looking for leaders who are commit- ted to shared governance.
3. We are looking for leaders who possess conceptual, human, and technical skills.
4. We are looking for leaders who have an excellent record of teaching, scholarship and service.
5. We are looking for leaders who are com- mitted to doing the right things and doing things right.
Victor C. X. Wang Florida Atlantic University, USA
Closing the Leadership Gaps Between Theory and Practice:
A Glimpse of the Major Leadership Issues in Higher Education
ABSTRACT
This article intends to illustrate that there exist gaps between leadership theory and practice. Well- reasoned theories run through the pages of books; they are hardly applied to practice. In higher education, these gaps seem to be compounded by the lack of technical skills or leadership ethics. To demonstrate the true gaps between leadership theories and practice, the author provides a real example. While the different leadership theories are briefly reviewed, the author’s intention was to show that they need to be applied to practice in order for leaders to guide followers in the right direction. Closing the gaps between leadership theories and practice may take many years and much effort. By reading this article, the readers/researchers will discern clearly the gaps that exist in higher education.
DOI: 10.4018/978-1-61350-068-2.ch024
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The list may go on and on. In addition to searching for leaders who possess leadership skills, institutions of higher learning are particularly interested in those individuals who have skills in teaching, research, and service. This is understand- able because according to Taylor’s principles of scientific management (as cited in Wang, 2011, p. 15), leaders, whether they are hired as depart- ment chairs, college deans, university provosts, or presidents, first of all, must know the field. In order to know the field, these “would be” leaders must have practiced in a certain field for quite a few years before they can be “labeled” as experts. Without being experts, these leaders will not be in a position to carry out Taylor’s principles of scientific management. Principles of scientific management are useful and helpful to leaders as leaders are looking for the one best method to lead followers. Leaders want followers to be highly productive in a certain field. As stated in the principles of scientific management (Taylor, 1911, p. 9), leaders, like managers, should focuses on that one best method in their followers.
Then, the question comes to mind, “How can leaders look for the one best method?” Institutions of higher learning have set the standards. In other words, leaders must be excellent in their teach- ing, research, and professional service. Without modeling the teaching, research and scholarship expectations for their followers, there is no way leaders can evaluate followers’ performance and find the one best method (based on principles of scientific management; of course leaders may use multiple methods) to help followers to be produc- tive in the field. Common sense tells us, “The more leaders know their followers, the better they can help followers identify that one best method to be productive in the field.” Thousands of years ago, in order to pass a certain trade, fathers had to be experts in a certain field first (Roberts, 1965; Wang & King, 2008; Wang & King, 2009). Otherwise, children could not learn a trade from their fathers.
Even to this day, leaders are still learning to be leaders by “trial and error” although there are all
kinds of leadership training academies. Leaders in higher education are not born to be leaders. And they usually do not have a degree in leadership, just a degree in their content field. Most of them first work as faculty members. After a certain number of years, they become excellent faculty members in teaching and scholarship. Then these faculty members look for leadership positions. Some are chosen based on their excellent teaching and scholarship, plus they may possess the traits of effective leaders.
Others are chosen because of their connec- tions with leaders, or based on their seniority, irrespective of their former teaching, research or desired leadership skills. In higher education, these installed leaders are labeled as “puppet” administrators, which means they will do any- thing if their superiors tell them what to do. These administrators are called “team players” by their supervisors, and they are being actively promoted according to their ranks. Those who oppose to their wrong doings are labeled as “loose cannons”, therefore, must be removed from institutions of higher learning. It is not rare that highly quali- fied professors, even tenured professors are laid off from university settings. Those team players together with the help of their supervisors can remove anyone they consider a potential threat to their “leadership.” In fact, there is even literature about the aforementioned fact of removing quali- fied faculty from universities. In the literature, it is called “academic mobbing” (Friedenberg, 2006). Certain leaders with the power invested in them may choose to gang up on others who oppose their wrong doings. It is not pleasant to use the term, “gang up on”, but this is the reality in many university settings. It is this “ganging up on” people that has intensified the so termed “leadership gap” in higher education.
Numerous books and articles have been writ- ten on leadership. However, very few articles touch on closing this leadership gap between theory and practice. On the one hand, there are beautifully well-reasoned theories on leadership.
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Some people have emerged as leaders, and oth- ers have been trained to be leaders. Yet, others are handpicked to be leaders based on cronyism. In practice, leadership theories are not applied to practice at all. Leaders are supposed to make research-based, data-driven decisions. In reality, some choose to abuse their power and make de- cisions based on fallacies or academic mobbing. Yet, these misguided leaders can walk away on golden parachutes. In other words, accolades are given once they choose to retire, etc. Followers can only become angry, but they are not in a position to “rock the boat” with these academic maulers. At the most, followers deep in their hearts give these maulers a name, that is, these “leaders” are not qualified, and they are incompetent (Bisbee, 2007). That is all.
It is true that the leadership gap must be iden- tified between theory and practice. It is similar to needs assessment. The gap must be identified between what leadership is and what the desired leadership should be. As the gap becomes wider, the well-being of a university will be adversely affected. For example, faculty may enjoy low job satisfaction. Turnover may become high. The work environment may become demoralizing. When the gap exists in most universities, well, the whole nation’s well-being will be adversely affected. The rise or fall of a nation, depends on education (Wang, 2010). It is the universities that provide the needed education for a nation’s workforce. If a university is not healthy, a nation can not be expected to be healthy. And leaders in the nation may be perpetuating the problem. If these universities are preparing future faculty and future leaders, then they should model ef- fective leadership. The intent of this article is to help the readers “discern” the leadership gap between theory and practice in higher education and to help them delve into ways of closing this very gap. To close such a gap in leadership in higher education, the major issues associated with leadership theory and practice must be identified. Leadership theories can be considered as useful
tools. With the tools in hand, hopefully, they can be used correctly and effectively to advance our nation’s purposes, not personal purposes.
BACKGROUND
For the past 60 years, researchers have been trying to define leadership based on a process, influence, group contexts, and goal attainment. Finally, consensus seems to be have been reached, and leadership is defined (Northhouse, 2007) as a pro- cess whereby an individual influences a group of individuals to achieve a common goal. Leadership theories have been studied from different angles. The first studies concerning leadership style were conducted at Ohio State University in the late 1940s (Northouse, 2007). As noted by Northouse (2007), “Of interest to scholars throughout the 20th century, the trait approach was one of the first systematic attempts to study leadership” (p. 15). Researchers have studied leadership skills directly and indirectly for a number of years (Bass, 1990, pp. 97-109).
Researchers have concluded that leadership must possess technical skills, human skills, and conceptual skills. Leaders at lower levels, such as program directors, and department chairs, must possess more technical skills. Those higher up leaders, such as provosts or university presidents, should possess more conceptual skills if not techni- cal skills. The most widely recognized approach to leadership is the situational approach developed by Hersey and Blanchard (1969) based on Reddin’s (1967) 3-D management style theory. Translated into leadership theory in higher education, a leader must evaluate employees and assess how competent and committed they are to perform a given task based on a particular situation. Fiedler (1964, 1967) studied and advanced contingency theory, which means a leader-match theory. In other words, the theory tries to match leaders to appropriate situations. Path-goal theory, studied by Evans (1970) and House (1971), is about how
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leaders motivate subordinates to accomplish des- ignated goals. Leader-member exchange theory, according to Northouse (2007), is centered on the interactions between leaders and followers. Other approaches such as team leadership, psychody- namic approach, women and leadership, culture and leadership, leadership ethics were heavily studied by researchers.
Since the early 1980s, transformational leadership has been the focus of much research. Transformational leadership is the process whereby a person engages with others and creates a connection that raises the level of motivation and morality in both the leader and the follower (Northhouse, 2007, p. 176). In higher education, a teacher is considered a leader, and a leader is considered a teacher. A classic study of leadership style or teaching style highlighted a threefold typology (Lippitt & White, 1958): authoritarian, laissez-faire, and democratic. As cited by Jarvis (2002, p. 27),
1. Authoritarian leaders create a sense of group dependence on the leader, that their presence held the group together and that in their absence no work was done; 2. Laissez-faire leaders achieve little work whether they were present or absent; 3. Democratic leaders achieve group cohesion and harmonious working relationships whether they were present or not.
Perhaps, based on the threefold typology, contemporary leadership in higher education developed what is the so-called “shared gover- nance.” Then, McGregor (1960) and Knowles (1978) developed Theory X assumptions and Theory Y assumptions. Based on this, Knowles and his associates (2005) concluded that leaders can become creative leaders by making things hap- pen by releasing the energy of others (followers). Specifically, leaders should possess the behavioral characteristics in order to become creative leaders:
1. Creative leaders make a different set of assumptions (essentially positive) about human nature from the assumptions (essen- tially negative) made by controlling leaders. Creative leaders have faith in people, offer them challenging opportunities, and delegate responsibility to them.
2. Creative leaders accept as a law of human nature that people feel a commitment to a decision in proportion to the extent that they feel they have participated in making it. They involve their clients, workers, or students in every step of the planning process, assessing needs, formulating goals, designing lines of action, carrying out activities, and evaluating results.
3. Creative leaders believe in and use of the power of self-fulfilling prophecy. They understand that people tend to rise to the expectations of others.
4. Creative leaders highly value individuality. They sense that people perform at a higher level when they are operating on the basis of their unique strengths, talents, interests, and goals than when they are trying to conform to some imposed stereotype.
5. Creative leaders stimulate and reward creativity.
6. Creative leaders are committed to a process of continuous change and are skillful in managing change.
7. Creative leaders emphasize internal motiva- tors over external motivators.
8. Creative leaders encourage people to self- directing. (pp. 256-262)
Leadership Issues in Higher Education: A True Account
There is no doubt that leadership theories have been well-reasoned, and they are based on sound and meaningful research. Over the years researchers and scholars have never stopped testing leadership theories especially in higher education settings.
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The work of these predecessors has paved the way for subsequent research on leadership theories. Leadership theories are supposed to be applied to practice. The late Chinese chairman, Mao, used to encourage the Chinese people to “unite theory with practice,” “walk on two legs” (Kaplan, Sobin, & Andors, 1979). Only by uniting theories with practice can people walk on two legs. Theories do not have to be revolutionary such as the contribu- tions of Newton, Einstein, and Darvin (Knowles, Holton, & Swanson, 1998, 2005). In order to make theories do their jobs quietly behind the scenes, they need to be applied to practice. This is because a theory can be a guiding set of assump- tions, an ordering system that neatly summarizes the facts, and/or assumptions, generalizations, and hypotheses (as cited in Knowles, Holton, & Swanson, 2005, p. 9).
It is out of the scope of this article to address the negative aspects of leadership theories. Leaders without being equipped with leadership theories will lead followers astray. Leaders will fail to be drivers as they are not clear as to where to go. When this happens, they are labeled “backseat” drivers. It seems that higher education is packed with this kind of driver or leader (Bisbee, 2007). The gap between leadership theories and practice is getting wider and wider. No one seems to care to close the gap. Leadership corruption is rampant in higher education (Nelson, 2010). One may wonder what has caused the gap between leadership theories and practice. Why do leaders in higher education not apply theories to practice? Has the work of researchers and scholars has been conducted in vain? Millions of dollars has been spent on this kind of research. The goal of research is to inform practice. As the gap continues to widen, this poor phenomenon will definitely contribute to the already poor economy in the nation, as there are over 4,500 universities and colleges in the United States given a population of approximately 300 million. Prominent university presidents keep on criticizing cronyism that is rampant in countries such as China (Yu, 2007). It is not surprising that
in a certain company, all the leaders at all levels are related. In other words, they are relatives by blood. It is understandable because China is a one party state after all. As cronyism continues to plague Chinese corporation and university settings, it will definitely slow down the fast growing economy.
One just wonders how cronyism has crawled into the U.S. campuses and has contaminated higher education for sure. In the past, the term cronyism was barely heard of in the United States. In every educational leadership program, profes- sors talk about the characteristics of successful and effective leaders or how to be creative leaders as specified by Knowles and his associates (2005). What they are talking about exists only on paper. In reality in higher education, few people apply leadership theories to practice perhaps because they have little training in leadership. Often, people simply lead the way they were led. Shared governance or transparency seems to be leaders’ empty slogans. In reality, very few leaders are committed to shared governance or transparency. Whoever challenges their leadership will be retali- ated against later. Those followers who may make some “right noise” by asking leaders to provide their justifications regarding certain policies are labeled as “loose cannons,” which means they are not team players according to these leaders’ own rules or regulations. Of course, these rules or regulations are not widely communicated to followers. Followers are supposed to decipher the real messages contained in the leaders’ rules or regulations and then act like they are absolute supporters of these leaders.
A serious issue in higher education is the fact that some faculty members are promoted to be associate deans or even vice presidents simply because they have done a poor job of teaching or researching. However, many of these faculty members happen to be tenured. They may have a harmonious relationship with higher up leaders. Then, all of a sudden, these faculty members be- come leaders with administrative responsibilities rather than teaching ones. Being a poor teacher
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or research means these faculty members may be lacking in “technical skills” as specified by leader- ship theories. Without adequate technical skills, they can not be expected to evaluate the perfor- mance of followers fairly, let alone expect them to direct the teaching or research of other faculty members. Due to lack of technical skills, these leaders are bound to make inadequate decisions and policies. Some may have some human skills but cannot be expected to have many conceptual skills as required of all leaders. When talking about other leadership theories such as transformational leadership, culture and leadership, these leaders have no clue as to what those theories are all about. Often, my way or the highway is the only leadership style they possess, unfortunately. It is not surprising to hear faculty members or staff- ers argue with their “puppet” administrators over academic stuff or student affairs.
The following is a typical example to illustrate some major leadership issues that have contami- nated many campuses in U.S. higher education. The vivid account of this example is to raise some high level concerns so that people will pay attention to closing leadership gaps. Allowing leadership gaps to continue will hurt our nation’s economy. In addition, the poor image of poor leadership will leave a permanent negative impression on our future students. For the sake of protecting the names of real individuals, pseudonyms are used to give an account of the real example.
A certain teacher (derogatory use of the term although the teacher does possess a doctoral de- gree) from a certain department in one of the largest colleges in one of the largest public universities was recently nominated as acting dean for the college after their permanent dean left for a better position. The primary reason people nominated this teacher was that no other faculty or depart- ment chairs wanted to serve as an interim dean. Some knew for sure that the Provost would not appoint them. In addition, this teacher served as an interim leader six years ago. When the teacher served as interim leader, no serious wrongdoings
were identified, or people at the time did not pay attention. By the time the teacher was nominated as acting dean of the college, the teacher was already retired. Long time faculty and certain de- partment chairs verified that the teacher’s teaching and scholarship were horrible. The teacher only had outstanding service. Obviously, the teacher was not qualified as the acting dean based on the leadership skills such as technical skills, human skills, and conceptual skills. After this teacher was successfully installed as a mid-level leader, the teacher began to “retaliate” against two depart- ment chairs who “defied” the teacher’s leadership before. The two chairs were removed (one chose to retire early; the other was demoted and reas- signed to a different department). Before they were removed, they brought to the university millions of dollars with grants and contracts. Over 2000 undergraduate and graduate students were enrolled in the programs in the department. No doubt, this department has contributed to the university immensely both academically and financially. To date, the department became the largest department for returning students.
However, in collaboration with those installed associate deans, this teacher closed such a viable department by reporting to the administration that due to declining student demand for the programs, the department had to be dissolved. Of course, every decision was made behind closed doors. No faculty member from the right field was asked to verify any decisions made. Was there transpar- ency or shared governance? No. The worst was the teacher gave the highly lucrative programs from the former department to the teacher’s own personal friends who did not have the required de- grees or publications as required by accreditation standards (Commission on Teacher Credentialing, 2010). But who is to correct her mistake or fallacy? Even to this day, nobody is willing to ask about the ugly process. During the process of closing the department, Ph.D. holders with impressive records of scholarship were laid off while people with master’s degree, no publications were retained
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and placed in leadership positions. Those qualified faculty who tried to negotiate with these leaders including those unqualified associate deans were “appeased” and “retaliated against.” As a climax of this acting dean’s wrongdoings, she granted a couple of associate professors full professorship. These professors have no publications at all. Then, she denied a Fulbright Professor/Department chair full professorship based on a number of publica- tions in his field! One may wonder what are her academic standards or RTP (Retention, Tenure and Promotion) policies? Rumors have it that those without publications really know how to be her “team players.” The Fulbright professor/ Department chair became her eyesore because of lies reported to her by other women (these women are her own friends) in the college.
From any angle, this example has revealed some major leadership issues that have contrib- uted to the gaps between leadership theories and practice. Some are to blame the higher education system. Others claim that these installed puppet administrators need to be trained in leadership academies. Still some indicate that these people do not possess any leadership ethics. The tyranny, hegemony, lack of democracy, lack of adequate leadership styles all point in one direction, that is, these leaders know nothing about the different disciplines. They are not considered as experts in their own field. How can they be expectedto lead others in other fields of study? Another fact worthy of note can be these leaders are so good at “ganging up on” those who are against their wrong policies. They seem to have mastered the skill, called “academic mobbing.” What a waste of university resources to have these people as leaders! In addition, “It’s not faculty salaries that have grown so much over the years; it’s the increasing number of administrators and their salaries—along with unnecessary building—that is breaking the higher-education bank. That’s where your tuition money goes. Why? Because administrators set one another’s salaries and pad their staffs. ” (Nelson, 2010)
FUTURE DIRECTIONS
The prevalent issues regarding leadership theo- ries and practice will continue to be studied by scholars and researchers. Above all, researchers will pay more attention to how to close the leader- ship gap between theories and practice. By doing so, researchers will encourage leaders to apply theories to practice. Some new areas of research focus should be added to the existing leadership theory and practice. For example, one’s teach- ing philosophies may be closely related to one’s teaching theories. Researchers should study the correlation between one’s teaching philosophies and leadership theories. Another area of research focus could be what can leaders and followers do to prevent leaders from ganging up on follow- ers? Once this problem is solved, definitely the workplace will be a highly harmonious place. A friendly, collegial workplace will not be an empty political slogan.
Of course, more researchers in the future will study academic mobbing and contribute more to the literature. Thus far, literature about academic mobbing is sporadic. Practitioners may not find enough information from the literature to protect themselves from being mauled by unqualified and incompetent university administrators. In the fu- ture, there should be ample research about this area of research focus. As far as research methods go, qualitative research such as interview or document review may not be bad research methods. This is not to say that quantitative analysis is not useful. Rather, it may prove to highly useful in gathering inferential data and giving meaning to data.
CONCLUSION
This article has addressed what leadership theories are available in the literature. It has not addressed these leadership theories in much detail as most readers can find the detailed analysis of each and every of leadership theory. The article has
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intended to illustrate that there exist gaps between leadership theories and practice. While leadership theories are beautifully drafted and reasoned, when it comes to applying them, few leaders seek to do so. It is not that they are unwilling to apply theories to practice, but that their former training and education may prevent them from uniting theories to practice. The article revealed some major leadership issues associated with technical skills, human skills and conceptual skills. Leadership corruption or paralysis seems to exist everywhere in U.S. higher education. Cronyism is not unique to China. It happens here on U.S campuses. Wrong decisions or policies are made by those unqualified/incompetent leaders who claim that they will be committed to transparency or shared governance, which seems to be the two pillars of leadership in U.S. higher education. The oxymoron exists perhaps due to human na- ture and human error. It is true that humans are selfish unless they are educated and trained oth- erwise. It may take higher education many years to clean up the current corrupted system tainted by the incompetent leadership issues. However, this article has made our readers highly aware of some of pertinent leadership issues. Once the qualified people become leaders, they may seek to implement change. Hope is right there. Well, do not be discouraged. The harsh reality can only motivate us to study more of leadership theories and above all apply them to lead others and to pull back higher education to its right path.
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KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS
Academic Mobbing: This refers to certain university administrators retaliate against other administrators or faculty members with the help of their friends normally from different academic departments of a university. These university ad- ministrators may choose to “gang on” others who oppose their political agendas. This phenomenon is nothing new, but there is not much in the litera- ture about academic mobbing. Friedenberg (2006) defines academic mobbing as most academic mobbing going undetected because professors fear losing their reputations as scholars. To be demoted or removed from a teaching position is severe punishment, but to be blacklisted unable to find work elsewhere is far worse--not just a loss of a beloved career but loss of an identity.
Contingency Theory: This theory addresses styles and situations. Leaders’ styles should match particular situations. It is also called leader-match theory.
Leader-Member Exchange Theory: The interactions between leaders and members are emphasized. This theory allows leaders to treat members in a collective way, as a group.
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Path-Goal Theory: This theory emphasizes the relationship between leaders’ style and the characteristics of the subordinates and the work setting. If subordinates believe that they are capable of performing their work, they will be motivated. Leaders are supposed to meet subor- dinates’ motivational needs. Therefore, path-goal theory is about how leaders motivate subordinates to accomplish designated goals.
Situational Approach: This approach ad- dresses a directive and a supportive dimension of leadership. Subordinates’ need for direction and support can be high and can be how. Depending on such a need, leaders can determine how com- petent and committed when subordinates perform a certain task. Then, leaders can assume different leadership roles in helping subordinates achieve their goals.
Skills Approach: It is commonly argued that effective leadership relies on three basic personal
skills: technical, human and conceptual skills. Research on this approach started in the 1950s when Harvard Business Review published an article by Katz (1955) titled Skills of an Effective Administrator.
Style Approach: Scholars studied the style ap- proach and concluded that leadership is composed of two general kinds of behaviors: task behaviors and relationship behaviors. It is evident that task behaviors explain how people can attain their goals or accomplishments while relationship behaviors help subordinates achieve a harmonious relation with their leaders and other subordinators.
Transformational Leadership: It refers to the process whereby a person engages with others and creates a connection that raises the level of motivation and morality in both the leader and the follower. Leaders who possess transformational leadership pay attention to the needs of followers and motivate them to reach their fullest potential.
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About the Contributors
Victor C. X. Wang, Ed.D., is an Associate Professor of Educational Leadership and Research Meth- odology at Florida Atlantic University, USA. Wang’s research and writing activities have focused on workforce education, the foundations of adult education, adult teaching and learning, training, transfor- mative learning, cultural issues in vocational and adult education, distance education, human performance technology, instructional/administrative leadership, and curriculum development. He has published over 130 journal articles, book chapters, and books during the past nine years and has been a reviewer for five national and international journals. Currently he serves as the editor in chief of the International Journal of Adult Vocational Education and Technology. He has won many academic achievement awards from universities in China and in the United States, including the Distinguished Faculty Scholarly & Creative Achievement Award in 2009. Wang taught extensively as a professor in Chinese universities prior to coming to study and work in the United States in 1997. He has taught adult learners English as a second language, Chinese, computer technology, vocational (career and technical education) and adult education courses, research methods, administrative leadership, human resource management and cur- riculum development for the past 21 years in university settings. He has had extensive experience chair- ing and mentoring Doctoral dissertations. Three of the books he has written and edited have been ad- opted as required textbooks by major universities in the United States and in China. In addition, numerous universities worldwide, including some Ivy League universities, have cataloged his books and journal articles.
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Jeff Allen, PhD., is Professor, Department of Learning Technologies, University of North Texas. Jeff consults and teaches in the areas of performance improvement, career and technical education, learning technologies, and research methods. At the national level, he provides leadership in numerous profes- sional organizations. He has made a special effort to mentor developing scholars.
Yun-Jo An is an Assistant Professor of Instructional Technology at Texas A&M University-Texarkana. She received her Ph.D. in Instructional Systems Technology (IST) from Indiana University Bloomington (IUB). Her current research focuses on the use of virtual worlds, wireless handheld devices, and Web 2.0 to design technology-enhanced, learner-centered learning environments.
Patricia Anderson, EdD, has her BSE and ME in Elementary Education from Delta State University, and her EdD in Elementary Education from the University of Georgia. Dr. Anderson is a Professor and
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About the Contributors
past Chair of the Department of Curriculum and Instruction in the College of Education at East Carolina University, Greenville, NC. She has served as Chair of the Faculty of East Carolina University for two years as well as the Parliamentarian for the Faculty for more than ten years. Dr. Anderson teaches face- to-face and online undergraduate and graduate courses in Elementary Education with a focus on action research, classroom management, and curriculum. Her research explores the use of action research within public school settings, evaluation and assessment of experiential learning in online learning environments, and listening skills of elementary children in schools. Dr. Anderson is currently teaching a course using Second Life as a part of a course in Classroom Management for Elementary Teachers.
Betsy Aumiller, Ed.D., is an Assistant Professor at the Penn State Hershey College of Medicine. She currently manages the south central region of the Pennsylvania Cancer Education Network (PCEN), an educational research project funded by the PA Department of Health and the CDC investigating how awareness-raising and community education impacts attitude and behavioral intent regarding cancer pre- vention and screening rates. Working in the field of worksite health education for 20 years, her research interests are within the areas of online learning and health behavior change, as well as current work in community based participatory research and educational intervention design.
Tonya Balch, PhD., is an Assistant Professor in the Bayh College of Education at Indiana State University and is currently the Coordinator for the School Counseling MEd program and Director of the Counselor Educator, PhD Program. She obtained her PhD in Educational Administration (School Administration focus) from Indiana State University and is a licensed school counselor in the state of Indiana. Dr. Balch’s teaching responsibilities include multi-cultural education, supervised field work, research and program evaluation, organization and administration of guidance programs, practicum, internship, career development, and professional seminars. Her professional interests include drop-out prevention, leadership relative to counseling, cultural competency, and action research in PK-12 schools. Dr. Balch is strongly committed to providing and supporting professional development for practicing school counselors. She has been integral in developing and growing Counselor Day on Campus at In- diana State University. Dr. Balch serves regularly on site visitation teams for Advanced Ed, accrediting schools throughout Indiana. She is a member of many professional organizations including the American School Counseling Association, American Counseling Association, Indiana School Counseling Asso- ciation, Indiana Counseling Association, Pi Lambda Theta, Chi Sigma Iota, and Delta Kappa Gamma Society International.
Tammi M. Basile is a Ph.D. student in the College of Education at the University of Tennessee-Knox- ville (UTK). She received her Master’s in Management from Austin Peay State University, Clarksville, Tennessee. She is a computer programmer/systems analyst for UTK’s Federal TRIO Programs in the areas of data management, Web design, and needs assessment. Her research interests include Informa- tion Systems, knowledge building, and advancements in education using technology.
Jules K. Beck, PhD, LCSW, is an Assistant Professor at the University of Arkansas. A native of Minneapolis, Minnesota, Beck attended the University of Chicago and graduated from the University of Minnesota with an MSW and PhD with concentration in Human Resource Development (HRD). Beck is a Licensed Certified Social Worker (LCSW) in Arkansas and holds Social Worker Emeritus status in
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About the Contributors
Minnesota. Beck has over three years experience in international community and leadership develop- ment in South and Central America, West Africa, and Eastern Europe. He was a two-year volunteer in community development on White Earth Reservation in Minnesota. Beck taught grades 4-6 in Potosí, Bolivia and high school classes in South Dakota. He was a community organizer for 10 years on the North side of Minneapolis. Beck chaired the St. Louis Park, MN Human Rights Commission and was elected to three terms as president of the ACLU of Minnesota. Beck co-developed a disaster recovery planning system in Spanish as an Information Technology consultant for a U.S. accounting firm. Beck is in his eleventh year teaching university classes in adult education, human resource development, and business and industry education at both undergraduate and graduate levels. His research interests include international HRD, leadership development, and distance education. Beck advises graduate students pursuing studies in adult education and human resource development.
Elisabeth E. Bennett, PhD., is the Director of Education Research and Development at Baystate Medical Center and an Assistant Professor of Medicine with Tufts University School of Medicine. She received her PhD in Adult Education with an emphasis in Human Resource and Organizational Develop- ment from the University of Georgia. Dr. Bennett is member of the Board of Directors of the Academy of Human Resource Development and she reviews for Human Resource Development Quarterly, Adult Education Quarterly, and various education conferences. Current research includes ethics in medical education, the career development of women academic physicians, and theories for virtual human re- source development and adult informal learning.
Rebecca Blanchard, PhD, is an Assistant Professor of Research at Baystate Medical Center. She received her PhD in Education Research and Statistics from the University of Virginia where her dis- sertation explored undergraduate degree production across institutions of higher education with latent growth modeling. Current research interests include quantitative and mixed methods approaches towards understanding the student and resident recruitment practices and support efforts of academic medical centers and the development of residents as role models and teachers to junior learners.
Géraldine Blattner, PhD, is an Assistant Professor of French and Linguistics at Florida Atlantic University. Her research focuses on technology-enhanced foreign language teaching and learning as well as sociolinguistic and pragmatic variation in French language in computer-mediated discourse.
James A. Bernauer, EdD, is an Assistant Professor of Education in the School of Education and Social Sciences, Robert Morris University. He earned his BS in Secondary Education (Social Studies) from the University of Dayton, Master’s degrees in Special Education and Business from the University of Pittsburgh, and Doctorate in Education from the University of Pittsburgh. He specializes in educational psychology and quantitative and qualitative research methodology. Publications and paper presentations relate to assessment and educational policy with recent work in data mining and the analysis of right and wrong answers on multiple choice exams. He is currently writing a book for Sage related to quantitative research for qualitative researchers and will deliver a paper on researcher identity in January at Nova Southeastern University.
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About the Contributors
Pamela Bracey is a Doctoral student of Applied Technology and Performance Improvement at the Department of Learning Technologies, University of North Texas. Pam serves as a curriculum special- ist for an Education Excellence grant which is funded by the Texas Education Agency and housed at the University of North Texas to develop professional development materials for career and technical education teachers in the Information Technology Cluster. She holds a BS in Business Technology Education from the University of Southern Mississippi and an MS in Higher Education Administration from Mississippi College. Her research interests include: career and technical education, gifted educa- tion, and professional development.
Ernest W. Brewer, EdD, is Professor and Principal Investigator/Director in Educational Leadership and Policy Studies (ELPS) at The University of Tennessee-Knoxville (UTK). Prior to his current ap- pointment, Dr. Brewer was a Professor in the Department of Human Resource Development (HRD) and served as Department Head of Child and Family Studies (CFS). He is currently serving as the Principal Investigator/Director of five federally funded grants. Prior to joining the university, he served as the Executive Director of the Institute of Human Resources.Over the years Dr. Brewer has acquired external funds for a variety of research, service, and development activities. He has served as both editor and editorial board member of professional journals, and he has authored many grant proposals, professional articles, books, book chapters, monographs, and annual performance reports. More recently, he has published book chapters in the (1) Encyclopedia of Measurement Statistics, (2) Handbook of Research on E-Learning Applications for Career and Technical Education: Technologies for Vocational Train- ing, (3) Definitive Readings in the History, Philosophy, Practice and Theories of Career and Technical Education, (4) Building Workforce Competencies in Career and Technical Education, (5) Assessing and Evaluating Adult Learning in Career and Technical Education, and (6) Encyclopedia of Research Design. He also recently completed his 5th edition of a text entitled Finding Funding: Grantwriting from Start to Finish, Including Internet Use. He also had a copy of recent book chapters entitled Evaluation Models for evaluating Educational Programs and The History of Career and Technical Education published in two different books.
Quinn Burke is a Doctoral candidate at the University of Pennsylvania’s Graduate School of Education. His research focuses on ways to better integrate instructional technology in K-12 schools, particularly by aligning pre-existing state education standards with children’s use of digital media ap- plications in the classroom. He is currently involved in two research grants funded by the National Science Foundation. The first addresses the need to introduce computer science concepts to students at earlier ages, particularly those kids at struggling and underfunded city schools. The second explores the potential of online networks to facilitate children’s learning of new media applications through peer collaboration. Prior to his Doctoral studies at Penn, Quinn completed a MA in Comparative Literature at Columbia University and taught high school English for a number of years both in Philadelphia and Charleston, South Carolina.
Howard V. Coleman, EdD, is an experienced school leader, spending over 20 years in various posi- tions including School Principal, Assistant Superintendent, Associate Superintendent, Superintendent, Director of Research, Professor, and Educational Consultant. Drawing from his leadership background, Howard teaches, publishes, and presents in the areas of school administration, accountability, technology,
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About the Contributors
personnel, school policy, and curriculum. Howard holds an EdD from UNC-Chapel Hill and currently is an Associate Professor of educational leadership at UNC-Wilmington.
Geri Collins, EdD, Assistant Professor, Mercer University, has been an educator for the past 20 years: first in public education as a middle school teacher and currently as an Assistant Professor of education in the graduate program of Tift College of Education, Mercer University. She received her Doctorate in Social Studies Education at the University of Georgia with a focus on historical empathy as it relates to the learning process. Her research interests involve middle grades education and teaching with technol- ogy and social studies, which have all been topics of recent presentations, locally and nationally.
Christopher T. Davis is the Director of the Educational Technology Center at Robert Morris Uni- versity where he oversees the implementation of educational technology into the traditional and online classrooms as well as serving as the administrator of the university’s Blackboard learning management system. His background includes public school teaching, Information Technology, educational technol- ogy in both K-12 and higher education, and university level teaching on the undergraduate and graduate levels. He also presents at several conferences every year and provides consultative services in the area of distance education. He currently holds Bachelor’s degrees in secondary education and psychology, a Master’s degree in instructional technology, and is completing a Doctoral program in instructional management and leadership.
Jeremy Dickerson holds EdD in technology education from North Carolina State University and is an Associate Professor at Coastal Carolina University in Conway, South Carolina where he teaches courses on instructional design and technology integration, planning, and management in the Spadoni College of Education. Jeremy has worked at several universities and has experience as a technology manager and as an educational consultant in business and industry. Additionally, Jeremy has published numerous journal articles and book chapters, and has presented at professional conferences in the United States, Canada, South America and Europe.
Maureen Ellis, PhD, has her B.S. in Secondary Business Education/Business Administration from St. Mary-of-the-Woods College. She earned her MS in Adult Continuing Education and PhD in Instructional Systems Technology from Indiana University, Bloomington, Indiana. Dr. Ellis is an Associate Professor and Graduate Program Director in the Business and Information Technologies Education Department in the College of Education at East Carolina University, Greenville, NC. Dr. Ellis teaches face-to-face and online undergraduate and graduate courses in Information Technology and Business Education. Her research explores the use of online courses in traditional, undergraduate education, implementation of instructional design theories in online learning, fostering online collaboration, evaluation and assess- ment of experiential learning in online learning environments, and assessing the needs of adult learners in non-traditional classrooms. Dr. Ellis is currently teaching a course in and exploring application for Second Life as a teaching platform in her Web 2.0 Technologies & Virtual Teams course.
Lesley Farmer, EdD, Professor at California State University Long Beach, coordinates the Librari- anship program. She earned her MS in Library Science at the University of North Carolina Chapel Hill, and received her Doctorate in Adult Education from Temple University. Dr. Farmer has worked as a
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About the Contributors
librarian in K-12 school settings as well as in public, special, and academic libraries. She chaired the Education Section of the Special Libraries Association, and is the International Association of School Librarianship Vice-President of Association Relations. Dr. Farmer is a Fulbright Scholar, and has re- ceived a University Distinguished Scholarly Activity Award, several professional association awards, and national/international grants. Dr. Farmer’s research interests include information literacy, assess- ment, collaboration, and educational technology. A frequent presenter and writer for the profession, Dr. Farmer has published two dozen professional books, and over a hundred professional book chapters and articles. Her most recent books are Your School Library: Check It Out!, published by Libraries Unlimited in 2009, and Neal-Schuman Technology Management Handbook for School Library Media Centers, co-authored with Marc McPhee in 2010.
Mark S. Farris, PhD, is currently the Human Performance Improvement Coordinator for a federal contractor working in the United States Department of Energy complex. He has 18 years of experience designing, delivering, and evaluating safety-related training programs.
Gladys L. Fernandez, MD, is Manager of the Simulation Center at Baystate Medical Center, As- sistant Program Director for the Baystate Surgery Residency Program, and an Assistant Professor of Surgery with Tufts University School of Medicine. Dr. Fernandez has co-authored several papers on simulation education and serves on various committees developing curriculum and simulation experi- ences for undergraduate and graduate medical education. Dr. Fernandez was also a recent recipient of the Zucker Clinical Teaching Award for Outstanding Innovation at Tufts University School of Medicine and the Tufts University Excellence in Teaching Award.
Dennis G. Fisher, PhD, completed his degree from the University of Illinois, Urbana, and completed post-Doctoral work at the University of California, Los Angeles. Dr. Fisher is currently Professor of Psychology and Director of the Center for Behavioral Research and Services at California State Uni- versity, Long Beach. Since 1990, he has authored or coauthored approximately 200 publications and presentations, primarily in the areas of drug abuse and HIV prevention.
Brenda Freshman, PhD, is an Assistant Professor at California State University-Long Beach, in the Health Administration Program, where she has been a full time faculty member since Fall 2007. Additionally Dr. Freshman is founder and president of Social Logistics, a management consulting firm specializing in leadership development for healthcare professionals. Dr. Freshman holds a Doctorate in Organizational Psychology (California School of Professional Psychology). Dr. Freshman’s research and practice interests concentrate on how thoughts and emotions influence behavior, productivity and quality of life. She is a sought after speaker and has been facilitating workshops on self-development and leadership since 1993.
Mariya Gavrilova, PHR, Doctoral student in Applied Technology and Performance improvement, Department of Learning Technologies, University of North Texas. Mariya serves as a program coordi- nator for an Education Excellence grant which is funded by the Texas Education Agency and housed at the University of North Texas to develop professional development materials for career and technical education teachers. She holds an MS in Training and Development from UNT, BSBA in Marketing and
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Management, and BA in Spanish. Her research interests include organizational diversity, leadership development in career and technical education, and distance learning evaluation methods.
Hilda R. Glazer, EdD, received her degree in Educational Psychology from Rutgers University. She currently serves as Chair of Educational Psychology in the Harold Abel School of Social and Behavioral Sciences at Capella University. Dr. Glazer specializes in distance learning and teaching. She has con- ducted workshops on distance learning and mentoring and has researched the area of online teaching and mentoring. Dr. Glazer also works with grieving children and families and is a Registered Play Therapy Supervisor. She has presented at international, national, and regional meetings on distance learning and play therapy and grief and is widely published.
Ashwini Joshua Gojer is a Doctoral student of Applied Technology and Performance Improvement, at Department of Learning Technologies, University of North Texas. Ash serves as a Research Assistant for an Education Excellence grant which is funded by the Texas Education Agency and housed at the University of North Texas to develop professional development materials for career and technical edu- cation teachers. She holds a BA in Psychology from St. Xavier’s College, Mumbai, MA in Industrial Psychology from the University of Mumbai and a MPhil from Madurai Kamaraj University. Her research interests include: cross-cultural issues, training evaluation, and performance improvement.
Pamela M. Golubski, PhD, is the Director of Training and Development at iCarnegie (powered by Carnegie Mellon University). She earned a PhD in Instructional Management, a MS in Educational Counseling, a BS in Management, and a certificate in Adult Learning. Pam came to iCarnegie after four years as the Associate Director of Undergraduate Studies and Assessment in the College of Engineering at Carnegie Mellon University. Her 15 years of higher education experience extends into the areas of academic administration, curriculum development, academic and career advising, mentoring, specialized programming such as the student and faculty experience, accreditation, and assessment. She has been teaching since 1997, and her true passion is in teaching management (change, project, strategic manage- ment, and organizational behavior) and soft skills courses (human relations, professional communica- tions, public speaking, research, and writing). In addition, Pamela has experience in working in corporate training and human resources. Pamela’s research and publication efforts have been and continue to be in the areas of traditional and e-mentoring, learner-centered training, service-learning, virtual academic advising, probation counseling methods, and the use of virtual and Web 2.0 technologies in acclimating, communicating, engaging, onboarding, and retaining college students, staff, and faculty members. She presents her research findings through over 30 publications and 16 concurrent proceedings at national and international conferences (NACADA, NACE, NASPA, and The National Resource Center for The First-Year Experience and Students in Transition). Dr. Golubski is on the Board of Directors for Dress for Success Pittsburgh and the planning board for J. H. Heinz History Center Uncorked. She is on the Editorial Board for the Journal of Student Affairs Research and Practice (JSARP) and the International Journal of Adult Vocational Education and Technology (IJAVET). Lastly, she is the Faculty Chapter Advisor for Alpha Kappa Psi Professional Business Fraternity at Carnegie Mellon University’s Tepper School of Business.
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Matthew W. Gosney is the Senior Manager for Compliance Development for Walmart Stores, Inc. He has worked in the arena of corporate training and development for over a decade. He has led the development of significant training initiatives supporting technical and systems education, customer service and sales, leadership development, operational management, and regulatory training. In his current role he supports compliance training initiatives impacting millions of employees of the world’s largest retailer. His research is in the area of human resource development emerging philosophy and practice. Mr. Gosney is a Doctoral candidate and the 2010 Doctoral Student of the Year award recipi- ent in the Workforce Development Education program at the University of Arkansas. He has an MA in Psychology from the University of Central Oklahoma and a BS in Psychology from Brigham Young University, Provo.
John A. Henschke, EdD, is professionally educated and has practiced in both fields of counseling and andragogy – the art and science of helping adults learn. His Master of Theology (ThM) Degree is in Pastoral Counseling. He engaged in his Clinical Counseling Education Internship at Cook County Hospital in Chicago, and used counseling as part of his ministry in a local church during four decades. He studied and completed his Doctor of Education (EdD) Degree with Malcolm S. Knowles at Boston University (BU). He wrote his Doctoral dissertation at BU on Malcolm’s contribution to the theory and practice of adult education up through 1972. John recently retired after 39 years with University of Missouri – Associate Professor of Adult Education in the College of Education at the University of Missouri-St. Louis and Continuing Education Specialist in the East Central Region of the University of Missouri Extension. John is now the Chair of the Andragogy Doctoral Emphasis Specialty at Lindenwood University, School of Education, St. Charles, MO. He has used his andragogical competencies coupled with his counseling competencies in his full time university faculty career. Hence, he has merged the two fields of counseling and andragogy in his professional practice and personal life, and they are both part of the “warp-and-woof” of who he is as a person.
Kit Kacirek, EdD, SPHR, is an Associate Professor at the University of Arkansas who teaches Adult Education and Human Resource Development (HRD) in the College of Education and Health Professions. Her experience as an organization development consultant influence a research agenda that focuses on bridging the gap between theory and practice in HRD. In addition to teaching, she provides professional development services for clients of the Center for Management and Executive Education in the Sam M. Walton College of Business. Her consulting and research has led to several international assignments working with emerging business owners in Poland, strategic planning and needs assess- ment for a women’s health clinic in Morocco, and leadership development workshops in Tunisia, Ghana, Honduras, and the Ukraine. Dr. Kacirek has published practitioner-relevant cases in the Training and Development in Action series, as well as in various scholarly journals.
Kathleen Kevany, EdD, is a faculty member in the Department of Adult Education at Saint Fran- cis Xavier University and previously was leading the Decentralized Intelligence Agency, a consulting firm. She has enjoyed being a Lecturer with Brock University, The University of Western Ontario, and Hiroshima School of Graduate Studies and International Cooperation along with a post-Doctoral fellow at the United Nations University, Institute of Advanced Studies. Her research focuses the factors that mediate the formation of caring, conscious, and capable organizations, communities, and members of civil society.
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Beth Kania-Gosche holds a PhD in Curriculum and Instruction from Saint Louis University. She is currently the Supervisor of Graduate Research for the Department of Educational Leadership at Lin- denwood University.
Daniel Henry, PhD, first became interested in the ideas of Carl Rogers as a student in counseling classes at Indiana University. Additionally, his dissertation examined the built online environment of online learning communities using Behavior Setting Theory. Dr. Henry was a high school English teacher for 13 years, spent four years as a fulltime program evaluator, and after receiving his PhD in educational psychology, has been an Assistant Professor first at Central Michigan University and now at Auburn University, where he currently teaches classes in educational psychology, program evaluation, and research methodology in qualitative research.
Kristine Holloway is the Library Distance Services Coordinator for California State University, Bakersfield (CSUB). In that position, Ms. Holloway works with faculty, students, and administration to facilitate access to materials while at the same time honoring and explaining copyright restrictions. Ms. Holloway has previously written and presented on working with ILLiad, an interlibrary loan and document delivery program that allows for better service to online students and faculty while making nearly automatic observance of copyright restrictions and fair use guidelines. Ms. Holloway is currently working with a committee of faculty, administrators, and technical support staff at CSUB to modify e- learning policy in light of the tremendous growth in e-learning and with an understanding of concerns regarding fair use, intellectual property, copyright, and academic integrity that have developed inevitably from that growth. Ms. Holloway has a Master’s Degree in Library and Information Science obtained through San Jose State University’s Distance Program and currently serves on the Distance Learning Committee of the American Library Association. Ms. Holloway has previously written on instructor perceptions of working with instructional television and has collaborated on a survey of librarians in higher education working with distance students.
John Hope, PhD, has a professional background in teaching in New Zealand primary, intermedi- ate, and secondary schools. He left school teaching after some years as the principal of New Zealand’s largest primary school, a school featuring nationally recognised programmes for gifted students and an international reputation for use of ICT. Later in his career John became a school inspector and curricu- lum writer and was seconded to the University of Auckland as Director Primary Teacher Education to establish initial teacher education programmes. Following successful establishment of teacher education programmes, other University of Auckland appointments followed, including Director of the University of Auckland Principals Centre, and Associate Dean (International) positions in two faculties. He currently directs several overseas twinning degree programmes, coordinates all international activity within the Faculty of Education, and has university-wide international responsibilities. Teaching and supervision interests include pedagogical applications of ICT in learning, educational leadership, gifted education, and international education. Research publications at national and international level include journal articles and book chapters in the fields of initial teacher education, Internet safety, use of educational technology in teacher education, use of educational technology in adult education and measurement of internationalisation within higher education.
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Marcus Howell has served as a media specialist/technologist for the past twenty years in public schools in Alabama. He is currently pursuing a Doctoral degree from Auburn University in educational leadership, curriculum, and technology because of his role as an emerging leader in technology.
Claretha Hughes, PhD, Assistant Professor, teaches Human Resource Development in the Department of Rehabilitation, Human Resources and Communication Disorders, University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, Arkansas. She has extensive professional experience in business and industry and continues to serve as a consultant to international, national, and state organizations. Her research focuses on value creation through the use of human resource development and technology development. She is interested in the impact of values (1) on teaching and learning processes and motivation; (2) on organizational culture, change strategies, and leadership; and (3) on technology in the workplace environment and employee behavior. She is the 2009 University Council of Workforce and Human Resource Education Outstanding Assistant Professor. Dr. Hughes has a PhD in Career & Technical Education from Virginia Tech, a MT degree from NC State University, a BA in Chemistry from Clemson University, and an MBA from the Sam M. Walton College of Business at the University of Arkansas.
Debrah D. Joyner, PhD, is currently the Director of Cohort Programs at East Tennessee State Uni- versity. She has served in several administrative positions for ETSU.
Sharon G. Juozapavicius graduated from The University of Iowa in 1972 with a Bachelor’s Degree - triple major in Advertising, Public Relations, and Journalism. She graduated from DePaul University, 2007 with a Master’s Degree specializing in Leadership Development. She also received Certificate in Nonprofit Management, Virginia Commonwealth University, 2009. She has over 35 years in busi- ness management with over 24 performance awards in: sales, training, innovation, retail operations, environmental marketing, alliance management, team consulting, and e-business. Sharon is a trained Professional Consultant in business and strategic planning, team building, customer focus, measure- ment and assessment, change and transition management, sales, process and project management. She was retired in 2003 from British Petroleum/Amoco. Sharon currently holds position as Chief Executive Officer for CCHASM, a Nonprofit Organization based in Virginia, USA.
Kerry Lee is a senior lecturer in technology education at the Faculty of Education, University of Auckland, New Zealand. Kerry has a Bachelor of Science degree and a Master’s in Education specialising in technology education. Her Doctoral thesis, currently underway, investigates the effects of omega-3 fatty acids on the academic achievement of primary school children. Kerry is a regular presenter at national and international education conferences. She has been published in International Journal of Technology & Design Education, International Journal of Diversity in Organisations Communities & Nations, International Journal of the Humanities, Journal of the World Universities Forum, International Journal of Environmental, Cultural, Economic & Social Sustainability, Journal of Technology Studies, and International Journal of Teaching, Learning & High Education. She has authored chapters in the Handbook of Research on E-Learning Applications for Career & Technical Education: Technologies for Vocational Training, and Assessing & Evaluating Adult Learning in Career and Technical Education.
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Wenzhen Li is a PhD student in the Department of Educational Psychology, Counseling and Human Development at the University of Nevada, Reno. She teaches courses on the application of technology in education. Her research interests focus on design of online teaching and learning, online learning assessment, and multimedia application in education. She is the managing editor of the International Journal of Technology in Teaching and Learning.
Leping Liu, PhD, is Professor and Chair in the Department of Educational Psychology, Counseling and Human Development at the University of Nevada, Reno. She teaches courses on the application of technology in education, applied educational psychology, and statistics. Her research interests focus on integration of technology in classroom teaching and learning, technology and mathematical thinking, multimedia learning environment and cognitive development, technology in counseling skill training, design of online teaching, assessment and evaluation, and research modeling. She has authored many professional articles and authored/co-authored twelve books. She is also the editor-in-chief of the In- ternational Journal of Technology in Teaching and Learning.
Julie Lynch was born in England where she received her primary, secondary, and university education. Julie migrated to New Zealand in 2003 and began her teacher training in 2005 at Auckland University where she completed a Diploma of Teaching in primary education. Julie also has a Bachelor of Arts degree and a Post Graduate degree in Educational Leadership. Julie is an experienced classroom teacher and is currently the Primary Years Programme Coordinator in a New Zealand intermediate school. She has presented at various national conference workshops about inquiry learning, using learning management systems to support classroom practice, and how to integrate technology when learning a second language.
Julia M. Matuga, PhD, received a Bachelor and Master of Science degree in Curriculum Studies from Indiana University, Bloomington and worked as a K-12 art teacher for five years before returning to graduate school. Julia earned her Doctorate in Educational Psychology with an emphasis in Learning, Cognition, and Instruction from Indiana University (IU), Bloomington. While a graduate student at IU, Julia taught her first online course and became interested in how students learn online. Julia is currently the Associate Dean of Graduate Studies and External Programs and Associate Professor of Educational Psychology at Bowling Green State University (BGSU). She oversees the development of online courses and programs within the College of Education and Human Development at BGSU. She has published book chapters and research articles on self-regulation and assessment within online learning environments.
Catherine McLoughlin, PhD joined ACU in 2002 and is currently Coordinator of SIMERR ACT, the Research Centre for Science, Information Technology and Mathematics Education for Rural and Regional Australia (SiMERR) at the School of Education, Canberra. Dr McLoughlin teaches at under- graduate and postgraduate levels in the areas of educational psychology, teaching methodologies, and research methods. Catherine is the author and co-author of over 200 refereed publications, including journal articles, book chapters and conference papers on a wide range of topics related to e-learning, design of culturally relevant learning environments, the evaluation of learning technologies, cognitive psychology, and learner engagement. Dr. McLoughlin is editor of the Australian Journal of Educational Technology, and she is on the editorial boards of a number of leading international journals in the field of educational technology.
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John Moran, PhD, Founder & President, Globla Gateways, Inc., blending more than 35 years experience in industry as an executive, product developer, and project manager and in academia as a course developer/instructor, has achieved recognition as a bridge between the academic communities and industry. John’s courses at the Notre Dame de Namur University, UC Berkeley Extension, and San Jose State Professional Development program reflect the real life business situations derived from his work in developing Information Technology Communities of Practice with Silicon Valley companies. Addition- ally, his academic experience contributes to his ability to create unique collaborative environments that facilitate learning, sustainable growth, and increased productivity for his industry and academic clients. In all his work, John advocates the importance of learning and systems thinking.
Judith Parker, EdD, is an adjunct Assistant Professor in Organization and Leadership at Teachers College/Columbia University in New York teaching graduate courses that are totally online, totally classroom, and blended delivery formats. She has earned a Doctorate, EdD degree, and an MS degree in Adult and Continuing Education from Teachers College/Columbia University, an MS degree in phys- ics from Purdue University in Indiana, and a BS degree in physics and mathematics from Notre Dame College in Ohio. She has presented numerous papers at conferences globally including the Academy of Management, American Association of Physics Teachers, American Society of Training and Development, College Industry Education Conference, Quality and Productivity Management Association, Business and Multimedia Conference in Ireland, Lisbon 2000 European Conference on ODL Networking for Quality Learning, and World Open Learning for Business Conferences in the UK. Judith has been published in the Compendium on Uses of Distance Learning Technologies in Engineering Education, the Journal of the International Association for Continuing Engineering Education, and the International Journal of Adult Vocational Education and Technology. She has authored chapters in Workplace Training and Learning: A Cross-Cultural Perspective; Definitive Readings in the History, Philosophy, Practice and Theories of Career and Technical Education; Integrating Adult Learning and Technology for Effec- tive Education: Strategic Approaches; Handbook of Research on E-Learning Applications for Career and Technical Education: Technologies for Vocational Training; and the Encyclopedia of Information Communication Technologies and Adult Education Integration. Judith has over 20 years experience in leadership positions within global business organizations. She has worked extensively with technical managers and technical employees in Asia and Europe in leadership education and training and techni- cal employee skill development by using an action-learning model and integrating distance learning technologies with classroom sessions. She has been elected a Fellow of the American Association for the Advancement of Science, and has received the American Association of Physics Teachers Innovative Teaching Award and the Park College Educational Partnership Award.
Laura Pasquini is a Doctoral student of Applied Technology and Performance Improvement at the Department of Learning Technologies, University of North Texas. Laura is currently an Academic Advisor for Undergraduate Programs in the College of Business, University of North Texas. She holds an MSEd in Elementary Teacher Education from Niagara University, NY, and an honors BA in History. Her research interests include the effects of emerging technology, collaborative learning environments, and open source courseware for education and training.
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Gregory C. Petty, PhD, currently teaches Biostatistics and is a Professor of Public Health for The University of Tennessee. He has published numerous articles on teaching and learning and workforce development.
Denise Philpot is a Doctoral student of the Applied Technology and Performance Improvement pro- gram in the Department of Learning Technologies at the University of North Texas. After a successful career at Xerox, Denise entered the education field as a high school business/technology teacher and earned her teaching certification in secondary business. She holds an MBA in Organization Behavior and Human Resources from UNT and a BS in Business Administration from the University of La Verne. In addition to her studies, she is currently the President of the Graduate Student Council at UNT and works closely with the Toulouse Graduate School in promoting graduate education. Her research interests include adult learning, effective uses of learning technology to promote performance improvement, and teacher effectiveness in relationship to student learning outcomes.
Sandra Poirier, EdD, has a broad background in education with more than 15 years experience in public sectors located in culturally diverse international environments. She has worked as a secondary teacher, cooperative extension agent, and a university teacher educator in the United States, Canada, Caribbean, and the Middle East. Her strengths include creating innovative educational programs within a cultural context and identifying appropriate outreach efforts to solve problems with positive results. She has been recognized for her ability to work effectively building community partnerships towards a common goal, creating hybrid and online courses to meet the changing needs of students, and creatively evaluating the learning outcomes of the students. She has been employed at Middle Tennessee State University as an Associate Professor in the Department of Human Sciences since 2005. In 2008, she was awarded the MTSU Distinguished Distance Learning Educator, and in 2009, the Outstanding Career and Technical Post-Secondary Instructor Award in Tennessee.
Jacob Prisk lives in New Zealand, where he received his primary, secondary, and university educa- tion. Jacob attended Auckland University, where he completed his Bachelor of Education in 1999, his postgraduate degree in Educational Leadership in 2010 and is the process of undertaking his Master’s in Education. Jacob has taught for 10 years in New Zealand, the United Kingdom, and Australia with vast experience in middle school teaching. Jacob is a senior teacher at a New Zealand intermediate/ middle school.
Stephanie M. Reio is a senior justice administration major at the University of Louisville. Her interests include interpersonal and workplace violence, prisoner rehabilitation, and resiliency. She is currently interning at the Probation and Parole Office in District 16, Louisville, KY.
Ellen Reames, EdD, is an Assistant Professor in the Educational Foundations, Leadership and Tech- nology Department at Auburn University. Dr. Reames was a public school teacher and administrator for thirty years. Her research interests include school culture, learning communities, e-leadership and online communities of practice, alternative schools, military children, bullying, and redesigning educational leadership programs.
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Joanne Sanders-Reio, PhD, is an Instructor in the Department of Leadership and Professional Stud- ies at Florida International University. She earned her PhD in Human Development from the University of Maryland and her MSEd in Adult and Continuing Education from Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University. She was previously a free-lance writer and editor, as well as a corporate trainer who primarily taught business writing in training centers, government organizations, and businesses. She is conducting basic research on the beliefs, mindsets, and practices of expert writers and editors. More specifically, she is investigating how certain beliefs about writing are adaptive and predictive of strong writing, while other beliefs about writing are maladaptive and associated with anxiety and weak writing.
Thomas G. Reio, Jr., PhD, is Associate Professor of Adult Education and Human Resource Devel- opment in the Department of Leadership and Professional Studies at Florida International University in Miami, Florida. Tom earned his PhD in Adult and Continuing Education from Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University. He was first runner-up for the Malcolm S. Knowles Dissertation-of-the- Year with his dissertation that investigated the connections among adult curiosity, workplace learning, and job performance. He is presently editor of Human Resource Development Review and co-editor of New Horizons in Adult Education and Human Resource Development. He is the immediate past Quantitative Methods Editor for Human Resource Development Quarterly. He has been involved for a number of years in conducting research on educational and psychological principles such as motiva- tion and emotions, and how they impact learning and performance in formal and informal contexts. His research concerns curiosity and risk-taking motivation, workplace incivility and violence, workplace socialization processes, workplace incivility, entrepreneurship, and workplace learning. He is currently actively engaged in research investigating curiosity and risk taking throughout the lifespan. He has been involved extensively in evaluation projects concerning children and adults in both the public and private sector. His work has been published in leading journals in education, business, and psychology. These journals include Journal of School Psychology, Personality and Individual Differences, The Journal of Genetic Psychology, Educational and Psychological Measurement, Journal of Business and Psychology, Journal of Interpersonal Violence, Human Resource Development Quarterly, Journal of Management Development, International Journal of Self-Directed Learning, and Teaching and Teacher Education. He has authored chapters in the Handbook of Educational Psychology, Emerging Directions in Self-Directed Learning, Teaching and Learning: International Best Practice, and Research on Sociocultural Influences on Motivation and Learning. He has over 16 years of experience as a training and development director, organizational consultant, and operations manager.
Karim A. Remtulla, PhD (Toronto) is a graduate of the Adult Education and Community Develop- ment Program in the Department of Adult Education and Counselling Psychology at the Ontario Institute for Studies in Education of the University of Toronto (OISE/UT). He also holds a Master’s of Business Administration (Schulich School of Business at York University) as well as a Master’s of Science in Information Resources Management (School of Information Studies at Syracuse University). He also holds a Bachelor of Commerce (Rotman School of Management at University of Toronto). Karim has been involved with workplace adult education and training research and practice for over twenty years. His explorations engage the humanistic aspects of ICTs and instruction regarding adults in the work- place and society at large. His research interests include the long-term social, cultural, and pedagogical implications of the internet, globalization, pluralism, and the digital divide, on adults’ civic engagement,
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democracy, work, and learning. Karim has presented papers at global conferences and symposia. His publications include peer-reviewed academic journal articles, commentaries, and book chapters. He is also a member of the editorial review board of several peer-reviewed academic journals. Karim’s authored book entitled Socio-cultural Impacts of Workplace E-learning: Epistemology, Ontology and Pedagogy, recently published by IGI Global, presents cutting-edge thinking on the socio-cultural complexities of adult learning in a globalized, digitized, and knowledge-based world.
Grace L. Reynolds, PhD, received her Doctorate in Public Administration from the University of Southern California and is currently an Assistant Professor of Health Care Administration at California State University, Long Beach (CSULB). She serves as the Associate Director of the Center for Behavioral Research and Services, one of the organized research centers at CSULB, a position she has held since 2000. She is also the Graduate Advisor for the CAHME-accredited programs in Health Care Admin- istration at CSULB. She has published extensively on topics related to health care and public health.
Debra Leigh Walls Rosenstein, EdD, is an Associate Professor in the Tift College of Education at Mercer University in Atlanta, GA. She holds an EdD from Virginia Polytechnic. Her experience is in elementary education focusing on multiple intelligences and brain-based teaching. Her pioneering work as a play therapist for medically fragile children includes burn victims and those with cystic fibrosis. She took a leadership role in developing several camp experiences for medically fragile children to allow them to participate in the camp experience.
Käthe Schneider, EdD, is Professor of Adult Education, University of Jena, Germany. She earned her diploma degree and her Doctorate in Educational Science from the University of Bonn, Germany. Her research interests include learning processes of adults, self-development of executives, and lifelong learning architectures. Prior to joining the University of Jena, she was Director of Executive Develop- ment with WHU, Otto Beisheim School of Management, Germany.
P. J. Snodgrass, PhD, worked as an IT Specialist for about ten years at The University of Tennessee. She is currently serving as the Assistant Director of the University’s IT Business Office. Dr. Snodgrass co-published an article entitled “Relationship Between Telecommuting and Recruitment and Retention of IT Staff” in the Journal of Software Engineering. She received her PhD from The University of Ten- nessee in the Department of Human Resource Development.
Jim Spaulding, EdD, has years of experience in the computer industry as a systems engineer, technical trainer, project manager, consultant, and executive. He is skilled in needs analysis, course development, and training. He has delivered complex technical topics to a wide range of audiences and regularly de- signs and delivers workshops, training interventions, and programs with instructor-led, virtual/hybrid, web-based, and computer-based training. Jim is an experienced corporate teacher and a faculty member for over a dozen years at Penn State University in Graduate School, Continuing Education, Accelerated Program, and Professional Education on a variety of subjects such as: Instructional Design, Database Design, Business Analysis, Computer Technology, as well as Project Management. He has succeeded in many client assignments for firms such as Microsoft Corporation and Hitachi Data Systems. Jim studied Systems Engineering at Widener University after a BS in Mathematics from Villanova. He
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About the Contributors
earned a Doctorate from Penn State, and a Master’s in Educational Leadership from Immaculata. He is a published author of non-fiction as well as scholarly work. His recent paper, Playfulness in the Adult Classroom testifies to his research interest in experiential and adult learning. He maintains memberships in many professional organizations and operates his own consulting firm focusing on IT and Project Management for a broad range of clients.
Diana Stanfill, EdD, is a practicing educational technologist and professional developer at Linden- wood University, located in Saint Louis, Missouri, and a former library media specialist at the elementary level. Diana’s background includes teaching students ranging from kindergarten to graduate school. She holds advanced degrees in library science, instructional leadership, and educational technology. Diana has one daughter and one son-in-law, Crystal and Gary; and two grandchildren, Elijah and Easton.
David Stein, PhD, is Associate Professor in the College of Education and Human Ecology at The Ohio State University. His Doctorate in adult education is from the University of Michigan. He also received an MS in community health planning and administration from the University of Cincinnati. Dr. Stein specializes in adult teaching and learning. He has conducted workshops on principles of adult teaching and has served as a consultant to professional associations, The Ohio Board of Regents, the Supreme Court of Ohio Judicial College, and other universities on adult education. Presently, Dr. Stein is researching online learning and its influence on adult learning. He has presented at national and regional conferences on adult learning and has written extensively on how adults learn.
Stephen D. Stockton is a Director of a federally funded project at The University of Tennessee- Knoxville (UTK) where he is completing his PhD in the Department of Educational Leadership and Policy Studies (ELPS). He has collaborated in the writing, reviewing, and implementation of grant proposals. Stockton has experience working in several different grant programs as well as working as an instructor in the high school classroom setting. He has developed and participated in several regional and national conference workshops focusing on technology. His research interest is on the use of tech- nology in the school system.
Karen Weller Swanson, EdD, has her degree in Curriculum and Instruction. She currently teaches Doctoral research methods for Mercer University in Atlanta Georgia. Her research encompasses trans- formative education, teacher professional development, and instructional technology. Dr. Swanson serves as a reviewer for The Middle School Journal, Reviewer for Networks: An Online Journal for Teacher Research and Teacher Education. Her publications include chapters on blended learning, self-assessment, collaborative teaching and transformative learning. The peer-reviewed journal articles include publi- cations with Journal for the Practical Application of Constructivist Theory in Education, Journal of Educational Technology and Society, Studying Teacher Education, and Childhood Education. She is a member of National Middle School Association and the American Research Association.
Gainiya Tazhina, PhD, is an Associate Professor in Organizational Behavior and Work Psychology at the University of International Business in Almaty, Kazakhstan. She has earned a PhD from Kazakh Academy of Sciences, and has graduated from Novosibirsk State University, Russia and Kazakh State University, Kazakhstan. Gainiya O. Tazhina has extensive experience in academic research in general
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About the Contributors
and especially in industrial psychology. She has also designed and conducted training for international and local Kazakhstan companies, government, and non-government organizations with a focus on the improvement of interpersonal relationships, team building, effective leadership, and conflict manage- ment supported by technical assistance of USAID and IREX. Gainiya O. Tazhina has been awarded an OSI funded Faculty Development Fellowship (2008-2010) aimed at encouraging the pursuit of academic careers by outstanding faculty, generating innovative approaches to curricular and pedagogical reform in the countries served, and supporting the development of regional and international institutional partner- ships and collaborative projects. She has also been awarded ISA granted WISC: Bringing International Studies Together (2005), MASHAV (2004), and IREX Community Connections Fellowship (2003).
Lawrence A. Tomei, EdD, is the Senior Associate Provost for Academic Affairs and Professor of Education, Robert Morris University. Born in Akron, Ohio, he earned a BSBA from the University of Akron (1972) and completed his Master’s degrees in Public Administration and Education at the University of Oklahoma (1975, 1978) and his Doctorate in Education from USC (1983). As Associate Provost, he directs the activities of academic services including the registrar’s office, academic technol- ogy, the honors and cooperative education programs, and veteran services. He holds a dual appointment as a Professor of Education in the School of Education and Social Sciences. His most recent articles and books on instructional technology include: Designing Instruction for the Traditional, Adult, and Distance Learner (2010), the Lexicon for Online and Distance Learning (2010), and ICT for Enhanced Education and Learning (2009).
Jia Wang, PhD, is an Associate Professor of human resource development in the Department of Edu- cational Administration and Human Resource Development at Texas A&M University. Before joining Texas A&M University, Jia was an Assistant Professor and PhD program coordinator at Barry University Fort Myers Campus. With a wide range of international experience in China, Africa, the United Kingdom, and the United States, Jia’s research focuses on international HRD, crisis management, and learning in organizations. Jia’s work has been published in a number of international journals. She currently serves on the Editorial Board for Advances in Developing Human Resources, Journal of Research on Leadership Education, and Journal of Chinese Human Resource Management. Jia is also the Associate Editor for the Proceedings of Academy of Human Resource Development 2011 International Research Conference in the Americas. Jia received her MBA from Aston University, UK, and MEd and PhD in Human Resource and Organization Development from the University of Georgia, USA.
Constance Wanstreet, PhD, is an Adjunct Assistant Professor in the College of Education and Hu- man Ecology at The Ohio State University. Her Doctorate from Ohio State is in workforce development and education. Dr. Wanstreet has developed and implemented training programs for adult learners in workplace settings and has served as a consultant to the Ohio Board of Regents and the Supreme Court of Ohio Judicial College. She has presented at national and regional conferences, primarily on how adults learn in online environments.
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About the Contributors
Maria Martinez Witte, EdD, is an Associate Professor in Adult Education within the Department of Educational Foundations, Leadership, and Technology at Auburn University. Academic areas of interest include analyzing effective content, context, and processes that enhance the teaching-learning environment, learning styles, and the assessment of learning. Her skills include facilitating, coordinat- ing, developing, and delivering educational programs.
Deborah Wooldridge, PhD, is a Professor and the Director of the School of Family and Consumer Sciences and the Associate Dean for Research and Field Experiences in the College of Education and Human Development at Bowling Green State University. Dr. Wooldridge served as the Dean of the College of Family Sciences at Zayed University in the United Arab Emirates, as Associate Dean of Education, and the Coordinator of External Funding at Southeast Missouri State University. She was a middle school and high school teacher in Oklahoma. Deborah was a Fulbright Senior Scholar at the University of Bahrain in the Kingdom of Bahrain and has done consulting with Ministries of Education and Ministries of Labor and Social Affairs in Oman, Kuwait, Bahrain, and the United Arab Emirates, as well as acting as a liaison for UNICEF officials in Saudi Arabia for the Dubai and Abu Dhabi areas. She has a PhD in resource management and consumer sciences from Texas Woman’s University and a BS and MS in Education from the University of Oklahoma. During her career in higher education she has published and secured international, federal, and state funding for research and community partnership projects. Her research interests are cultural and social issues of the family, learning outcomes assessment, and curriculum redesign and assessment.
Harun Yilmaz, PhD, completed his Master of Science degree in the department of Instructional Design Development and Evaluation (IDDE) at Syracuse University. He got his Doctorate in the field of Instructional Design and Technology focusing on distance education and accreditation from Virginia Tech. During his Doctorate study, he worked as a grader and instructional designer at the Instructional Technology Master’s program (ITMA) offered online at Virginia Tech. Before being awarded with a PhD degree, he started working at the University of Phoenix in the College of Undergraduate Business and Management (UBAM) as a full-time instructional designer, as well as an online instructor for the University of Phoenix Online. At the University of Phoenix, he was responsible for providing the ap- propriate level of instructional design support and leadership for the John Sperling School of Business (JSSB) and all related assessment development activities, as well as leading the programmatic assessment and accreditation projects for the College of Undergraduate Business and Management between 2005 and 2007. Since his moving to Turkey in 2007, he has been working at the Scientific and Technologi- cal Research Council of Turkey (TUBITAK) as a scientific programs expert to manage the process of evaluating and monitoring of grant projects submitted to TUBITAK by universities in the field of social sciences and humanities. He has publications including a book, book chapters, and research articles fo- cusing on distance education, accreditation, instructional design, teacher education, and cyber-bullying.
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Volume I pp. 1-329; Volume II pp. 330-600; Volume III pp. 601-862
Symbols 21st century digital economy 138 21st Century Learning Skills 361 3-dimensional 648, 725
A academic freedom 220, 222-223, 232, 307, 309 Academic Medical Center (AMC) 219-221, 223,
229, 232 academic mobbing 321-322, 326-328 acceptance 24-25, 27, 79, 82, 124, 126-127, 129,
135, 137, 270, 347, 365, 369, 372, 378, 389, 459, 461-462, 500, 503, 533, 571, 626, 701, 710, 742, 762, 776, 790
accredited program 245 action learning 225, 231, 280-281, 284, 287, 624 adopter 129, 135, 503, 522 adoption 1-3, 5-6, 50, 61, 124-125, 129, 131, 133,
136-137, 144, 152, 159, 164, 200, 203, 234, 240, 243-244, 302, 345, 354, 397, 403, 406, 465, 467, 491-495, 499, 501, 503, 506, 509, 521, 525, 768, 805, 819, 830, 849, 856
adult development 135, 317, 463, 489, 546, 553, 555, 574-575, 584, 781
adult learner 20, 62, 134, 196, 247, 250-252, 258, 261, 265, 287, 327-328, 366, 566, 577, 583- 584, 695, 795
advisor blog 702, 711 affective domain 131, 239, 242, 245, 383, 558, 563,
568 aggression 66-67, 73, 75-77 alpha 70, 143, 706-707 ambiguity 162, 168, 191, 193, 197, 214, 409, 629,
654, 687 American Association of School Administrators
267, 635
American Psychological Association (APA) 81, 85, 115, 798, 804
andragogy 5, 250, 465, 558, 561-563, 565-566, 569-570, 577-579, 585, 783
approachability 372 approaches to play therapy 670, 679 Artifical Intelligence (AI) 63, 477 Association for Play Therapy 79-82, 85, 87, 670,
676 assuring quality 423, 426, 432-433, 436 asynchronous 23, 30, 33, 59, 83, 85-87, 97, 118-
119, 145-146, 148-149, 153, 176, 260, 263, 272, 386, 398, 590, 593-596, 599-600, 700, 714, 720, 724, 795, 844-845, 851
at-risk students 469, 471, 473, 475, 478, 635 augmented reality (AR) 802, 805, 807 augmented virtuality (AV) 802, 807 authoritarian 13-15, 17, 21, 67, 190, 323, 747, 750,
754 avatar 88, 273, 713-723, 725, 801 axiology 763, 770
B bandwidth 31, 381, 393, 512, 541, 544, 593, 643 barriers to transfer 297 beta 74, 143, 361 Blackboard 11, 58-59, 63, 97, 114, 256, 259, 265,
592, 595-596, 659, 702, 711, 718, 779, 786 blended learning 3 blogs 8, 11, 39, 48-50, 57, 59, 75, 90, 118, 158,
204, 209, 254-255, 259, 270-272, 275, 277, 283, 355, 381, 395-396, 419, 427, 448, 480, 511, 537, 539, 590, 592, 604, 606, 700, 779, 785, 851, 861
bullying 73, 76-77, 418, 851, 853
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C capability 5, 21, 148, 169, 208, 217, 256, 280, 297,
367, 369-372, 384, 398, 410, 441-442, 456, 523, 560, 727, 749, 860
capital-intensive industries 13, 19 Carl Rogers 23-24, 32-34, 672, 696 case study 30, 57, 61, 86, 167, 199, 204, 209, 259,
330, 348, 359, 395, 405, 409, 418, 442, 461, 614, 639, 726-727, 742, 744, 835-836, 838, 841, 843
CD Rom 453, 457, 459-460, 467 censored data 818 change agent 122-123, 126, 128-131, 134-137, 255,
376, 524, 528, 531 changing demographics of the work force 13, 19 charisma 18, 21 chief knowledge office 154 chief learning officer 154, 524, 528 civic literacies 5 client-centered therapy 20, 23-24, 33, 197, 672,
682, 696 closed chat session 711 cognitive domain 172-173, 180, 183, 185, 238, 242,
558, 563 cognitive presence 30, 83, 86, 844 cognitive style 3 Colege and University Professional Association for
Human Resources (CUPA-HR) 491, 495, 503 collaborative leadership 268-270, 272, 275-277 collaborative learning 10, 87, 147, 254, 259, 264,
381-382, 389-390, 403, 440-441, 451, 506, 554, 595, 598, 716, 722, 783, 785, 792, 800, 803-804, 806
Commission on the Accreditation of Management Health Education (CAHME) 233-234, 238, 244
communication-assisted training applications 145 Community of Practice 96, 106, 162, 248, 268-270,
375, 399, 407, 441, 532-533, 540, 543-545, 552-553, 556, 851
competency 54, 80, 92, 177, 191, 233-234, 238- 240, 242-245, 350, 373-376, 381-383, 385-389, 396, 404, 428, 454, 482-483, 535, 570, 586, 631, 651, 762
competing values model 697 complexity leadership 268, 276 computer conferencing 85-86, 184, 467, 795, 844-
845 Computer Mediated Communities (CMC) 86, 90,
95-96, 101
computer-mediated learning 29, 32, 34 conceptual skills 16, 322, 325, 327, 329, 629, 640 congruence 24-27, 30, 34, 310-311, 629, 680-682,
684-692, 694-697 content-focused instruction 140, 143-144 contingency theory 322, 328, 503 Continuing Medical Education (CME) 28, 453-467 continuous improvement 164, 238, 432, 435-436,
463, 691 copyright 11, 22, 35-47, 77, 178, 298-309, 384,
386, 419, 436 Copyright Act of 1976 36, 301, 305 Council for Accreditation of Counseling and Related
Educational Programs (CACREP) 82, 85, 87 Council of Graduate Schools (CGS) 108, 110, 112,
118, 120, 247-248, 259-260, 263-264 counseling competency 570, 586 counselor 82, 109, 118-119, 431, 570-571, 573-576,
578-579, 581-585, 700, 711 courseware 265, 299-300, 305, 307-309, 417, 665 coworker incivility 65, 68-74 Creative Commons 38-39, 42-43, 45-47, 305, 307 critical theory 130, 137 cultural leadership 267 cultural systems 424-427, 431-432, 436 curriculum 3, 6, 8-9, 27-28, 50, 52, 55, 58-59, 63,
82-84, 99, 101, 137, 143, 153, 173, 176, 201- 202, 204, 207-208, 210-211, 213, 218, 221, 223-224, 226, 228, 232-234, 238-241, 243, 248, 250-253, 263, 267, 332-333, 343-344, 346-347, 352, 357, 364-365, 388-389, 408- 410, 413-414, 420, 437-439, 442, 450-451, 454, 475, 484, 493, 532-533, 535, 543, 553, 555-560, 562, 565-568, 602, 607, 610, 613, 623, 631, 635, 643, 650-652, 668, 708, 720, 729-732, 738, 741-742, 773, 821-823, 829, 833-834, 848, 851
D data mining 63 decile 204, 211 Delicious 42, 385 Delta Cost Project 214, 230 developmental dimension 697 diffusion 46, 125, 131, 133, 136-137, 200, 210,
390, 419, 460, 462-463, 466-467, 492, 503, 521, 530, 621, 768
digital age learning 6, 853, 855 digital immigrant 140-141, 153 digital learning objects 442, 452, 654
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Digital Literacy 5, 8-9, 99, 361, 439, 852 Digital Millennium Copyright Act (DMCA) 36,
300, 302 digital native 97, 140-141, 153, 362 digital networks 40 Digital Objects Identifiers (DOI) 9-10, 33-34, 40,
46, 61-63, 75-76, 85-87, 102-105, 118-119, 135-137, 151-153, 165-169, 185, 209-211, 228- 232, 244-245, 259-265, 276, 294-297, 307-308, 317-319, 327-328, 347-348, 359-361, 389-390, 403-407, 421, 433-436, 450-451, 463-467, 477- 478, 487-489, 501-503, 512-513, 527-531, 543, 555, 566, 583-585, 598-600, 613-614, 637-639, 652-654, 664-665, 676-679, 696-697, 711, 722- 724, 743-744, 758, 766-770, 793-796, 804-806, 816-818, 843-846, 858-862
Digital Rights Management (DRM) 44-47, 300 digital skills 7 digital world 1, 35, 41, 183, 282, 359, 373, 388,
420, 604, 649, 703 Dissertation Committee Chair 119 distance education 31-32, 36, 44, 49, 54, 58, 60-62,
81-83, 85-88, 118, 165, 178, 248-250, 253, 257-264, 300, 302, 304-305, 307-308, 430, 433-435, 453-464, 467, 587-590, 593, 595, 598-600, 664-665, 713, 722, 724, 782-786, 789, 791-796, 805, 838-839, 841, 844-845, 858
distance learning 33, 35, 54, 62-63, 82-86, 102-103, 147, 177, 211, 253-254, 256-257, 259-261, 263, 265, 284, 299, 302-304, 307, 398, 430, 433-436, 452, 455, 457, 460, 462-463, 465, 543, 601, 664, 700, 710, 713, 784, 791, 795- 796, 804, 806, 835-836, 841, 843
DIY Ethos 357, 362 DIY Media 350-351, 354-360, 362 Doctorate of Education (Ed.D) 108-110, 112, 117-
118, 809 double loop learning 157, 618, 627 downsizing 13, 193, 197, 397 dropbox 257, 259, 264-265 dropout prevention 468-473, 476-478, 633 dropout rate 249, 420, 468, 470, 478
E e-blast 711 educational games 642, 654 educational leadership 15, 26, 33, 111, 151-152,
251, 255, 260, 263-264, 266-268, 274-275, 277, 307, 324, 390, 409, 420-422, 451, 476, 557, 565, 567, 629, 631, 636, 638, 640, 724, 832-833, 843, 848, 852, 858, 861
educational technology 10, 62, 135-136, 152, 182, 210-211, 261, 275-276, 287, 295, 301, 361, 390, 408-411, 421-422, 435, 450-451, 472, 506, 512, 543, 598-599, 654, 657, 659-661, 663-665, 723-724, 765, 804-806, 819-832, 834, 847, 849, 856-857, 859-860, 862
EDUCAUSE Learning Initiative (ELI) 50, 62, 800- 801, 804
e-gaming 388, 390 EI model 197 e-leadership 12-13, 15-19, 21, 408, 422 e-learning 2-3, 8, 10, 34, 61, 63, 81-83, 86, 103,
145, 149-152, 161, 164, 167, 184, 200, 210, 231, 256, 259, 261, 296, 298-299, 306, 308, 360, 373, 375-383, 385, 387-390, 393, 405- 406, 408-409, 413-414, 421, 434, 439, 451, 466, 533, 543, 552, 555, 642-643, 651, 655, 665, 697, 724-725, 782-794, 796, 804, 845, 847-848, 852, 855, 858-859, 862
Electronic Health Record (EHR) 17, 23, 26, 34, 43, 77, 79, 95-96, 114-115, 120, 130, 133, 156, 220, 236, 244-245, 268, 301, 306, 310, 312, 314-315, 325-326, 341, 351, 356, 367, 370-371, 375-378, 387, 424, 426-428, 446, 456-457, 485, 496, 499, 561, 570, 572-574, 577-578, 582, 585, 611-612, 617, 619, 630, 645-647, 668-675, 700, 702, 706, 714, 717, 736, 750, 758, 787-788, 799
Electronic Medical Records (EMR) 226, 233-237, 239-241, 243-246
e-lert 711 emerging technologies 31, 48-50, 56, 58-61, 98,
387, 414, 442, 454, 616, 651, 717, 797-798, 800, 802-803, 806, 859-860
emotional intelligence 192, 194, 196, 227, 230, 280, 333, 348, 646, 733, 744
empathetic understanding 24-27, 30, 34 employee-oriented 15 episodic change 531 epistemology 547, 697, 763, 770 e-portfolio 443-444, 452 evaluation 7, 15, 17, 28, 44, 50, 52, 55, 87, 105,
131, 138-139, 141, 144, 149-152, 167, 171, 173, 180, 184-185, 209, 234, 267, 289, 291, 294, 296, 308, 314, 332-333, 339, 345, 347, 375, 378, 382, 386, 390, 396, 401, 405, 413- 414, 420, 423-426, 432, 435-436, 459, 462, 464, 474-475, 477, 480, 524, 549, 552, 556- 559, 562-564, 567, 574-575, 577, 591-592, 600, 604, 614, 630-631, 635-636, 640, 719, 722-723, 728, 730-732, 734, 743, 772, 779, 783, 803, 814, 817, 823-824, 827-830, 833, 857
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exogenous 185, 388, 762, 770 Experiential Learning (EL) 215, 217, 224-227, 231,
259, 352, 360, 470, 642-647, 649-654, 718 extranets 147
F Facebook 2, 31, 37, 75, 89-91, 97-104, 106-107,
182, 254, 256, 258-259, 262, 265, 306, 385, 391, 419, 480, 539, 590, 596, 700, 702, 710- 712, 800, 822, 851, 854, 856, 858, 860-861
facilitative leadership 12, 14-19, 21 fair use 35-38, 44, 46-47, 178, 298-304, 306-309 filial therapy 79-80, 85, 87 final examination 808, 810-813, 818 formative evaluation 138, 332, 592, 600, 730-731 for-profit 31, 214, 364-365, 370, 372, 587, 727-728,
731, 784, 789, 855 forum 91, 93-94, 96, 99, 101, 103-104, 106, 110,
205, 283-284, 446, 448-449, 451, 477, 489, 505, 553, 623-624, 640, 832-833
future educational leaders 409-410, 412, 422
G generational blending 249, 252, 265 globalization 50, 59, 134, 154, 212, 257, 275, 283,
337, 346, 374, 391, 393, 399, 515, 527, 695, 697, 733, 742, 746-748, 751, 757, 760, 770
global survey 333-334, 336, 340, 344, 346, 348, 727, 732, 739-742, 744
google docs 257, 259-260, 265, 385, 597, 718 graduation rate 468, 475, 478, 809, 817 group dimension 697 group maintenance 15
H health behavior change 504-507, 509-513 Health Care Administration (HCA) 233-234, 238-
239, 243 health care administrator 238, 246 health prevention 513 Health Professional Shortage Area (HSPA) 467 hierarchical dimension 697 hierarchical integration 319 hierarchical regression 65, 71 Higher Education (HE) 2-3, 6-10, 12-15, 24-28,
30, 32-33, 42, 55, 60-61, 77, 81-82, 85, 87, 90-91, 101-103, 111, 123-125, 127, 129, 131, 133, 158, 171-172, 175, 179-182, 184, 195,
197, 212-215, 217-223, 225-232, 248-249, 251-253, 257-261, 263-265, 279-281, 288, 290, 298, 303, 307-308, 313, 320-328, 330, 337, 350-351, 353, 364, 366-367, 369-370, 382, 389, 398, 404, 410, 413, 421, 427, 434-435, 438, 461, 464, 466, 474, 478, 486, 491-493, 495, 499-503, 525, 528, 548, 555, 560, 567, 569, 571-577, 579-583, 585, 588-589, 595, 599, 610-612, 617-620, 623-624, 629, 647-649, 668, 682, 688, 696-697, 699-701, 708, 711, 713-719, 722-724, 733, 749, 751, 761-763, 765-766, 778, 780-781, 783-784, 786, 790-795, 800, 809, 816-817, 824, 829, 836, 842-845, 853, 861
high impact practices 425, 436 Horizon Report 50, 442 Howard Gardner 55, 174, 280 hub 442, 533, 544 human capital 170, 194-195, 480-481, 487-490,
583, 762, 769 humanistic education 25-26, 33-34 humanistic psychology 24 Human Performance Technology (HPT) 50, 61-62,
392 Human Resource Development (HRD) 62, 76, 132,
135, 164-169, 191-194, 219, 225, 228-230, 261, 327-328, 347-348, 372, 391-392, 394-407, 485, 489-490, 583-584, 622, 743-744, 747, 759-770
hybrid learning 3
I immersive learning environments 87 impoverished leader 180 incentive 54, 137, 216, 236, 352, 621, 647 incivility 65-77, 488 information consumer 2 information efficiencies 156 information literacy 7, 260, 373-376, 381-390 information synergies 156 instant messaging 145-146, 277, 393, 396, 419,
448, 593, 595, 785, 820 instructional design 6, 54, 144, 181-182, 302, 361,
376, 381-383, 385-386, 388, 390, 400, 425, 432-435, 451, 545, 566, 587-588, 591-592, 598-600, 643, 648-649, 651, 657, 730, 786
instructional strategies 54-55, 144, 172, 174-175, 178, 181-182, 185-186, 385, 420, 425-426, 559, 561, 592, 629, 821
integrated learning management system 390
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Integrated Readiness Matrix 171-172, 180, 183-185 intellectual property 35-39, 43-47, 219, 298-299,
301, 303-305, 307-309 interactive video 454, 457, 459, 467, 665 interactivity 2, 30, 41, 44, 49, 147-148, 253, 270,
274, 507, 511, 605, 643, 646, 648, 653, 658, 786, 802
intermediate schools 211, 452 International Society for Technology in Education
National Educational Technology Standards for Administrators (ISTE NETS-A) 409, 422
interpersonal intelligence 174 interpretive inquiry 339, 348, 734, 744 intranets 147-148, 155, 165, 228, 393 intrapersonal intelligence 174 in-world 716, 722, 725
J Jing 206-207, 446 junk bonds 13, 19
K knowledge creation 2, 7, 10, 29, 157-158, 168, 170,
212, 217-218, 227, 392, 394, 399, 533, 803, 860
Knowledge Management (KM) 41, 134, 154-155, 157-161, 163-170, 216-217, 219, 228-229, 231- 232, 269, 275-277, 301, 377, 393-394, 397, 399-400, 402-403, 406, 543, 721, 761, 769
Knowledge Net (KNet) 199, 204-205, 207-208, 437-438, 440, 442-444, 446-450, 452
knowledge retention 158, 645 knowledge sharing 163, 165, 212-213, 215-228,
230, 232, 399, 403, 406, 525, 536-538, 807
L leader-member exchange theory 323, 328 leadership approach 15 leadership training 278-286, 321, 332, 340, 643,
730-732, 735, 752 Learner-centered Instruction (LCI) 546, 554, 772,
797-799, 801-803, 807 learner-centered pedagogy 545, 556, 803-804 learner demographics 48, 258 Learner Experience 2, 11, 57, 59 learner-focused instruction 140 Learner Voice 2, 9, 11 learning communities 1-2, 6, 60, 98, 103, 134, 247-
265, 268, 270, 287, 397, 399, 403, 471, 542,
555, 606, 612, 614-615, 626, 785, 787, 792, 794-795, 827, 829, 837, 845, 851, 858-859, 861
learning facilitator 49, 612 learning innovation 49, 52-54 Learning Management Systems (LMS) 2, 7, 11,
148, 159, 172, 199-200, 223, 225-226, 385, 413, 417, 419, 437, 440-442, 447-451, 592, 710, 764
learning organization 162, 167-170, 188, 190, 194, 287, 466, 530, 606-607, 616, 618-619, 622- 624, 626-627
learning outcome 242, 246, 376, 656, 659, 661, 663-664
learning processes 6, 154, 157, 164, 166, 168, 224, 284, 390, 429, 507, 522, 579, 603, 627
learning story 445, 447, 452 Learning Technology 6, 9-10, 555, 642, 796 learning theories 55, 172, 176, 185, 439, 591, 665 Legitimate Peripheral Participation 91-92, 104, 106,
805 LibraryThing 42 linguistic intelligence 174 locus of control 26-28, 30, 34, 55, 297, 395, 535
M machine learning 50, 63 maintenance of transfer 297 managerial grid 178-179, 181, 185, 754 MANOVA 65, 71, 73 maturing 228, 540, 570, 578, 586 medical education 83, 212-223, 225-226, 228-232,
453-454, 457, 463-467, 600 mentee 468, 473-475, 478 mentor 23, 111, 120, 192, 285, 317, 398, 402, 468,
471, 473-475, 477-478, 524, 711-712, 829, 832, 842
mentoring 5, 8, 52, 58, 163, 223, 259, 263, 265, 340, 362, 397-398, 402-403, 420, 431, 447, 449, 468, 470, 472-478, 485, 538, 540, 611, 735, 815, 843
merging 3, 13, 193, 198, 569, 650, 689, 822 metacognition 231, 390 Meta Tags 50, 63 microblogs 57 middle-of-the-road leader 180 missing paradigm 5 Mixed Reality (MR) 653, 802, 805, 807 mobile applications 48-49 mobile learning 3, 149, 387, 806, 852-855, 857, 862
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Index
Modular Object-Oriented Dynamic Learning Envi- ronment (Moodle) 59, 63, 448, 779
MP3 audio 702, 711 Mulitple Intelligences (MI) 55-56, 118, 308, 477,
582-583, 796 Multiliteracy 89-90, 92, 94, 98-99, 101-103, 106 multimedia technology 657, 665 multimodalities 3 multivocal synthesis 601, 607-608, 615 musical intelligence 174
N National Assessment of Educational Process
(NAEP) 481-482, 490, 567 National Center for Victims of Crime 67, 76 national culture 617, 750, 752-753, 758 naturalist intelligence 175 needs assessment 131, 238, 289, 322, 330-333, 344-
346, 348, 412, 462, 467, 509, 536, 565, 574, 600, 636, 709, 730-733, 741-742, 744
new century 12-13, 15-19, 189, 195-196, 433 New media Consortium 50 next generation learning challenges 7 Ning 59, 63, 256, 854 non-adopter 503 Non Governmental Organization (NGO) 330-337,
339-348, 726-744 nonprofit 37, 47, 279, 287, 332, 348, 363-365, 368-
372, 394, 626, 727-728, 732, 743-744, 843 normal school 211
O oil cartel 13, 19 online community of practice 532, 540, 544 online course 12, 59, 63, 87, 110, 119, 178, 248,
250, 299, 304, 308-309, 423-426, 429-431, 433, 436, 597, 659, 665, 724, 786, 844-845
online discussion board 108-112, 114-119, 261, 356 online instruction 31, 83, 299-300, 308-309, 384,
433-434, 538, 656-657, 665 online placement test 711 online teaching and learning 30, 423-425, 427-428,
430-433, 436, 665, 714, 790, 843 on-the-job training (OJT) 297 ontology 697, 763, 770 open education 4, 7, 33, 49, 51, 58, 61, 63, 804 Open Educational Resource movement (OER) 4 Open learn Labspace 4 open source 7, 11, 39, 41, 43, 47-49, 58, 255, 265,
274, 381, 427, 448, 606, 814
Open University 4, 573 operationalize 311, 313-314, 770 organizational commitment 66, 68-70, 72, 76-77 Organizational Learning (OL) 139, 154-170, 216,
229, 268, 276, 392, 399-400, 405, 407, 511, 527, 616-618, 622, 624-627
organization change 348, 395, 401, 744, 762 organization culture 348, 744 organization values 334, 348, 730, 739, 744
P parent portal 199-209, 211, 442-443, 450, 452, 543 Participatory Culture 9, 358, 362, 731, 800 path-goal theory 322, 327, 329 pedagogical change 1 Pedagogy 2.0 5, 11 peer 2, 82, 108-111, 113, 115-118, 120, 123, 176,
200, 219-221, 251, 255, 264, 282, 284-285, 294, 297, 340, 343, 382, 384, 426, 432, 441, 447, 449, 486, 521, 552, 574, 701-702, 709, 712, 715, 717, 735, 738, 783, 785-787, 791, 793, 795, 829-830, 832, 844
peer review 108, 110-111, 113, 115-118, 120, 219- 221, 264, 426
performance innovation 48-54, 56-60 personal factors 67, 124, 697 Personal Learning Environment (PLE) 57-58, 62,
443 Personal Learning Network (PLN) 57, 59, 62 person-centered psychological approach 23 Ph.D. Completion Project 108-110, 112, 120 philosophy 20, 31, 38, 188, 190-193, 195, 204, 229,
255, 328, 350, 353-354, 365, 455, 554, 576, 588, 672, 759-761, 763, 765-766, 770, 803
physical violence 66-67, 73, 75, 77 pilot study 348, 745, 768 plagiarism 299-300, 305-309, 419 playfulness 646-652, 654 play therapist 81-82, 84-85, 668, 672-675, 679 play therapy techniques 671, 673, 679 portfolio of literacies 4 possible selves 313-319 Principal Content Analysis (PCA) 608-609, 615 production-oriented 15 public health 288-289, 291, 294-295, 297, 453-454,
463-464, 467, 477 push and pull technology 271
Q quadrants 15, 19, 21
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quantitative research 348, 745
R Ralph Tyler 557, 559-560, 565, 567-568 rational dimension 697 Really Simple Syndication (RSS) 43, 271, 277, 383,
388, 395, 596 Resource Management Software 309 restructuring 13, 103, 127, 193, 198, 215, 226-227,
410, 421, 469, 517, 521, 696, 762 Return on Capability Employed (ROCE) 369-370,
372
S sanctioning board 629, 641 scaffolds 6, 376 Scholarly Publishing and Academic Resources Co-
alition (SPARC) 45 school board 76, 628, 631, 633, 635-638, 640-641,
678, 861 school leadership 203, 260, 264, 270, 275-276, 349,
409-410, 536, 639-641, 847-850, 852, 855, 857-859, 861-862
school superintendent 628, 637, 640-641 Second Life 149, 153, 273, 306, 375, 400, 403, 449,
451-452, 596, 600, 713-725, 801 self 5, 12, 27, 29, 79, 104, 122, 197, 202-203, 258,
310-313, 315, 317-319, 337-338, 434-435, 443, 447, 465, 535, 573, 599, 607, 612, 629, 645, 672-673, 684-685, 692, 707, 715, 733, 754, 775, 779, 788, 798, 838, 840, 843
self-efficacy 124, 131, 137, 290, 294, 296-297, 401, 403, 466, 488-489, 509-511, 665
self regulation 798 Serious Game (SG) 643, 654 sharing of knowledge 449, 533, 542, 544, 784 signifiers 157 similarity-attraction paradigm 697 simulation 176, 218, 223-225, 228, 230, 232, 238,
243, 277, 385, 525, 590, 592, 642-643, 646, 648-650, 652-654, 765, 805
simulation education 223-225, 232 single loop learning 157, 627 situational approach 322, 329 skills approach 329 social development theory 110-111, 120, 669 social media 1-3, 5-6, 8-9, 11, 23, 49-51, 56-59, 63,
418, 529 Social Networking Communities (SNC) 90-91, 97-
98, 100-101, 105, 851
social presence 30, 83, 86, 104, 714, 784, 787, 792- 793, 795-796, 836-838, 841-846
social software 1-3, 5-7, 9-10, 260, 814 socio-pragmatic competence 90, 106-107 socio-pragmatic development 99 state schools 211 static organizations 188-198 streaming video 349, 665 student management system 211, 448 style approach 329 summative assessment 426, 546, 551, 778, 781 summative evaluation 138, 592, 600 supervisor 65, 67-74, 77, 111, 119, 132, 297, 341,
414, 493, 638, 736 survival analysis 808-810, 812, 816-818 sustainability 135, 330-331, 346, 514-516, 521-523,
528, 531, 535, 680-681, 688, 692, 726, 728- 730, 742, 820, 853, 856
sustainable innovation 516, 523-524, 527-531 synchronous 23, 59, 82-83, 97, 145-146, 148-149,
153, 176, 272, 352, 362, 398, 590, 593-595, 599-600, 700, 717, 719-721, 844, 851
synergism 15, 21-22
T taxonomy 131, 135, 171-175, 177-178, 180-181,
183, 185-186, 238-239, 241, 243, 318, 434, 451, 550, 554, 558, 564-565, 567, 643, 805
Taxonomy for the Technology Domain 171, 177, 180, 185-186
teaching presence 31, 83, 85 team leader 180, 754 technological aspirations 172 Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge
(TPCK) 797-800, 805-807 technology diffusion 137 Technology, Education and Copyright Harmoniza-
tion Act (TEACH) 29, 32, 36, 43, 55, 82-83, 175, 178, 206, 219-220, 224, 230, 253, 285, 300, 302, 354, 356, 359, 382, 385-386, 418- 419, 425, 431, 464, 472, 484, 486, 539, 546, 548-549, 552, 554-555, 559, 576-577, 602, 604, 606-607, 611-613, 620, 634-635, 642, 649, 653-654, 668, 700, 713, 715, 724, 772, 780-781, 822, 828-829
Technology Enhanced Learning (TEL) 638, 642- 643, 645-646, 648-652, 655
technology for collaboration 177 technology for decision-making 177 technology for learning 178, 180, 223
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technology for literacy 177 technology for teaching 177-178, 180 technology infrastructure 331, 346, 348, 409, 413,
534, 540, 729, 742, 745, 851 technology integration 133, 137, 143-145, 152-
154, 181, 223, 233, 243, 270, 356, 391, 400, 409-410, 413, 415-416, 422, 514, 527, 746, 797-800, 803-804, 807, 819-821, 823-824, 826, 831, 834
technology integration plan 413, 422 technology professional development 410, 422,
819-832, 834 tech-ology 177-178, 180 telecommuting 20, 406, 491-503 teleconferencing 146, 254, 456, 595 teleport 640, 725, 801 tenets 13, 16, 22, 26, 213, 250, 252 text-based interaction 272 theoretical framework 54, 110, 297, 507, 546, 667,
763, 774, 795 theories of leadership 267, 277, 616 Theory X 22, 323 Theory X-hard approach 15 the Sloan Consortium 30-31, 33, 248 third space 100, 107 threaded 145-146, 256, 381-384, 590, 594, 700, 711 traditional academic advising 698-699, 701, 703,
706-707, 711 traditional aged student 711 transfer of related training 290-292, 294-295, 297 Transfer of Training Inventory (TTI) 291, 294, 297 transformational learning 507, 513 transformative change 130, 137 transliteracies 5 turnover intent 65-66, 68-72, 74-75, 77 twitter 2, 31, 57, 59, 256, 258, 265, 272, 391, 480,
590, 596, 851, 856, 861 types of play 669, 673, 679
U unconditional positive regard 24-27, 34, 629
V value congruence 686-687, 695-697 videoconferencing 103, 183, 254, 270, 274
virtual academic advising 698, 707, 709, 711 virtual classroom 149, 558 Virtual Communities of Practice (VCoPs) 154, 159,
162-163, 165, 397, 399, 403 Virtual Human Resource Development (HRD) 219,
225, 392, 394-395, 397, 399, 401-402, 407 Virtual Learning Envorinments (VLE) 2, 11, 63,
451 virtual peer advisor 712 virtual realities 46, 273 virtual team 330, 398, 401, 406-407 virtual workplace 396, 407 virtual worlds 8, 46, 134, 159, 162, 166, 276, 387,
391, 396-398, 400, 403-404, 407, 449, 596, 646, 649, 718, 722-724, 798, 801-804, 807
voice-over IP 273, 286 volatility 13, 22, 729
W Web 2.0 1-5, 7-11, 35-36, 42, 44, 47, 49-50, 56-58,
61, 63-64, 75, 89-93, 96-97, 100-101, 105, 110, 134, 208, 255-256, 258-260, 265-266, 270-272, 274-275, 277, 283, 286-287, 349-350, 355, 357-358, 362, 381-382, 384, 390, 392, 395, 405-406, 442, 444, 448, 587, 595-596, 598-599, 606, 616, 621, 625, 627, 699-702, 709-710, 712, 714, 718, 798, 800-804, 806- 807, 820, 859, 861
web-based instruction 1, 178, 384, 590-591, 600 web-based learning platforms 161 web-based technology-assisted training 147 webcast 148-149, 153, 273-274 webinar 148-149, 153 Wikibooks 4 wikispaces 59, 63-64 Wikiversity 4 work group 297 workplace incivility 65-70, 72, 75-76
Z Zines 351, 359, 362
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Copyright © 2012, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
Chapter 25
INTRODUCTION
In the face of accelerated, unrelenting change, organizations in both private and public sectors are grappling with managing environmental and organizational shifts. Gundling (2010) sees a new global competitive order evolving where
companies will compete “with everyone from everywhere for everything” (p. 34). He predicts that employees will need a global mindset where they will be “working with virtual team members, with a diverse workforce at home as well as when traveling abroad” (p.50). Technology development has become an increasingly common adaptation
Jules K. Beck University of Arkansas, USA
Kit Kacirek University of Arkansas, USA
Defining Technology Challenges to Growth of an International
Non-Governmental Organization (NGO):
A Case Study
ABSTRACT
This case study addresses the emerging need for technology-focused development for an international humanitarian organization whose mission is to further community sustainability and citizen empowerment through agricultural and animal husbandry projects. This case study, based on a multi-method needs assessment conducted in both the US headquarters as well as abroad, explores how the organization might address issues of growth and program sustainability throughout the fifty-one countries on five continents where the organization maintains programs by focusing on the development of technology support systems in its country programs.
DOI: 10.4018/978-1-61350-068-2.ch025
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Defining Technology Challenges to Growth of an International Non-Governmental Organization
response to demographic and industrial change. This study examines the role that technology played in enabling an international non-govern- mental organization (NGO) that specializes in community sustainability and empowerment to meet the challenges associated with organizational growth, leadership, and cultural complexity. Using mixed methods, a team of university consultants assessed the organization’s leadership capacity and discovered that its program effectiveness was severely hampered by gaps and inconsistencies in technology infrastructure, training, and servic- ing of country program requests. The consulting team also found that the organization’s leader- ship, oblivious to these gaps, was hobbled in its ability to effectively anticipate and manage the change inherent in the organization’s ongoing expansion and cultural diversity. The following sections present results of a global needs assess- ment conducted electronically, focus groups held at leadership development workshops on three continents, and face-to-face interviews held at the NGO headquarters in the U.S.
BACKGROUND
Within a ten-year period, an international NGO evolved from a “family community” where in- dividuals had unlimited access to the CEO into an enterprise that had “corporate components.” Organizational growth forced the CEO to be less visible in daily operations and eroded the sense of family for the cadre of incumbents who had experienced the organization’s pre-growth familial culture. A tension developed between incumbent and new employees, and the relationship between headquarters (HQ) and “the field” became more complex. Given cultural differences and geo- graphic separateness, the NGO’s field directors advocated for increased autonomy regarding decisions that affected their country programs. In contrast, HQ managers added policies, reporting duties, and training requirements to which field
staff had to abide. Those burdensome charges, coupled with a distant HQ staff, many having no first-hand field experience, amplified the divide between the two organization segments.
Values
While the NGO was guided by a board of directors and a senior leadership team, the organization’s founding values influenced all programmatic and institutional decisions. Those values honor indi- vidual wisdom and collective decision-making, and look to build sustainable community capac- ity. Organizational values were reinforced by messages that were prominently displayed on the organization’s physical structure, in its internal documents, and in its marketing material. The founding values have been institutionalized and used as benchmarks against which all plans, deci- sions, and activities are measured.
Under the CEO’s leadership, the NGO was transformed from a cash-strapped enterprise into a financially sound organization that expanded its community enhancement projects and initiated new global programs. Ironically, the organiza- tion’s success in attracting corporate and private donations that allowed it to expand its assistance to developing communities also created a strain on the leadership’s ability to manage its own internal growth.
As its employee base surged, the organization outgrew its physical location. As a result, employ- ees were spread among three separate locations within a three-mile radius. That physical separation combined with additional bureaucratic protocols constricted spontaneous, informal meetings, and inhibited cross-segment collaboration within the organization. Many newer hires, including managers and supervisors, never met nor were introduced to the CEO―a cultural rite of passage for employees during the organization’s formative years. The dichotomous split between new and long-term employees created opposing camps in the organization, polarizing the workplace. By
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2001, employee turnover, once a rarity within the NGO, overwhelmed the training department. The symptoms of growth concerned some members of the NGO senior leadership team, but since the NGO was notably successful in fundraising, top management appeared unconcerned.
The Project
The mission of the NGO relied on a strict code of ethics based on founding values established in its early days some sixty years earlier. As its vision and mission evolved over the decades, the NGO espoused the same commitment to em- ployee development as it had to beneficiaries of its world-wide programs. Thus, every employee was considered a leader in the organization, al- though the NGO had never explicitly defined the behaviors and expectations associated with that leadership. Believing that enhanced employee leadership would stem turnover and create a more cohesive workforce. A senior executive within the NGO mandated that leadership training be developed for all employees. By 2005, the train- ing department was assigned responsibility for the leadership initiative. Trainers initiated a series of needs assessment activities to help determine the challenges the organization would face in creating a stable community betterment vehicle across dif- ferent cultural practices, communication systems, and supervisory relationships. Results of the as- sessments were to be used to generate a training curriculum that would inculcate the cooperative spirit and shared values that had characterized the organization throughout its formative history.
A tripartite needs assessment was developed that included a web-based, organization-wide sur- vey that elaborated on a previous internal survey; personal interviews with HQ staff arranged by the training department; and formative evaluation results from three workshops that would pilot the curriculum framework. The results of the needs assessment would subsequently inform a cur- riculum by identifying leadership development
competencies that could be converted into leader- ship learning modules. Those modules could be bundled within a variety of technology- assisted delivery systems for use in fifty-one countries where the organization maintained programs of differing maturity and locality-specific cultural challenges. The organization sponsored three pilot workshops on three continents to test the organizational and cultural fit of various leadership competencies that would anchor the curriculum.
The Consulting Team
Faced with the responsibility of developing and implementing a leadership development program without adequate internal expertise, the NGO training director engaged consultants from a state university executive education center to assist with the project. It selected the land-grant university research team to carry out the needs assessment because its members had extensive international NGO experience and because the team’s perspective was more objective than those of the organization’s internal stakeholders. The diverse research team included one member from the business school and four from the college of education. Team members had extensive experi- ence with adult education and life-long learning, curriculum development, leadership development, international work, and nonprofit organization consulting.
After conferring with the NGO training direc- tor, the consulting team proposed a three-year plan that would allow leadership training to be phased into the organization’s developing struc- tural and managerial systems. The plan outlined roles and responsibilities for the consulting team and key NGO individuals, established a timeline for developing and implementing each phase of the proposal, identified desired outcomes for each project phase, and articulated a comprehensive evaluation system for each phase.
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The Plan: Year One
The first year of the proposed three-year project focused on conducting a comprehensive needs assessment that included feedback from senior leadership, from employees in stratified segments of the organization, and from pilot workshop participants. A one-year timetable was created to conduct assessment and evaluation activities, leading to a technical report that would recom- mend NGO-specific competencies foundational to a leadership development curriculum. The fol- lowing describes the processes used to complete the needs assessment.
Needs Assessment Methodology
This study is based on the theoretical assump- tions of needs assessment as an organization development intervention. While the processes associated with this type of intervention may dif- fer in public and private enterprises, the literature suggested that needs assessment is a process of gathering information to elucidate the degree of alignment among the organization’s mission and goals and its actual output or impact. Rothwell and Sredl (1992) suggest that needs assessment can be deficiency or opportunity-oriented. While deficiency orientation focuses on the present, opportunity orientation identifies performance gaps that will likely occur in the future due to increasing change in both the public and private sectors. Sleezer (1992) suggested that a needs as- sessment could produce three results: generating information, priorities, and management support; Holton (1995) expanded Sleezer’s approach to recommend solutions and interventions that assist organizational development.
The needs assessment described in this study was conducted to identify “the common leader- ship language” for an NGO that would articulate the leadership competencies needed to navigate the organization through rapid growth while rein- forcing its founding principles and mission. The
needs assessment results were to be used to inform NGO leadership development initiatives and to provide individuals throughout the enterprise an opportunity to be included in the change process.
A mixed methodology was used to gather pertinent information from stakeholders. Those methods included an anonymous, web-based global survey, structured individual interviews, formative and summative feedback from work- shop participants, casual interviews, document review, research team observation, and organiza- tion meetings. While the following sections focus primarily on the needs assessment component in which quantitative methodology in data collec- tion was used to determine desirable leadership development, additional information from the qualitative interviews and overseas meetings focus on the deeper meanings of the NGO values and commitment to its principles of grass-roots involvement. Team members utilized an emotional intelligence model useful for analyzing leadership competencies during the overseas workshops since that model would best align with the value orientation of the NGO. The following sections describe the data collection process, analysis, and results for both quantitative and qualitative components of the needs assessment, and extracts critical background information from the global, web-based survey useful for understanding the NGO international context.
THE NGO GLOBAL LEADERSHIP SURVEY
A web-based global survey cooperatively-devel- oped by the Team and the NGO and electronically distributed through the NGO web-based network was used to collect quantitative data that were analyzed and later compared to the qualitative data. A 25-item Likert-scale survey with six open- ended questions was developed by the university consultants with input from the NGO training director. The survey was made available online
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Defining Technology Challenges to Growth of an International Non-Governmental Organization
to all employees of the NGO for six weeks. A total of 178 employees responded from the 829 employees of the organization, a 21.5% rate of return to the Web-based survey, representing five divisions within the organization and offices in various countries, including programs in the United States.
The results of the global survey demonstrated that while employees overwhelmingly viewed themselves as leaders in the organization, they did not believe, generally, that the organization recognized their achievements. This and other results from the survey influenced the consulting team recommendations to the NGO regarding the findings’ potential impact on the leadership development plan. Table 1 divides survey ques- tions into four issue categories:
• accountability—personal demonstration on the part of the employee, as well as rec- ognition of leadership by the NGO;
• perceptions toward own leadership, under- standing of NGO expectations;
• opportunities for leadership development and professional growth; and,
• organization values—how respondents view the importance of the NGO founding values compared to their own self-interest.
A discussion of Table 1 results can be found in Global Survey Findings. Table 2 shows a two-to-one ratio of female to male respondents, while Table 3 presents work division information showing an equal split between international and home country respondents.
GLOBAL SURVEY DEMOGRAPHIC INFORMATION
Global Survey Findings
This discussion examines results of the NGO global survey that raised questions about misalign-
ment of NGO values and practice. The responses coincide with the segmentation within Table 1: Accountability; Perceptions Toward Leadership; Opportunities for Leadership Development and Professional Growth; and Values of the Organiza- tion. The following summarize the results of the global survey.
Accountability
Respondents generally believed that they were responsible for demonstrating leadership. How- ever, more than two-thirds felt that they were only sometimes rewarded for displaying leadership ability. More than half of the respondents indicated that they were never, rarely, or only sometimes given opportunities to use leadership skills.
Perceptions toward Leadership
Respondents saw themselves as modeling in- tegrity, ethical behavior, and problem-solving skills, but often did not understand the leadership qualities expected of them, Sixty percent saw senior management as generally weak in leader- ship ability.
Opportunities for Leadership Development and Professional Growth
Respondents clearly indicated a willingness to take on responsibility and improve their leader- ship skills, while a majority of them felt that the NGO did not actively develop leadership skills in its employees.
Values of the Organization
While respondents felt they were committed to the NGO mission, fully half believed that the organization did not sufficiently develop in them the leadership characteristics enabling them to represent the organization to the wider community.
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Defining Technology Challenges to Growth of an International Non-Governmental Organization
Table 1. Respondents perception of leadership traits in global NGO survey (n = 178)
Leader Trait Responses
Accountability
Strongly Agree Agree Undecided Disagree Strongly Disagree
N/A
n % n % n % n % n % n %
I am accountable for demonstrating leadership
33 32.6 92 48.9 35 11.2 14 4.5 3 1.7 1 .6
Always Most Times Sometimes Rarely Never N/A
I am rewarded for being an effective leader
9 5.1 44 24.7 66 37.1 42 23.6 13 7.3 4 2.2
I invite participation in decision-making
37 20.8 100 56.2 33 18.5 5 2.8 2 1.1 1 0.6
I am open to feedback about personal strengths and weaknesses
66 37.1 82 46.1 22 12.4 6 3.4 1 0.6 1 0.6
I easily build collaborative relationships
32 18.0 85 47.8 52 29.2 7 3.9 0 0.0 2 1.1
I show appreciation and respect for others
40 22.5 108 60.7 29 16.3 0 0.0 0 0.0 1 0.6
I provide constructive feedback to others when needed
75 42.1 87 48.9 14 7.9 1 0.6 1 0.6 0 0.0
I empower my team by delegating decision making
20 11.2 75 42.1 65 36.5 12 6.7 3 1.7 3 1.7
I easily solve problems and make decisions
51 28.7 105 59.0 19 10.7 3 1.7 0 0.0 0 0.0
Perceptions Toward Leadership
Always Most Times Sometimes Rarely Never N/A
I consider myself to be a leader
25 14.0 95 53.4 50 28.1 7 3.9 1 .6 0 0.0
I actively try to build trust among our team
93 52.2 78 43.8 6 3.4 0 0.0 0 0.0 1 0.6
I model ethical behavior and integrity in my relationships
84 47.2 81 45.5 10 5.6 1 0.6 0 0.0 2 1.1
I plan and prioritize work tasks to meet objectives
85 47.8 89 50.0 3 1.7 0 0.0 0 0.0 1 0.6
When conflict arises I use it positively to identify differences and solve problems
22 12.4 101 56.7 47 26.4 5 2.8 0 0.6 3 1.7
Strongly Agree
Agree Undecided Disagree Strongly Disagree
N/A
I understand the leadership behaviors expected of me
33 18.5 93 52.5 23 12.9 25 14.0 3 1.7 1 0.6
Always Most Times Sometimes Rarely Never N/A
NGO senior management team demonstrates strong leadership skills
7 3.9 56 31.5 84 47.2 24 13.5 6 3.4 1 0.6
continued on the following page
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Opportunities for Leadership Development and Professional Growth
Strongly Agree Agree Undecided Disagree Strongly Disagree
N/A
The NGO actively develops staff to take on more leadership responsibilities
23 12.9 67 37.6 38 21.3 38 21.3 12 6.7 0 0.0
Always Most Times Sometimes Rarely Never N/A
I recognize opportunities for professional and personal growth
24 13.5 87 48.9 54 30.3 11 6.2 1 .6 1 0.6
I find time to strengthen my skills and knowledge
15 8.4 108 60.7 52 29.2 2 1.2 0 0.0 1 0.6
Most NGO staff willingly take on leadership roles when the situation requires
33 18.5 92 51.7 35 19.7 14 7.9 3 1.7 1 0.6
I am given opportunities to use my leadership skills
15 8.4 66 37.1 70 39.3 19 10.7 7 3.9 1 0.6
I am given opportunities to strengthen the leadership skills of others
14 7.9 53 29.8 69 38.8 34 19.1 8 4.5 0 0.0
I find time to strengthen my skills and knowledge
15 8.4 108 60.7 52 29.2 2 1.1 0 0.0 1 0.6
Values of the Organization
Strongly Agree Agree Undecided Disagree Strongly Disagree
N/A
The NGO actively develops staff to take on more leadership responsibilities
23 12.9 67 37.6 38 21.3 38 21.3 12 6.7 0 0.0
Always Most Times Sometimes Rarely Never N/A
I place the NGO vision, mission, and values above my own self-interest
50 28.1 99 55.6 26 14.6 1 .6 0 0.0 2 1.1
I am able to communicate the NGO mission to the wider community
13 7.3 61 34.3 81 45.5 21 11.8 0 0.0 2 1.1
GLOBAL SURVEY DISCUSSION
The Global Survey raised significant questions about the NGO commitment to leadership devel- opment. NGO value pronouncements consider all employees to be leaders in the organization—a value held from the inception of the NGO in the 1940’s—but employees believed that their
leadership was largely unappreciated. Associates received no benefits or recognition from taking on leadership tasks, nor were they provided with activities that would develop leadership skills. Employees responded to needs that required decision-making, collaboration, and constructive feedback to associates. While the global online survey provided statistically significant data re-
Table 1. Continued
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garding employee perceptions across four major themes, it does not provide data that show how employees and NGO leadership could effectively communicate, let alone reconcile, their differing perceptions across the time, space, and culture barriers that separate senior management from its HQ staff and field offices.
Qualitative Study Research Design
In contrast to the global online survey, the re- search team employed qualitative methods to understand the global leadership expectations of NGO headquarters staff. There is no specified set of procedural steps used in this kind of inquiry; as Hultgren (1989) noted, “the self engagement in the project allows one to be led by the questions and the natural unfolding of the inquiry as it is lived, rather than prestructured in advance” (p. 52). The research team incorporated Van Manen’s (1990) six research activities to guide the study, looking for the “dynamic interplay” among the activities that he asserted defines phenomenological study (p. 30). These activities are discussed below.
Turn to a Phenomenon that Seriously Interests Us and Commits Us to the World
As Silvers asserted, the first feature of the interpre- tive process “begins with an existential stirring of the researcher’s biography” (in Hultgren, 1989, p. 52). The team’s background in cross-cultural and international issues provided motivation to collaborate with the mission-driven NGO and its
programs in fifty-one countries. Team members were especially anxious to learn how others con- structed meaning about the NGO and how that meaning might resonate with their own.
Investigate Experience as We Live it Rather than as We Conceptualize It
To record NGO experiences as lived, the research- ers conducted in-depth interviews with twenty-six participants. During the interviews, the researchers probed for meaning behind participant stories that reflected their attitudes and experience regarding organization leadership without prior reflection. Gadamer (1975) described such questioning as an art, “not in the sense of learned craft, but as in the structure of experience and thinking of a hermeneutic consciousness... the art of questioning is that of being able to go on asking questions” (p. 330). Van Manen claimed that to uncover an idea of different ways of thinking and acting, “we must ask questions that penetrate to the core of the everyday life concerns that are taken for granted” (in Hultgren, 1989, p. 51).
While the impact of globalization and leader- ship has been the subject of voluminous research, little has been written about the leadership chal- lenges of a contemporary NGO directing programs on five continents. This study presented life ex- periences from the immediacy of the participants’ own perceptions. The research team members remained mindful of their own preconceived as- sumptions or ideas, the “bracketing” described by Van Manen (1990) that helps researchers better
Table 2. Respondent gender
Gender Frequency Percent
Female 119 66.9
Male 58 32.6
n/a 1 0.6
Total 178 100.0
Table 3. Respondent work division
Division Frequency Percent
Executive Office 8 4.5
External Relations 52 29.2
SRU Foundation 2 1.1
Internal Operations 26 14.6
International Programs 90 50.6
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suspend beliefs to enable “study of the essential structures of the world” (p. 175). Participant selection and the interview protocol is discussed in more depth, below.
Reflect on the Essential Themes that Characterize the Phenomenon
Van Manen (1990) described reflection as a thoughtful grasping of what gives an experience its special significance. In approaching the reflec- tive process, the team first read all the transcribed texts, seeking a holistic view of the language conveyed through the interviews. As Gadamer (1975) proclaimed, “understanding is not so much an action of subjectivity as it is entering into an event of transmission, wherein past and present are constantly mediated through language” (pp. 43-44). Next, the team reread each text, searching for statements that uncovered important elements that defined for the participant a particularly mean- ingful moment, feeling, or revelation about self or the world as immediately experienced. As the team searched for themes, they remained mind- ful of van Manen’s (1990) distinction between universal theme and essential theme. Universal themes exist across phenomena, while essential themes would lose their fundamental meaning without the phenomenon. The process of segment- ing universal and essential themes is discussed in greater detail in the interview protocol, below.
Describe the Phenomenon through the Art of Writing and Rewriting
While Hultgren (1989) noted the lack of a single method in phenomenological research; the re- searchers took van Manen’s guide to phenom- enological writing—“the speaking of language, varying examples, writing and rewriting” as an investigation that used personal experience to trace the derivation of words and idiomatic phrases (p. 51). Additionally, the researchers subscribed to
Silvers’ in the description of emerging interpretive knowledge resulting from a dialectical moving “back and forth between the participants’ self- understanding and the subject of appearance” (in Hultgren, pp. 52-53), or between our continual processing of information about the phenomenon and the phenomenon, itself.
Maintain a Strong Orientation on the Fundamental Question
Throughout the interview process the research team kept the central question at hand:- what do the participants want to see in a global leader- ship development initiative? Remaining mindful of the fundamental research question facilitated the team’s ability to conversationally probe for understanding of nuances behind a participant’s statement, while maintaining the integrity of the research design. This determined focus mitigated the likelihood of the researchers being side-tracked or speculating, as Van Manen (1990) warned. While interview transcripts contained many important issues involving international or cross- cultural leadership, the rereading and rewriting of the themes helped the researchers more closely adhere to the messages revealed by the participants as they related to the central question.
Balance the Research Context by Considering Parts and Whole
Van Manen (1990) claimed that “it is easy to get so buried in writing that one no longer knows where to go” (p. 33), suggesting that the researcher should move back from the material to regain a perspec- tive of the whole. Hence, during the continued rewriting of the emergent themes, the researchers reflected on how the themes contributed to under- standing of the leadership that the organization would like to develop across its fifty-one country programs on five continents.
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THE NGO QUALITATIVE STUDIES
The following describe the interviews with head- quarters employees, the methods used to conduct the interviews, evaluation of the results, and themes that emerged from the inquiry.
Structured Interviews
The purpose of interviewing a cross-section of individuals from the NGO headquarters (HQ) staff was to understand their leadership expectations for the NGO both in the US and abroad. The research team used the hermeneutic phenomenological ap- proach described above to examine how the NGO HQ staff perceived leadership work and life in an international context, or as Bredo and Feinberg (1982) suggested, to understand how HQ staff perceived the “rules and conventions that one must know to make sense of things, to understanding what is going on, rather than merely... the rules that one must know to behave with propriety” (p. 122). Using this methodology, the team hoped to uncover the hidden reasons or motives. Bredo and Feinberg described, to
“explain actions in the everyday sense of making others’ reasons or motives comprehensible... in terms of their reasons or motives, and in terms of the system of rules or conventions constituting these reasons or motives.... Sometimes people act in a motivated way but are systematically unaware of their motives, and in fact think they are acting from other motives.” (p. 127)
Hultgren (1989) summarized the purpose of interpretive inquiry as seeking to clarify, authen- ticate, uncover, or bring to full human awareness the meaning structures expressed by people in their everyday experiences. The purpose of interpretive inquiry was to understand human cultural activity and experience from the perspective of those liv- ing through the experience. Each of this study’s qualitative components focused on illuminating
the cultural milieu of the NGO’s leadership experi- ences and expectations. Other researchers (Miles and Huberman (1994), Parry and Sinha (2005), Patton (1990), Strauss and Corbin (1990) have found that participants may have deeper mean- ings behind their statements that can be revealed by asking further, probing questions resulting in themes common to the participants.
Study Participants
Seventeen headquarters participants were selected by the NGO training department after consulting with senior management and a project review committee organized for the leadership develop- ment initiative. Participants included senior HQ management, regional global management, and personnel representative across all levels in the or- ganization, including technical and support areas.
The Interview Protocol
The HQ participants were asked questions about their background, work experience, the meaning of leadership, and their understanding of how leadership is distributed within the NGO.
The HQ interviews were conducted in a conversational setting in person or by telephone. Initial interviews required 60 to 90 minutes, with follow-up interviews conducted several weeks later. During the follow up interviews, the research team confirmed the accuracy of the themes that had been identified from the initial interview, clarified various questions, and provided participants an opportunity to reflect on how their experiences resonated with the themes that evolved during the study. Based on the follow-up interviews and upon further reflection and observations, the research team revised the themes to correspond better to the intersubjective meanings of what the orga- nization would like to focus on in its leadership development program.
The research team was cognizant about the international context of the text generated by the
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participants and remained sensitive to the exis- tential themes that van Manen (1990) described as the lifeworld essentials, where lived presence was influenced by space, time, corporeality, and communality.
Post-Workshop Focus Group Interview Questions
The research team used a different set of interview questions for the on-site focus group meetings to elicit more of a group response. Two focus groups of 16 participants were conducted in Latin America and three groups containing 24 participants were conducted in Africa. For the Eastern European workshops, the team used a survey of the 29 participants developed with the NGO on site. Participants’ initial responses were followed up with probing questions to ascertain the deeper meaning behind participant text. Focus group participants were asked these questions at the conclusion of the first two workshops.
• What was it like participating in this workshop?
• What three words would you pick to de- scribe this week?
• What can you take back from this work- shop that will help you do your job?
• What changes would you make to this workshop to make it more effective?
• Was there anything else? (repeated several times)
In asking probing, follow-up questions, the research team clarified or expanded on concepts raised in the group. For example, the impact of local authorities related to work or personal situations were touched upon; the researchers sought greater understanding about an individual’s perception of events or ideas in those areas.
This method required a non-directive approach to interviewing where researchers did not lead participants in any particular direction. While it
was understood that the qualitative research might yield commonalities, similar themes, or patterns within the data, the research team remained open to the possibility that results might suggest no commonalities in any area.
Additional Criteria Used to Understand the NGO Context
The research team’s final report consisted of its own observations and included results of the web-based global survey, including the survey’s open-ended, qualitative component; comments from focus groups conducted at the conclusion of workshops at two of the overseas sites; team member field notes written at the third workshop site; and a survey developed with the NGO training officer and administered at the third site.
Primary Themes from the Qualitative Research HQ Interviews
Following coding and analyzing transcriptions of individual interviews and field notes, completing member checks and peer debriefing, the following five themes emerged from interviews held with managers and other employees made available by NGO senior leadership: Coaching/Mentor- ing, Career Development, Rapid Growth of the Organization, Participatory Decision-Making, and Innovative Leadership. Each theme is presented below with an illustrative citation from participants describing the theme.
Coaching/Mentoring
A senior leader involved in international program- ming commented that “we hired a lot of people without management training who were never groomed to lead a country program.... There’s no training for increased responsibility. Most VPs have had no executive leadership training.” Coaching and mentoring were seen by senior management as important skills needed at both
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headquarters and in the field. They felt that greater effectiveness in both areas would contribute to retention of employees who joined the organiza- tion with great expectations.
Career Development
Many NGO staff believed that a career develop- ment program was needed in the home office. As a member of the accounting staff stated:
“there’s a lack of clear career paths... a lot of folks just get their foot in the door anyway they can because it’s a great organization. But then, once you get here, I don’t think there’s a lot of time spent to determine someone’s strengths, and maybe if they’re in the right position.”
Others questioned compensation and promo- tion policies: “there’s been a compensation study; it’s been ongoing for two or three years.” A senior member of the leadership team tried to visualize a career development path or formalized promo- tional track, and concluded: “I don’t believe we have one.” Another leader looked ahead: “as far as career development, I think informally it is the responsibility... of the supervisor and the em- ployee, but as far as [our] getting more formal and consistent, and having some tools and processes... we need to make it a priority to move forward.”
Rapid Growth of the Organization
A continual theme running through the conversa- tions was the explosive, ten-fold growth of the NGO during recent years, from a budget of $7 million to over $75 million. As an organization visionary reported,
“when you [add] almost 20 people a month... that happened [for] almost two years... how can you absorb people and train them and properly orient [them]... we were just lucky to get them in and get their desk figured out, and give them their
key and their security clearance or whatever it might have been.”
A staff person noted that “the organization grew so fast, they’re used to running themselves like a mom-and-pop [store] because that’s how they had done it for so long. We’ve got to start running ourselves like CARE.... that means you do lose some of the personal aspects, and I think that’s a real struggle going on right now, and leadership included.” A program person cited another problem with rapid growth came “from hiring people before we know what to do with them...I think that has compounded the problem of not knowing how we lead, or how we manage, or how we make decisions today.”
The dichotomy between an organization driven by values and one driven by successful corporate practices of the day was a common viewpoint touched upon by participants. As one executive explained, “there’s just a tension [here] that I think you would hear more than one person say. We need to make sure that we encompass... the more corporate or bottom-line thinking, or more deadline-oriented thinking... with what we have been. Our history has us as a more grassroots kind of open-ended, more people-oriented, more shake-your-head, rather than a signature-on-a- legal-document-type organization.” The manager added that they could improve the atmosphere by striving to be an organization that could “cross all the t’s and dot all the i’s,” but could still honor its roots, “making sure we remain participatory as long as feasible.”
One program person talked about her per- ception that leadership was polarized across the organization: “you have programs in kind of the original spirit from 60 years ago on one side, and then you have operations, and accountability pro- tecting the organization’s name and brand, and new blood or corporate mentality in the organization on the other side... those two poles are working against at times and together at times.”
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A senior leader described having a strategic plan, an emphasis on accountability, legal struc- tures, and policies, and “all that’s really impor- tant... but if we focus on those and forget what we’re about, that’s the balance that we’re trying to keep, between the old and the new.” A manager summed up the dilemma, “so as you bring in people from the outside, who come from corporate backgrounds, not NGO backgrounds, [but] from more complex organizations, that introduces a kind of stress to the old school.”
Participatory Decision-Making
The organization prides itself on a commitment to universal participation in decision-making. That principle, however, has sometimes paralyzed the process rather than create the intended harmony, as one participant said,
“we’re a very participatory organization, so I think they encourage folks to be leaders to a certain extent…there’s a disconnect between manage- ment’s definition of leadership and staff, being one of those who are not part of management, sometimes I feel like we get bogged down in the participatory process”.
A manager described the participatory process as “okay for us and it’s good for us to a fault. Because sometimes decisions can be lost or not acted upon, or linger a little bit too long because you want to make sure you get a lot of voices in.” A staff person agreed, noting that “sometimes we might miss out on some things because we’re so busy trying to make sure everybody’s weighed in. And another manager suggested “there’s a fine line between participatory decision-making and consensus.”
A staff person hoped that all would feel empow- ered and consider themselves leaders, however, “I think there’s a perception right now that if you’re not in a position of authority, nobody is going to listen to what you’re saying... I think there are
some people that are afraid to speak their mind, because they’re afraid they’ll lose their job.”
Innovative Leadership
Many participant comments were future oriented and focused on directions needed to sustain the organization. A senior leader suggested that “ad- vocacy is going to be one of our biggest steps, and it will be one of the biggest risk-taking steps we’ve taken.” A danger would be offending some donors, where some issues might challenge “religious circles and religious beliefs, as well as cross-cultural [sensitivities].” When there are questions about the mission, or about a particu- lar issue, the organization has typically avoided responding “because we’ve not formalized a [policy] statement.”
A senior vice-president suggested there was a need to hire people to stretch the ideas and practices in the organization. “How do we see ourselves and how do we see others? We are a diverse organiza- tion, but we assume that we act with diversity.” Another leader discussed the need for leadership “to occur at all levels of the organization,” as well as a need “to establish some sort of baseline, in terms of what are our leadership competencies? What is our definition of leadership? What is our developmental plan?” Leadership appeared to be not just situational, but evolving along with the organization: “we could have individuals in the organization who were highly effective leaders five years ago, and perhaps the organization has outgrown their [ideas]. It’s not just leadership capacities, but all kinds of skills that [were] ad- equate to the job five years ago that have really been challenged by [organizational] growth. A significant part of that growth has happened not in our field programs, but in developing our cen- tralized capacity.”
One leader saw widespread change challeng- ing the NGO, “the world and global climate is changing, from terrorism to State Department lists, places where we work you can’t travel…
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your insurance doesn’t cover you, do you send people there or do you not?”
Finally, a program leader commented, “I think there have been interesting experiences in leadership development by people stepping into a void, you know, because of a lack of structure or lack of a system. But that’s spotty, and that’s not something that has been intentional.”
Primary Themes, Post-Workshop Focus Group Interviews
After coding the transcriptions of each post- workshop focus group, data analysis, member checks, and peer debriefing, the following themes emerged. The five previous themes were repeated in the focus group interviews, and two new ones were added: Concern about the Proposed Lead- ership Development Curriculum Process and the Inadequacy of Leadership Development by itself to help the organization.The primary themes mir- rored those from the interview questions, but two themes were unique to the focus group responses, and are elaborated on below.
Concern About Proposed Leadership Development Curriculum Process
A function of the pilot workshops was to gather information from participants regarding their perceived leadership needs and those of the NGO. Another function was to expose NGO personnel to leadership development activities that could be incorporated in the final curriculum to be used throughout the NGO. Because of this exposure, the participants were very vocal about the exercises and activities they found to be useful and those that they did not consider as valuable.
In two of the three workshops, supervisors and subordinates were grouped together. Focus group respondents indicated that while this for- mat provided exposure to alternate perspectives regarding NGO functions, it was a barrier to candid discussion. Workshop participants said that their
responses during certain activities were guarded or veiled. Some participants indicated that even though the workshop ground rules included total participation and candor, they were not comfort- able doing so.
Some participants were concerned that the facilitators of the pilot workshops did not “know the NGO culture” well enough. The NGO training culture uses a structured process for delivering information and other educational initiatives. That process includes setting ground rules before each session to dictate expectations for group behavior, opening each day with a “reflection” from a des- ignated participant, and including “energizers” to relax participants during the work day. Deviation from that structure was uncomfortable for many participants. Focus group participants indicated a strong desire to integrate the NGO training culture into subsequent leadership workshops.
The curriculum for the pilot workshops was adapted from an existing leadership program delivered to individuals from both public and private sectors in the U.S. Many focus group participants indicated that they were unconvinced that a leadership development program for private sector organizations was appropriate for the NGO. Many did not recognize the similarities in leader- ship development for both groups.
Inadequacy of Leadership Development Alone
During the three pilot workshops, participants discussed and identified what they viewed as criti- cal competencies for leadership within the NGO. Those competencies were alluded to during the focus group interviews. Each workshop location had settled on desired core leadership competen- cies near the end of the workshop period through a small-group voting process. After determining first and second choices in four broad leadership categories, the group results were reconciled by the entire participant population after further, large-group discussion. The leadership competen-
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cies included accurate self-assessment, transpar- ency, empathy, and teamwork and collaboration. Participants emphasized the importance for those competencies to be included in any organiza- tional leadership development program. They also wanted the senior leadership of the NGO to participate in leadership development activities.
More profound changes may be needed, as an NGO serving 51 countries might have to prepare for a new kind of global leader (GL). Al Arkoubi and Dirini (2007) describe such leadership where “GLs are builders and architects who…craft in- novative global/local strategies…[and who] are also responsible for developing successful leaders, promoting capabilities, creating and enhancing the organization’s social capital, building cross- cultural teams, and contributing effectively to the …requirements of global and local needs” (p. 3).
Addressing the Leadership Challenges
The central assignment in this research project was to identify leadership competencies desired by members of the NGO to further the organiza- tion’s ability to confront the challenges associated with tremendous growth in the organization while maintaining its founding values. The research team was charged with creating a leadership develop- ment curriculum to help the NGO develop leaders who are able to manage the near and long-term changes taking place throughout the NGO. The results of the needs assessment suggested that leadership development, while unquestionably important, was alone insufficient to balance the organization’s competing needs. Leadership de- velopment alone could not ameliorate the NGO need to establish and link human resource man- agement and technostructural systems. Leadership development for non-managers would not alter their perception that senior leadership was “out of touch” with the rest of the organization; while senior leaders espoused cherished organizational
values, the results were not evident in their behav- ior or decisions. Leadership development alone would not narrow the divide between HQ and the field, where many believed that HQ and field worked on parallel tracks with little meaningful collaboration.
A significant finding from the global survey indicated that NGO staff believed the NGO did not develop leadership in its employees, contra- dicting its basic values. When the leadership team shared results of the survey with senior manage- ment, they [management] seemed incredulous and debated the legitimacy of the findings. As Bolman and Deal (2003) suggested, organizations “puzzle over contradictory evidence, but usually succeed in pushing it aside—until they come across...evidence too fascinating to ignore, too clear to misperceive, too painful to deny, which makes vivid still other signals they do not want to see” (p. 7). An unanticipated outcome of the leadership development project was the NGO leadership having to confront a reality that did not correspond to their vision of the organization or themselves as leaders.
Addressing the Technological Challenges
The needs assessment revealed that the NGO’s infrastructure could not continue to support the continued rapid growth experienced in recent years. The assessment uncovered little integration across units, pointing to needed intervention in technological and structural areas to link home and country offices. Initiatives could include work division, as well as linking people to tasks and decision making concerning delivery of services (Cummings & Worley, 2005). Some participants recommended developing more collaboration with NGO members in different regions, honor- ing the extensive employee involvement that is a founding NGO value.
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Technostructural Interventions and Limitations
Communication across time zones was cited as a critical barrier to meeting needs in the field. Coun- try directors often were confronted with issues that required a time-sensitive response—supplies for animal husbandry projects, language-appropriate educational materials for start-up community groups, vehicle support in rural areas having undeveloped transportation systems, and other logistical concerns.
At the same time, policy evaluation or re- vision might be subject to the same extensive participatory process of decision-making that at times immobilized the NGO; inaction would drive some country programs to experiment on their own. One result was a greater reliance on regional cooperation, where country directors might share conditions more understandable in their vicinity, engendering a regional commitment that could overtake or challenge NGO headquar- ters leadership. The division between the NGO and its field management may ultimately change the loyalty base in the organization, especially as a self-sufficiency ethos spreads to field programs increasingly capable of creating their own political and financial support systems.
An upgraded awareness and use of network- ing technology, from Voice Over Internet Proto- col (VOIP) to Skype, could help fill some joint decision-making gaps. Brick and mortar facilities may be uncommon to many rural village projects, but the internet cafe remains a viable and present entity in most countries serviced by the NGO. In addition, a focus on helping to create such an infrastructure will enable communication both regionally and globally, with an expectation that the NGO global leadership can build more regional foci as decentralized developmental centers, ca- pable of determining local policy that honors the traditional values but modifies them to align with regional culture and practice.
While technology increases its expansion into remote and developing areas of the world, its presence is no guarantee of seamless operation or adoption by incumbents. For example, when the research team was piloting a five-day workshop in Ruinas de Copan, Honduras, rolling weekly blackouts in electrical service interrupted the schedule, signaling a failure in infrastructure needed to support technology. Such situations are common in a developing country, typical of the programs served by the NGO; such limitations in infrastructure multiply the technology challenges faced by the NGO.
Human Process Interventions
Effective social processes of communication, leadership, decision-making, and group dynamics are central to creating and maintaining a success- ful participatory organizational culture that the NGO established as part of its ethical foundation. Hence, beyond any recommended human resource management and technostructural interventions would be activities to add greater substance to the NGO commitment to a more democratically-run organization. Development of a career develop- ment program and a leadership succession system across the organization would provide ample evidence of NGO intentions of systematic and ordered growth. The uncertainties that attend fund- raising as a continual and unrelenting effort can be offset by the investment in capacity-building among the NGO constituent country programs and client communities. Leadership development and cooperative mechanisms, enhanced through the development of technostructural systems, will keep NGO values alive.
Implications for Professional Practice
The needs assessment provides a platform for understanding and responding to the challenges
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for development of technological infrastructure as well as leadership development programs that can sustain the NGO through its current crises. The Global Survey scratched the surface of dis- content that has severely divided management and line staff as well as HQ and field programs. The survey suggested system-wide initiatives that could move the organization forward, cementing the noble commitment of large segments of its employee population.
The leadership skills and behaviors identified in the individual interviews, researcher observa- tions, and the web-based survey were instrumental in developing the content and process of the pilot workshops. The workshops, in turn, provided valuable information from the field that enabled the research team to further define the technology and leadership competencies desired by the NGO global programs. It is clear that systemic changes are necessary for the organization to overcome the challenges that rapid growth has uncovered in tech- nology infrastructure and leadership development. The implications of the needs determination so far suggest a need for human resource management, human process, and technostructural interven- tions, beyond the initial leadership development program curriculum envisioned by NGO senior leadership.
FURTHER RESEARCH
The pervasive reach of globalization has raised questions about how transnationals can nurture leaders who, according to Al Arkoubi and Dirani (2007), must act “across borders...cultures, and languages, [and who] appear to have the most complex tasks to accomplish and the hardest roles to play” (p. 1). The team that collaborated with the NGO encountered organizational issues beyond leadership development that suggest more analysis to examine systems related to personnel policies, communication mechanisms, decision-making processes, and distributive, regional authority.
A closer look at the construction of the global survey was beyond the scope of this paper. Such an examination, though, might provide useful information about responses among different sub-populations of the NGO. While the survey provided a critical baseline to interpret organiza- tional functioning, including a qualitative research dimension added in-depth understanding of some of the underlying issues plaguing the NGO. A follow-up study with more detailed analysis of responses might point the way to other initiatives that could be helpful to the NGO.
Finally, the curriculum to be developed from this needs assessment program might prove to be an invaluable asset to NGOs developing their own technology and leadership response to the demands of globalization.
CONCLUSION
This study presented the needs assessment processes aimed to help design a leadership development curriculum that would address is- sues of growth and program sustainability for an international NGO. The research team hoped to identify leadership development competen- cies and protocols that could be converted into specific activities suitable for application in the countries where the NGO maintains programs. The availability of such a curriculum might in turn become a fount from which other transna- tional NGOs could successfully adopt or adapt selected components suitable for the furtherance of their own programs. Underlying the challenges to leadership affecting the NGO was the critical need for technology infrastructure that would support the NGO mission. With the growth in complexity of its overseas country programs, the NGO had not developed the capacity to respond in a timely way with either policy development or logistical support.
The challenges illustrated above frame the complex issues that defy superficial intervention.
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Senior leadership acceptance and readiness for change is perhaps the most difficult challenge fac- ing the organization. While the NGO has had an organization development unit that is staffed with forward-thinking and ethics-focused individuals, the unit has often run a course parallel to that of senior management, rather than in harmony with that leadership. The training department has had employees highly qualified as curriculum develop- ers and adult educators. However, that department was not part of the organizational development team and had its own activity-based focus. The degree to which the functional units can identify and leverage their points of intersection will determine the future success of the organization more so than an isolated leadership development program in which senior leaders have little stake or presence. Lack of an internal senior management person as a technology and leadership develop- ment champion removes an important, potential advocacy for institutional change.
REFERENCES
Al Arkoubi, K., & Dirani, K. M. (2007). Build- ing sustainable organizational social capital: The global leadership challenge. In Proceedings of the 2007 Academy of Human Resource Development Annual Conference (pp. 856-863). Indianapolis, IN: Academy of Human Resource Development.
Bolman, L. G., & Deal, T. E. (2003). Reframing organizations: Artistry, choice, and leadership (3rd ed.). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
Bredo, E., & Feinberg, W. (1982a). The positiv- istic approach to social and educational research. In Bredo, E., & Feinberg, W. (Eds.), Knowledge and values in social and educational research (pp. 13–27). Philadelphia, PA: Temple University Press.
Bredo, E., & Feinberg, W. (1982b). The interpre- tive approach to social and educational research. In Bredo, E., & Feinberg, W. (Eds.), Knowledge and values in social and educational research (pp. 115–128). Philadelphia, PA: Temple University Press.
Cummings, T. G., & Worley, C. G. (2005). Or- ganization development and change (8th ed.). Mason, OH: Thomson South-Western.
Gadamer, H. G. (1975). Truth and method (Barden, G., & Cumming, J., Trans.). New York, NY: Seabury Press.
Gundling, E. (2010, February). Developing global talent in the 21st century: Turning HR upside down. Paper presented at the Richard A. Swanson Lectureship, The University of Minnesota St. Paul campus. Scottsdale, AZ: Aperian Global.
Holton, E. F., III. (1995). In search of an integra- tive model for HRD evaluation. In Proceedings of the 1995 Academy of Human Resource Devel- opment Annual Conference (pp. 98-106). Austin, TX: Academy of Human Resource Development.
Hultgren, F. H. (1989). Alternative modes of inquiry in home economics research. In Coomer, L. D., & Hultgren, F. H. (Eds.), Home economics teacher education (pp. 37–59). Peoria, IL: Teacher Education Section, American Home Economics Association.
Miles, M. B., & Huberman, A. M. (1994). Quali- tative data analysis. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications.
Parry, K. W., & Sinha, P. N. (2005). Re- searching the trainability of transformational organizational leadership. Human Resource Development International, 8(2), 165–183. doi:10.1080/13678860500100186
Patton, M. Q. (1990). Qualitative evaluation and research methods (2nd ed.). Newbury Park, CA: SAGE Publications.
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Rothwell, W. J., & Sredl, H. J. (1992). The ASTD reference guide to professional human resource development roles and competencies (2nd ed.). Amherst, MA: HRD Press.
Sleezer, C. M. (1992). Needs assessment: Perspectives from the literature. Perfor- mance and Improvement Quarterly, 5, 34–36. doi:10.1111/j.1937-8327.1992.tb00544.x
Strauss, A., & Corbin, J. (1990). Basics of qualitative research. Newbury Park, CA: SAGE Publications.
Van Manen, M. (1990). Researching lived expe- rience: Human science for an action sensitive pedagogy. New York, NY: State University of New York.
KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS
Case Study: An in-depth description and analysis of an organization or event to examine the interplay of important elements that represent the forces at work in the object studied.
Emotional Intelligence (EI) Model: An ap- proach to defining ability, capacity, or skill to identify, assess, manage and control emotions personally, in others, or of groups.
Field: The largely self-sufficient country pro- grams outside of the NGO headquarters.
Global Survey: A quantitative 25 question investigation conducted to determine attitudes about leadership in the NGO.
Interpretive Inquiry: The study of the im- mediate and local meanings of social action for the people involved.
Needs Assessment: The gathering and analysis of information to identify the strengths and weak- nesses of an organization.
NGO: Non Governmental Organization—used in this case study to identify an a legally-recognized international nonprofit
Technology Infrastructure: The intercon- nection among organization elements, divisions, departments, research laboratories, universities, and industries through fast and reliable commu- nication networks.
Organization Change: How an organiza- tion’s culture evolves to preserve and maintain the integrity of the corporate system
Organization Values: The ideals and stan- dards that define honesty, integrity, promotion, concern for the customer, and so on in an orga- nization.
Organization Culture: Shared basic assump- tions that define behavior and how employees should think and feel about how business is conducted in an organization.
Pilot Study: Testing of a concept or approach on a limited basis to determine whether the study format or method needs to be revised before using on a wider basis.
Quantitative Research: sometimes referred to as positivistic, this type of inquiry uses a numeri- cal approach to understand property, goods, and services in society through the use of statistics, such as student test performance.
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Copyright © 2012, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
Chapter 26
DOI: 10.4018/978-1-61350-068-2.ch026
INTRODUCTION
In a 2009 New York Times op-ed piece, The World is Flat author Friedman designated the country’s current financial state as “The Do-It-Yourself Economy”, writing that the combination of the recession and the proliferation of innovative,
affordable technologies has resulted in more and more individuals and businesses opting to complete projects themselves in order to save money. Whether building one’s own company homepage instead of hiring a web designer or using streaming video and podcasts as a cost effective way to advertise, people across the country are tapping into the potential of Web 2.0 technologies to conduct business more inexpensively—and
Quinn Burke University of Pennsylvania, USA
Do-It-Yourself Media in U.S. Education:
A Brief Overview of an Uneasy Relationship
ABSTRACT
The phrase “do-it-yourself”—or “DIY” for short—has increasingly become the new watch-word when describing the wide variety of self-driven activities that individuals are now capable of with the assistance of Web 2.0 technologies. The combination of the economic recession and the proliferation of innovative, affordable technologies have resulted in more and more individuals and businesses opting to complete projects themselves. On the K-12 landscape too, DIY learning is also playing an ever-increasing role in the way students acquire and transmit information. Kids now have ready access to websites and software applications that make creating and sharing digital media a seemingly routine process, and youth often enter the classroom with a far more vast knowledge of how to manipulate media than the teachers in front of them. However, rather than ignore or even condemn such innovation, educators are best to view them in terms of opportunity. This topical article investigates the social and economic origins of the DIY movement and explores how innovative school leadership alongside the latest digital technologies can increasingly promote a DIY environment within schools and make learning a more self-driven, perpetual process.
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often more effectively. Yet while Web 2.0 appli- cations play an emerging role in the way people work and communicate in general, one domain of American life has remained largely absent in their growth and proliferation—U.S. schooling. This chapter explores the need for K-12 schools to better address the growing number of Web 2.0 applications available to children. Too often there is the assumption that children already know how to do it themselves and that they can attain tech- nological competency simply because they are exposed to the latest technical devices outside of school. As the so called “digital natives” of 21st century learning (Prensky, 2001), kids are often thought to automatically acquire the requisite critical and creative skills to effectively engage with digital media simply by the nature of their age. Researchers however have shown otherwise (Shields & Behrman, 2000; Wartella & Jennings, 2000). Rushkoff (2010), a prominent media theo- rist and former unequivocal proponent of Web 2.0 technologies, recants on some of his previous beliefs about the inherent power of DIY media:
The kids I celebrated in my early books as “digital natives” capable of seeing through all efforts of big media and marketing have actually proven less capable of discerning the integrity of the sources they read and the intentions of the programs they use. If they don’t know what the programs they are using are even for, they don’t stand a chance to use them effectively. They are less likely to become power users than the used (¶ 2).
Considering Rushkoff’s point, how can U.S. schools better address the benefits of and potential problems with Web 2.0 applications as a means to better engage children in their own learning and encourage a “do it yourself” ethic among youth? Two recent books—DIY Media (Knobel & Lankshear, 2010) and DIY Media in the Class- room (Guzzetti, Elliott, & Welsch, 2010) have christened children’s use of Web 2.0 technologies as “DIY Media” and the term is increasingly be-
ing used by media theorists, education reformers, and school leaders. But to what extent do we understand the acronym itself and how can the “rugged individualism” and “non-conformity” often associated with DIY enmesh with the char- acter of schools—institutions that are still largely hierarchical and frequently conformist in nature. The first part of this chapter will explore the ori- gins of the term itself and classify DIY as both a practice, a movement, and an ethic. The second part will briefly investigate how DIY learning has been introduced in K-12 schools in the past, examining the progressive philosophy of John Dewey, in particular. The final part of the chapter will examine the future potential of DIY media in schools and highlight the points that teachers, theorists, and school leaders need to consider if such technology is to be effectively introduced and used in classrooms.
BACKGROUND
Organizing and Categorizing DIY
While everyone now seems to know what DIY stands for, to what extent is there any consensus as to what the “it” in the phrase do-it-yourself” means? Home improvement? A personal hobby craft? Technology applications? And why do people choose to do it themselves? Economic reasons, personal sensibilities, political beliefs, a mixture of all of these? In his introduction to the Journal of Design History’s special edition on DIY, Atkinson (2006) addresses this issue of definition, pointing out that one of the reasons DIY has no immediately apparent definition may stem back to the dearth of published studies on the subject. While Atkinson (2006) offers no single definition of DIY, he does designate four categories of DIY:
• ProActive DIY: activities which are self- directed and rely upon the skilled manipu-
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lation of raw materials; motivation is per- sonal pleasure or financial gain
• Reactive DIY: activities which may be hob- bies, handcrafts, or building construction but which utilize pre-packaged kits as op- posed to raw materials; again, motivation may be personal pleasure or financial gain
• Essential DIY: home maintenance activi- ties done out of economic necessity
• Lifestyle DIY: home improvement activi- ties undertaken by choice as opposed to out of necessity
Atkinson (2006) does not claim that all DIY activities fall neatly into one of these four catego- ries, but he suggests they offer some basic and consistent categorization of DIY. Such categori- zation is important, Atkinson points out, because it is a crucial first step in determining the origins of DIY. As far as the phrase itself though, in her book Do It Yourself: Home Improvement in 20th Century America, researcher Goldstein (1998) cites historian Gelber’s (1997) discovery of the phrase in a short 1912 magazine article which encouraged homeowners to paint their own house interiors instead of hiring outside professionals. However, while 1912 may be the first time the phrase “do-it-yourself” was printed, both Atkinson and Goldstein indicate that as a movement, DIY only truly began to gain momentum in the U.S. over the 1950s with the mass-marketed phenomenon of home maintenance and improvement. Lankshear and Knobel (2010) concur in their introduction to DIY Media, pointing out that “the new “home- made of the post-1950s DIY emerged as more specialized tools and knowledge became read- ily accessible (i.e., available to “non-specialist” people at affordable prices), allowing ordinary people to entertain the idea of what had hitherto been specialized tasks” (pp. 5-6). Those post WW II homes fortunate enough to be able to afford washing machines meant that they no longer had to do the laundry themselves, while those fortunate enough to afford power tools meant they could, in
fact, repair the roof themselves. Either way—being able not to have to “do it yourself” or its inverse, being able to “do it yourself”—ensured the phrase grew much more prevalent among the populace.
Of course, those who only consider DIY strictly as a movement born in the post WWI II boon of the 1950s, largely consider DIY only in terms of home maintenance and improvement—or Essen- tial and Lifestyle DIY. This certainly does not mean there was no DIY activity prior to the explosive growth of the home improvement market of the 1950s. Lankshear and Knobel (2010) note that while DIY grew as a movement with the home improvement boon of the 1950s, as an ethic DIY has a considerably longer history: They write:
At the level of an “ethic,” DIY has been linked to a range of antecedents and values systems. These include the late 19th century Arts and Crafts move- ment associated with figures like William Morris, which sought to keep traditional arts and crafts alive in the face of displacement by escalating industrial/ mass production processes and/ or to reject a growing industrial aesthetic (p. 6).
Fellow chronicler of DIY activities, Spencer (2005) makes this same distinction between DIY as a movement based on home improvement and DIY as an ethic rooted in the creation of home- made arts and crafts. In her book DIY: The Rise of Lo-Fi Culture, Spencer traces the origins of Reactive and ProActice DIY to an unexpected source—the “underground” movement of creating homemade fan-fiction fan magazines, also known as “fanzines,” or even more commonly, “zines”. “Since their beginnings in the sci-fi community of the 1930s,” Spencer writes, “zines have been traded amongst writers and it continues to be common practice for them to swap zines” (2005, p. 19). These self-published documents—often times threadbare, pencil-marked, and stapled to- gether—may initially seem hardly worthy of notice outside of the pool of enthusiasts who eagerly trade them amongst themselves. But researchers
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and media theorists (Duncombe, 1997; Spencer, 2005; Stevens, 2009) cite the construction and swapping of these homemade magazines as a far more galvanizing activity—a decision to circum- vent traditional modes of communication in order to establish particular groups of likeminded indi- vidual operating outside of mainstream culture. This pushback on the mainstream, and oft labeled “consumerist”, culture is a central vein running through DIY activity as an ethic. Indeed, some media theorists such as Stevens (2009) see such pushback as the tie that binds when it comes to creative and shared DIY activity. “If there’s any- thing cohesive about the DIY movement,” Stevens (2009) writes, “it’s that its practitioners choose to reinvent tradition as a remix, engaging with it through parody, satire and nostalgic irony…” (p. 50). Rather than simply “buying into” prevailing modes of consumption and production, DIY as an ethic asks the individual to reconsider the tradi- tional dichotomy between consumer and producer and to push for a more synchronous relationship between the pair.
DIY IN U.S. EDUCATION
Historically, U.S. education on the K-12 level has very much functioned based on this economic model of producer and consumer. The teacher standing tall at the head of the class functions as the “producer” of knowledge; beneath the instruc- tor, the students are assembled in rows of desks as the “consumers” of such knowledge, waiting to be “filled up” with information. Of course, may would argue that this image is archaic, character- istic of schooling in the late 19th century and early 20th century but no longer the prevailing mode of instruction. Since that time a significant body of literature (including Estes, 2004; McCaslin & Good, 1992; McCown, Driscoll, & Roop, 1996) has severely criticized this model of learning as not only less productive but often counter-productive in a child’s development. Yet while the traditional
image of the schoolmaster hovering above the children may seem antiquated and while a strictly “top-down” mode of instruction is decried by pro- gressive educators and theorists, K-12 schooling on the whole still functions within a hierarchal, highly-conformist structure in which knowledge is still perceived as that which is bequeathed to the children. Schools—particularly K-12 in which curriculum is more regimented—were (and still are) quite often perceived as the defenders and champions of the status quo, awarding gold stars to those kids who follow the rules and dismiss- ing detractors as troublesome or even unfit for education.
Schools historically have had a very difficult time inculcating a DIY ethic in the classroom. Kagan’s (1994) conception of cooperative learning and Kolb’s (1984) theory of experiential learning both made inroads into making classrooms more focused on meeting children where they are indi- vidually at in their development. However, while both cooperative learning and experiential learning gained some momentum as movements to make learning more child-centered, all too often they deviated simply into “free time” by educators who were not fully aware of how to effectively imple- ment the dynamics of such learning. A number of studies (Deci & Ryan, 1985; Deci, Schwartz, Shei- man, & Ryan, 1981; & Ryan & Deci, 2000) have consistently demonstrated a strong link between a child’s autonomy at school with a sense of well being and intrinsic motivation, yet whether due to a lack of training, imagination, or incentive, the overwhelming majority of K-12 schools are still reluctant to offer project-driven coursework in which assignments are driven by individual interest and personal engagement. Among the core classes of mathematics and language arts, implementing a DIY culture is even more of a challenge given these two subjects’ prominent placement on state standardized tests.
Long before cooperative learning and expe- riential learning, one of DIY learning’s earliest champions was progressive educator John Dewey,
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whose highly influential Experience and Educa- tion (1938) promoted individual projects as the constructs moderating children’s activity in the classroom, while the teacher serves as a supple- mentary figure, guiding the children through the process. In this regard, Dewey’s approach serves as the most prominent pre-cursor in thought to much of the DIY activity currently taking place in and around schools using a variety of multi-media applications. Central to all of these multimedia applications—be it a PB Works.com wiki, Adobe Photoshop, or Flash animation videos—is this element of social interaction and game-play, in which the operating rules of the software and the best practices instilled by the instructor are the two essential components for the perpetuation of such play. Likewise, as Dewey (1938) indicated about such a format for learning, kids are often far more willing to interact with each other, give and take suggestions, when engaged with this multimedia. Such is the promise of digital democracy (Jenkins & Thorburn, 2004; Milliron & Miles, 2000; Tam- bini, 1999), in which increased access to digital technologies and online networks provide an exponential increase in the number of venues in which both children and adults can express their thoughts, hopes, ideas, and concerns.
This of course speaks back to Dewey’s most comprehensive statement of his educational philosophy, Democracy and Education (1916), in which he concludes the ultimate indicator of a successful education system is a civically engaged and socially conscious populace. But even before Democracy and Education and long before Experience and Education, Dewey makes clear that the learning process must be inherently self-driven if one expects meaningful personal development. In his book John Dewey and American Democracy, historian Westbrook points to Dewey’s Ethics (1908) as a crucial text in understanding the philosopher’s break from the paternalistic expectation that simply bequeathing a value onto another, less fortunate individual will automate change that person for the better. Ethics,
while not focused on schooling, is nonetheless highly concerned with the process by which indi- viduals develop their principles and the potential of instilling these values into others. Reformists of all kinds—philanthropists, politicians, and educators—are to be disabused of the notion that change will be effected simply by exerting their values upon another. On the contrary, Westbrook points out:
Self-realization was a do-it-yourself project; it was not an end that one individual could give to or force on another. The truly moral man was, to be sure, interested in the welfare of others - such an interest was essential to his own self-realization - but a true interest in others lay in a desire to expand their autonomous activity, not in the desire to render them the dependent objects of charitable benevolence (pp. 46-7).
Dewey certainly saw the need for people—par- ticularly children—to take ownership of their own social and intellectual development. However, to return to the question of the DIY label, Dewey may have resisted the label knowing that, to some, the DIY tag implies a “hands-off”, almost libertarian attitude towards the role of the state in the development of its populace. If anything, in Dewey’s estimate, the state needed to take a more central role in developing learning environments within schools that allowed for kids to spend far more time exploring their own individual inter- ests in conjunction with each other. Rather than advocating a hands-off attitude, Dewey’s version of “doing-it-yourself” asked schools to do even more work—spend more time conceiving how classrooms are set up, how teachers instruct, and how kids formulate experience into knowledge.
The extent to which Dewey’s vision for K-12 education is a practical one remains a much de- bated issue to this day. Despite his earnest attempt to answer his critics’ concerns in Experience and Education (1938) Dewey is still under fire from critics, some (Egan 2002, Spencer, 2001) of whom
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attribute his idealized vision for schooling as one of the primary reasons schools still lack consistent standards today and continue to employ teachers who simply leave children to their own devices. Whatever one’s attitude to Dewey’s educational philosophy, what is clear is that the boom in the U.S. population post World War II did not serve his philosophy particularly well (Gibboney, 2006). As Reese (2005) points out in America’s Public Schools, while there were over 500,000 children in high school in 1900, by 1950 the number had jumped to 5.7 million. By the 1950s, classrooms of 12 had turned into classrooms of 40, and the little red schoolhouse on the hill had been replaced by a massive mortar and brick complex surrounded by acres of parking lots (Resse, 2005; Tyack, 1974). Teachers who had struggled applying Dewey’s model of social learning and his DIY ethic in their own classroom in the 1930s certainly fared no bet- ter now that their class sizes had doubled—even tripled—in size (Tyack, 1974). Consequently, while still widely admired by professors of educa- tion, Dewey and his democratic vision of learning in which children could truly “do it themselves” increasingly became a well-meaning but entirely untenable approach on the K-12 level.
CURRENT TRENDS
DIY Media in School Today
It was with the emergence of computers on the K-12 education landscape in the early 1980s that offered a potential resurrection of Dewey’s Progressive philosophy for education (Shaffer, 2006). By 1983, computers were being used for instructional purposes in over 40% of all elemen- tary schools and more than 75% of all secondary schools (Reiser, 2001), and while teachers and administrators were often far from sure exactly how computers worked, there was a growing excitement that these machines held real potential in providing children with new opportunities to
create and communicate. But despite computers’ growing presence in schools over the decade, students’ use of them was fairly limited. Rather than using the computer in the classroom itself, children typically were allotted a weekly session time in the school’s computer lab. Much of the lab time was dedicated to learning about the machines themselves—how to turn them on and off, how to enter and eject a disk, how to save a file, and how to type using the keyboard. As education historian Cuban (1993) points out about schools’ adoption of technology during this time, “comput- ers were seldom used in subject areas and where they were used, the purpose was to teach about computers” (p. 186). Even when computer usage was connected to a subject area, the connection was typically tenuous at best. Kids may play the popular educational game The Oregon Trail (http://www.isu.edu/~trinmich/Oregontrail.html) and this held a history/ social studies element to it; they could enter answers to timed multiplica- tion problems (a digital version of the traditional format of paper flash cards that they practiced in math class); and they now had the capacity to type their written rough drafts into the computer to produce a cleaner-looking final paper for their English class. But the activities in the computer lab were generally isolated from the actual content that children were encountering in the classroom, and the kids themselves appeared isolated at the machines, sitting side-by-side next to each other but seemingly lost in the screens before them.
While the work of Papert (1980) using the LOGO programming language was a major step in integrating computers into the classroom and using those for creative personal expression, K-12 schools’ adoption of technology through- out the 1980s and even well into the 1990s often consisted little more than buying a few software packages and the machines themselves. With a teacher acting simply as a classroom moderator, kids were placed in front of the machine as re- ceptacles, and the expectation too often was that simply “being on the computer” was enough to
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affect a new kind learning. The advent of Web 2.0 technology changed this however. In terms of schools and learning, Web 2.0 offered children the opportunity to be not simply consumers but also DIY producers of new media (Gee, 2003; Kafai, 2006; Leadbeater & Miller, 2004), tapping into their own creativity and opening up new networks of knowledge. The goal of this section is to re- view a series of key studies that explore school children’s entry into digital culture as these DIY producers of new media.
DIY Media in the Classroom
As evident with the recent two books DIY Media (2010) and DIY Media in the Classroom (2010), a number of educational publications with DIY in the title are specifically intended for educational practitioners. Seeing term itself in the title of a publication seems to demand action from its readers and holds the promise that what follows is imminently possible. Such is the case with Lank- shear and Knobel’s (2003) study “Do It Yourself Broadcasting,” which reports on the growing use of blogs and their potential use in middle and high school classrooms. Lankshear and Knobel’s paper was the first to attach the DIY moniker to tech- nology applications which had been previously categorized as “multi-media”, “digital media”, and “new media” among other designations. The first two thirds of “Do It Yourself Broadcasting” are dedicated to engaging readers in the potential of using blogs themselves, carefully explaining what a blog is, how they work, what types exist, and how readers can create their own blogs1. By the time one reaches the final third of the essay, the authors’ enthusiasm for blogs as “powerful writing” (p. 5) is palpable, which makes their accompanying analyses of a number of school- run blogs stand in stark contrast to the rest of the paper. Instead of praising students’ writing on the school-sponsored blog, Lankshear and Knobel (2003) write, “The school blogs we have located to date on the popular Schoolblogs.com provide
little evidence of students and teachers working from a base of authentic purposefulness. Many student posts to school-endorsed blogs look like compulsory requirements…. There is little evi- dence of idea development” (p. 15).
Having introduced blogs in terms of sites created by tech-heads, Star Wars enthusiasts, and classic-car collectors, Lankshear and Knobel fail to find the same DIY dynamism within the school class pages they analyze on Schoolblogs.com. Kids appear to enter the bare minimum to these blogs and there is little evidence of any meaning- ful exchanges online. “(O)ur concern,” Lankshear and Knobel (2003) explain, “is that school blogs typically present themselves as earnest attempts to meld new technology use, student interest and school work in ways that risk ‘killing’ the medium by reducing its potential scope and vitality to menial school tasks in which students seemingly lack any genuine purpose” (p. 16). Rather than arising organically from a particular issue or event that the class would like to debate or learn more about, the pages on Schoolblogs.com seemed forced exercises in a school’s desire to be more “technological”. While Lankshear and Knobel never suggest outright that there is an inherent difficulty establishing blogs in schools, they close by noting the particular challenges of turning this DIY activity into a mandatory assignment and suggest implementing in-class activity around the blog as well as group work may be effective solutions in preserving what essentially should be a communal and participatory experience.
The stark difference between the enthusiasm and communal nature of the blogs that Lankshear and Knobel encountered outside of school versus the oft tired and meandering posts on the school- sponsored posts speak to this challenge of authenti- cally incorporating DIY media in the classroom. Hodas (1993) points out that K-12 schools remain very resistant to change in general, and when new technologies do make it into schools, these technologies almost always are appropriated by schools only in terms that fit their particular needs.
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A case in point is evident with Leander’s (2007) ethnographic study “You Won’t Be Needing Your Laptop Today”, in which the researcher follows the first year integration of a wireless laptop program a private, all-girls private school serving grades 5-12. While some teachers at the school embrace the laptops wholeheartedly, other instructors seem to be genuinely threatened by the new technology. Leander’s (2007) study focuses on one faculty member, “Barbara”, in particular. Well respected as a teacher at the school, Barbara has taught English for many years; however, the integration of the laptops into her English class threatens to undermine her teaching, and she perpetually has to tell her students to put down their laptops as they appear to be more of a distraction to her as opposed to a tool to facilitate the children’s learn- ing. The students, Leander (2007) reports, grow confused as well. When assigned their term paper in English class, the majority of the class expects that, like in other classes, their citations can come from online sources and that they can freely share resources over online discussion pages. Barbara is unsure and after uncovering the plethora of websites actively promoting (even selling) free online essays, fearing the worse, she demands that all sources be print. She also asks students to stay off all discussion boards so resources cannot be pooled and shared on a common site. Some- what ironically, Barbara’s decision to shut down this DIY application is precisely because, in her mind, doing so will ensure that kids have to do- it-themselves—namely, going to the library and checking out the books and periodicals themselves.
Barbara is not alone on the faculty in her reservations; as the year progresses, multiple teachers likewise restrict access to the laptops, reducing their use to the basic function of word processing in some cases. Altogether, Leander concludes, technology integration at the school enters the classroom as merely “an add-on, or a tool, to support forms of practice that are well- rehearsed circuits that travel along deep grooves” (Leander, 2007, p. 47). While the technology had
made it into the classroom, a network of support for the faculty had not been put in place as well, and Ridgeway only made minimal adjustment to it pre-existing schedules, curricula, and professional development agenda despite the fact that having the entire school go wireless with laptops was such a massive undertaking. Leander’s study (2007) also highlights what happens when administration simply expects (or hopes) that a school’s faculty will embrace DIY media and adjust their teaching style and lesson plans accordingly. At Ridgeway, one faculty member had no problem whatsoever integrating the online discussion board into her class, while another eventually dismissed the application altogether. When schools develop no overarching plans as to how to best integrate tech- nology and provide limited forums for discussion, the result is this polarity of attitudes toward DIY media—some teachers embrace it entirely, going so far as to even be smug in their inherent “know how”. On the other side, some teachers view it entirely as a threat, undermining their authority and capacity to teach effectively. What is worse, the polarity of such attitudes tends to preclude meaningful discussion moving forward, with one side sure DIY media (and digital technology, in general) will be the savior of K-12 schooling, while others are absolutely sure it is just another fad that too will pass.
Obviously these studies far from encapsulate the sum total of teachers’ experiences integrating DIY media into classroom activities. A number of studies report on the successful integration of DIY media applications during the school day by focusing activity around a particular class- wide project, whether this be students’ creation of digital stories (McClay, Mackey, Carbonaro, Szafron, & Schaeffer, 2007), podcasts (Sham- burg, 2009), wikis (Grant, 2008), and even their own video games (Kafai, 1995). What is crucial for introducing DIY media successfully during the school day is to recognize that content and expertise cannot come solely from the instructor; by letting kids work in groups and develop their
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own themes, design, and outlines, teachers are far more likely to foster the spirit of DIY within the classroom, balancing the “top-down” nature of a school assignment with the “bottom-up” nature of self-expression.
FUTURE TRENDS
When it comes to considering the future of DIY media in schools, it is worthwhile to reiterate a basic point made at the outset of this chapter: A stream of new, increasingly intuitive technologies are regularly entering the marketplace, and schools will increasingly need to keep up with this flow of digital technologies that kids are already learning on their own. As the findings of MacArthur’s Digi- tal Youth Project (www.digitallearning.macfound. org) (2008) indicate, kids already are doing it them- selves when it comes to developing their identities through technology. Schools, on the other hand, appear to be perpetually in need of catching up. In his opening keynote address at 2010’s Digital media Learning Conference, Watkins points out that within five years, the majority of youth will access web technologies not through desktop or laptop computers, but through hand-held devices like the iPad or smart phones. Gone are the days where school computers were housed away in air-conditioned computer labs—physically, kids now use technology almost as extensions of their own bodies, and, as Jenkins (2006) indicates in Convergence Culture, children’s (ages 8 and up) ubiquitous social engagement using these devices have made the technology integral to their own social identities.
So where to start? While the continued na- tional focus on standardized testing has certainly restricted the number of hours in the schools day, some states like Georgia have seen states’ testing mandates in terms of possibility; they successfully leveraged the federal focus on academic standards to implement computer science benchmarks across their state curriculum (Ericsson, Guzdial,
& Biggers, 2007). Others point to overly-rigid school firewalls as one of the reasons students do not have the all-important access to Web 2.0 information and applications. This charge seems to simply speak to the much larger issue of school personnel and the question of who is in charge is making these decisions of access. Simply put, the quality of teachers and administrators at a school is the biggest predictor of how successful that school will be at integrating DIY media into their classrooms and afterschool programs. As evident in the studies outlined Section III, to enact a suc- cessful DIY learning environment, the quality of the educators in the room plays as (if not even more) significant a role as the technology itself. While some see the potential of DIY media as a way to “de-school” society (Illich, 1973, p. 3) and establish a subculture of alternative learning networks, reform-wise (and realistically speak- ing) it is important to stop treating K-12 schools as an adversary of DIY media activities. If there is any powerful intermediary between children and the plethora of Web 2.0 marketing strategies vying for their attention (and dollars), it is this country’s school systems. Now, more than ever, schools need to take a central role in identifying best teaching practices with technology, espe- cially with young children who are increasingly encountering media (DIY in nature and otherwise) at younger and younger ages. The effort must be a public endeavor and, above all, a shared one. As Jenkins (2010) points out in his afterword in DIY Media:
I have always felt uncomfortable with the phrase, “Do It Yourself,” to label the practices described in this book. “Do It Yourself” is too easy to as- similate back into some vague and comfortable notion of “personal expression” or “individual voice”…what may be radical about the DIY ethos is that learning relies on these mutual support networks, creativity is understood as a trait of communities, and expression occurs through col- laboration. Given these circumstances, phrases
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like “Do It Ourselves” or “Do It Together” better capture collective enterprises within networked publics (p. 233),
Within the country’s highest need K-12 schools, where implementing mutual support networks and a sense of communal responsibility is especially crucial, the country has its least qualified teach- ers and the most rudimentary implementation of technology. As Warschauer (2004) argues in his book Technology and Social Inclusion: Rethinking the Digital Divide, few K-12 schools still lack the requisite hardware and software applications to enact meaningful learning with computers. What they do lack though is the social capital to take full advantage of such DIY media and apply this technology economically, ethically, and socially. Computers still linger in K-12 schools as stand- alone scientific machines instead of the portals of participation they potentially can be.
CONCLUSION
Recognizing the successful use of digital technolo- gies as learned “literacies” is a significant step in ramping up the quality of instruction around computers (Alvermann, 2002; Hagood, 2003; Lankshear & Knobel, 2003). Comprehending the usage of DIY media in terms of literacy is a significant step in getting state departments of education to recognize the pressing need to adopt academic standards and benchmarks for technol- ogy education. Comprehending DIY media in terms of literacy also pushes schools of education and teacher-training programs to stop teaching literacy strictly in terms of reading and writing. Simply offering a Technology 101 course rooted in Microsoft Word and Powerpoint or using e-mail is not enough. While all these applications certainly merit attention, technology coursework in educa- tion must go beyond these software applications themselves to investigate the social interactions they facilitate, and the economic potential and the
ethical dilemmas associated with a participatory culture. As mentioned previously though, what is clearly needed most is a committed effort on the part of school leaders to address the unique challenges of implementing DIY Media into the classroom. To conclude, based upon the origins of DIY as a movement and ethic, as well as the explosive growth of DIY Media over the past two decades, educators on all levels of schooling need to consider the following points:
• Recognize first and foremost the historical legacy of DIY as an ethic of “resistance” and its potential to burgeon into a move- ment, particularly as evidenced by Dewey’s progressive education philosophies; Web 2.0 is a relatively new phenomenon, but encouraging DIY activity in schools has a much longer history and educators need to be aware of the past challenges to address the issues with implementation today
• Do not get overly consumed with the tech- nology itself; past lessons have demon- strated that while a careful examination of the tools themselves is essential, the larger challenges typically deal with staffing and personnel issues and ensuring the technol- ogy tool is used to its full potential and for the correct purposes
• Recognize the distinct context into which you are introducing the technology and the unique challenges of such an environment; especially consider children’s usage of such media applications who are from low- er incomes and attending underperforming schools. While there is great promise that DIY Media can serve as a democratizing agent among children, such media can also exacerbate pre-existing issues of economic and social equity and for this reason chil- dren and educators at Title I schools de- serve special consideration
• Avoid the “glitter” of the packaging; the latest and most sophisticated technical ap-
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plications may very well be ill-suited to classroom use among certain age groups and particular students; start small and be willing to pilot media programs before the institution officially adopts any single pro- gram or platform
• Strive for transparency among all parties involved—make technology user policies widely available to all children, families, and staff and encourage feedback at all times; ultimately, DIY Media’s goal is to better facilitate communication but such communication must ultimately begin with a school’s leaders and extend to all parties involved
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KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS
21st Century Learning Skills: A series of competencies (the 4 Cs: Critical thinking/ prob- lem solving; Communication, Collaboration; and Creativity/ innovation) considered to be essential learning for children to prepare them to live and work in an increasingly globalized marketplace; developed as a partnership between the U.S. Department of Education and eight international companies, the group maintains a website (http:// www.p21.org) explaining their mission and of- fering resources to educators and school leaders.
Digital Literacy(ies): Among educational and media theorists, digital literacies represent new ways of conceiving and measuring people’s use of multimedia applications to effectively com- municate with others.
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Digital Native: Term coined by media theorist Prensky (2001) which posits that children growing up in the 21st Century are more naturally adept at using and appreciating the potential of digital media—akin to how the children of immigrants to the U.S. have proven far more able in assimi- lating to and advancing the American language and culture.
DIY Ethos: Separate from the technical de- vices and the actual practices of using them, a DIY ethos re-conceives the traditional dichotomy between production and consumption, seeing the two processes as not only synchronous but also one in which the producer and consumer can be the same party.
DIY Media: A recent term (2003+) which de- fines the use of Web 2.0 applications specifically in terms of allowing users to become producers and not simply consumers of multimedia; often used in relation to teaching children.
Participatory Culture: A concept developed by Jenkins (2006) based on his own research of fandom communities; characteristic of a partici-
patory cultures are low barriers for engagement, strong social connections among members, a belief in collective effort, and informal mentoring among members. The impetus and opportunity to become part of a participatory culture grew dramatically with the spread of the Internet; however, participa- tory culture is distinct from Web 2.0 culture in that a participatory culture is not reliant on computers but only a community of like-minded enthusiasts drawn to a particular topic.
Web 2.0: Term coined by Make magazine edi- tor Dougherty (circa 2001) as a way of marking the Internet’s growing capacity to let users create and upload content instead of simply downloading such information.
Zines: Homemade fan fiction magazines, of- ten based exclusively within certain pop culture genres (e.g., science fiction, punk)and traded among enthusiasts; according to some researchers (Duncombe, 1997; Spencer, 2005) zines represent DIY’s earliest incarnation and serve as a precur- sor of the “participatory culture” (Jenkins, 2006) characteristic of Web 2.0.
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Chapter 27
DOI: 10.4018/978-1-61350-068-2.ch027
INTRODUCTION
Technological advances have spawned a new framework of communication. Pen and ink have been replaced by key strokes, paper by screens, and postage by the “send” button. But what of the progeny of this match between thought and science? While well versed in the processes of
electronic messaging, will they be equally as for- midable in the boardroom (be it virtual or actual)?
A wake-up call has been sounded to all non- profits; succeed or perish. This warning carries with it a mandate to be on top of one’s game at all times. However, putting one’s best foot forward and taking the correct paths presents a test for an organization as well as its leadership. Failure to
Sharon G. Juozapavicius CCHASM, USA
21st Century Leadership in the Nonprofit Sector
ABSTRACT
The past decade has birthed not only remarkable advances in technology, but also an evolution of thought concerning nonprofit organizations. This ontogeny has brought the nonprofit sector face-to-face with a new reality. A certainty confronting head-on the old mores that have dictated the sensibilities by which a nonprofit’s manner and method were framed. Success, in the 21st century marketplace, now requires a non-profit to be both technically astute and business savvy. It must not only equal or outperform its sister agencies, but also meet challenges posed by the worlds of commerce and government. Its leadership in turn must be equipped to handle these challenges and oversee profitable processes and procedures. This chapter will consider four key requisites for nonprofit leaders in the 21st century: education, technology, know-how, and environment. It will examine the role each plays in a leadership portfolio, along with the difficulties and rewards inherent in their determination and utilization.
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correctly utilize tools such as technology, within an appropriate framework, can mean the difference in wearing a crown of success or a withered laurel.
However, technology can not stand alone on the battlefield of competition. Although technol- ogy is able to enhance the speed at which both formal and informal communications transpire, its proper use - accompanied by what will be stated in those communiqués - will be equally (if not more) important than the velocity or system by which the interaction takes place. Ultimately the trans- fer of knowledge and experience, along with the structure in which they are employed, will either tip the scale in favor of a nonprofit corporation or be the millstone that causes collapse.
The intent of this chapter is to identify and discuss obstacles facing nonprofit leaders in the 21st century marketplace. Further, to explore the influence and dynamics brought to bear by com- petition, an aging executive population, the need to productively utilize key business tools such as technology, and a mission to find the correct equation between new and old methodologies.
BACKGROUND
While many college graduates will enter a formal business environment, some will select the non- profit sector as a life’s course (opting for what has been perceived as humanity versus cold corporate halls). However, there is a new mindset prevalent in the passageways of benevolence. Ushering in advances in technology and an expanded global perspective, the 21st century let fall the welcome mat of competition at the doorstep of every non- profit. So forceful was this impact, that it altered the traditional non-business perspective of many nonprofits.
Faced with rising costs, more competition for fewer donations and grants, and increased rivalry from for-profit companies entering the social sector, nonprofits are turning to the for-profit world to
leverage or replace their traditional sources of funding. The drive to become more businesslike, however, holds many dangers for nonprofits. (Dees, 1999, p. 137)
Like the fairytale frog, waiting to be trans- formed by the kiss of a princess, a nonprofit’s conversion from social enterprise to the business sector can be a long and arduous task. For some, the notion of even thinking like a for-profit or- ganization may prove daunting. Consequently, nonprofit leadership understudies must possess the same businesses acumen as their corporate counterparts - and then some. They must not only be prepared to handle the day to day challenges faced by the business community, they must also maintain the skill sets of their predecessors when dealing in areas such as membership, volunteers, and fundraising.
Many outside people think that the nonprofit sec- tor has lower standards and a slower pace than the for-profit sector.... Let’s dispel those myths right off the bat. These days, a nonprofit leader cannot create results through mandate. He or she must build commitment, create consensus, and be active on the front line…
You must have in-depth understanding of your organization’s area of focus (health, education, the environment, etc.). You must be informed and strategic, yet hands-on. The environment in which nonprofits function today calls for far more ac- countability and transparency with the general public, regulatory bodies, and the organization’s volunteers, staff, and constituencies. (Wheeler, 2009, pp. 14-15)
The educational background of its leaders will undoubtedly be one of the major components de- termining the success or failure of any 21st century nonprofit. Therefore, the curriculum for these next generation leaders must include not only the traditional business subjects (economics, finance,
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statistics, organizational behavior etc.) but also a sound background in areas such as networking, communication, collaborative thinking, and em- powerment. While some may call “people based” skill sets the softer side of business performance, leadership in today’s (and tomorrow’s) nonprofit world demands a high degree of expertise in these areas. “It’s more important in the non-profit institution than it is in a business to insist on the clarity of commitments and relationships, and on the responsibility for making yourself understood and for educating your co-workers” (Drucker, 2005, p. 117).
While it may seem almost anathema to the creators of long-established education platforms to mandate a course on how to empower team members in the same curriculum as business math, it will be equally as uncomfortable for those skilled in conventional nonprofit ideology to add lessons in strategic planning and statistics to their purview. While willing to acknowledge the other’s perspective, each world (business and nonprofit) for generations has been entrenched in its own philosophical point of view. 21st century global economics, competition, and generational change, demand that the tried and true viewpoints on both sides are afforded equal credibility. Further, they must not only regard each other’s opinions, sound leadership development mandates that they embrace these views holding them as true. The acceptance of one standpoint without the other creates a huge void in the educational process of new leaders. It is the equivalent of possessing an empty sandwich; you have the shell with no internal substance.
This dichotomy is apparent in the broad chasm still evident in standard course offerings for both sectors. While business instructors may feel that it is an easy jump from for-profit to nonprofit thinking, closer scrutiny of the roles of leadership in each sector would not validate this assumption.
On the one hand, managers must learn the same management techniques and analytical strategies
that apply in profit-making companies. However, while these techniques are relevant in the nonprofit world, their application is dissimilar. Although both profit-making and nonprofit organizations engage in planning, budgeting, accounting, and marketing; although both have to contend with the issues of governance, personnel, and infor- mation management; and although both have to raise money from time to time, these activities are carried out in markedly different ways. (Wolf, 1999, p. 20)
In order to meet the demands inherent in this dual role (a for-profit mentality with a nonprofit heart) curriculums for potential leaders must begin to reflect genuine issues, problems, and tasks faced by a 21st century nonprofit organization. Only then will the education of upcoming leaders be a sound and holistic preparation for their future endeavors.
Following in the footsteps of this bicameral path between the for-profit and nonprofit worlds is the treatment of technology. While business mentality dictates that leaders strive to secure the best technological advances possible, the world of charity still suffers from “second-hand syndrome”; the notion that in order to be true to their calling they must accept and be thankful for 5th genera- tion equipment and broken coffee pots. “Within the social sector, organizations are discouraged from investing in the very things they need in order to build their own capacity and sustain their impact: systems and infrastructure” (Crutchfield & Grant, 2008, p. 199). Thus for years, the “do much with nothing philosophy” has permeated the approach of charitable organizations. While some of the larger nonprofits have jumped on the success bandwagon of independent thinking, a great majority have remained mired in their traditional belief that whatever comes their way, be it what is needed to get the job done or not, is what must be accepted, tolerated, and utilized. This lack of objectivity ensues, oddly enough, in part from technology itself.
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The problems with our talking together do not stem from an absence of words. We have an inflationary glut of words: more words, less and less meaning. Five-hundred-channel television services, millions of Web sits, and an endless stream of opinion from every media source..... As a result, whatever “gold standard” of commonly held and deeply shared meaning that might have lain beneath our words is scattered and lost…
Dialogue can give us a way to regain that gold standard…by helping to create an atmosphere in which we can perceive what really matters to most…
To listen respectfully to others, to cultivate and speak your own voice, to suspend your opinions about others – these bring out the intelligence that lives at the very center of ourselves – the intelligence that exists when we are alert to pos- sibilities around us and thinking freshly. (Isaacs, 1999, pp. 46-47)
Therefore, it is imperative that technology be viewed by today’s educators and leaders as more than a tool. It must be seen as both a means and a barrier to erudition and enterprise. While it increases our capacity to interact and to obtain vast resources of knowledge at lightening speed, technology also presents an obstacle to listening and collaborative thinking.
The trap versus treasure mindset, when con- sidering technology, is underscored further by the “generation gap” now prevalent in all aspects of education, government, business, and social enterprise. Those more senior in age may find themselves struggling to keep up and comprehend the most basic of technological advances, opting to use more conventional means of communica- tion. “For the first time in our society we are seeing children as the authorities in some areas. They often know more about computers than their parents do” (Hicks & Hicks, 1999, p. 279). The senior adult learner may therefore become
overwhelmed and feel a measure of disorientation. He may, instead of battling increasing levels of frustration, seek out familiar and more comfort- able operational modes which no longer have a place in 21st century business.
In an earlier time, when the pace of change was slow, living out of a handed-down set of rules, liv- ing out of yesterday’s viewpoints and assumptions, might have allowed us a degree of comfort and predictability in life, barring unforeseen circum- stances. Those times no long exist, especially in swiftly shifting industries. (Whiteside, 1993, p. 59)
Meanwhile those waiting in the wings, or new to the stage of business and the professions, have a disparate viewpoint. “They do not want to work for companies that think so little of their employees and customers that they do not invest in equipment and processes that are efficient and easy to use” (Gravett & Throckmorton, 2007, p.141).
Not only does the generation gap affect the way in which we perceive and deal with technology, it is also a vital component in the way we share and exchange knowledge and understanding. Know- how however, does not enter a leader’s mind via the process of osmosis. Rather, it is the product of years of education and experience. “Also, the capacity to lead gradually builds over time” (Manske, 1987, p. 24). The appreciation of these skills is apparent today in corporations through the hiring of many seniors to leadership positions.
The workplace has traditionally been a bastion of ageism. As if age and experience were negatives, organizations retired or laid off higher-paid older workers without a second thought. Now they’re not only having second thoughts, but third and fourth ones (Martin & Tulgan, 2006, p. 164).
However, the return or current presence of older workers is not all sweetness and light. It does come with some potential pitfalls. “People most frequently fail to see reality because they
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choose to ignore or resist changes in the external environment” (Connors, Smith, & Hickman, 1994, p. 94). The obvious question exists; can the more senior in age provide know-how without decreasing potential and capability? Can they over come their propensity to view the world and their respective businesses through the lens of past tense? Further, can those aspiring leaders (of lesser years) develop - as their obligation - a willing spirit to listen with open minds to what they may perceive as the wrong way or the long way of accomplishing a task?
Why do so few people, even so few experts, know how to anticipate generational change? It’s because, whatever the era they inhabit, they invariably assume that the future will be a linear extension of the recent past – and that somehow the next youth generation will lose the capacity to reinterpret the world and forge its own fresh path. That never happens either with societies or with generations. (Howe & Strauss, 2000, p. 60)
Seniors therefore, must come to the table with an altruistic heart, and their younger counterparts with an open mindset. Unfortunately, good in- tentions will not, in and of themselves, deliver positive and desired results. The human spirit will play an important role in building the bridge over the corporate generation gap. Overcoming the personal tendency of a leader to believe that he or she has cornered the market on correct ideas and innovation poses another major hurdle.
All of us are self-centered, suckers for a bit of praise, and generally like to think of ourselves as winners. But the fact of the matter is that our talents are distributed normally – none of us is really as good as he or she would like to think… (Peters & Waterman, 1982, p. 55)
Leaders are in their position to lead (be this headship in the area of business or education). Therefore, many individuals in power feel dis-
enfranchised by the mere thought of asking for someone else’s opinion or assistance. Instead they endeavor, incorrectly, to plod along encased within their own knowledge fortress. This style of leadership limits not only the leader but his or her organization. Success is achieved by placing both know-how and educational theory on the playing field. In this way leaders are able to uti- lize both deductive and inductive logic to solve problems and create their future. “When you start with experience and move toward theory, you are using inductive logic; when you start with theory and move toward experience, you are using de- ductive logic” (True, 1989, p. 55). Thus leaders of all generations are best served by employing diverse competencies, insights, intelligences, and by endeavoring to understand challenges through a focus on the game at hand rather than personal accolades.
Footballers do not fix their eyes on the ball, but by good play on the field they can perform well. When you become accustomed to something, you are not limited to the use of your eyes. People such as master musicians have the music score in front of their nose, or flourish swords in several ways when they have mastered the Way, but this does not mean that they fix their eyes on these things specifically, or that they make pointless movements of the sword. It means that they can see naturally. (Musashi, 1974, p. 89)
Ergo, it will be the energy of youth coupled with the experience of the mature that will become both the path to achievement and a polarity to be managed. Those with tenure and experience need to seek out fresh points of view, while those who aspire to the ranks of command need to openly embrace the culture and experience they may perceive as an impediment to their own success. Both parties need to be aware that this type of knowledge exchange must be holistic in nature with each contributor reaching beyond his/her personal comfort zone with a goal of understand-
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ing what may be a contrasting point of view. “It is easier to expand your view than to get those with an opposing view to expand theirs” (Johnson, 1992, p. 48).
However, this task will not be easy and requires the active participation of not only individuals but also institutions and organizations. The settings in which these interactions transpire (be they the hallowed grounds of scholarship, the intrepid halls of commerce, or the compassionate corridors of nonprofits) are the jewels of administrative for- titude or failure.
The nonprofit world is synonymous to the traditional corporation in its need to harness ex- pertise for today’s success as well as tomorrow’s triumphs. In addition, to find effective leaders who have something to offer other than the safety of group speak. However, many environments are not conducive to open thought and the sharing of ideas. They act, in most cases unintentionally, against that which they seek – the creative “silver bullet” that will put them miles ahead of their competition.
The pursuit of innovation in many cases is sim- ply lip-service. They do not develop atmospheres where thoughts are able to grow and flourish. Rather, they are establishments of sameness and staid consistency. The shared problem exists in their actions. Similar to a person who purchases new eyeglass frames and keeps the old and inac- curate prescription. A change may be outwardly perceived. However, the lenses through which the current environment is being viewed are still the same. “The members of an organization tend to be blind to those aspects of the organization crying out for change” (Farson, 1997, p. 122).
The difficulty of perspective also rears its head in the developmental “human resource” policies of many institutions. Opportunities for continued learning may or may not be available depending upon one’s age. For-profits may suffer from seeing potential only in younger minds.
With so much buzz around generational diversity and retaining young talent, many companies are focusing on young professionals and forgetting about development at all levels. I’ve heard many seasoned professionals express frustration with the constant focus on younger generations, saying that it leaves them unwilling to be as helpful as they could be. (Burmeister, 2008, p. 135)
The nonprofits, on the other hand, may suffer from “mission blindness” holding the anachronous view that every penny must be spent on their intended mission. While this belief is laudable, if fails to consider the probable efficiency and performance improvements which could come from supplementary knowledge.
In addition to the barriers of age and outmoded thinking, organizations and institutions may tend to lean toward a patchwork method to fix all ills, rather than a total revamp of their structure and approach. “When someone asks us for a quick definition of business reenginerring, we say that it means ‘starting over.’ It doesn’t mean tinkering with what already exists or making incremental changes that leave basic structures intact” (Ham- mer & Champy, 1993, p.31). In many instances, leaders will seize a quick fix answer not compre- hending that their entire professional environment may be the source of the difficulties. Further, that these difficulties can and will influence every fiber of their organization from the boardroom to the mailroom, individual to team, planning to execution, including how well and when personnel interact. The lack of sufficient time and proper location, along with absolute authority to engender these essentials are very distinct in each setting.
Different corporations are also known by their operative sense of time and space: some are ‘laid-back’ and some are ‘uptight.’
So if a group of people wish to get together and accomplish something they must have time and space…
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But please note: It is not just any time and space that are being created and held, it is a special time and space, unique to that group. In addition, it is a safe time and space in which the group will feel free to explore new options and even be a little bit foolish. (Owen, 1997, pp. 59-60)
Thus, as the corporation or institution as an entity recognizes its own character, it must si- multaneously seek to extinguish that which has become a comfort zone and in its place reach out to the glimmer of new horizons.
Given the competitive environment we face and the diverse work force we have, are we getting the highest productivity possible? Does our system work as smoothly as it could? Is morale as high as we would wish? And are those things as strong as they would be if all the people who worked here were the same sex and race and nationality and had the same lifestyle and value system and way of working? If the answers are no, then the solu- tion is to substitute positive for negative aspects. That means changing the system and modifying the core culture. (Thomas, 1991, p. 26)
THE CAPABILITY EQUATION
Education, technology, know-how, and environ- ment, each play a specific role in the toolkit of the 21st century leader. Moreover, these individual functions combine to form the leader’s capability in any given situation. How a nonprofit leader confronts and treats each fundamental component will be paramount in his resulting accomplish- ments or failures. In addition, this confrontation should not be far-a-field from leaders in other disciplines. Each searches for positive outcomes for his respective organization and in so doing, searches to find the recipe in each situation which holds the secret to victory. Unfortunately, or for- tunately, this bricolage will only be as profitable as the materials and ideas at hand.
While some nonprofits have evolved into a contemporary mode of thinking, linking their future with how well they transition from anti- quated philosophies and practices to the more progressive, many are still caught up in outmoded conventions. In this state of mind, the garland of victory could be hurled directly at the nonprofit leader and he - prohibited from accepting same (due to traditional wisdom) – would make no motion to capture its wealth.
The answer to this quest for success lies simply in the parameters by which the game (in the nonprofit’s case - meeting one’s mission) is being played. If structure and mindset dictate a closed system, one that is not open to new ideas or innovative thinking, then that is the way all information will be filtered. The results of the challenge will in all cases equate to the amount of capability the leader is able to employ to the benefit of the organization.
The one golden thread that runs through ev- ery encounter is ROCE (Return on Capability Employed). As in any equation, what is on the left hand side of the equal sign determines the right hand result. Whether antiquated thinking and systems prevail, or creative, open mindsets and methods, the end product will only be equal to the sum of its parts. Its ROCE however, is able to be significantly multiplied, to the benefit of the organization, if the latter set of values rather than the former is utilized. The learning therefore, must be focused not on the individual problem or task but on the method by which the problem or task is handled. Competition demands the establishment and acceptance of a work model that places at the forefront the interface of knowledge and ideas.
In order to accept and employ resources, from an open and 360-degree perspective (internal, external, customers, individuals, teams, other or- ganizations), and maximize one’s ROCE, original and innovative concepts must be able to penetrate the leader’s personal boundaries. Consciously or subconsciously all leaders set out “boundary mark- ers.” They surround their team with sticks, stones,
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or silos. For most teams the leader is instrumental in determining the type of boundary in force, with team members following the lead. The battle of new ideas versus tradition is met at every level with a boundary that must be crossed. Egress into any situation may consequently be met with a marginal or maximum amount of pain resulting in a higher or lower level of ROCE. Consider the three types of boundary markers along with four characteristics inherent to every type of transac- tion found in Table 1 below.
Groundbreaking thought in any realm, requires the leader to leave the silos and stones behind and build a fortress made of sticks. How well a leader and her team members are able to process and exchange ideas, and increase ROCE, will be dependent upon that structure. Fostering innova- tion means to consider all ideas and interactions as potentially meaningful. Objectivity can be a great resource if it is allowed to enter a leader’s space. (A leader should never be surprised to find that the person who has the best answer to the issue may be the one farthest removed from the
process or project). A leader must accordingly, maintain a preference for sticks and keep the productive energy free flowing.
Boundary markers are not the sole property of nonprofits. Both for-profit leaders and educators are subject to the same limitations or limitless- ness in their thinking. However, the challenge of wearing many hats while remembering to keep an impartial ear to ideas and a partial ear for ROCE, is particularly germane to the nonprofit leader. Confronted by external hurdles and internal ideology, the nonprofit leader has a dual role. He must retake the nonprofit from the inside, setting the standards for what the organization needs to become while still finding a place to honor its past; sharing the culture of the organization without sacrificing its future.
The nonprofit leader of today and tomorrow, must develop new minds while nurturing those of the more senior. She must engage all ages in a cohesive effort to maximize capability taking full advantage of both the experience of years and the exuberance of youth. Outreach in her case
Table 1. Interpersonal transactional boundaries
Markers Sticks Stones Silos
Characteristics
Approachability Sticks represent a low level of de- marcation between the individual/ team and others. They indicate the area you occupy (your team’s role, mission, project).
Stones are a bit more formidable than sticks. Taller, stronger, they can be piled quite high so as to obscure visibility to others outside your area.
Walls have been built to absolutely define “turf” owned by this leader/ team. The message of “approach at your own risk” stands out loud and clear.
Entry There is a positive flow of entry as sticks are easily surmounted or moved to allow others to come in and mutually share space.
Entry may be difficult. Barriers in this instance are beginning to form blocking out potential com- munication.
There exists a high barrier to entry. Others have to be “invited” to par- ticipate in any type of discussion or planning session.
Acceptance Once inside others are able to readily communicate with the leader/team, as mutual space holders. Ideas are welcomed with a free flow of communication.
Once inside, especially for “first timers” interaction with the leader/team can be challenging. Focus may turn toward making a positive impression rather than idea exchange.
Once inside, acceptance level is low unless leader/team has defined a need for the “visitor’s” skill sets or knowledge areas. Even when a need has been defined, favorable reception is on a temporary basis.
Exit The egress is always open and unobstructed. Others are welcome return visitors to the leader’s/ team’s territory.
Visitors often beat a hasty retreat. While repeat visits may be needed and possibly even sought, visitors are definitely hesitant about returning.
Primary focus is on getting in and then quickly out of the leader’s/ team’s territory. Repeat visits are not welcomed without specific invitation.
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will be a difficult task as she will need to be a redeemer and the radical, a champion for a cause and at times its challenger. Technology may be her triumph. Or, it may posses within it the steps of her undoing. She must employ technology and at the same time take care that the personal touch expected of the nonprofit, is not lost in a sea of key strokes. Finally, she must create and main- tain an environment that is open and productive. Remembering that the creative process (no matter what end goal) requires nurturing and many times, like a fine sculpture, a bit of chiseling to discover what lies beneath the surface.
FUTURE TRENDS
The 21st century has arrived and we, as heirs ap- parent, are enveloped in an atmosphere of elec- tronic media, progressive thought, and modern technology. To shun the advances of this time would be foolhardy. However, in order to main- tain the characteristic heart of the nonprofit, a leader must at times eschew these enhancements in favor of traditional values. While this notion may seem (at first blush) to be contradictory to the theme of this chapter, in actuality it is quite consistent. 21st Century nonprofit leaders must not only be able to employ all the advantages of our global economy, they must also be able to harness the potential of personal communication. The education and preparation of tomorrow’s leaders therefore, must not ignore the basics of human interaction and real time exchange of ideas in favor of keyboards and monitors. Educators and leaders must themselves turn away, if for only a short period, from the advanced and focus on imparting the fundamentals of face to face sharing and idea exchange in a setting that is conducive to unencumbered thought.
It is imperative that those who will be guiding us through the 21st century do so with integrity, strength of purpose, and intercommunication skills. Leadership characteristics that come from
having provided support as well as control, the ability to lead (at times) by following, and the courage to remain open to the human side of communication and idea exchange.
CONCLUSION
Just as the proverbial mighty oak tree was once an acorn, know-how and wisdom do likewise grow with time. These two intellectual tools, when developed, are capable of transforming mere ac- tion into a harmonious and positive proficiency. Similarly, the ability to make innovative input sprouts from the understanding of one’s enterprise and systems. For a favorable outcome, one part of the capability equation should never stand alone. Rather, 21st century leaders (nonprofit and other) must be able to openly employ all resources available – be they intellectual, technological, or physical - in a quest to forge a successful bond between the present and the past, where both are valued and symbiotic partners in a nonprofit’s corporate renaissance.
REFERENCES
Burmeister, M. (2008). From boomers to bloggers. Fairfax, VA: Synergy Press.
Connors, R., Smith, T., & Hickman, C. (1994). The Oz principle. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Crutchfield, L. R., & McLeod Grant, H. (2008). Forces for good. San Francisco, CA: Josey-Bass.
Dees, J. G. (1999). Enterprising nonprofits. In President and Fellows of Harvard College (Eds.), Harvard business review on nonprofits (pp.135- 165). Boston, MA: Harvard Business School Publishing.
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Drucker, P. F. (2005). Managing the nonprofit organization. New York, NY: HarperCollins. Farson, R. (1997). Management of the absurd. New York, NY: Touchstone.
Gravett, L., & Throckmorton, R. (2007). Bridging the generation gap. Franklin Lakes, NJ: Career Press.
Hammer, M., & Champy, J. (1993). Reeingineering the corporation. New York, NY: HarperCollins.
Hicks, R., & Hicks, K. (1999). Boomers, xers, and other strangers. Wheaton, IL: Tyndale House.
Howe, N., & Strauss, W. (2000). Millennials ris- ing. New York, NY: Vintage Books.
Isaacs, W. (1999). Dialogue and the art of thinking together. New York, NY: Doubleday.
Johnson, B. (1992). Polarity management. Am- herst, MA: HRD Press.
Manske, F. A. (1987). Secrets of effective leader- ship. Germantown, TN: Leadership Education and Development.
Martin, C. A., & Tulgan, B. (2006). Managing the generation mix. Amherst, MA: HRD Press.
Musashi, M. (1974). The book of five rings. New York, NY: The Overlook Press.
Owen, H. (1997). Open space technology. San Francisco, CA: Berrett-Koehler.
Peters, T. J., & Waterman, R. H. Jr. (1982). In search of excellence. New York, NY: Harper & Row.
Thomas, R. (1991). Beyond race and gender. New York, NY: AMACOM.
True, J. A. (1989). Finding out (2nd ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Publishing.
Wheeler, C. (2009). You’ve gotta have heart. New York, NY: AMACOM.
Whiteside, J. (1993). The phoenix agenda. Essex Junction, VT: Oliver Wright Publications, Inc.
Wolf, T. (1999). Managing a nonprofit organiza- tion in the twenty-first century. New York, NY: Fireside.
KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS
Acceptance: The degree of ease with which ideas and opinions are able to be shared.
Approachability: The level of difficulty ex- perienced by an individual, leader, or team when contacting another individual, leader, or team.
Boundary Markers: Psychological barriers imposed by an individual, leader, or a team which are used to separate the individual, leader, or team from the all outside input. These barriers range in degree from Silos (extreme), to Stones (medium), to Sticks (moderate if any).
Capability: How well an organization utilizes all available resources.
Entry: The level of comfort an individual, leader, or team experiences when interfacing with another individual, leader, or team.
Exit: The ability of an individual, leader, or team to sustain a positive relationship with another individual, leader, or team.
For-Profit: Traditional method of business operation where income is held by the busi- ness or organization and may be distributed by whatever means the owners, shareholders, and policies allow.
Nonprofit: An organization whose mission and structure are geared to providing some type of assistance or service with the intention that all funds above and beyond basic operating capital are used for the assistance or service provided.
ROCE: Return on capability employed.
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Copyright © 2012, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
Chapter 28
DOI: 10.4018/978-1-61350-068-2.ch028
INTRODUCTION
“Information is Power.” This phrase resonates loudly in the Information Age. Now in the Knowl- edge Age a more accurate truism would be “The use of information is power.” In a digital world where the amount of information doubles every two years, students need to locate and evaluate resources carefully as well as determine how to use relevant information to solve problems and make wise decisions. Authentic tasks within coursework offer opportunities for learners to
hone these skills. As more students learn in online environments, resources and support must be available to optimize their success.
The Information Society
At the 2003 World Summit on the Information Society, governments and world leaders “made a strong commitment towards building a people- centered, inclusive and development-oriented Information Society for all, where everyone can access, utilize and share information and knowl- edge” (United Nations, 2006, p. 6). What consti- tutes an information society? Fundamentally, an
Lesley Farmer California State University, USA
Information Competency and E-Learning
ABSTRACT
In the information society, learners need to locate and evaluate resources carefully as well as determine how to use relevant information to solve problems and make wise decisions. As more students learn in online environments, resources and support must be available to optimize their success. Information literacy offers a series of processes as a means to deal successfully with information. By melding informa- tion literacy and content matter in e-learning environments, instructional designers can create authentic experiences for students to hone their skills. Choosing effective electronic resources, collaboration with librarians, and addressing technical issues are key to successful e-learning for information literacy. Future trends in e-learning approaches are discussed.
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information society is one in which information replaces material goods as the chief driver of socio-economics. Human intellectual capital has higher currency than material capital, or at least intellect is needed to optimize the use of material resources.
This information society impacts existing insti- tutions and cultures. The speed and globalization of information leads to constant change, which can be hard to digest and manage. The majority of jobs now involve technology and other related new skills, so that the idea of a “terminal” degree or a static skill set is becoming an outdated para- digm (Handel, 2003). Rather, adults often need to “retool” themselves throughout their work lives. Particularly for adults who are largely digital immigrants, this new world of informa- tion, especially in electronic form, can be puz- zling and overwhelming. Do they have enough background information to understand and use the new information?
What then do today’s learners need to know and be able to do?
• Be information literate: access, evaluate, and use
• Be lifelong learners: pursue interests, read, and generate knowledge
• Be socially responsible: uphold democra- cy, be ethical, and cooperate.
Defining Information Literacy and Competency
How do students become literate? One of the goals of education is to help individuals become functionally literate, which involves a continuum of skills that enables students to be able to do some- thing: procedural knowledge. Students need to access, comprehend, and respond to information. However, other skills such as numeracy and visual acuity are also implicated because knowledge can be represented in so many forms. Increas- ingly, other countries combine information and
communication literacies under the heading ICT (Information and Communication Technology).
The Association of College and Research Libraries (ACRL) (2000) listed the following indicators of information competency:
• Determine the extent of information needed.
• Access the needed information effectively and efficiently.
• Evaluate information and its sources critically.
• Incorporate selected information into one’s knowledge base.
• Use information effectively to accomplish a specific purpose.
• Understand the economic, legal, and social issues surrounding the use of information, and access and use information ethically and legally.
It should be noted that the standards for information competency do not equate exactly with the research process itself, which is usually described in a step-by-step cognitive approach. In that respect, using a problem-solving construct provides a grounded basis for using information:
1. What is the problem? 2. What are the underlying issues? 3. What are the facts? 4. What are the options? 5. What are the consequences? 6. What is the best outcome? 7. How good was the decision?
In any case, information competency tran- scends academic domains, aiming for students to successfully function autonomously in societal settings: as workers, as citizens, and as private individuals. Thus, to optimize this process, rather than limiting information competency to teaching one research model to students, educators should consider a more inclusive approach by describing
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elements of engagement with information, offer- ing some effective strategies, and then allowing students to discover their own paths to knowledge.
Contextualizing Information Competency
For this reason, beside the fact that good teach- ing often arises out of a community of practice, educators should design learning activities that foster both subject matter competency as well as literacies, ideally with librarians. For example, discerning fact from opinion, which is typically addressed in social studies, is part of the compre- hension and evaluation process within information competency. Many discipline-specific content frameworks include information competency components, but they are not always explicitly labeled as such. Therefore, instructional designers should look at content standards and information competency standards simultaneously together, taking into consideration the students’ prerequisite information competency and available resources.
On a more systemic level, the entire learning community can examine information competency standards alongside subject matter standards in an effort to develop an interdependent matrix of learning activities that can insure student infor- mation competence. In this model, developing a hypothesis or a thesis statement both exemplify the process of identifying a task. If the science teacher introduces this concept prior to the lan- guage arts teacher, then the latter can build upon the student’s recent learning, thus deepening understanding and offering more opportunities to practice that skill in other contexts. Within an academic major, a general education course could focus on generic information competency, a gateway course could focus on discipline-specific research resources, and a capstone course could deepen research methodologies. Similarly, as each grade level builds on the prior year’s knowledge set, so too can information competency build upon
prior experience that is contextualized to optimize meaningful engagement.
Using this approach, specific classes can also focus on one information literacy skill, such as working cooperatively toward a goal, which can be implemented in a physical education or music course as well as in a science course. Similarly, if students are comfortable evaluating print resources, they can concentrate on evaluat- ing web-based resources for the moment. Having an organization-wide scope and sequence across curricular areas provides a venue for meeting specific information competency standards and linking them to the overall intellectual framework.
E-Learning
With the incorporation of digital technology, the definition of learning environments and learning spaces has changed. Increasingly, the space in which learning occurs has broadened to include cyberspace as well as physical space. While tradi- tional learning exists in real time in one location, e-learning spaces can cross time and space as students connect in disperse ways. For example, classrooms can incorporate electronic collabora- tive tools to foster team learning. Furthermore, learning can extend beyond the classrooms be- cause of technology. It should be noted that virtual interaction (e.g., Second Life) does not replace face-to-face interaction because the former is an artificial environment; therefore, it is important to consider blending physical and digital worlds. For example, classrooms can embed technologi- cal systems/servers for interaction, and students can bring their personal digital devices to hook up to the central system and participate actively together (Milne, 2007).
E-learning is not an isolated process, but oc- curs within the context of society. At the most elemental stage, e-learning reflects the interaction between an individual and his or her environment, between the internal and external world. When this interaction occurs between two people, it is called
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a communication cycle (Kacalak, Majewski & Zurada, 2010). One person externalizes informa- tion, and another person receives that information. For the communication to complete the cycle, the receiving party needs to process the information and respond to the sender. If the receiver changes his or her behavior in the process, it can be said that the person learned. Costa (1985) asserted that learning as any stimulus of change for which the response is not readily apparent. If the process is digitally based, usually involving a network (such as a LAN, WAN, or broadcast network), then the term e-learning can be applied.
E-learning requires some skills that are usually not central to traditional learning, as identified by Harley and Bendixen (2001):
• technical skills • ability to discern meaning, often without
visual or sound cues • comfort with complex and ill-defined
knowledge domains • greater time management and self-pacing
skills • greater self-motivation and persistence • greater self-monitoring and metacognitive
ability.
With these premises, the role of the instructor becomes more the role of a facilitator or change agent, guiding the process more than delivering the content. The newest term for instructional designer is “knowledge engineer.” These procedures cross delivery methods, be they face-to-face role-plays to Web-based tutorials. The instruction provides a safe and positive learning climate, and structures the setting to facilitate joint planning. The instruc- tional design needs to assess the learners’ needs and interests in order to identify objectives and craft learning activities, and then implement and assess the activities. In an e-learning environment, each of these components is accessible online, often without the instructor being present at the time of engagement.
Information Competency in E-Learning Environments
At this point, it is useful to focus on the specific information literacy steps of learner engagement with information. Each step impacts learning. Furthermore, e-learning impacts each step as well. In either case, educators set the preconditions for such engagement, with the conscious intent to facilitate information literacy learning. Several factors need to be considered ahead of time in order to present the information effectively, par- ticularly if e-learning is the goal. Where will the interaction occur: in the classroom, in the library, in the lab, in the community, at home?
• What is the time frame? • Who will instruct: the classroom teacher,
other school staff, students, community experts?
• What networked information sources will be used? What should be their characteris- tics and quantity? What hardware and soft- ware is needed to transmit the information?
• What learning aids or scaffolding is needed to facilitate physical and intellectual access and manipulation of information?
Additionally, along the way, educators can op- timize the possibilities for e-learning by providing scaffolds that bridge the students’ lack of knowl- edge or skill with the desired learning outcome.
Attention
Each person has life experiences prior to contact with a specific piece of information within a specific situation of space and time. That piece of information may have been expressed and dis- seminated in myriad ways: from cave drawings and singing to movies and holographic images.
In explaining how the brain learns, David Sousa (2001) stated that humans are constantly bombarded by stimuli. They become aware of
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stimuli through their senses, and make decisions as to whether to ignore the stimuli or deal with them. What causes them to pay attention? Novelty (such as an unknown sound) or impact on themselves (such as a protruding nail). Sousa noted that the individual has to be conscious and receptive to the stimulus as well (a counter example being the person who closes his eyes and ears to avoid hearing bad news). Even if the person is recep- tive, other competing stimuli might distract or counteract the specific stimulus. Furthermore, a person might not be able sense the stimulus; hence the phrase “Falling on deaf ears.”
In face-to-face education, the teacher is likely to activate curriculum-based stimulus, and call attention to it. In e-learning situations, the teacher sets up the structures that provide stimuli for the information-interaction process, but the student might have to pro-actively seek the stimulus.
Processing
Persons take that external stimuli and internally process it (Sousa, 2001). They to make sense of that stimuli; they have to decode it (that is, determine the communication protocols of linguistics, visual principles, etc.) and understand the content being communicated (that is, the vocabulary, semiotics, concepts, etc.) Biologically, the brain’s sensory cortex receives the information, and the integrate cortex makes meaning of the information; the frontal integrative cortex creates ideas form the meaning, and the motor cortex acts on the ideas (Zull, 2004). The brain has to store the incoming information first in immediate memory, and then long enough in the working memory to make sense of the information (Sousa, 2001). Adding to the picture are brain processing propensities; some people have more developed, specialized brain areas that favor linguistic or musical processing, Sousa explained. When information is novel, being able to build on well-developed processing methods can help individuals to pay more atten- tion to the content. On the other hand, when the
content is familiar, the person can focus attention on processing in novel ways.
Sousa (2001) summarized processing as fol- lows. For persons to successfully process the information, they have to be able to intellectually access that information (make sense of it), which entails both biological processes as well as mental and psychological processes. Learning disabili- ties, such as dyslexia or attention deficiencies, jeopardize internal processing in that sensory connections may be impaired or memory may be affected. Several internal intellectual barriers exist to comprehension: language, illiteracy, lack of prior content knowledge. If persons disengage with the information, out of frustration or lack of motivation, they might short circuit processing.
Sometimes processing requires external scaf- folding. Students may ask for help from other people: “What does this word mean?” “Can you open this file?” Students might consult other sources to help them understand the information, such as dictionaries or encyclopedias. Students might use tools to highlight passages or draw diagrams to better comprehend the information. Technology tools may be used in such situations: Internet-connected computers, mind-mapping software applications, telephones. The choice of tool depends on the person’s prior knowledge and experience since without that knowledge, the technology would be useless.
In her analysis of knowledge management literacy, Tuomi (1999) emphasized the factor of meaningfulness. Even if a stimulus makes sense, the question remains: “Does it have meaning?” Is it relevant? This question is a personal judgment call. If it does not affect the person, that information might not be meaningful. For instance, knowing the formula for salt might not be meaningful un- less one is involved in chemistry. In all likelihood, unmeaningful information is usually forgotten and not learned. Biologically, only if the brain stores the information in long-term memory is learning possible. Therefore, if educators want students to learn, the information needs to be
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made meaningful. Educators have to show how the information has potential value, that it can make a positive difference in their students’ own lives. Fortunately, many real-life applications can be drawn from online examples, be it corporate websites or commercial videos. Incorporating such digital examples when a topic is introduced can motivate students as well as provide beginning discussion points.
Evaluating Information
Next, the person relates the “new” information with his/her existing knowledge. If the information is the same, it can be forgotten or it can reinforce existing long-term memory, which strengthens neuron connections. The person also has to de- termine the value of the interaction; it is worth the effort to continue the relationship?
In studying young people’s development, Jean Piaget (1950) asserted that learning only happens when the stimulus is understandable as well as new/novel or contradicting existing knowledge; a disequilibrium exists. In response, the person tries to regain equilibrium by either rejecting or adding the new information, or reconciling it with current information (which might result in reject- ing or modifying the existing information). Both cognitive and affective factors come into play. For instance, if the person dislikes the informa- tion’s messenger, then the message itself may be rejected. On the other hand, if a new discovery delights a person, old ideas might be easily shed.
According to Yager (1990), the more important the information (both mentally and psychologi- cally), the greater impact the learning (or decision to not learn) has. For example, information about evolution might contradict a person’s belief in a literal interpretation of the Bible; if religious faith is more important than scientific evidence – or the fear of religious doubt is too troubling, that person might well reject evolutionary theory. Contradictory new information considered to be trivial to an individual (such as the ingredients in
suntan lotion) might be easier to accept because it does not negatively impact one’s personal identity or way of life; of course, that new information might also be easily ignored or rejected because it makes no difference. To add complexity to the issue, Yager further asserted that one person’s trivial information might be critical to another person (such as severe allergic reaction to some types of suntan lotion, to continue the example).
As with processing step, educators try to help student grapple with new information and incorporate it into their long-term memory for later action. Educator efforts need to address both the cognitive and affective aspects of evaluating. They can provide criteria for evaluation informa- tion, tools for comparing such as T-charts, and additional resources to reinforce the validity of the new information. They can also offer external incentives for accepting the new information, such as grades and career opportunities.
E-learning environments can help students evaluate information in several ways. Obviously, technology facilitates physical or virtual access to resources globally. Students and educators can find additional information to corroborate existing or new information, depending on the person’s desired intention. Networked information has the potential for being practically instantaneous, so if timeliness or currency is highly-valued by the student, then that information may be more highly regarded. Depending on the person’s at- titude about technology, presenting information electronically can influence a person’s acceptance of that information; some people give more cre- dence to information on the Internet while others may scoff at such online resources, assuming that little critical review is involved (Davis, 1993).
Manipulating Information
Individuals also need to determine what to do with that information, if anything. Typically, do- ing implies an externalization process: the next part of the communications cycle as it applies to
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learning. If the person parrots back that informa- tion, no change occurs. On the other hand, for learning to occur, that information needs to be transformed in some way: through interpretation, organization, synthesis, reformatting, relating. In any case, information manipulation consists of four processing skills: 1) extracting the information, 2) deciding how to represent it, 3) determining the method of manipulating it, 4) knowing how to do the manipulation (Card, Moran & Newell, 1980). Throughout this surprisingly complex interaction with information, individuals need to make deci- sions that are based on prior knowledge -- or lack thereof. They cannot continue to interact and act unless they have the prerequisite knowledge and skills to build upon.
In formal educational situations, educators tend to stipulate the parameters for the student to manipulate the information. For any of the four processing skills, educators need to make sure that students have the intellectual and physical tools necessary to complete each task. Finely targeted diagnostic abilities are called for, as well as in- terventions that help students gain those skills. In some cases, the focus of learning is actually in such processing skills. For instance, students may know about biomes, but have to extract pertinent information about biomes from a given article about birds. Their teacher may need to explain now to take notes or locate key phrases in a text. Likewise, that teacher might focus on showing students how to create a concept map as a way to represent their knowledge. In e-learning environ- ments, instructional designers either have to pre- dict where students may lack certain background knowledge, and supply “just-in-case” informa- tion, or they have to be available just-in-time to answer student queries and reactively supply that information upon request.
Technology provides many tools for manipulat- ing information. In fact, computers were created originally to compute: to “crunch” or process numbers (Roblyer & Doering, 2009). Ideally, technology can do the “grunt” or mechanical work so that the student can focus on the cognitive
work. It should be noted that technology can also help store and retrieve information for use. Here are a few technological tools and ways that they help people manipulate information in e-learning environments.
• Spreadsheets enable one to organize and sort information data by category, cre- ate and use formulas, generate charts. Spreadsheets can be used to test hypoth- eses and make predictions. For instance, students can determine if household in- come might be correlated to infant mortal- ity or other health issues.
• Databases enable one to organize and sort information data by category, and link re- lated databases of information such as de- mographics and politics. Databases help one test hypotheses and analyze groups of data. For instance, a database of plants and chemicals might lead to medicinal discoveries.
• Presentation tools (e.g., PowerPoint, KeyNote, HyperStudio) enable one to organize and sequence information, and combine media to more effective represent knowledge. Presentation tools can be used to outline information and relate ideas. For instance, a PowerPoint presentation can describe aspects of an author’s life.
• Graphic programs (e.g., PhotoShop, Illustrator, iPhoto) enable one to produce and modify images. Graphic programs fos- ter visual literacy. For instance, students can see how different color schemes can affect perceptions about interior design.
• Audio tools (e.g., Audacity, GarageBand) enable one to record, capture, and manipu- late sounds. Audio applications foster aural literacy so that one can be used to perceive poetic rhythm or distinguish linguistic fea- tures. For instance, students can use differ- ent music to convey different interpreta- tions of an advertisement.
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• Video tools (e.g., Movie Maker, Photo Story, iMovie, Premiere) enable one to record, capture, and manipulate a com- bination of sound, image and movement (image in space and time). Video tools help one process realistic information and procedures such as chemical reactions. For instance, students can make a video to ex- plain how to repair a car.
Identifying which technology is the most appropriate to manipulate information requires learning about the technology itself. For instance, as students make sense of a video and its visual language, they are better poised to use video to manipulate information. If the focus of learning is on creating a video, students experience what processes are involved, and how they impact the video product. They become fluent in the “lan- guage” and “grammar” of video (and sound and image) to that they can comprehend its meaning and ways to manipulate that meaning more subtly.
While students can explore different technolo- gies on their own, testing which media work best, educators can mandate appropriate technologies as they understand how each technology oper- ates. In such situations, students can focus on the information manipulation rather than on the technology manipulation. However, educators would be remiss if they did not point out the fea- tures of the technology on hand so that students can learn how to identify appropriate technologies independently.
Acting on Information
Still another decision needs to be made after the manipulation: how to act upon that information if at all. While information may be meaningful and interesting in itself, such as the elegance of a mathematical proof, it derives power when contextualized and related to other information (Rubin, 2000). Learners may apply the information to a familiar or novel situation, they might solve a
problem or answer a question, or they might change their environment or themselves. In terms of the communication cycle, the individual becomes the creator or initiator. Taking the information that has been the focus of attention, the individual links it to other information or source of information, including other people. The act can also be the generation of new information. The cycle spirals. Not only does the information have meaning, but the learning itself gains meaning as it impacts the individual who can then impact others.
Educators can prime the action pump by identifying the information task in the first place, which also motivates the student to engage with the information and resolve the underlying problem. Educators can also critique – and help learners self- critique – their efforts with the intent of reaching an optimal conclusion. For instance, a student might know how chemicals react, and might know how to use the appropriate equipment, but still might have a chemical spill that the teacher might need to address – and help students to learn how to deal with. Alternatively, a student might know how to create a web page with relevant content, but might still need to submit the material for the teacher or administrator to upload unto the server, or learn how to upload the information independently.
As with information manipulation, e-learning environments impact how information is applied by serving as the communications channel and storage mechanism (Rosenberg, M, 2001). Prob- ably the greatest impact that technology has in this respect is the enormous potential for reaching people around the world. Today’s students have many more opportunities to communicate with a wide and authentic audience. Especially as student can pass on their learning to others so that they in turn can learn is an amazing and empower- ing experience for all parties. Educators need to identify these audiences, and provide the linking mechanism for students so they can focus on the information message that they want to share.
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E-Learning and Technology Aspects of Information Competency
As learning using information literacy processes differs from learning about information literacy, so too does e-learning differs from learning about technology. Furthermore, technology can be considered a tool and a format in information competency. Because technology constitutes a pre-condition in an e-learning environment, its manipulation needs to be taken into account as well as the information literacy intellectual concepts to be mastered (Roblyer & Doering, 2009). A separate, and sometimes related, set of knowledge and skills must be addressed. If students do not know how to create a PowerPoint, then they will need to opportunity -- and the time -- to learn and practice that skill. Teachers need to figure out how that learning will occur. Do students have access to the hardware and software? Do they have the time outside of class to access and learn the ap- plication? Does the e-learning instructional design need to include resources and explicit activities to address that technical learning?
It should be noted that even before students engage in e-learning experiences, they must be able to physically access the relevant technology. For that reason, educators should survey student access to technologies (hardware, software, connectivity), and frontload the conditions for e-learning. Instructional resources should be ac- cessed by low-performance equipment and dial-up connectivity. Text needs to be saved in formats that can be read by open source software;.rtf files are usually an acceptable format. Unfortunately, while image-rich and multimedia documents take advantage of multiple learning styles, they also require broader bandwidth and may need plug-ins in order to play correctly. Furthermore, instructional materials should be accessible for individuals with disabilities.
• Intellectual access. Educators may need to provide directions on the use of technol-
ogy tools such as spreadsheets or author- ing programs. In some cases, even simple operations such as attaching files need to be explained. Educators can help stu- dents be self-sufficient learners by show- ing them how to get technical assistance through help screens, manuals, web FAQs, and online tutorials. While some students are motivated to use technology, and will make the extra effort to process informa- tion, others have a negative attitude toward technology that will impede information processing.
• Building community. One of the main drawbacks of e-learning can be the feel- ing of isolation. With the advent of Web 2.0, students can interact with their online peers to build a community of learners. Educators need to set up the conditions for interactive learning by designing op- portunities for group discussion and col- laborative learning activities. Threaded discussion forums, wikis, blogs, and online conferencing are a few of the tools avail- able. These community-based structures have to be supported through the online training of these tools.
Even with these general provisions, e-learning might not succeed because students have differ- ing pre-existing attitudes and experiences with technology, particularly if they are adult learners. By its nature, e-learning can be a very personal- ized experience, and technology can support such differentiation. At the very least, educators need to provide students with a variety of instructional materials and learning activities to choose from. Relating to technology is affected by emotional states, so educators need to make sure that students can feel safe in taking intellectual risks in trying technology, and are rewarded for their efforts as well as their final products (Rogers, 1962).
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Cooperative E-Learning
The social aspect of learning needs to be acknowl- edged and leveraged. As noted above, e-learning can facilitate peer interaction and coaching. Vy- gotsky (1978) asserted that learning exists first between people and then is internalized. According to him, the most common way to learn socially is through collaboration: typically, small groups working together towards a common goal or solu- tion. Costa (1985) mentioned other features of col- laborative learning include group and individual accountability, distributed leadership, and group autonomy. He asserted that collaboration provides opportunities for individuals to think aloud and engage both intellectually and emotionally, and incorporates both academic and social objectives. Another basic tenet of collaborative learning ac- cording to Costa is that students have significant control over learning through autonomy and key decision-making.
It should be noted that collaboration is a set of learned information literacy skills in itself. For in- dividuals to work together as a group effectively, all members need to share information, listen, follow directions, keep on track, clarify and check for in- formation, share leadership and decision-making, and show respect (Dishon & O’Leary, 1994). While collaboration can be learned informally, educators should provide explicit instruction and feedback for each skill, and teach self-governing techniques. At the beginning, educators provide a structure in which groups work, dividing the task into small, manageable steps. Monitoring is close and extensive, and groups spend significant time discussion group dynamics and brainstorming ways to improve group management.
In e-learning environments, such structure for learning depends on effective instructional design. Directions can be provided in several formats, such as guide documents, web tutorials, and videos. Learning activities need to generate ongoing evidence that can be monitored for timely, specific feedback so that individual roles can be
practiced correctly and the group as a whole can function effectively. For instance, wikis archive all changes so educators can assess each person’s contributions. Groups can also monitor their own governance, giving each other feedback, which reinforces collaborative learning.
Web 2.0 tools have greatly expanded the ways that collaboration can occur to support the social aspects of information competency.
• Threaded discussions facilitate student comprehension and evaluation of informa- tion. Additionally, individual contributions and responses can be archived chronologi- cally by subject for later content analysis.
• Blogs (web logs) enable individuals to self-reflect about their information literacy processes chronologically, and others can comment on the entries.
• Wikis (quick-edit web pages) facilitate joint production of web pages that reflect collaborative knowledge.
• Multimedia programs such as Voicethread enable users to develop and share online individual- and group-generated albums.
• Image sharing programs such as Flickr en- able users to upload and share photos and other images; these items can be combined into albums that reflect visual literacy competency.
• Online chats enable individuals to discuss information competency issues in real time. Some chat programs include features that allow documents and web pages to be viewed in common.
• Web-based conferencing incorporate text, image and sound to more closely approxi- mate physical interaction.
• Virtual environments (object-oriented on- line environments) enable individuals to interact virtually using avatars. Virtual en- vironments usually have ways for applica- tions to be embedded and documents to be stored.
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Integrating Information Competency into E-Learning Environment Instruction
Throughout the e-learning instructional design process, instructors need to determine which technologies will be used – and to what extent – in light of information competency. At the minimum, instructors need to determine whether technol- ogy will be used as a tool to deliver instruction, as a learning aid, or as the outcome itself. Even the instructional focus, whether to emphasize an information literacy task or tool, requires careful consideration. Technology-based choices apply at each step in designing instruction, as shown here.
• Assess needs: online survey, video capture of behavior, analysis of website “hits”
• Identify learners: online solicitations, RSS feed subscriptions, organizational lists
• Identify outcomes: technology standards, online content standards, online education syllabi
• Identify indicators: technology rubrics, technology products, electronic Delphi method (i.e., getting experts to come to consensus on key points)
• Identify prerequisite skills: web-based as- sessment, performance observation, con- tent analysis of sample work
• Identify content: online training docu- ments, electronic journal articles, virtual chat
• Identify the instructional format: ◦ resources (Internet, DVDs, e-books) ◦ instructor (technician, instruction de-
signer, remote-site expert) ◦ methods (web tutorial, hands-on ma-
nipulation, video presentation) ◦ timeframe (self-paced, real-time,
just-in-time) ◦ location (computer lab, classroom,
home)
◦ grouping (individual, online group, work unit)
◦ individualization (programmed in- struction, choice of technology, coaching)
◦ affective domain (wiki, threaded dis- cussion, virtual chat)
• Contextualize instruction: web page within work website, professional development database, digital images of applications
• Implement the plan: project planning soft- ware program, web page development, video conferencing
• Assess the plan: learning management sys- tem statistics, videotape, online survey.
Each type of technology tool lends itself to specific information literacy learning approaches. Whenever possible, the unique properties of each tool should be exploited to optimize these experiences.
Technology-Based Resources for E-Learning Environments
As instructors design the e-learning environment, they need to consider the most effective resources to use to foster information competency, particu- larly since the thrust of information competency is engagement with information. Tynjala and Hakkinen (2005) categorized these resources according to their instructional function.
• Cognitive tools to organize and external- ize knowledge: teaching learners how to use utility software applications (such as spreadsheets and databases), hypermedia and graphic organizers to structure knowl- edge linearly and non-linearly; incorporat- ing simulations and other models to repre- sent knowledge
• Scaffolding: using hypermedia with branching options to enable learners to
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decide what content to access; providing shared learning spaces for peer tutoring
• Expertise development: providing simula- tions and other interactive models to test and practice content knowledge
• Social construction of knowledge: includ- ing Web 2.0 social networking features; assigning tasks that require collaboration utilizing technology
• Integrating face-to-face and online deliv- ery: supplementing class time activity with online resources; following up in-class dis- cussion with online chat.
All of these instruction strategy decision points include selecting appropriate resources to incor- porate. Two major categories are content-centric resources and production-centric resources (to be defined below), each of which may be associated with a specific information literacy task. While applications are emphasized here, it should be mentioned that digital resources need equipment in order to use them, so instructors need to check their availability and ease of operability before choos- ing dependent digital resources. Additionally, they should provide students a choice in selecting and using resources so that special needs and other learning preferences can be accommodated.
Content-Centric Resources
Content-rich resources include subject-specific software, DVDs, audiotapes, podcasts, and In- ternet files, particularly online databases. Digital access tools include library catalogs, indices, tele- communications, Internet directories, and search engines. The advantages of these technology tools include: combination of media, currency, multiple access points, user control, and capability to be repurposed. These features are particularly useful to meet the needs of learners with different learning styles and English language barriers. Additionally, when instructors transmit their information via content-rich tools, they facilitate learning anytime
and anywhere in a standardized way, which can provide large-scale instruction.
Discrete portions of resources may be selected and edited to demonstrate one specific concept or insight. That individual learning object may be used for another course for another purpose. For example, a video clip of a lung surgery detail may be used in an anatomy class as well as in a drug-prevention course. When well indexed and incorporated into a database for easy access and retrieval, these learning modules provide an ef- fective way to optimize electronic resources. The modules can be easily inserted into multimedia and online presentations to offer a quick, clear explanation or to serve as an open-ended, genera- tive learning prompt.
Whatever technology resources are used, instructors need to make sure that learners do something with them; the learning needs to be interactive rather than passive. To facilitate critical viewing, the instructor should provide guiding questions. Having an activity based on the resources helps reinforce and build on learn- ing, so providing information about that project before viewing the resource optimizes transfer of learning. For instance, online instruction might introduce copyright concepts, and then have learn- ers take an online copyright test; afterwards, the class can discuss the answers and implications in a threaded discussion. The learners can also use technology to find and record real world connec- tions to geometry, such as using smartphones to capture those images.
Probably the most interactive web-based instruction structured format is a WebQuest. In this model, a meaningful task is presented. The WebQuest creator provides the learner with links to appropriate web-based documents in order to complete the task. Often collaborative roles are incorporated into the WebQuest to promote human interaction as well as interaction with resources. WebQuests blend information access, manipula- tion, and presentation.
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Production-Centric Resources
Other digital resources facilitate content manipu- lation and presentation, which constitute another aspect of information competency. Application suites such as MicroSoft Office and Google Docs enable individuals to transform digital information from one format to another easily. The technology tool choices offer a great learning opportunity to examine the critical features of each format that shape information. Students learn valuable infor- mation literacy lessons in matching information to the audience and communication objective.
• Word processing/desktop publishing: easy to use and repurpose, and other applica- tions can often be inserted. Instructors can create learning guide sheets, and learners can present and share content-rich findings.
• Spreadsheet: helps organize data and fa- cilitates numerical analysis. Instructors can locate data sets for analysis; learners can test hypotheses about data.
• Database: helps sort and links data sets. A newer form of databases is social network- ing websites, as exemplified by delicious, Flickr, and Facebook. Instructors can lo- cate data sets for analysis; learners can test hypotheses about existing data and collab- oratively create their own social sharing database.
• Authoring/presentation: combines me- dia to present content sequentially or in other structured order locally and online. Instructors and learners can present con- tent, and reorder or combine presentations according to the messenger’s intent.
• Audio files/podcasting: presents aural information such as voice and music. Instructors and learners can record and ar- chive explanations and sound clips to share at any time.
• Graphic programs: represents knowledge visually; some programs require hours of training. Instructors can diagnose learner knowledge as they create content concept maps; instructors and learners can explain concepts with images.
• Video editing: realistic, multimedia format for presenting concepts, particularly pro- cesses and persuading audiences; requires some training and equipment. Instructors and learners can demonstrate how the se- lection and sequencing of video informa- tion can impact perception.
For most content areas, a variety of technolo- gies may be incorporated for successful instruc- tional strategies in e-learning environments. By examining all of the instructional design factors, optimum technologies can be chosen with con- fidence. Increasingly, education is incorporating online integrated learning management systems (ILMS) as part of their educational delivery sys- tem (Roblyer & Doering, 2009). This method facilitates e-learning as well as offers increased interaction. However, care must be taken to make good use of its features in designing and imple- menting courses.
Information Task-Specific Resources
To demonstrate how the choice of resource impacts instructional strategies, the following outline of content matter to teach information competency incorporates technology at each step, based on Eisenberg and Berkowitz’s 1990 Big Six model.
1. Identify the need for information. ◦ Video: Learners brainstorm informa-
tion needs for a Middle East peace summit simulation.
◦ Web activity: Concept mapping and other educational techniques to help learners identify information needs.
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2. Access information effectively. ◦ Video: Learners identify various
search strategies to locate informa- tion, such as generating key words and using library catalogs and indexes.
◦ Web activity: Tutorial on use of on- line databases and university catalog; use of bibliographies, etc.; locate ed- ucational research and lesson plans.
3. Evaluate and select information. ◦ Video: Learners use web evaluation
criteria. ◦ Web activity: WebQuest that explains
use of rubrics and other tools to eval- uate materials; evaluate educational research and learning activities.
4. Manipulate information to accomplish a specific purpose. ◦ Video: Learners create spreadsheets
and timelines to organize information. ◦ Web activity: Instructional design
process. 5. Communicate product or performance.
◦ Video: Learners create a PowerPoint presentation.
◦ Web activity: Tutorial on presentation software.
6. Evaluate process and product. ◦ Video: Learners use rubrics to evalu-
ate their learning experience. ◦ Web activity: Locate and evaluate
assessment and standards websites; WebQuest on copyright and other le- gal issues.
Library Instruction in Support of Information Competency
As educators seek technology-enhanced means to teach students information competency, they should consider partnering with information professionals: librarians. Increasingly, librarians have developed instructional web tutorials or,
at the least, create web portals that link to such learning aids. A good list of peer-reviewed online library tutorials is found at http://www.ala.org/ala/ rusa/rusaourassoc/rusasections/mars/marspubs/ marsinnovativerefgeneral.htm. Other starting points follow.
• ICT Literacy (http://www.ictliteracy.info) • Skovde University Library (Sweden):
Information Literacy (http://www.his.se/ bib/enginfolit.shtml)
• Directory of Online Resources for Information Literacy (http://www.lib.usf. edu/ref/doril/)
• Information Literacy for K-16 Settings (http://www.csulb.edu/~lfarmer/infolit- webstyle.htm)
• Educator’s Reference Desk: Information Literacy (http://www.eduref.org/cgi-bin/ print.cgi/Resources/Subjects/Information_ Literacy/Information_Literacy.html)
• Information Skills Modules (http://ism-1. lib.vt.edu)
• Library Research Guides (http://www.lib. berkeley.edu/TeachingLib/Guides)
• OASIS: Online Advancement of Student Information Skills (http://oasis.sfsu.edu/)
Classroom teachers and librarians can use these resources in guided practice with an entire class, incorporate single sections of these materials into a learning activity, or encourage students to use them independently individually and in small groups. Providing a choice of venues allows student choice and recognizes different learning preferences.
Another way for librarians to instruct digi- tally is through digital reference. In this online environment, students can ask for help through asynchronous email or real-time chat. Users of digital reference service differ from traditional reference users in that they tend to be more self- motivated and independent, work non-traditional
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hours, dislike bureaucracy, like interactive online environments but may lack interpersonal skills.
As students ask for reference help, librarians can take advantage of this learning moment to ask guiding questions that follow research process steps. Thus, they can help students clarify their informational need and task, determine what they already know, identify a good list of key words, locate likely resources, and evaluate them. Par- ticularly when the digital reference includes a mutual “whiteboard,” both parties can see potential web sites together and even take turns navigating through the site, which helps the librarian see how the user interfaces with the site. If adequate infrastructure or support cannot be guaranteed, however, it is better to provide high-quality face- to-face reference service incorporating informa- tion literacy instruction instead of dysfunctional technology-based reference “help.”
FUTURE TRENDS
With the convergence and miniaturization of technology, e-learning environments can lever- age emerging technologies that have caught the attention of the public. Indeed, leveraging those technologies that individuals already use makes the learning curve flatter, and also affirms students’ information competency.
One popular social technology tool affecting e-learning environments is mobile learning, or m-learning (Clugh, Jones, McAndrew & Scanlon, 2008). Starting with portable digital assistants (PDA), instructors have used these handheld devices to help collection observation data and to facilitate quick in-class quizzes to check for understanding. The ability of PDAs to “beam” data wirelessly enables instructors to disseminate short documents throughout the class, or create learning stations at which learners can download informa- tion for just-in-time learning. Stripped down ap- plication programs such as word processing and concept mapping enable learners to brainstorm
and journal their learning experiences easily, and then share those ideas with their peers. Mobile devices such as “smart” phones, particularly the iPhone, has ratcheted up m-learning and associated e-learning environments because of its many fea- tures: two-way communication, text messaging, photo capture, calendaring, calculating, Internet access, application downloading and operating options, geographic information system (GIS) or global positioning system (GPS) functions, and language support. Clugh, Jones, McAndrew, and Scanlon (2008) developed a framework for m-learning instructional suggestions, which these examples concretize.
• Referential: Instructors can ask learners to access reference sources and ebooks online.
• Interactive: Hundreds of micro-programs are available for free or low cost that can reinforce e-learning; instructors should be aware of these programs in order to recom- mend them to their learners.
• Microworlds: Instructors can ask learn- ers to experience models of downloadable micro world domains as seen in the phone screen.
• Location aware: Instructors can ask learn- ers to take photos that demonstrate training concepts, and identify their locating using the device’s GIS/GIP function. That data can also be used to create class “mash-ups” of maps and photo info.
• Data collection: Instructors can give learn- ers observation templates to use to collect observational data out in the field.
• Collaborative: Learners can collectively build a database of information, or play educational egames online.
Roussos and her colleagues (1999) designed a project to examine learning in immersive virtual environments. Virtual worlds enable learners to experience situated e-learning in three dimensions,
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or a facsimile thereof. Visual immersion systems, from head-mounted visual systems to 3D “caves,” enable learners to experience a visual simulated environment. These systems can sense the learn- ers’ movements, and adjust the visual components accordingly. Individuals with physical limitations can approximate movement in real situations.
Currently, the most popular virtual venue is found in e-gaming (that is, electronic-based games), a new form of instructional strategy that enables learners to explore issues within a pre- scribed e-learning environment, often interacting with other players. In terms of gaining knowledge, egames can introduce learners to information com- petency through motivating activities. Nicholson (2007) noted that games promote critical thinking skills, logic, and planning: all components of infor- mation competency, if not traditional content-area curriculum. Students involved in gaming may ac- cess hints, tips, codes on the Internet, post reviews or experiences, or create game-related drawings (Prensky, 2006), all of which require a variety of information literacy skills. Acting at a higher level of information competency, Gee (2007) pointed out that players start to overtly realize that their choices in their gaming reflect their behaviors in real life, and they begin reflecting on and question- ing those real life choices. It is important to note that in order to be engaging to learners, games should be both fun and interactive; particularly for females and older adults, e-gaming protocols need to be easy and intuitive so that the focus is on the content rather than on navigation through a virtual space. Halverson (2005) distinguished between exogenous games (which use technology to organize information) and endogenous games (which drive the content via the technological environment). The latter typology is more likely to foster information competency. Halverson (2005) also identified four learning environments for egames: learner-centered to help users to apply knowledge, assessment-centered, knowledge- centered to help users learn, and community- centered to build social skills.
Education has become more individualized. For instance, people are increasingly using RSS feeders are personal e-learning spaces. As digital diagnostic tools improve, and instructional design- ers can draw upon sophisticated learning objects repositories, curriculum and instructional design can personalize e-learning environments to match learner needs and preferences dynamically (Zhang, Zhao, Zhou & Nunamaker, 2004).
On the other hand, technology has also virtu- ally shrunk the world, so an increasingly impor- tant aspect of information competency will be culture-sensitive. As technology permeates the global society, people come into contact with other cultures more frequently and deeply. In some cases, those interactions may be characterized as clashes. Misunderstandings occur because of tacit assumptions and cultural perceptions. Thus, the need for understanding different cultures is more important than ever. On the positive side, more content is being created in non-English speaking cultures, thus flattening out the language frequency distribution. Ideally, knowledge will become more culturally rich and varied. Of course, such a rise in non-English materials will require teacher educators to evaluate and verify the content’s quality. In the process, cultural knowledge will be more prone to explicit discussion and negotiation. Thus, cultural competency will need to grow with information competency, especially in e-learning environments.
Information competency also includes respon- sible use of information, which becomes increas- ingly complex and problematic in e-learning environments. Today’s e-learners need to criti- cally glean electronic information, and partici- pate actively in cyberspace to act wisely on that information for social and personal improvement. The term “digital citizenship” refers to the ability to use technology safely, responsibly, critically, productively, and pro-actively as contributing citizens of the digital world (U. S. Department of Education, 2010). The overarching goal is effective and responsible personal and social
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engagement with digital resources. While some of the motive is protection and safety, which has resulted in required filtering software and accept- able use policies, a more positive spin is the need for learners to learn coping skills and demonstrate that they can contribute meaningful knowledge to the digital society. Thus, digital citizenship needs to be front and center of information literacy e- learning curriculum.
CONCLUSION
The information society is only as strong as the information generated within it – and the extent to which that information is used to contribute to society. As change permeates society, learn- ers constantly encounter new information occur throughout their public and private lives. Infor- mation competency offers a series of processes that can help people deal with information and facilitate lifelong learning.
Educators have more e-learning resources tools than ever to insure that all learners can become information literate. Both individualized and col- laborative learning is possible more than ever, and systematic approaches to e-learning can optimize impact. E-learning for information competency must also change with the times, leveraging tech- nology and social trends to provide meaningful learning opportunities that address global, cultural, and individual information needs.
At the least, adult education needs to leverage its principles of participatory learning to include effective ways that learners can generate informa- tion. Together, learners can contribute to and take advantage of the digital society.
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Clugh, G., Jones, A., McAndrew, P., & Scanlon, E. (2008). Informal learning with PDAs and smartphones. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 24, 359–371. doi:10.1111/j.1365- 2729.2007.00268.x
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Eisenberg, M., & Berkowitz, R. (1990). Informa- tion problem-solving. Norwood, NJ: Ablex.
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Harley, K., & Bendixen, L. (2001). Educational re- search in the Internet age: Examining the role of in- dividual characteristics. Educational Researcher, 30(9), 22–25. doi:10.3102/0013189X030009022
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Kacalak, W., Majewski, M., & Zurada, J. (2010). Intelligent e-learning systems for evaluation of user’s knowledge and skills with efficient informa- tion processing. In Rutkowski, L. (Eds.), Artificial intelligence and soft computing (pp. 508–515). Berlin, Germany: Springer. doi:10.1007/978-3- 642-13232-2_62
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KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS
Collaborative Learning: Learning that involves the process of sharing resources and responsibilities to create shared meaning.
E-Gaming: Electronic-based games. E-Learning: Learning in which the process
is digitally based, usually involving a network. Information Literacy: The ability to access,
evaluate, comprehend, organize, use, and generate information effectively and purposefully.
Instructional Design: A systematic analysis of training needs and the development of aligned instruction.
Integrated Learning Management System: A centralized online system that provides access to resources and telecommunications.
Metacognition: Analysis of one’s own think- ing and learning processes.
Web 2.0: Interactive web; enables people to collaborate and share online.
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Copyright © 2012, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
Chapter 29
DOI: 10.4018/978-1-61350-068-2.ch029
INTRODUCTION
Modern-day organizations are facing a number of challenges: intensified globalization, increased market competition, changing workforce demo- graphics, rapidly changing technology and e- business, just to name a few. Of these, technology has perhaps made the most profound impact on organizational practices. Take a moment and re- flect on the following questions: How many work-
related emails do you receive on average, every day? How often do you receive electronic invita- tions to meetings, social events, free Webinars or professional development workshops? What types of automated reminders do you set up to remind you of an approaching deadline for a project or mandatory online training? Do any of your work meetings occur on social networking sites (e.g., Facebook™, LinkedIn™, Twitter) or in virtual worlds (e.g., SecondLife™ or ActiveWorlds™)? When was the last time you used Skype to com- municate with a colleague or business partner in
Jia Wang Texas A&M University, USA
Human Resource Development and Technology Integration
ABSTRACT
In the information age, technology is rapidly becoming an integral part of organizational life. Ever in- creasing technology applications have significantly reshaped the day-to-day practices of human resource development (HRD). This chapter explores the role of technology in HRD. Specifically, it addresses three issues. First, it identifies the challenges that technology has brought to HRD in the twenty-first century. Second, it analyzes the impact of technology on HRD practices with a focus on emerging HRD practices in virtual environments. Third, it provides insights into the future of virtual HRD in training and development, organizational development, and career development.
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another part of the country or world? Did you turn to Blog, Wiki, online discussion forums or chat rooms to exchange knowledge? How many times did you use the Internet to search for new information? Does your company use the Intranet and/or Listserv for internal communication or social networking sites for recruitment, sales and marketing, operations management, and customer support? What’s your reaction to these questions? Are you surprised or perhaps even overwhelmed? As Carroll and Wager (2010) so aptly summarized, “technology has further revolutionalized the ways in which many companies do business, forcing a paradigm shift for management that has resulted in new and innovative approaches to carrying out business with customers, employees and other stakeholders.”
For the field of human resource development (HRD)—whose primary goal is to improve orga- nizational effectiveness by developing individual knowledge, skills, and expertise—technology has significant implications. Not only has it provided exciting opportunities for HRD, it also presents difficult challenges for HRD professionals in promoting individual and organizational learning and performance improvement (Benson, Johnson, & Kuchinke, 2002). For example, almost a decade ago, Hronec (1993) projected that the role of information, in driving and evaluating initiatives related to HRD, is more significant than ever be- fore. As a result, the successful application of HRD interventions and tools has become increasingly dependent upon the use of technology.
Despite wide recognition of the importance of technology to organizations, there has been little systematic research on its impact on HRD prac- tices. As Bennett (2009) noted, “how important new technologies have been to HRD is an open question” (pp. 362-363). Furthermore, discussions about technology in HRD, while not devoid in the field, have not been adequately emphasized. Consequently, how organizations integrate tech- nology into their work processes remains unclear. To fill these gaps, this chapter explores the role
of technology (primarily Internet and Web-based) on the practice of HRD. Specifically, it addresses three issues. First, it identifies the challenges which technology has brought to HRD in the twenty-first century. Second, it analyzes the impact of tech- nology on HRD with a special focus on emerging HRD practices in virtual environments. Third, it provides insights into the future of virtual HRD.
BACKGROUND
Current literature on the role of technology in the field of HRD (e.g., Benson et al., 2002; Githens, Dirani, Gitonga, & Teng, 2008) suggests that it is increasingly becoming a critical component of not only the day-to-day practice of HRD, but the effective completion of organizational tasks. The increasing emphasis on knowledge creation and technology application in HRD has led to the burgeoning concept of virtual HRD (VHRD). What follows is a discussion of the notion of technology in organizations, as well as two emerging concepts in HRD which point to a continuing evolution of the role of technology in HRD—VHRD and Web 2.0.
Technology
Information technology (IT) has grown exponen- tially, and globally, during the past two decades, leading to changes in nearly every field of practice, including HRD. And the term technology has been loosely used in our language. Technology is gener- ally viewed as the application of the sciences to the objectives of industry, business, government systems, and human endeavors. As a process, technology is a “socio-technical means of defining and solving problems” (Swanson & Holton, 2001, p. 382). In the field of HRD, technology has been defined as open space technology (Owen, 1997), or human performance technology (International Society for Performance Improvement, 2000), or technology-based training (Kruse & Keil, 2000).
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The technology revolution has brought forth an evolving and increasing set of IT tools for use in the digital workplace: e-mail; mailing lists; instant messaging; bulletin boards; newsgroups; Internet search engines; and Web databases are some. While IT provides access to static forms of data and simple exchanges with others, it is information and communication technology (ICT) that has added the interactive (communication) dimension (facilitated by technology) into the workplace. According to Lewis (1998), the inno- vative impact of ICT lies in its ability of enabling operational communications in organizations through electronic interaction, which “not only removes the constraints of time and place, but also leaves a trace which forms part of the often missing organizational memory” (p. 13). More recently, Bastiaens (2009) described how ICT has enabled the virtual organization, organiza- tion development, e-learning, and performance improvement. As organizations respond to factors such as globalization and new world financial constraints, they often utilize ICT to accomplish work tasks; hence work becomes more ‘virtual’. Examples include employees working from home while being connected to the company, multiple company locations being connected to one another through ICT, or a network of professionals in geographically disbursed locations communicat- ing via ICT.
The potential of IT to transform organizations has been a persistent theme in both management, and information systems literatures since com- puters were first introduced commercially in the 1950s. Leavitt and Whisler (1958) first envisioned that organizations would leverage their mainframe computing power to reduce middle management levels and push decision making upward to a small executive elite. With the advent of desktop comput- ing in the 1980s, this vision shifted the focus on a workforce of autonomous knowledge workers and an empowered clerical staff. During the 1990s, as computers became networked within and across
organizations, predictions of “virtual organiza- tions” emerged. More recently, the World Wide Web has spawned still another set of projections for electronic commerce among “boundary-less” organizations and “intranet systems” within them. Business process reengineering has given way to broader agendas for organizational transforma- tion and knowledge management. Five decades following Leavitt and Whisler’s projection, IT is being seen as a powerful force enabling radical new designs for organizations.
Technology has enabled a multitude of virtual tools and the integration of diverse systems which connect people with one another and with rich sources of information. It is estimated that 300 million people worldwide have registered for participation in some type of progressive virtual environment (King, 2009). In the organizational context, technology has transformed workplaces from physical spaces into virtual environments (Chalofsky, 2010) where bandwidth, network- ing, collaboration and innovation become es- sential. For example, Intranets make it possible for organizations to engage in proactive internal communications and leverage technology for flex- ibility in terms of work pace, work flow and work location (Bennett, 2009). These tools contribute to reduced costs, improved products, and better work-life balance. In capturing the impact of IT, Benson et al. (2002) made the following remarks:
IT represents an evolving social transformation with profound implications and severe challenges and issues…IT is not a value-neutral instrumental innovation but rather a profound force on our lives.(p. 401)
As a result, organizations which adopt fewer IT tools and resources may lose out on significant education and development related opportunities (Teng et al., 2009).
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Human Resource Development (HRD)
HRD is a multidisciplinary field of practice with core focus on learning and performance. It is a process of building the capacity of human resources through training and development, or- ganization development, and career development for the purpose of improving performance at the individual, team, work process, and organiza- tional levels (Swanson & Holton, 2001). McLagan (1989) argued that HRD is “something everyone does” (p. 52). In recent years, the focus of HRD has been expanded from organizations only to communities and nations. Situated in the national and global context, HRD is viewed as a process of developing adults’ work-based knowledge and expertise for the benefit of the individual, group, organization, community, nation, and ultimately, the whole of humanity (McLean & McLean, 2001). As a discipline, HRD has grown to encompass more than the traditional domains and includes issues such as ethics, diversity, human and social capital development, strategic change, policy development, secondary and postsecondary educa- tion reform, and nonprofit business development (Torraco, 2005). In addition, the HRD function is shifting from being preoccupied with individual performance and training-dominated activities to becoming more strategically oriented in practice (focusing on learning and knowledge creation to enhance individuals’ competencies and collabora- tion with organizations (Wang & Ellinger, 2008). It is this integrated perspective that positions HRD in a critical role in developing an organization’s competitive edge.
VHRD
As a result of the organization’s quest for technol- ogy enhanced knowledge, there is the emergence of the concept of virtual HRD (VHRD). VHRD is in the early stages of development; few definitions exist. Currently, this concept has been defined from
two perspectives—adult learning, and knowledge management. McWhorter, Mancuso, and Hurt (2008) first introduced the notion of VHRD through their empirical study of instances of adult learning in a virtual world. Building on Swanson and Holton’s definition of HRD, these authors defined VHRD as “a process for developing and unleashing human expertise through training and development (T&D), organization development (OD), and career development (CD), by utilizing a technology-enabled environment for the purpose of improving learning and performance” (p. 1150). From a knowledge management perspective, Bennett (2009) defined VHRD as “a media-rich and culturally relevant Web environment that strategically improves expertise, performance, in- novation, and community building through formal and informal learning” (p. 365). This definition views VHRD as a combination of people and technology, wherein many of the traditional areas of HRD become computer mediated. Core to both of these conceptualizations is learning (driver), technology (facilitator for learning), interaction between human and technology (process), cul- ture (context), and innovation and effectiveness (intended consequence).
VHRD has the potential to revolutionize HRD by more directly connecting learning and performance initiatives within organizational systems (Bennett, 2009). It corresponds with calls for the field of HRD to become more strategic, business-savvy, and future-oriented (Ulrich, 1997). Ulrich identified four areas which can help HR professionals move in such a direction: (a) strategically managing human resources; (b) developing administrative expertise to manage or- ganization infrastructure; (c) managing employee contribution; and (d) managing transformation, change and organization renewal. VHRD requires HR professionals to contribute to all four areas through the creation of virtual systems which, hopefully, will enhance organization performance and development. To accomplish these activities requires integration with information technology.
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Web 2.0
What is extraordinary about the emerging con- cept of Web 2.0 is the apparent resulting shifts in practice—new labels such as enterprise 2.0 (Paroutis & Al Saleh, 2009), health 2.0 and medicine 2.0 (Hughes & Joshi, 2008), and library 2.0 (Liesegang, 2007). These emerging practices perhaps suggest a twist in the traditional practices of organizations, health care, medicine, and li- brary services, respectively. Similarly, the field of HRD appears to be influenced by Web 2.0 as it carries out VHRD. Web 2.0 is described as an environment or a platform, a set of services, or set of tools enabling collaboration, communication, community-building, co-construction, interaction, participation, and sharing (Engeström & Sannino, 2010; Hatakka, 2009; Obi, 2008; Paroutis & Al Saleh, 2009). Critten & Moteleb (2008) described Web 2.0 by referring to the collectively gener- ated knowledge “where emphasis moves from individuals using the web to improve their own knowledge (Web 1.0) to Web 2.0 where individuals both share their knowledge with each other and, more crucially, through their sharing change and add to the body of knowledge shared by them all” (p. 57). The Web 2.0 technologies or tools typically cited included blogs, RSS feeds, social bookmarks, social networks, tags, and wikis.
Integrating Technology into HRD: Critical Issues
Advances in technology play a pivotal role in work, learning, and research affecting HRD. In this regard, Swanson and Holton (2009) outlined three tiers of technology which have greatly impacted the field. The first tier, Workforce Technology, encompasses trainers who analyze job-specific skills and subsequently target training to assist employees in getting work done proficiently. The second tier, Technology within HRD, looks at how HRD activities are delivered. The third tier, Information Technology and HRD, is con-
sidered a paradigm shift in which information technology (IT) has dramatically altered the way work is accomplished and shifted the locus of control from HRD professionals to individuals and work groups thereby enabling development wherever and whenever needed. This notion is supported by empirical evidence. For instance, the results of Ford’s (1990) study suggested that employees trained adequately on the use of a personal computer (PC) raised productivity in organizations where technology was valued and yielded positive outcomes. Peterson (1997) ar- gued that developments in technology may help business professionals prepare for cross-cultural experiences. More recently, Church et al. (2002) demonstrated through a case study how an orga- nization used Web-career tools to drive cultural change successfully. Gardner, Lepak and Bartol (2003) surveyed 455 HR executives and found that the integration of IT impacts HR roles by chang- ing demands for information and the need for IT support. In this case, IT enabled HR professionals to provide improved information responsiveness, have more information autonomy and more exter- nal professional links. IT has also allowed more efficient access and dissemination of information while shaping and changing job expectations. In sum, technological tools have proved to be use- ful for learning, performance enhancement, and organizational change and development (Benson et al., 2002).
The wide array of technologies can be excit- ing and promising when they contribute to the expediting of internal and external communica- tions, standardized business and human resource processes, and organization change and devel- opment (Church et al., 2002). They can also be daunting and overwhelming as the constant and rapid technology changes increasingly make or- ganizational and individual knowledge obsolete. Technology presents numerous challenges, which will only increase as the rate of technology change continues to accelerate.
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HIGH-TECH VS. HIGH-TOUCH
The first challenge is how to balance high-tech interventions and high-level human interaction. Historically, HRD has functioned at a low-tech level. The twenty-first-century challenge for HRD, according to Swanson and Holton (2001) is, therefore, be engaged in high-tech means of developing and unleashing human expertise in response to the demand for conducting HRD activities in a more efficient and cost-effective manner. Apart from its own technology, the HRD profession has been characterized by “sensitive engagement of client and participation high-touch” (p. 384). The new challenge for HRD, then, is to leverage technology without losing the human touch. HRD professionals need to learn more about how to effectively harness high-tech and high-touch interventions.
Changing HRD Roles and Skills
Technology has changed the role and skill require- ments of HRD professionals. Twenty years ago, McLagan (1989) identified 27 core HRD com- petencies in four broad categories: (1) technical competencies (e.g., knowledge of adult learning and career development, computer competence, evaluation skill, media selection skill, training and development theories and techniques); (2) business competencies (e.g., budget and resource management skill, knowledge of business and organization behavior, OD theories and tech- niques); (3) interpersonal competencies (e.g., coaching skill, feedback skill, group process skill, negotiation skill, presentation skill; and (4) intellectual competencies (e.g., data-reduction skill, information-search skill, vision skill). Ten years later, Dare and Leach (1998) found that three competencies identified by McLagan were perceived as significantly more important as they were before. These include the technical compe- tencies of research and electronic-systems skills,
and the intellectual competency of visioning skill. In addition, these authors found two technical competencies (competency identification skill and objectives preparation skill) were seen as significantly less important than they were before. In today’s virtual workplace, it is not difficult to project that the skills needed for effective virtual interaction would be drastically different from those in the 90s (Bastiaens, 2009; McLean, 2006; Torraco, 2005). HRD professionals will not only have to help others cope with the consequences of new technologies, and help organizations create new strategies for developing and retain knowledge talent, they must also continue to transition their own roles as virtual knowledge workers. Below are examples of new or differ- ent competencies required for virtual HRD in the twenty-first century.
• Knowledge of current technologies avail- able to organizations (e.g., Internet and Intranet communications, video confer- encing, web conferencing, search engines, instant messaging, podcasts, blogs, wikis, and virtual worlds)
• Ability to leverage existing technology and virtual environments for strategic advantage
• Systems thinking and intuitive thinking • Visual-spatial skills • Ability to communicate and interact in
non-face-to-face (virtual) environments; • Knowledge of context-sensitive motiva-
tion strategies (face-to-face, hybrid, virtual environments)
• Knowledge of diverse cultures represented by virtual teams which are geographically dispersed
• Management skills for supervising em- ployees in a virtual environment
• Requisite skills for evaluating virtual environments
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Unintended Consequences of Technology
The next challenge concerns leveraging the unin- tended consequences of technology application. Ample literature has chronicled the side-effects encountered when introducing technology into organizations. Robey and Boudreau (1997) pro- vided a few examples of the “seemingly polarized pairs of social outcomes” (p. 170): empowered employees and oppressed employees; extended hierarchy and reduced hierarchy; organizational rigidity and organizational flexibility; and in- creases in staff and radical downsizing. Stephens and Szajna (1998) raised concerns about whether telecommunicating could lead to exploitation of people if organizations give them reduced pay and benefits, or treat them differently from traditional employees. Ardichivili (2002) identified several unexpected barriers leading to low online com- munity participation, including barriers associated with individual psychology (e.g., fear of losing face, being criticized, letting colleagues down, or misleading others), and barriers associated with corporate security restrictions. Similarly, Church et al. (2002) outlined unintended consequences of technology in organizational development initiatives: decreased employee participation or lack of adequate representation; lack of faith in the system and confidentiality; and technological glitches. More recently, Morris (2008) identi- fied increased stress associated with the use of technology, including disruption of work-life balance, physical health issues, and psychological stress. In addition to the inability of anticipating or managing these unintended consequences, organizations often overlook variables such as age, gender, and ethics in their technology adop- tion related decision making processes. Using age as an example, research suggests that age has an important influence on technology use in the workplace. Specifically, age differences in infor- mation processing impacted the older workers’ performance of computer-based tasks (e.g., data
entry, file maintenance, and inventory manage- ment (Morris & Venkatesh, 2000). Unintended consequences such as these, if not considered or managed carefully, “can seriously threaten the quality and validity of any data or information collected, the integrity of an entire process, and ultimately, the value of the overall organization development and change effort” (Church et al., pp. 503-504).
Ethical Issues
Finally, shifting of practices from face to face to virtual environments requires new ethical con- siderations. As virtual systems create significant opportunities to store vast amounts of confiden- tial information, policies must be developed to protect the privacy of workers as well as protect the sensitive data that organizations now have in digital forms. Ethical conduct and trust play a critical role in the development of virtual or- ganizations in the global market (Grydzewski, Hejduk, Snkowsda, & Wantuchowicz, 2008). HRD professionals must insure that HRD practices in virtual environments are congruent with accepted ethical codes of conduct.
EMERGING VHRD PRACTICES
This section discusses some of HRD related activities which have already been implemented virtually or discussed by HRD researchers. These activities include: virtual learning; virtual mentoring (Bierema & Hill, 2005); virtual teams (Workman, 2005); virtual learning communities (Birchall & Giambona, 2007); virtual communities of practice (Ardichvili, 2008); virtual knowledge management (Bennett, 2009); virtual organiza- tions (Henderson & Provo, 2006); and virtual worlds (McWhorter et al., 2008). These, however, do not represent an exhaustive list.
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Virtual Learning
Facilitating learning for individuals and organiza- tions has been an essential role for HRD. Chalof- skey (1992) projected, almost two decades ago, that computer-assisted learning (CAL) would be a new form of learning in the information age. Now, given the sophistication of media available today, people can learn in a richer, more integrated, and potentially more creative way. Technologies for learning range from asynchronous e-mail, weblogs, bulletin boards, and distance learning platforms, to more robust synchronous environ- ments of virtual chat, virtual classrooms, and virtual worlds. These virtual environments can enable learning engagement by providing flexibil- ity and accessibility (Sambrook, 2005), as well as tools tailored to different learning styles, different learning pace, and different levels of participation (Macpherson, Elliot, & Homan, 2004). Further, the technology-enabled cognitive tools for learning allow individuals to develop higher-level skills (e.g., logic, computation, and analysis) rather than mere memorization. As a result, virtual learning is no longer merely a cognitive process but also involves human emotions, imagination, and intu- ition (Bouras & Tsiatsos, 2006). And, intuition is an unconscious activity important for creativity (Torrance & Safter, 1999).
Virtual Mentoring
The concept of virtual mentoring was championed in the field of HRD by Bierema and Hill (2005) who claimed that technology can facilitate the relationship between the mentor and the protégé. They noted that despite some drawbacks, virtual mentoring has the potential to foster a “delibera- tive, reflective, and thoughtful exchange” (p. 559). Virtual mentoring is also cost saving compared to traditional mentoring practices which may require frequent traveling for the mentors and protégés who are geographically apart. Last, and perhaps the most important, given the elitist nature of
traditional mentoring, virtual mentoring can be a valuable alternative career development strategy for the underrepresented workforce (e.g, women and people of color) who are often excluded from mentoring programs (Wang, 2009). In fact, the topic of e-mentoring has received increasing research attention, and its value for the develop- ment of professional women’ careers has already been established (Headlam-Wells, Gosland, & Graig, 2005).
Virtual Teams
With the unique feature of allowing interdisciplin- ary activities to cross traditional unit boundaries and geographies, virtual teams are rapidly becom- ing the norm in many organizations today (Reine & Trompendaars, 2000). Workman (2005) examined virtual teams in a transnational organization where members who were geographically dispersed used contemporary technology for communication and coordination of teamwork. Interestingly, he found that tightly controlled teams outperformed loosely structured and managed virtual teams, and he called for virtual team members to “communicate, plan, problem solve, derive products or solutions, and monitor their performance” (p. 436).
A number of variables are found which affect the success of virtual teams, including: com- munication (Dewey & Carter; 2003; Johnson & Jeris, 2004); trust (Colky, Colky, & Young, 2002); knowledge of technology (Benson et al., 2002; Church et al., 2002); socio-emotional capability of virtual workers (Jones & Ruona, 2006); and leadership (Moran, 2005). Jarvenpaa and Leidner (1999) studied global virtual teams where the participants had never met before, and found that teams with leaders who used traditional control mechanisms, such as weekly status reports, seemed to have lower level trust within the teams and therefore reduced the likelihood of success. They also identified two factors which contributed to successful virtual team practices. One was having enthusiastic social communication at the outset
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which gave way to high task focus. The other was providing timely responses to communication without being negative. Therefore, identifying strategies to encourage self-organization and trust building are essential for virtual work.
Virtual Organizations
Technology advancement, together with globaliza- tion, has shifted traditional organizations toward virtual organizations (Beck, 2003; Henderson & Provo, 2006 p. 275). Knowledge workers are crucial to virtual organizations where employees need to understand how to manipulate computer systems to perform tasks effectively. One issue for HRD professionals to consider is how to motivate employees in a virtual environment where face-to-face interaction is minimum or not present. Henderson and Provo (2006) urged HRD professionals to seek strategies to deal with the new complexities that will be generated by continuing technology advancements. Lewis (1998) called for the need for investment in understanding current practices and human behavior in order to create virtual learning organizations, because “the returns could well be enormous” (p. 13).
Virtual Learning Organizations/ Communities
In virtual learning environments, information and communication technology enables the exchange of tacit knowledge, and provides new members with a means of gaining knowledge about the organizational culture (Lewis, 1998). Birchall and Giambona (2007) stated that a virtual learn- ing community offers several advantages over traditional means for knowledge sharing, and that trust plays a significant role in virtual learn- ing communities. However, building trust can be challenging given the absence of non-verbal cues in a computer mediated environment. Since communication is a key factor of trust build- ing, it is critical how and what communication
mechanisms are selected to trigger meaningful and sincere dialogues.
Virtual Communities of Practice
Virtual environments enable the co-creation of knowledge which promotes the formation of virtual communities of practice. A community of practice is “a group of people informally bound together by shared expertise and passion” (Wenger, 2002, p. 1). Virtual communities of practice are usually distinguished from virtual teams because they are normally organized around community members’ common interests, but are not usually working toward achieving specific performance goals as observed in virtual teams. Communities of practice are “important vehicles for collective learning in the workplace” (Ardichvili, 2008, p. 541) and have the potential to lead to “the most intensive interaction and knowledge generation and exchange” (Ardichvili, 2002, p. 456). This view is consistent with Lien, Hung, and McLean’s (2007) case studies of organizational learning within six high-technology firms in Taiwan. In this study, the authors found that virtual com- munities of practice contributed to the linkage of knowledge sharing and knowledge management.
Virtual Knowledge Management
Knowledge management (KM) is a social activity aided by technology, therefore, essential for devel- oping VHRD, Bennett, 2009). KM analyzes how knowledge is acquired, created, and distributed in organizations (Lengnick-Hall & Lengnick-Hall, 2003). Specifically, it focuses on understanding the interactions between tacit and explicit knowledge, the process of knowledge creation and conversion. As Ardichvili (2002) observed, “contemporary Web-based KM systems integrate real-time infor- mation sharing and coordination between: various departments; knowledge sharing and discussion between individual employees and teams and communities; skill databases; company yellow
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pages; product and service information; and Web presence for customer information gathering” (pp. 455-456). These features make a contemporary KM system an ideal tool for promoting organiza- tional learning, a central theme of HRD.
Virtual Worlds
Virtual worlds are “a three-dimensional world where multiple people can interact in real-time while using avatars (virtual icons) as representa- tions of themselves” (Chapman, 2008, p. 917). Virtual worlds emphasize team play and com- munity, giving a sense of presence lacking in other media, thereby simulating a high-level of involvement and immersion in a virtual environ- ment (Johnson, Vorderstrasse, & Shaw, 2009). The most popular virtual worlds are Active Worlds and Second Life. Virtual worlds have the ability to take online collaboration and interaction to new levels, break down hierarchies, and eliminate geo- graphic boundaries (Chapman, 2008; Gronstedt, 2007; Hutchinson, 2007). Furthermore, learning in virtual worlds is learner driven (built by users), rather than instructor driven (built by owners); therefore, virtual worlds hold great promise for new, exciting, and innovative learning experiences (Crites & Homan, 2009). Organizations such as IBM, Cisco, and Manpower have leveraged virtual worlds to “cut travel, training, and meeting costs, gain substantial access to global talent, trim back internal redundancy, and increase communications among departments that were once isolated from one another” (King, 2009, p. 12).
FUTURE TRENDS
This section discusses some broad implications of technology integration in the three domains of HRD: training and development; organization development; and career development. As McLa- gan (1989) argued, HRD is “something everyone
does” (p. 52). This speaks to the importance of understanding future trends of HRD in a technol- ogy dominated era. And the implications, although not yet fully understood, point to some specific areas into which technologies can be integrated within organizations. These areas, therefore, may be guides for organizational leaders, managers, trainers, and human resource developers in their effort to use technology for enhancing individual, group, and organizational effectiveness.
Technology-Enabled Training and Development
Training at work, a core domain of HRD, is increas- ingly becoming a Web-based activity (Benson et al., 2002). Examples of IT tools used to support both formal training interventions and informal learning activities include e-mail, bulletin board messaging systems, wikis, discussion boards, video conferencing, simulations, and chat rooms. Web-based training offers flexibility, a consistent delivery of training materials, and self-paced learn- ing opportunities. Both learners and organizations can benefit from reduced travel and other expenses associated with attendance in training sessions (Schooley, 2009). This potential for reducing costs will likely lead to an increased participation rate and meaningful self-directed learning. One of the challenges for HRD professionals in this area of training and development is how to deal with the changing nature of instructional design and assume the new role of delivering instruction using a wide range of Web-based technologies (Benson et al., 2002). These new roles require greater skill in areas which are not typically within the repertoire of expertise of HRD professionals, such as technology management, troubleshooting, graphic design, and media production. One way HRD professionals can address this challenge is to partner with professional instructional designers and technologists to ensure the virtual learning environment is user-friendly and usable—two
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critical factors influencing online learning (Sam- brook, 2005). In addition, HRD professionals must be certain that learning is integrated into an organization’s work processes and reward systems (Holton & Baldwin, 2003) which can be managed electronically (Bennett, 2009). The advantages of using technology for training and learning has been recognized by HRD scholars both conceptually and empirically for more than twenty years, including facilitating self-directed learning, and enhancing adult learning (Manz & Manz, 1991), increasing interactions between the instructor and the learner (Russ-Eft, 1994), saving costs (Harp, Tayler, & Satzinger, 1998), and boosting trainees’ self-efficacy (Christoph, Schoenfeld, & Tansky, 1998).
Technology-Enabled Organization Development
As Benson et al. (2002) and Church et al. (2002) pointed out, to be successful in any change initia- tive, organizations must adopt the perspective that OD is a data-driven process for change; hence, the successful application of OD interventions is becoming increasingly dependent upon the use of technology. According to Church et al. (2002), direct attention to the role of Web-based technology in OD must be given to three areas: (1) data-based assessment tools and techniques (e.g., survey, 360-degree feedback, selection tests); (2) team building (e.g., virtual teaming, information sharing); and (3) management and employee de- velopment (e.g., career tools, interactive training, self-paced learning). This focus requires organiza- tions to develop employees who are comfortable with technology and have access to the data and tools they need to support change (Benson et al., 2002). In their study, Milton, Watkins and Daley (2005) found that the virtual environment provides opportunities for facilitators to be deliberate in how they intervene in group situations, using reflection on the results of the interventions,
and be flexible in responding to group needs. Further, they posit that the virtual environment is a powerful tool for modeling OD interventions. And, HRD professionals have a tremendous op- portunity to use IT tools to enhance learning, job performance, and organizational decision making (Benson et al., 2002). In addition, organizations must also conduct careful assessment of their decisions about the effectiveness of their use of Web-based technologies, as well as how those decisions affect the organization’s bottom line. Given the limitations of the existing approaches to evaluation, HRD professionals must develop new measures to adequately evaluate the impact of technology application on organization change and development (Benson et al., 2002).
In sum, technology allows OD initiatives to be structured not only into communication channels but into daily virtual work. Action technologies, virtual team development, innovation, and change processes may be accomplished through VHRD. A research area HRD professionals can explore is whether and how VHRD fosters high-performing and healthy organizations (Bennett, 2009).
Technology-Enabled Career Development
The role of technology in management and em- ployee development has increased significantly (Church et al., 2002). Such application has enabled many new approaches to individual development. Examples include online career management tools, internal and external job posting worldwide, cus- tomized interactive training and work simulations online; and sophisticated software programs that assist the design of learning objectives, link content to objectives, and assess learning outcomes (Tip- pins, 2002). Pierce and Pitts (2005) predicted that virtual career development is a likely avenue for assisting individuals and organizations with career development efforts (Pierce & Pitts, 2005). They
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urged HRD professionals to seek ways to lever- age this valuable career development resource.
However, career development in virtual environments will have a different complexion reflecting different organizational values (Ben- nett, 2009). Several issues are important to consider here. One is about the management of career development data. Organizations need to set priorities about the use and reuse of career development data. For example, virtual mentor- ing leaves a record of communications that could affect the attitude about openness a mentor and a protégé feel toward sharing information (Bier- ema & Hill, 2005). Organizational assumptions about how to judge merit for promotion are also an issue. And, how important face-to-face time is for advancement opportunities will affect career development in virtual work. Organizations also need to develop a new generation of leaders and prepare them for working and managing within virtual environments. Additionally, the methods we use to promote people in virtual work become another issue. Both likability and competence are important factors for career progression. In the past, women have often been at a disadvantage because their personal and social obligations have restricted their ability to participate in informal networking, particularly events after business hours (Wang, 2009). In a technology-enabled environment, this issue may be somewhat miti- gated if informal networks, such as virtual social networking, meet on-line. Further, technology has long been considered a male-oriented do- main, which could disadvantage females using technology tool for communication or working with technology development. Heilman, Wallen, Fuchs, and Tamkins (2004) found, through a series of studies, that women who show competence in mail-gendered tasks tend to be disliked for their success, which is problematic for promotion. Each of the issues identified above warrants systematic research efforts.
CONCLUSION
New forms of information and communication technology (ICT) provide an abundance of options for work and learning today. This trend is likely to increase as the millennial generation enters the workforce holding an unprecedented technical savvy. In the technology-enabled environment, students will be able to follow personalized learn- ing pathways which allow greater flexibility for different learning styles and intrinsic motivational factors (Christensen, Horn, & Johnson, 2008). The future workforce will be increasingly comfortable with learning and communicating using technol- ogy. As individuals assume a bigger responsibility for directing their own career development paths, the traditional employer-employee relationship will be redefined. As far as HRD is concerned, technological development and corresponding change in the workforce will continue to move HRD activities to a more virtual process. VHRD, as a paradigm shift for the field, will continue to transform organizations and alter many of the core HRD practices and skill sets. The reach of HRD can be greatly increased as virtual work crosses space and time boundaries.
Mitroff and Linstone (1993) suggested a set of guidelines for managing social and technical change in organizational settings. They proposed that organizations should: (1) strike a balance among technical, organizational, and personal perspectives; (2) foster a culture holding a variety of perspectives; (3) recognize that organizational and personal perspectives require greatly different methods than do technical ones; (4) pay attention to the mutual impact, interdependencies, and integration of perspectives; and (5) beware of thinking statistically in dynamic environments. These guidelines would also work well as guiding principles for holistic thinking about learning and knowledge management in organizational set- tings. Certainly, these suggestions can be useful in guiding future VHRD practice.
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KEY TERMS AND DEFINTIONS
Human Resource Development: A process of enhancing individual, group, and organization effectiveness through training and development, organization development, and career develop- ment.
Virtual Community of Practice: A group of people who are informally bound together by common interests and communicate virtually.
Virtual Environment: A technology-enabled environment that requires no face-to-face human interactions.
Virtual Human Resource Development: A process of using Internet- or Web-based technologies to enhance individual, group, and organization effectiveness through training and development, organization development, and career development.
Virtual Team: A team where members work in geographically disbursed locations and com- municate virtually.
Virtual Workplace: A work environment where organizational members perform tasks in the virtual environment enabled by Internet- or Web-based technologies.
Virtual Worlds: A 3-D environment where multi-users interact in real time using avatars as representation of themselves.
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Copyright © 2012, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
Chapter 30
Jeremy Dickerson Coastal Carolina University, USA
Howard V. Coleman University of North Carolina, USA
Technology, E-Leadership and Educational
Administration in Schools: Integrating Standards with Context
and Guiding Questions
ABSTRACT
This chapter presents many of the issues surrounding the use of electronic (e) learning and information technology (IT) in the development of K-12 school administrators, curriculum supervisors, district-level leaders, and others as they prepare to become technology leaders in K-12 educational settings. Using the International Society of Technology in Education National Educational Technology Standards for Administrators (ISTE, NETS-A) as a guide, this chapter identifies a critical need for e-learning and information technology to be a part of the process for developing 21st century school leaders. The NETS-A are illuminated by elaborations and connections to issues in the field of education, contextual- ized activities, and guiding questions which add meaning and allow readers to consider each standard from the perspective of students (candidates) in a school administration preparation program. These contexts and questions are derived from the authors’ thirty years of collective experiences in education, leadership, and technology.
DOI: 10.4018/978-1-61350-068-2.ch030
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INTRODUCTION
With the pending retirement of many current educational leaders who can be described as the “Baby-Boomer” generation, there is an increasing need for new public school leaders during the next decade. Future educational leaders will face many issues related to the use of information technology and e-learning in leading 21st century schools. In- dividuals in educational leadership positions will also need to have personal technology productivity skills and a working knowledge of information technology to make the best decisions for their schools. Technology-related functions, operations and processes in today’s schools include purchas- ing, personnel, communication, infrastructure, learning applications, and information manage- ment. Perhaps most importantly, educational lead- ers should also be technological role models for their students, faculty and staff. Future educational leaders can understand and define their roles as school technology leaders by analyzing relevant educational standards in context and by thinking through case study scenarios via guiding questions in their preparation programs. This will provide them with valuable knowledge and a mindset to identify problems and develop rational solutions during their preparation.
The International Society of Technology in Education National Educational Technology Standards for Administrators (ISTE NETS-A) are used as a guide for preparing school leaders to effectively use technology. Educational lead- ers face many challenges related to technology in today’s schools. These include:
1. Incorporating e-learning as a standard (not supplementary) part of instructional delivery
2. Teacher and curriculum supervision in e- learning environments
3. Management of school information technol- ogy infrastructure
4. Technology-related personnel management and decisions
5. Providing support for classroom technology integration in face-to-face instruction
6. Developing and maintaining a school or district’s web presence
7. Developing the personal technology pro- ductivity skills needed for today’s school teachers and school leaders
8. Policy formation and guidelines for informa- tion technology purchasing and personal/ professional use
9. Technology systems for data management 10. Technology and social/legal/ethical is-
sues associated with students and school personnel.
This chapter addresses these issues by pre- senting a brief review of related literature, an analysis and overview of ISTE NETS-A, and by providing contexts, activities and guiding ques- tions for each standard. The ideal reader of this chapter is a person who is either preparing for or currently holds a school leadership position, as well as stakeholders in educational organizations.
RELATED LITERATURE
The International Society for Technology in Edu- cation (ISTE) is committed to advancing excel-
Because of the ambiguity of terms for school leaders from country to country (principal, head, adminis- trator, etc.), for the purposes of this chapter, candidates studying to become K-12 school administrators are referred to as “future educational leaders,” while active or current K-12 school administrators are referred to as “educational leaders.” This information will be useful at both the school and district levels, further supporting the use of the term “educational leaders.”
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lence in learning and teaching through innovative and effective uses of technology (ISTE, 2010). For many years, the ISTE National Educational Technology Standards (NETS) have been guiding teachers and educational leaders as they attempt to integrate technology in schools and set goals for what students (NETS-S) and teachers (NETS-T) should know and be able to do with technology in education.
The National Educational Technology Stan- dards for Administrators (NETS-A) provide a framework for conceptualizing the knowledge, skills, and dispositions of educational leaders so that they can effectively use technology to mod- ernize schools and support student achievement. Don Knezek, ISTE CEO, states that integrating technology throughout a school system is a sig- nificant reform effort (ISTE, 2010). In addition, he confirms that the development and training of future school leaders’ technology skills must receive attention in a systemic and meaningful way. Brooks-Young (2002) suggests that developing a plan based on stakeholder input which infuses technology throughout all programs is critical in leading a school or district.
A school leader’s level of expertise and ability to facilitate technology’s integration into the cur- riculum is a key component of successful technol- ogy integration (Hope, Kelley, & Guyden, 2000). There have been numerous research studies and discussions on how principals’ beliefs towards using technology can influence the utilization and infusion of information technologies in their schools (Otto & Albion, 2002). It is reasonable to suggest that educational leaders set the tone and are role models for their faculty and staff when they use technology to perform job functions and that they should strive to be instructional technol- ogy leaders and visionaries (Macaulay, 2008). Knapp and Glenn (1996) referred to the role of technology as a school restructuring tool, based on the premise that learning is best achieved by doing – thus making a natural fit for technology use. Technology supports active learning in a way
that is nearly unrivaled. The concept of technol- ogy as a transformational tool is what Schwartz and Beichner (1999) referred to as the “Delta” principle in Educational Technology – the idea the technology has the capability to change the way we think. Maurer and Davidson (1998) de- scribe leadership in instructional technology as research-based, student active, teacher facilitated and developmentally appropriate. Further, the use of technology to support high quality instructional programs and student services fundamentally changes the traditional notion of school leader- ship, and can dramatically change the culture of a school.
Heaton, Washington, and Schoeny’s (1999) work categorized educational leaders’ use of technology into three primary areas: understand- ing technology management issues, the impact of technology on educational change and administra- tive uses of technology. Frazier and Bailey (2004) state that leaders at the school and district levels should be concerned with administrative com- puting such as data processing, human resource management, document management and business operations. Future educational leaders must be willing to do these tasks and even more as our society continues to be dominated by advances in information technology. School leaders will need to be focused on the use of technology for instructional delivery as well as support and par- ticipate in technology professional development activities (Picciano, 2011). This approach will be create and sustain an atmosphere of continual growth within schools and provide an atmosphere of constant evolution. Continual development and a spirit of lifelong learning are concepts essential to the use of technology and are critical to ensuring that all teachers are integrating technology into instruction so that children are prepared to enter a technology-rich workforce.
Research suggests that school principals are sometimes uninformed and uninvolved in the role technology plays in their schools (Rakes and Dawson, 2003). This may be due to the fact
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that many current educational leaders received their preparatory educational experiences before the widespread integration of technology into graduate programs during the late 1990’s. Gib- son (2000) discusses the design of programs in which candidates acquire an understanding of the impact of information technology on their roles as visionary leaders of schools of the future and experience the transformational potential of technology on their own learning process. This is the standard for many school administration/ leadership programs today. This chapter seeks to build off of this perspective and add to the body of knowledge by providing a contextualization of the National Educational Technology Standards for Administrators.
PRESENT PERSPECTIVES
International Society for Technology in Education NETS-A Standards
There are five ISTE NETS standards for educa- tional administrators (ISTE, 2010):
1. Vi s i o n a r y L e a d e r s h i p . E d u c a t i o n a l Administrators inspire and lead development and implementation of a shared vision for comprehensive integration of technology to promote excellence and support transforma- tion throughout the organization.
2. Digital-Age Learning Culture. Educational Administrators create, promote, and sustain a dynamic, digital-age learning culture that provides a rigorous, relevant, and engaging education for all students.
3. Excellence in Professional Practice. Educational Administrators promote an environment of professional learning and innovation that empowers educators to en- hance student learning through the infusion of contemporary technologies and digital resources.
4. Systemic Improvement. Educational Administrators provide digital-age leader- ship and management to continuously im- prove the organization through the effective use of information and technology resources.
5. D i g i t a l C i t i z e n s h i p . E d u c a t i o n a l Administrators model and facilitate under- standing of social, ethical and legal issues and responsibilities related to an evolving digital culture.
The following sections of this chapter discuss each of these standards and provide insight to connecting issues via situational contexts, ac- tivities outlined with specific tasks, and guiding questions. This format is designed to encourage the reader to consider each standard in the context of a real K-12 school setting from the perspec- tive of an educational leader. The elaborations accompanying each standard are derived from the authors’ collective professional experiences and are designed to encourage a deep and critical thought process for the reader.
Standard 1: Visionary Leadership
Future school leaders must be able to use in- formation and communication technologies to articulate, develop and implement a school vi- sion and provide support to the diverse cultural backgrounds of students and parents in today’s public schools (Slenning, 2000). School leaders also have a responsibility to ensure that all teachers understand the importance of using technology to assess instruction and support services (Kearsley and Lynch, 1992). Building a vision for the in- clusion of digital resources includes engaging in an ongoing process to create and communicate specific technology-infused strategic plans that are aligned with the shared vision. In addition, educational leaders must be willing to advocate on local, state and national levels for policies, pro- grams and funding to support the implementation of technology-infused vision building and strategic
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planning. Further, future school leaders must also be committed to promoting the success of all students by facilitating the design, development, delivery and stewardship of a vision of learning that is shared and supported by all stakeholders in the school community.
The ability to develop an educational vision which systemically integrates technology to promote the achievement of goals and objectives requires an understanding of strategic planning. Strategic planning requires knowing the cur- rent school conditions so that you may design a plan for desired school conditions in the future. This includes collecting information on student achievement, teacher performance, school man- agement processes and stakeholder involvement. An educational leader should also ensure the alignment of school technology goals with district technology goals (Hall, 2008). A needs assessment should be conducted to inform the vision building process and to provide data in meaningful terms for all stakeholders. The needs assessment must thoroughly, clearly and concisely explain the problems and issues of a school or district. The needs assessment should also summarize student achievement and school priorities for students, teachers, and parents. Once stakeholders have been included, current and desired conditions have been identified, and a needs assessment has been conducted, then a school vision concerning the systemic integration and use of technology can be developed.
The following case vignette is an example of how future educational leaders can utilize a needs assessment framework to articulate and develop a realistic vision that integrates technology and uses electronic information management to inform the process.
Activity: Building a Technology Enriched Vision as a School Leader
Context: You are the new principal at a low-per- forming school. Imagine you have been assigned to be the leader of a low performing school that
has been struggling to improve student academic performance for several years. The lack of parental involvement in the PTA and other school activi- ties is the lowest in the school district. A recent school survey revealed concerns from students and parents about the lack of communication and limited understanding about what is going on in the school. No parents or students currently serve on the school planning committee and there are very poor relations between teachers and parents.
Task 1: Determining the Current Conditions of the School
Conduct a needs assessment to assist you in developing an action plan to address student performance, communication, school climate, and stakeholder involvement issues. A needs assess- ment should present all data in meaningful terms to support your analyses and responses. It should also thoroughly, clearly and concisely explain the problems and issues you have identified for the school. The needs assessment should summarize student achievement and school priorities for you to share with your students, teachers and parents. This process will inform your stakeholders and position them to become active school planning committee members in developing a vision for the school. Using your state’s department of public instruction websites, locate, select, and collect three years of longitudinal data on student test scores, grades, ethnicity, free/reduced lunch, and disability data for your local school.
Task 2: Outlining Desired Conditions and Integrating Technology into a School Vision
Once you have used the needs assessment to identify your school’s weaknesses, you will de- velop and align technological solutions with the prioritized needs. This includes building a vision statement that clearly articulates future directions for the school based on realistic growth in student performance, parental involvement and other high
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quality indicators, and then specifically describ- ing how technology can be used to achieve this vision through personnel, school infrastructure and curriculum modifications.
Guiding questions:
1. What specific personnel issues are inhibiting the school’s technological future?
2. Is there a current, up-to-date technology integration plan for classroom integration or e-learning?
3. What are the greatest needs for the school technology infrastructure?
4. Does the school need infrastructure instal- lation, remodeling, or both?
5. How much technology training and staff development is needed for teachers?
6. Which technology staff members need to be moved forward relative to skills and abilities?
7. Does the school have adequate and appropri- ate labs, server rooms, wiring, wireless, and storage to support technology?
8. Do all grade levels and subject areas have a lead teacher or curriculum specialist who is a technology advocate and/or integration expert?
Standard 2: Digital-Age Learning Culture
Educational leaders must be committed to pro- moting the success of all students by initiating, implementing and sustaining a positive and tech- nologically enriched school. This includes the use of technology in instructional programs and the promotion of a technological culture of student learning and achievement with the seamless in- tegration of technology. This type of atmosphere includes creating a dynamic, digital-age learning environment that provides a rigorous, relevant and engaging education for students. The integration of e-learning (inside the school and learning from a distance) is a culture-changing paradigm shift for most educational organizations. E-learning is generally referred to as the structured acquisition
of knowledge, skills and dispositions via the use of electronic technologies such as computers and the Internet. Future school leaders need to under- stand how e-learning can support the delivery of curriculum content with high quality instruction to promote maximization of student learning in- side and outside of the classroom. Schools must begin to incorporate e-learning into curriculum delivery, instructional practices and assessment of student outcomes. The success of integrating e-learning and instruction depends upon teachers having access to technologies (computers, learning management systems, high speed networks) and being encouraged and supported in their use of these tools. Students must have the ability to use technology to learn from a distance as well as in a time and place specific setting to increase the probability that they will be successful in higher education and be well-prepared to join a global workforce.
School leaders need to understand how the effective integration of e-learning can align cur- riculum with standards, improve instructional delivery and provide appropriate student perfor- mance evaluation to build a digital learning culture. The alignment of curriculum with instruction and student performance can be evaluated by auditing the school district’s design and deliver- ies of the standard course of study (English and Steffy, 2001). A curriculum alignment analysis determines how well a school district has set the direction for student achievement and the focus of its resources, including instructional practices, to accomplish these goals. This analysis requires data collection on the curriculum, content, instructional practices, instructional aids and student achieve- ment in the school district. In addition, teacher and curriculum supervision are other components necessary to ensure the maximization of student learning by confirming what is being taught, how it is being taught and the student achievement levels. The following case vignette expands on the connections between curriculum alignment and technology in schools.
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Activity: Curriculum Alignment Analysis for Understanding an E-Learning Culture
Context: As a district-level curriculum leader, you have been asked to be the supervisor of “Schools and Tools for the 21st Century” program for the entire district. This new program focuses of the use of technology so that students are better pre- pared to be employed in a digital society. You have been charged by your Superintendent to conduct a curriculum alignment analysis that will assess the use of e-learning and digital tools integration in schools and provide areas for planned growth. This process should yield data which can inform the district of the current state/conditions of tech- nology in the curriculum.
Task 1: Examine Existing Student Achievement Data
Determine which schools are meeting, not meet- ing, or exceeding performance standards. Investi- gate the linkages between the curriculum goals and the use of digital tools in your district’s schools. Compare the performance of each school with the technology plans which are being implemented in these schools. Look at patterns in the achievement of students and the elaboration/sophistication of the technology plans for the schools across the district.
Task 2: Locate the School District’s Mission Statement and Operational Planning Documents. Determine if the Information Provided in the Mission Statement and Operational Planning Documents Provide a Systemic Framework for the Integration of Technology
District-level planning documents should provide focused, aligned and effective e-learning instruc- tional programs for all students. This process will
also help reveal the extent of technology support at the district level.
Task 3: Locate District Policies that Govern Instructional Practices and Determine if the Existing Policies Support and Promote the Development of Digital Learning Cultures in the School Classrooms
Locate board of education policies that identify the school district’s curriculum goals and determine the extent to which the written goals are aligned with promoting and sustaining a digital-age cul- ture in the system. Review teacher, parent and/or student survey results on the quality of instruction as well as the school district budget to locate the amount of funding for staff development.
Guiding questions:
1. Are there district professional development and in-service instructional training modules available for review so that you can deter- mine the number of e-learning workshops conducted in the school district?
2. Are there school district technology funding policies or practices that could be revisited to help increase the presence of technology in the school?
3. Is there a district strategic plan for curriculum that designates a clear set of student learning standards and includes knowledge of digital tools and emerging technologies?
4. Is there a district level assessment and evalu- ation plan that adequately assesses student learning and their use of digital tools and emerging technologies?
Standard 3: Excellence in Professional Practice
If future school leaders are to effectively promote the use of digital technologies in the classroom, then it is important for them to use digital tools in
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the management of school operations, processes and resources. A school and a school district’s pri- mary role is to provide educational services (high quality teaching and learning). Schools are also organizations with business-like needs in regards to administrative and productivity technology use (Frazier and Bailey, 2004). School leaders increase the likelihood of achieving success for all students by being proactive users of technology in their own professional practice and by supporting teachers in their endeavors as well. This requires a commitment to systemically embed digital technologies into scheduling, communication, budgets, strategic planning, resource management and assessments. In addition, it is important for future school leaders to partner with stakeholders and community members to maximize the use of community resources.
Future school leaders must acquire and use a repertoire of digital tools to efficiently and effectively manage operations and resources. Practical applications include scheduling software, electronic budget spreadsheets, e-communications with teachers, parents, students and community members, information storage in data banks to facilitate quick access and retrieval, Internet searches to locate information and PowerPoint presentations to share information. School leaders must also have the ability to fully utilize digital tools in decision making (Ohler, 2009). Digital fluency helps to translate ideas into compelling professional practices, to promote the efficient use of leaders’ time and enhances leaders’ abilities to develop community partnering networks and acquire resources. The effective management of operations and resources requires strategic think- ing to determine what is happening in the school environment and to understand how technology can support efficient and successful outcomes for students, teachers and parents.
Activity: Excellence in Professional Practice - Evaluating the Use of Technology in School Personnel Development
Context: You are a new principal who has decided to implement a school-level technology integra- tion program to increase the use of technology in personnel development. There is already moderate use of technology in the classrooms, but person- nel development is the stereo-typical afterschool face-to-face “workshop in the library” lectures with handouts that many schools have seen for years – regardless of the topic. You would like to see online learning as an option, but are appre- hensive because some of the teachers are change resistant and do not have a solid relationship with you because of your new position.
Task 1: Teacher Involvement
This effort will require the principal to establish a means to include teacher and staff input on how the program will be planned, implemented and managed. It will also require knowledge of what resources will be needed and how the program will be evaluated. Establish a process of how you will introduce, encourage and invite teachers and staff to join you in the program implementation process. This is about how you will initiate, promote, and sustain “buy-in and followership” among your teachers to embrace and accept the program. Teachers must be engaged in the development of the program to ensure that their perspectives are heard and understood. Teachers will also need to be included in the implementation of the program’s processes and activities.
Task 2: Determining Strengths and Weaknesses, Opportunities and Threats to Technology Integration for Personnel Development
Create an assessment plan to identify strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats to the
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school-level integration of technology in both personnel development. This will include the col- lection of objective data to improve the technology integration program from the teacher, staff and administrator perspectives. It will also include collecting input from the teachers and staff and asking questions which may challenge the status quo methods which are currently in place.
Guiding questions:
1. What are the goals and objectives of a school technology integration program for improv- ing professional practice?
2. What resources are presently being used for school personnel development?
3. What resources are needed for developing technologically enhanced school personnel development?
4. How will teachers/staff/administrators be involved in executing the technology inte- gration program?
5. How will the effectiveness of the technology integration program be assessed?
Standard 4: Systemic Improvement
Future school leaders must consider a systemic approach to improving student achievement and ensuring high quality support services. This includes promoting successful performance on standardized tests as well tutoring and counseling for students who need assistance. Furthermore, it is important for school leaders to develop and maintain positive school environments in terms of security, safety, scheduling, facilities and ef- fective use of resources.
The use of information technology can enhance school leaders’ abilities to collect, manage and evaluate multiple data sources in their decision making and to evaluate how well the school is achieving its goals and objectives. The old adage “technology is a labor saver” means technology is infused systemically in all areas to improve the ef-
ficiency and effectiveness of school administrative operations. This includes the use of tutoring soft- ware, automated calling systems, email systems with up-to-date addresses and distribution lists, grade management software, handheld technolo- gies for walk-through assessments, immediate student record access, centralized secure server- based paperless document management systems and a strong web presence for communications with stakeholders and the public.
In today’s climate of accountability, the use of technology to analyze, interpret, understand, record and track student achievement data is perhaps the most important use of technology for systemic improvement. School leaders are often required to track school data of for three or more years. Technology is an effective way to collect and manage large volumes of longitudinal data. School leaders are responsible for analyzing student performance data to inform their decision making in the allocation of resources and the modi- fication of instructional, intervention and support programs. A redundant data management system that is backed-up daily via secure connections is necessary ensuring accurate data storage. School leaders need to have the skills to access and to assess this information by using statistical analy- sis software such as SPSS. School leaders who have the ability to analyze student performance data are able to check calculations performed by other entities to ensure that the academic results are accurate.
Activity: Digital Leadership and Systemic Improvement
Context: You have accepted the position of prin- cipal in a low-performing middle school. During the past few years, there has been a steady decline in test scores and teacher morale. Many teachers have low-level computer literacy skills, typically use work sheets in their lesson plans and rarely turn on the computers in their classroom. Because
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of local economic conditions, the percentage of lower SES students has continued to rise each year, and many children do not have adequate access to technology at home. The current budget figures are not reliable because the school financial manager was retired last year and left inaccurate financial records, so there are no discretionary school funds which you can spend as you wish. The district Superintendent has directed you to implement an action plan to improve the school and has stated that funding is available for purchases which will help accomplish the mission and provide return on investment.
Task 1: Use Information and Communication Technologies to Improve Major Administrative Functions
You are to develop an action plan to establish digital management systems for course schedules, budgets and teacher performance evaluations.
Guiding questions:
1. How can technology be infused into an on- going and sustainable school improvement plan in the following areas? In the following areas, list the strengths and weaknesses of each existing system. From this list, priori- tize the systems most in need of technology based improvement. ◦ Budgeting ◦ Scheduling ◦ School infrastructure ◦ Personnel management ◦ Logistics ◦ Transportation ◦ Meetings and time management
2. How do you plan to determine which tech- nological solutions you can implement? Consider and address these issues; ◦ Use of district technology personnel ◦ External consultants ◦ Technology vendors and sales
personnel
◦ Acquiring quotes, estimates and bids within an established set of school policies
Task 2: Engage Stakeholders via Communication and Involvement to Help Improve The School
Plan strategies to communicate with your stake- holders and community members to increase involvement, improve public image and increase resource support via cost efficient technologies.
Guiding questions:
1. What are the current perceptions of the school in the general public?
2. Why do these perceptions exist? 3. How do successful local businesses use the
Web to communicate with the public? 4. What phone based e-communication tools
are available for use? 5. How can Web and phone based tools be
combined to reach the most individuals?
Task 3: Use Digital Tools to Improve Learning in this School
Technologies specifically designed to promote learning (hardware, software, courseware, learn- ing management systems, server-based applica- tions and specialty products) can be integrated into instruction. What technologies are currently being used, how are they affecting student achievement, and what new direction does the school need to take to improve teaching and learning over the long run?
Guiding questions:
1. What does the student achievement data tell you about students, grade levels, teachers, and subject areas in this school?
2. What technologies are already in place or readily available?
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3. What funds are available in the budget for purchasing new technologies?
4. What free or web-based technologies can be used?
5. What kinds of digital tools can assist you in monitoring student achievement and teacher performance moving into the future?
Standard 5: Digital Citizenship
Future school leaders must understand how the increasingly diverse demographics in public schools are creating a greater variety of politi- cal, economic and culture contexts. In addition to ensuring equitable access to digital tools and resources for all students, future school leaders must also establish policies and practices to ensure safe, legal and ethical use of digital information and technology. The development of social net- works has outpaced many school district’s policies and guidelines. Future school leaders must create and implement practices to promote responsible digital interactions that maintain respect for dif- ferent cultures.
Digital citizenship is a concept that helps teach- ers, technology leaders and parents to understand what students/children/technology users should know to use technology appropriately (Ribble, 2010). Digital citizenship is a way to prepare students to be technology users for a society with multiple and expanding technologies and more importantly, to teach them to know and understand what is considered to be appropriate technology usage. Digital citizenship emphasizes respect for all persons and promotes healthy, positive and productive cyber climates in all online commu- nication systems and networks.
A recent report by the Online Safety and Tech- nology Group (Collier & Nigam, 2010) reviewed and evaluated the status of the industry’s efforts to address the promotion of online safety for children and to protect them from inappropriate material or communications. Cyber bullying and harassment, usually by peers, are the most frequent
threats that students face, both online and offline. Future school leaders must ensure that policies and practices promote the appropriate use of digital technologies and that there are specific disciplinary consequences for inappropriate uses of technol- ogy. The following case study provides school leaders with an opportunity to understand how to develop, implement and assess an appropriate internet use policy.
Activity: Digital Citizenship and Internet/Technology Use Policy
Context: You are a school principal in a mid-sized suburban school district. Recently, there have been several cases of inappropriate use of the Internet in your district (not in your specific school). A teacher has been using the classroom computer and Internet connection to sell cosmetics and was disciplined by the district. A media center aide was spending several hours a day on a social media site instead of completing his job duties and was dismissed. Students have also been discovered cyber-bullying from the computer lab during school hours. Although none of these incidents occurred in your school, you believe that you much “get out in front” of these issues before they occur in your school. The school district has not developed a policy to assist school leaders in handling these situations. The Superintendent has asked you to lead a committee of stakeholders and knowledgeable participants to develop a school district Internet use policy.
Task 1: Building the Committee: Who Do You Ask to Join You on this Critical Policy Committee?
Guiding Questions:
1. Who are the stakeholders and how will they be represented on this issue?
2. Who has experience in this area?
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3. Should technical staff be included – if so, why and who?
4. Should legal counsel be included? 5. Who will oversee the implementation of this
policy?
Task 2: Writing the Policy: What, Why and How.
Guiding Questions:
1. Address these areas as you design and develop your policies for faculty, staff and student technology use. ◦ Outline offensive and inappropriate
material ◦ Who is allowed to use school tech-
nology property? ◦ Harassment & threats – what are the
legal implications? ◦ Acts that interfere with network
operations ◦ Specificity towards acceptable use of
Internet resources ◦ Web site development guidelines for
schools, faculty and students ◦ Copyright laws & plagiarism issues ◦ Monitoring procedures for individual
accounts and activity ◦ Levels and categories of offenses/
violations ◦ Sanctions for offenses/violations
FUTURE TRENDS
The increasing number of children who have never known life without the Internet entering K-12 schools will require future school leaders to embrace and embed technology into instruction and management at the school and district levels. If this does not occur, schools will seem like a time warp into the past or a walk through a museum to these students rather than a modern organization.
Students will expect to see school administrators and teachers using web technologies such as social networks to teach, interact and share information via tools like Facebook, interactive personal web sites, Nings, online learning management systems, wikis, blogs, tweets, and podcasts. The instruc- tional and managerial models that have permeated public schools for the last several decades will be transformed and augmented, giving way to more differentiation, diffusion and learning that is not bound by time and place. This movement will be coupled with student-driven use of digital tools based on their availability of technology tools and their learning styles. Open-source and freeware technologies designed by individuals and released via the Internet will also have a significant impact on education and will force educational leaders to consider these tools in their decision making and practices.
The seismic shift from traditional face-to- face, paper-based assignments and lecture-based instruction to digital formats and online learning management is energized by the constant revo- lutions in information technology and emerging instructional technologies. Students are conduct- ing research using Internet resources which allow them to collect data and conduct research at any time and from any location. Today’s students can access data on water salinity levels from all over the world on an hourly rate and check economic conditions from any country in a matter of seconds. Video technology is making is possible for students to explore environments ranging from the depths of distant rain forests to newly discovered planets. The integration of the Internet, voice, video, text, instant messaging and email into hand-held 3G and 4G digital devices is providing students with access to data anywhere they travel. It is almost comical to believe that these new tools would not change the way we teach, learn, and lead schools. New technologies are allowing students to simu- late their own solutions to problems via scientific modeling and visualization software. Digital tools are also allowing students to collect and synthesize
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data from advanced field-based (real-world) loca- tions into web-based formats that can be shared with teachers and others. The digitally connected student is no longer being limited by traditional school parameters and future school leaders need to recognize that the reality that they grew up in and began their careers in is no longer the format or paradigm in which they will lead.
CONCLUSION
Educational leadership practices must incorporate the use of technology to be effective in a 21st century digital world. Technology has brought new levels of freedom, access, knowledge, and demands for schools, leaders, teachers, parents and students. Future school leaders must be willing and capable of utilizing technology to enhance instruction, improve student achievement and efficiently manage resources in new and creative ways to keep their schools modern, relevant and effective. Technology will also play a critical role in 21st century educational reform via data analysis, online and electronically mediated learn- ing/mentoring/tutoring, school infrastructure and personnel decisions, and information management systems. Government, business and community stakeholders are demanding greater accountability for public schools and are expecting higher student achievement results and innovative instructional practices.
The time is now to rethink our schooling traditions before they are considered completely obsolete, and to harness technology to solve is- sues in K-12 schools across the United States. If current student failure rates continue, the national high school dropout rate could be over 35% by 2020. The sociological and economic impact of these dropouts on the American economy and our standard of living will be severe and long lasting. Research on high school dropouts suggests that students often leave public schools due to their
failure to be able to meet achievement standards in their courses and a lack of engagement in the classroom. The use of technology may be an answer for some of these issues.
Future school leaders must have a mindset and orientation that is committed to effectively using technology in instruction, as well as the daily operations of their schools. This includes com- prehensive data management and the evaluation of programs, practices and resources. Digital tools and emerging information technologies provide an array of alternatives that can be designed to meet the specific needs of individual students and monitor how well instructional strategies and programs are working. Future school leaders must have the abilities, skills and dispositions to integrate and use technology to ensure suc- cessful learning environments in the 21st century and to make schools transformative (rather than transactional) places for students to learn and be prepared to enter a digital society.
REFERENCES
Brooks-Young, S. (2002). Making technology standards work for you. Washington, DC: ISTE.
Collier, A., & Nigam, H. (2010). Youth safety on the living internet: Report of the online safety and technology working group. Retrieved October 2, 2010, from http:// www.ntia.doc.gov/ reports/ 2010/ OSTWG_Final_Report_060410.pdf
English, F., & Steffy, B. (2001). Deep curriculum alignment: Creating a level playing field for all children on high-stakes tests of educational ac- countability. CA: Scarecrow Publications.
Ewell, P. T., Jones, D., & Kelly, P. J. (2007). Con- ceptualizing and researching the educational pipe- line. Retrieved from http:// www.higheredinfo. org/ analyses/ Pipeline%20Article.pdf
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Gibson, I. (2000). Information technology and the transformation of leadership preparation pro- grams: A response to calls for reform in educational practice. In D. Willis, J. Price, & J. Willis (Eds.), Proceedings of Society for Information Technology & Teacher Education International Conference 2000 (pp. 371-377). Chesapeake, VA: AACE.
Hall, D. (2008). The technology director’s guide to leadership. Washington, DC: ISTE.
Heaton, L. A., Washington, L. A., & Schoeny, Z. G. (1999). Perceptions and educational technol- ogy needs of school administrators. In J. Price, J. Willis, D. Willis, M. Jost, & S. Boger-Mehall (Eds.), Proceedings of Society for Information Technology & Teacher Education International Conference 1999 (pp. 456-461). Chesapeake, VA: AACE.
Hope, W., Kelley, B., & Guyden, J. (2000). Tech- nology standards for school administrators: Impli- cations for administrator preparation programs. In D. Willis, J. Price, & J. Willis (Eds.), Proceedings of Society for Information Technology & Teacher Education International Conference 2000 (pp. 366-370). Chesapeake, VA: AACE.
Kearsley, G., & Lynch, W. (1992). Educational leadership in the age of technology: The new skills. Journal of Research on Computing in Education, 25, 50–60.
Knapp, L. R., & Glenn, A. D. (1996). Restructur- ing schools with technology. Needham Heights, MA: Allyn and Bacon.
Knezek, D. (2010). Technology training, as- sessment, and No Child Left Behind. Retrieved from http:// www.educationworld.com/ a_tech/ tech172.shtml
Macaulay, L. (2008). Elementary principals as technology instructional leaders. In C. Bonk, M. Lee, & T. Reynolds. (Eds.), Proceedings of World Conference on E-Learning in Corporate, Government, Healthcare, and Higher Education 2008 (pp. 2952-2957). Chesapeake, VA: AACE.
Maurer, M. M., & Davison, G. S. (1998). Leader- ship in instructional technology. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Ohler, J. (2009). Orchestrating the media collage. Educational Leadership, 66(6), 8–13.
Otto, T., & Albion, P. (2002). Understanding the role of school leaders in realizing the potential of ICTs in education. In D. Willis, J. Price, N. Davis (Eds.), Proceedings of Society for Information Technology & Teacher Education International Conference 2002 (pp. 506-510). Chesapeake, VA: AACE.
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Ribble, M. (2010). Digital citizenship: Using technology appropriately. Retrieved from http:// digitalcitizenship.net
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Schwartz, J. E., & Beichner, R. J. (1999). Essen- tials of educational technology. Needham Heights, MA: Allyn and Bacon.
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Standards, I. S. T. E.-A. (2009). NETS for ad- ministrators. Retrieved from http:// www.iste.org
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KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS
Digital/E-leadership: Leading the technolo- gy-related efforts for an organization.
Educational Leaders: People currently serv- ing in educational leadership positions (typically in K-12 settings).
Future Educational Leaders: People pre- paring to enter educational leadership positions (typically in K-12 settings).
ISTE NETS-A: The International Society for Technology in Education National Educational Technology Standards for Administrators.
Technology Integration: Seamlessly using technology into instruction and/or school man- agement systems.
Technology Integration Plan: A plan which clearly articulates how technology will be inte- grated into an educational organization.
Technology Professional Development: Training and educational situations designed to help school faculty and staff in schools learn more about technology and how to use technology in schools.
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Copyright © 2012, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
Chapter 31
DOI: 10.4018/978-1-61350-068-2.ch031
BACKGROUND
Few would argue that online teaching and learning has been and is on a meteoric rise. David Nagel (2009), in fact, predicted that by 2014 over 10 Million PreK-12 students will be taking online courses. A cursory search in Google Scholar
showed that over 2.3 million hits were found when searching for “online education”. How- ever, when the precursor “quality” was added to “online education” the search results declined to 1,050 articles. While this is a somewhat flawed example, it does illustrate a dilemma that has faced the field of online teaching and learning—ensur- ing quality while delivering course content and engaging students within online environments
Julia M. Matuga Bowling Green State University, USA
Deborah G. Wooldridge Bowling Green State University, USA
Sandra Poirier Middle Tennessee State University, USA
Assuring Quality in Online Course Delivery
ABSTRACT
This chapter focuses upon the critical issue of assuring quality online course delivery by examining four key components of online teaching and learning. The topic of course delivery within this article is viewed as a cultural issue that permeates processes from the design of an online course to the evaluation of an online course. First, this chapter will examine and review key components of, and tools for designing high impact online courses that support student learning. Second, this chapter will provide suggestions for faculty teaching online courses to assist in creating high quality online courses that supports teaching and, consequently, facilitates opportunities for student learning. Quality online course delivery is also contingent upon the support of faculty by administration. Lastly, this chapter will provide suggestions for conducting course evaluation and a feedback loops the for continual improvement of the online learning and teaching. These four components are essential elements in assuring quality online courses.
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has not garnered the attention that it has deserved. The topic of course delivery to ensure quality within this chapter is viewed as a cultural issue that permeates processes from the design to the evaluation of an online course.
It may first be helpful to highlight three myths and misconceptions about online teaching and learning. These myths/misconceptions are held by students, faculty, and administrators and influence any discussion about the quality of online course delivery (e.g., White, n.d.):
1. Online teaching and learning is ‘worse’ (or ‘better’) for meeting student learning outcomes than face-to-face courses.
2. Online teaching and learning is easier and more convenient for students and faculty than face-to-face courses.
3. Online teaching and learning is less interac- tive for both student and faculty than face- to-face courses.
All of these statements are based upon the premise that there are no special affordances or constraints of the environment, either online or face-to-face, when it comes to teaching or learning-that we are comparing apples to apples. It has been argued elsewhere that this is not the case, that there are many fundamental differences that the educational environment both affords or constraints (Anderson, 2004; Matuga, 2001, 2005 & 2007) and that establishing a dichotomis- tic relationship does not adequately reflect the complexity of teaching or learning within either environment. In essence, learning and teaching within online environments is fundamentally dif- ferent than learning and teaching in face-to-face environments. One is not comparing apples to apples, but more like apples to oranges.
A useful concept to use as a framework, one that more adequately reflects the complexity of online teaching and learning, would be to view both through the lens of a cultural system. There are many definitions of culture and descriptions of
what constitute a cultural system. LeVine (1984), for example, defined culture as “a shared organiza- tion of ideas that includes the intellectual, moral, and aesthetic standards prevalent in a community and the meanings of communicative actions” (p. 67). Others have claimed that these organizations of ideas and meanings derived from actions are not static and that culture should be thought of as systems that may be more complicated and organic collections of cognitive functions, prac- tices, and meaning (D’Andrade, 2001; Giddens, 1984; Kitayama, 2002). Online teaching and learning may be viewed as cultural systems in that understandings and meanings are socially shared within online environments (Courtney, 2001; Me- hlinger & Powers, 2002). There are also cultural practices and customs within these environments that may be linked, in various ways, to the values and beliefs of larger cultural systems, like face-to- face educational environments (Courtney, 2001; LeVine, 1984).
A more traditional view of cultural systems, for example, is based upon the idea that they contain within them, nested systems that are interdepen- dent to the functioning of the system as a whole (White, 1975). This view holds that technological (or physical subsystem), social, and psychological factors guide a multitude of functions and influence the behaviors of individuals that are participating in cultural communities (Kityama, 2002; White, 1975). For example, Kitayama (2002) stated that “each person’s psychological processes and structures are organized though the active effort to coordinate his or her behaviors with the pertinent cultural systems of practices and public mean- ings” (p. 92). While this is may be viewed as a valid preposition, this view does imply that there are somewhat distinct sub-systems that guide or organize psychological processes and practices. It may be quite common to reduce discussions regarding online teaching and learning to cultural sub-systems, like technological ones, for example, because the impact of technology may be seen as
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more explicit within online teaching and learning environments.
This position is arguable in light of contempo- rary pedagogical theory, however, which would hold that psychological and social factors need to be explored in conjunction with technological ones. Perhaps one of the most critical character- istic of a cultural system is that they support the development and transmission of meaning and understanding within and between participants. Rosaldo (1984) stated that “we must appreciate the ways in which such understandings grow, not from an “inner” essence relatively independent of the social world, but from experience in a world of meanings, images, and social bonds, in which all persons are inevitable involved” (p. 139). In the case of meaning making and understanding within online teaching and learning environments, the importance of viewing the psychological in conjunction with social and technological dimen- sions of cultural systems is implied. These are important points that frame the conversation of designing high impact online courses, providing suggestions for faculty teaching online courses, describing critical administrative support of faculty, and conducting course evaluation and feedback loops for continual improvement of online learning and teaching.
Designing High Impact Online Courses
Viewing online teaching and learning as a cultural system provides a framework to describe and understand ‘high impact’ online courses. Within education, ‘high impact’ refers to educational experiences that are meaningful, require student action and participation, and that contribute to the life-long learning of the student (Kuh, 2008). It is important to note that the examples illustrat- ing high impact practices within online courses in this chapter do not represent an exhaustive or comprehensive list, but serve as important points of reference for discussion within this chapter.
Two such high impact practices that assist in the design of online courses are pedagogical align- ment and meaning making.
Pedagogical Alignment
Pedagogical alignment, also called systematic instructional design (Gagne, Briggs, & Wagner, 1992), entails aligning instructional variables to provide the fundamental framework for online cultural systems, conveying meanings to com- munity participants, and defining cultural activity. Instructional design is currently in the midst of a paradigm shift towards a more situated view of design activity within cultural systems (Anderson, 2004; Derry & Lesgold, 1996). When designing high impact online courses, pedagogical align- ment involves the optimum use of a wide array of instructional features including, but not limited to, instructional goals, instructional strategies, and assessment measures and evaluation practices that support teaching and learning (see Matuga, 2005).
When instructional features do not align, then teaching and learning may be seriously under- mined and compromised. A good example of this is a teacher who wants to teach students critical thinking skills (goal), has students participate in small group discussions or problem-solving activities (instructional strategies), but assesses students utilizing a multiple-choice examination (assessment) in which very little critical think- ing is involved. While the goal and instructional strategies to obtain the goal are appropriately aligned with the other, the tool used to assess student learning is out of alignment.
The issue of pedagogical alignment in an online course is an important one, for several reasons. While in a face-to-face environment, instructional design and alignment may occur in conjunction with the other during instruction, alignment in an online course, in contrast, is often completed a priori. In fact, a clear, comprehensive, and logi- cal course structure may be one of the primary factors which students use to judge whether or
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not an online course is an effective one. Online course alignment is further complicated by the af- fordances and constraints stemming from technol- ogy and the social and psychological composition of community participants. Each instructional variable is influenced by the affordances and constraints that influence technological, social, and psychological subsystems. For example, discussions regarding effective online course alignment must also incorporate pedagogical and technological expertise of students and teachers in the design process.
There may be several methods in which to assess whether or not pedagogical alignment was effective, more often than not, discussions regarding the effectiveness of online activities are reduced to formal, summative assessment prac- tices such as tests, quizzes, projects, or portfolios. Pedagogical decisions regarding the selection of formal, summative assessments within online courses are important, especially when designing instructional strategies (see Duffy & Cunningham, 2001). However, it is equally important to plan for the manner in which formative assessments and other evaluative information will be utilized to inform other educational practices within the online environment. Teacher and student self- reflection, as a formative, informal assessment to inform learning is a potentially powerful tool for evaluating pedagogical effectiveness.
Another tool to assess pedagogical alignment is peer evaluation of the course itself. There may be many mechanisms and tools that faculty and administration can use that carry out the peer evalu- ation of online courses. One is a tiered method at the local level asking more experienced faculty or if available, online instructional designers within the institution to review and constructively evaluate the pedagogical alignment of a particular course. Another method may be to request the course be formally evaluated by peers through organizations such as Quality Matters. Quality Matters is a peer review system of online courses utilizing a rubric that examines pedagogical alignment. While there
are costs involved in the later, the former would take some due diligence on the part of the faculty members involved but would one step towards assuring quality in online course design.
Meaning Making
Cultural meaning making is a complex activity tied to the cultural systems in which they are created and shared. One concept that is interest- ing to explore and is of particular importance to the development of quality online courses is the concept of intersubjectivity. Intersubjectivity is a term associated with Vygotskian theory of cogni- tive development and refers to the shared cultural understanding between two people (Rogoff, 1990; Rosaldo, 1999; Wertsch, 1985). If there is no shared understanding between two people, for example a teacher and a student, then attempts to communicate, create meaning, and establish understanding are somewhat fruitless endeavors. If the teacher is unable to understand the mis- conceptions, questions, or understanding of his or her students, then that teacher will not be able to address the student needs and learning will be hampered. It is in this manner that the constraints of an online environment may present challenges to establishment of intersubjectivity (Anderson, 2004). There is the suggestion, that like culture, some meanings may be more explicit due to the “pragmatics of social life and their history for a given society” but not all meanings may be “re- duced to its explicit or implicit dimensions” (Le Vine, 1984, p. 77). Social referencing (i.e., gesture, gaze, and other nonverbal communication cues) which is critical for establishing intersubjectivity (Rogoff, 1990) in a face-to-face environment is not impossible to establish in an online environment, it does, however, take a more concentrated effort in high impact online courses.
Another component of cultural systems are social acts, or activities, in which meanings are negotiated, established, presented, or shared between participants within cultural systems.
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Gardner (1984) explained that individuals utiliz- ing social acts may not actively reflect upon their participation in meaning making activities and in fact the participation in social activities may be more intuitive. It is only when, he stated, that individuals become more reflective upon their own participation within social activities do shifts of knowing how to participate becomes more explicit. Reflecting upon participation in cultural activities, thereby making implicit acts explicit is one step towards making those processes, which are critical for navigating teaching and student, transparent. One suggestion for faculty teaching online courses that would promote meaning making within online educational environments would be to maintain a (Weekly? Daily?) blog documenting the faculty’s own experiences as an online teacher, how they learned the course material, personal stories and examples illustrating important concepts, etc. This makes those processes, so necessary for meaning making within electronic environments, explicit.
The culture of online teaching and learning may share similar characteristics with traditional, face-to-face teaching and learning and there may also be new territory for future investigations. The critical investigation of how teachers and learners understand, navigate, and utilize the cul- ture of online learning environments to become competent participants is critical to the future of designing high impact courses. As Gardner (1984) has stated, “the human being, who, starting from a state of total ignorance about his or her particular culture, must within a decade or two acquire sufficient competence so that he or she can carry out productive work and interact effectively with other individuals to achieve valued ends” (p. 261). The enculturation of teachers and students within online teaching and learning environments requires learning how to use psychological tools within similar, yet dramatically different cultural systems, systems that have different environmental affordances and constraints.
Suggestions for Faculty Teaching Online Courses
There are many resources, books and websites, to assist faculty when teaching high quality online courses (e.g., Ko & Rossen, 2001; Koszalka & Ganesan, 2004). There is also assistance to help faculty effectively utilize discussion boards, online tools, blogs, wikis, open source programs, iPads, iPods, the iGoogle suite, cell phones, etc. within their online courses. Returning to the framework of viewing online courses as cultural systems, two inter-related important considerations are outlined within this chapter for faculty teaching high quality online courses: rituals of participation and co-regulation.
Rituals of Participation
One of the ways in which individuals navigate technological, social, and psychological sys- tems are what Courtney (2001) called “rituals of participation” (p. 236). These rituals for par- ticipation encompass the norms and behaviour for participating in cultural activities. Learning how to “do school,” or mastering implicit and explicit academic and social knowledge needed to be successful in school, is an important ritual of participation required for effective teaching and learning (Westby, 1997). This issue is criti- cally important due to the alarming drop rates from online courses by students (Diaz, 2002). Two popular explanations of why online stu- dents fail to complete online courses seem to be individual (demographic and/or learning style) or performance (low) differences (Diaz, 2002). However, researchers have suggested that the issue of student preparedness for online classes may be more complicated and include a variety of factors including student, situational, and educational factors (Gibson, 1998).
There may be cross cultural interference between how students conceptualize “doing school” within face-to-face environments and
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how this concept is challenged and, by neces- sity, altered within online teaching and learning environments. For example, one affordance within online environments is the ability, on the part of the faculty, to “hear” what every student thinks about a particular subject by requiring all students to post on a discussion board, for example. This, of course, requires that each student contributes to the conversation in a concrete and physical way that reflects what was read, in this there is simply a lot of individual accountability. and challenges what a student may view of ‘doing school’. Many students, it could be argued, have learned what it means to “do school” by either engaging in discus- sion or gaining enough inference from what others are discussing in class to participate adequately, or simply keep quiet during discussion.
There may be several strategies to help online students assimilate to “doing school’ online. Per- haps the most utilized strategy is to give student a pre-assessment evaluating certain skills that are needed to be a successful online student. Many universities now utilize some sort of instrument that asks students a variety of questions about their learning habits to find a “goodness of fit.” For example, the University of Georgia uses the Readiness for Education at a Distance Indicator (READI @ http://goml.readi.info/) which is a self-assessment in which the student evaluates him- or herself on a variety of indicators like: life factors, personal attributes, learning styles, reading rate and recall, technical competency, technical knowledge, and typing speed and accuracy. There may be other ways to address the issue of student readiness within online courses, including scaf- folding student learning at the beginning of the class and providing assistance with establishing regular activities and other strategies mentioned in this chapter. Another potential powerful strategy is assigning student-student pairs or each student to a small group and requiring they participate in activities in which they form a bond or rely upon each other to complete course tasks. For example,
you may ask groups to define expectations about group standards of behaviour or something a little more fun like identifying a group name, wiki, or mascot. All of these activities are socially binding acts that may help students from dropping out if they feel they have more connections and support for learning in online environments.
Co-Regulation
What then happens when students move from one environment in which “doing school” is suf- ficient to another in which the concept of “doing school” is fundamentally different? Wesby (1997) stated that:
“It may be like “coming from cultures that value interdependence, obedience to authority, and learning by watching rather than talking, [students] will be delayed in the development of self-control and self-regulation. Development of these skills will require not only environments that expect such skills, but that also foster such skills by providing the necessary scaffolding.” (p. 286)
Navigating online teaching and learning, or becoming an efficient online teacher and/or online learner, requires that an individual is able to ad- equately use processes, strategies, and responses to plan and monitor his or her participation in pedagogical activity (Zimmerman, 2001, 1994). This concept, known as self-regulation, reflects those processes that occur at an individual level that play an important role in student academic achievement (Zimmerman, 1994). In many cases, online students are ill-prepared for online courses or drop out of online courses due to their inability to regulate (i.e., plan or monitor) their own learning. Ironically, this is also related to the convenience myths/misconceptions of online teaching and learning—a teacher or student need not go to a bricks-and-mortar classroom at a prescribed time, one can learn anytime and anyplace. In reality, it is
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very difficult for some students to be self-regulated enough to complete a course online.
McCaslin and Hickey (2001) proposed, how- ever, that co-regulation is a more appropriate concept when discussing regulation of the teaching and learning process within socio-cultural contexts from a Vygotskian perspective (Courtney, 2001). In reference to this position, Zimmerman (1986) stated that “self-regulation is not an idiosyncratic product of the child’s own discovery experiences; but rather, it is a culturally transmitted method for optimizing and controlling learning events” (p. 311). The processes of regulating teaching and learning does not fall simply on the isolated indi- vidual, but is shared between and among students and teachers. In this sense, the self-regulatory functions of the student are influenced by others within the socio-cultural environment (i.e., peers and the teacher), just as others’ self-regulatory functions are influenced by that individual student.
Another aspect of co-regulated learning is monitoring strategies. Self-monitoring strategies refer “to students’ efforts to observe themselves as they evaluate information about specific personal processes or actions that affect their learning and achievement in school” (Zimmerman & Paulsen, 1995, p. 14). Students who have effective self- monitoring strategies are able to evaluate their own progress towards an established goal, making appropriate strategy changes as they proceed to regulate their learning effectively (Zimmerman & Paulsen, 1995).
The ability to effectively monitor ones own learning processes are also dependent upon a wide array of technical, social, and psychological variables (see Zimmerman & Paulsen, 1995). Let us briefly discuss self-monitoring of the writing process as an example. Writing the “old way,” in other words before word processing was pretty rudimentary and in retrospect seems almost primi- tive. An individual first had to prepare quite thor- oughly before writing, often generating a detailed outline and/or completing a rough draft in long
hand, before moving to type the paper on a type- writer. There was a certain diligence required on the part of the individual for if a mistake was made, it could necessitate starting the entire process all over (unless your professor did not mind a lot of liquid paper). The process described was necessary because there were constraints associated with the technological tool that was utilized to write (i.e., typewriters…an electric one if you were lucky). The process, itself also served as a self-regulatory strategy that monitored the writing process. The invention and utilization of word processors has, however, altered the procedural script of writing used by students and, essentially, made obsolete a monitoring strategy used for writing.
There are three primary suggestions for fac- ulty when teaching high quality online courses. First, it is important for faculty to be explicit about how to “do school” online and ways to assist in the co-regulation of student learning in your course. One promising practice in online courses is to keep the patterns of behavior or interactions similar throughout the duration of the course. For example, always ‘open’ online course discussions on Mondays and students are expected to have their points posted by Friday. Second, faculty should plan for activities to help students identify and address the ways in which there may be differences in how to “do school” in their online course. Faculty should also assist students in how they plan to work their online course requirement into their calendar; this is also referred to as an ‘orienting activity’ (see Olgren, 1998). Third, faculty should provide guidelines for activities and assessments that address both issues, rituals of participation and co-regulation, to help scaffold these skills throughout the duration of the course. Scaffolding simply means that the faculty member should provide a lot of assistance with these activities at the beginning of the course and as the course progresses; the faculty member slowly withdraws that help as the student gains confidence and masters course material.
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Administrative Support of Faculty
Quality online course delivery is contingent upon administrative support of faculty. Additionally “administrators need to understand their faculty population if they are to support faculty participa- tion in [online teaching and learning]” (Schifter, 2004, p. 25). However, according to Jorge Gaytan (2009) while all valued online teaching and learn- ing there was little agreement among deans, vice presidents for academic affairs, and administra- tors of distance learning at campuses regarding the organizational structures that would support online teaching and learning. It could be that online teaching and learning as a field has, traditionally, been focused upon the pedagogy of teaching and learning that takes place within online learning environments and contributes to institutional cul- ture. Two important factors that face administrative support of faculty and delivering quality online courses and programs are adequate support for planning and faculty workload.
Adequate Support for Planning
Osika (2006) warns that there are many adminis- trative issues that need to be addressed within and across institutions to provide support for online students and faculty beyond the borders of the vir- tual learning environment. The issue of adequate faculty support, however, is perhaps the most examined administrative issue in distance learning literature (see Ko & Rossen, 2001). Levy (2003) outlined critical factors for administrators to take into account when planning for online courses and/or programs; she proposed that planning be systematic and strategic. Levy (2003) stated that “the challenge to colleges in the 21st century is not to decide why they should have an online distance learning program, but to decide how to design and implement such a program” (p. 3).
Effective and innovative leadership plays an important role in the development and delivery of online course and programs (see Latchem &
Hanna, 2001). Beaudoin (2003) stated that “any focused consideration of the dimension of leader- ship and its impact on the growth and apparent success of distance education at literally hundreds of institutions worldwide” has been largely absent from the literature (p. 3). There appear to be some disconnect, however, between the roles that fac- ulty and administrators play in the development of quality online courses and programs and this disconnect is reflected recent studies on the topic.
One of the first steps for administrators to support online students, faculty, and programs would be to understand the demands on online faculty when designing and planning for online courses and programs. Administrators should clarify, in discussions with their faculty, any misconceptions about developing and offering a high quality online course/program. For example, Gaytan (2009) found that there was a disconnect between administrators’ rhetoric and practice and that there was still, on the part of administrators, “an emphasis is on cost savings, remaining com- petitive, and delivery of information as opposed to instructional quality” (p. 69).
Howell, Williams, and Lindsay (2003) stated that there is a need to pose difficult questions about online programs, but a need to address those ques- tions “from an informed perspective” (p. 1). As Gaytan (2009) found, there were many instances in which administrators and faculty differed in important ways when discussing online teaching and learning. For example, “while online educa- tion coordinators and faculty [in his study] were thinking about the ways to improve the quality of online education, academic administrators had other priorities such as being able to remain com- petitive” (Gaytan, 2009, p. 69). This illustrates a common assumption, on the part of institutional administrators, that online courses will address the need to service more students for the same costs, often by increasing the number of students within online courses (Concieção & Baldor, 2009). As stated in the beginning of the chapter, there are also myths and misconceptions about online
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teaching and learning that may be held by both administrators and faculty. Assumptions, myths, and misconceptions need to be examined and discussed by administrators and faculty mem- bers within the context and characteristics (i.e., pedagogical alignment) of a particular course or program. This is a critical first step during the design and planning stage of online courses and programs. Administrative support of faculty for high quality online courses needs, however, to extend beyond support to encompass adequate planning (Osika, 2006).
Faculty Workload
One issue that has received some attention in the online teaching and learning literature has been that of faculty workload. Lehmann and Cham- berlin (2009), for example, illustrate the number and variety of hats that online faculty wear when teaching a high quality online course: (1) teacher, (2) facilitator, (3) instructional technologist, (4) course designer, (5) writer, editor, and proofreader, (6) counselor and mediator, and (7) advisor and registrar. Wearing more hats, however, may not necessarily result in increased compensation for the online faculty member. For example, in Schifter’s (2004) research surveying administra- tors about online teaching and learning issues, both found that there was little consistency with faculty compensation. Additionally, faculty may not be prepared to wear many of those hats and professional development, mentoring programs, or providing other models to those faculties may be critical (Blythe, 2001).
The complications and added workload for the online faculty member is debated in the research literature. Some researchers have found that more students in an online course increases workload due to more student-teacher interactions and/or more individual feedback on assessments, par- ticularly if a pedagogical alignment is used for the course that is more student-centered (Matuga, 2005). Other researchers, however, have found that
placing additional students within an online course may not increase faculty workload substantially, especially if the online faculty member has pre- vious online teaching experience or the course’s pedagogical alignment is more teacher-centered and does not require a lot of student-teacher interaction and student monitoring (Anderson & Avery, 2008; DiBiase & Rademacher, 2005; Matuga, 2005). It is very important, however, to realize that many of the studies investigating faculty workload were comparison studies with face-to-face faculty. As stated in the introduction of this chapter, this premise may be flawed as we are not comparing apples-to-apples therefore, in- vestigating faculty workload from a comparison perspective may not adequately reflect what an online faculty does.
Just as it may be more accurate to examine online teaching and learning as a cultural system, it may be necessary to redefine the roles, responsi- bilities, and what it means to be an online faculty member. The supposition that online faculty is treated differently at educational institutions, and this may be a threat to academic quality, has been a recurring theme in the research literature (Concieção & Baldor, 2009). Schifter (2004) found that faculty workload for those teaching online courses were not to consistent within and across institutions (Schifter, 2004). This has given rise to a trend at educational institutions of hiring online adjunct faculty to teach online courses (Puzziferro & Shelton, 2009). On the one hand, while this group of faculty may have highly specialized skills to teach online there may still be a perceived threat to the online quality of courses and programs. Regardless, the rise of the online adjunct faculty illustrates the need for an examination of knowledge and skills required to be an effective online faculty member and sup- port from administration for quality online course delivery. It also necessitates the transformation of how we assess and evaluate effective online faculty, especially if we look at online learning environments as complex, cultural systems. A
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cornerstone of support for online faculty from an administrative perspective should include support for the systematic assessment and evaluation of online courses with an eye toward continual improvement.
Continual Improvement
The last issue explored in this chapter, which of continual improvement, encompasses the various aspects for all the topics features highlighted in this chapter: pedagogical alignment, meaning making, rituals of participation, co-regulation, ad- ministrative support for faculty planning courses/ programs, and faculty workload. The relation- ships between and among these different factors illuminate themselves to be reciprocal in nature through the process of continual improvement. It is in this sense that online teaching and learn- ing contributes to the notion of cultural systems discussed at the beginning of the chapter.
Continual improvement is the act of reflect- ing on the effectiveness of pedagogical align- ment within the context of the constraints and affordances of the online teaching and learning environment. Perhaps the most important com- ponent for continual improvement, for example, is pedagogical alignment which, as stated earlier, requires that instructional variables like student learning outcomes, learning activities, and assess- ment and evaluation practices, that support student success and learning, be selected with care during the planning process (Matuga, 2005). Pedagogi- cal alignment provides a blueprint for continual improvement. However, continual improvement also mandates the re-visitation of pedagogical alignment during and after the course has been taught with the goal of perfecting the course with an eye towards assuring quality.
Sims and Jones (2002) proposed a three- phased model for continuous improvement in online classes that emphasizes the importance of pedagogical alignment and instructional design. They proposed that there be a “Pre-Delivery” phase
in which the focus is on the functionality of the newly designed course be peer evaluated. This could be by utilizing some of the peer-evaluation methods mentioned in this chapter. The second phase is that of an initial delivery, or enhancement stage, and the last stage is an ongoing delivery or course maintenance phase in which the course is modified based upon feedback from students and peers. This approach emphasizes a team approach to course design, evaluation, and redesign. This is also called within socio-cultural literature creating ‘communities of practice’. Sims and Jones (2002) outline that building shared understanding, estab- lishing rituals of participation, and maintaining communication are all critical components of their continuous improvement model. Continuous im- provement is by its definition, a dynamic process that examines those shared ideas of what is quality online teaching and learning and is essential for assuring quality.
CONCLUSION
As a review of the online teaching and learning research by Tallen-Runnels and colleagues(2006) illustrated, online teaching and learning can be and has been a field typically organized by following four categories: course environment, learners’ out- comes, learners’ characteristics, and institutional and administrative factors. In this chapter we have presented a foundation for viewing some of these topics through the lens of cultural systems.
Three common myths/misconceptions regard- ing online teaching and learning were presented at the beginning of this chapter to help frame the discussion presented. One last myth or miscon- ception that was not highlighted in this paper is that online teaching and learning is less expensive than face-to-face teaching. Divorcing this myth from the comparison (apples to apples) metaphor, this is a topic that was touched upon when the subject of administrative support of faculty was discussed, but not fully examined. Colleges and
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universities are pressured into developing online courses and programs, in essence, to meet eco- nomic shortfalls. However, as Levy (2003) stated “the challenge to colleges in the 21st century is not to decide why they should have an online distance learning program, but to decide how to design and implement such a program” (p. 3). The subject or relationship between how much a course/program cost and quality of learning within that course/ program remains a very complex and difficult topic to frame within the topic of assuring quality.
The issue of assuring quality in online courses and programs is a multifaceted one that requires we look at the online teaching and learning en- vironment with a fundamentally different lens, that as a complex, cultural system with unique affordances and constraints. While an exhaus- tive list is not presented here, important factors that influence the design of high impact online courses, make suggestions for faculty who are teaching online classes that ensure quality, impact administrative support of online faculty, and of- fer a potential model for continual improvement. All of these factors are aligned with the central premise of this chapter that assuring quality in online course delivery is a complicated commu- nal activity focusing on the alignment of sound instructional features, meaning-making, working together with students to develop new ways ‘to do school’ online, recognition of faculty work, and continual improvement.
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KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS
Assuring Quality: Online course delivery focusing on the alignment of sound instructional features, meaning-making, working together with students to develop new ways ‘to do school’ on- line, recognition of faculty work, and continual improvement.
Continuous Improvement: A dynamic pro- cess that examines those shared ideas of what is quality online teaching and learning and is es- sential for assuring quality.
Continual Improvement: The act of reflect- ing on the effectiveness of pedagogical align- ment within the context of the constraints and affordances of the online teaching and learning environment.
Cultural Systems: Within online environ- ments refers to understandings and meanings that are socially shared.
Evaluation: Includes examining the content, processes, impact and outcomes of a on-line course in order improve the course quality.
High Impact Practices: Refers to educational experiences that are meaningful, require student action and participation, and that contribute to the life-long learning of the student.
Online Teaching and Learning: Faculty- delivered instruction via the Internet or distance learning.
Self-Regulation: Refers to those processes that occur at an individual level that play an important role in student academic achievement.
This work was previously published in the International Journal of Adult Vocational Education and Technology, Volume 2, Issue 1, edited by Victor C. X. Wang, pp. 36-49, copyright 2010 by IGI Publishing (an imprint of IGI Global).
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Copyright © 2012, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
Chapter 32
DOI: 10.4018/978-1-61350-068-2.ch032
INTRODUCTION
More than ever, education is taking place in a time of rapid social, cultural, economic, techno- logical and global change. Some of these rapid changes involve advances in information and communication technology (ICT), which mean businesses now perform in a global economy which the media report on. Increasingly, today’s
students are living their lives online; therefore fluency in ICT will be an important life skill, both economically and socially. Essentially, the expectation is that students emerging from schools will be “confident, connected, actively involved, lifelong learners” (Ministry of Education, 2007, p. 7). In order for students to make the transition into the workforce effectively, businesses need “people who can learn, adapt quickly to new situations, think for themselves, and make decisions…. They are ‘systems’ or ‘big picture’ thinkers” (Gilbert,
Julie Lynch University of Auckland, New Zealand
Kerry Lee University of Auckland, New Zealand
Fishing for Quality Learning: KnowledgeNet a New Zealand Solution
ABSTRACT
In order to prepare children for a world of rapid change New Zealand has developed a new education curriculum. This curriculum emphasises both a new vision and new values for teaching and learning. In order to address these, some progressive schools are trialing new technologies such as learning man- agement systems. One such system which is showing exciting results is KnowledgeNet (KNet), which provides opportunities for students, peers, teachers, parents, and the community to be actively involved in the child’s education. Schools trialing this system are beginning to see extensive positive applications. This chapter will provide visual real-life classroom examples in order to describe how one New Zealand school has successfully introduced KNet.
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2005, p. 31–32). For this reason teachers need to make key decisions about how to integrate different technology effectively into their class- room programmes in order to achieve the desired learning outcomes for students. Teachers need to evaluate the appropriateness and effectiveness of available technology and digital resources and decide when and how to use them with students. Schools must encourage a culture of change and innovation, foster creativity and engage students in self-directed learning so they are prepared for the future.
This chapter will discuss how the New Zealand education system is striving to encourage a culture of change and innovation in schools. The New Zealand Ministry of Education (2006) defined a learning management system as “a software pack- age to manage and deliver learning content and resources to students, usually comprising a variety of applications amalgamated as an ‘integrated’ package” (p. 2). This chapter will demonstrate how one particular learning management system, KnowledgeNet (KNet) has impacted on teaching practice and engagement of the key stakehold- ers. It is important to note the lead writer is an experienced classroom teacher in a New Zealand school where KNet has proven to be a real asset, and as such is keen for others to be shown a few of the possibilities.
A decade of the 21st century has already passed and schools need to consider strategies they can use to appeal to the learning preferences and commu- nication needs of third-millennium learners while, at the same time honouring traditional practices related to teaching and learning. The literature identifies the most significant factor that contrib- utes to student engagement and achievement is quality and effective teaching (Alton-Lee, 2003). This chapter will highlight some of the theoretical approaches around quality teaching and how the effects are maximised when supported by effective partnership and collaboration practices that focus on student learning (Ministry of Education, 2006; Roblyer & Edwards, 2003; Condie & Livingstone,
2007; JISC, 2000). The impact on pedagogical practice will also be investigated, as teachers need to consider how to integrate technology effectively into their classrooms. Lehtinen (2003) eloquently supported the importance of pedagogical practice in relation to technology, when he stated:
“The effects of ICT, however, depend not only on the equipment, but also, above all, on the peda- gogical implementation of technology. Thus, the pedagogical approaches used are, in many cases, more important than the technical features of the applied technology. A successful application of ICT in education always means that many systemic changes in the whole activity environment of the classrooms takes place.” (Lehtinen, 2003, p. 35)
It is important that all strategies which are developed to support teachers throughout this process be constantly evaluated.
BACKGROUND
New Zealand Setting
Social change in New Zealand continues to move at an ever-increasing pace with the population becoming increasingly diverse, technology more sophisticated, and the demands of the workplace more complex (Ministry of Education, 2007). This has impacted on the education system over the last 30 years. Following a major public con- sultation on the curriculum in the mid-1980s, the Department of Education began work on an overall framework for a revised school curriculum. The reform of the administration of education in 1989 and a change of Government in 1990 meant that work did not proceed beyond a draft document. Curriculum development resumed in 1991, under an “Achievement Initiative” policy, and from 1993, under the umbrella of “The New Zealand Curriculum Framework”. With the publication of The New Zealand Curriculum Framework, cur-
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riculum policy shifted from a focus on content, experiences and activities to curriculum policy based on outcomes (Ferguson, 2002). This was, in part, due to pressure on the New Zealand gov- ernment to account for investment in education by demonstrating what students achieved during schooling.
The New Zealand Curriculum Framework also promoted the use and development of ICT to develop digital literacy as ICT was seen to have the potential to increase the breadth and richness of learning, and the development of higher-order thinking skills. The Ministry of Education recog- nized that competence in ICT was becoming a pre-requisite for students to participate in society and in the workplace. It was perceived that the economy, both in the present and the future, would require personnel with increasing levels of ICT skills (Ferguson, 2002). The Organisation for Eco- nomic Co-operation and Development (OECD) highlighted the dilemmas and challenges faced by schools especially around technological change (2001). This 2001 report stated that “technologi- cal change is a pervasive driving force in OECD countries and that its impact depends critically on its general context, including the opportunities for innovation and production, mediation and use of knowledge” (OECD, 2001, p. 30).
Between 2004 and 2007 more than 15 000 students, teachers, principals, advisers, and aca- demics contributed to developing the draft New Zealand Curriculum, building on the recom- mendations from the New Zealand Curriculum Stocktake Report, published in September 2002. This involved trials in schools, collaborative working parties, online discussions, and an inquiry into relevant national and international research. The revised curriculum was the result of one of the most extensive consultation exercises ever undertaken by the Ministry of Education, and set the direction for New Zealand schools in teaching and learning in the 21st century. The New Zealand Curriculum was launched in 2007 and has been progressively implemented until in February 2010
it became mandatory and replaced previous cur- riculum documents (Ministry of Education, 2010).
The e-learning and pedagogy section of the New Zealand Curriculum encourages schools to “explore not only how ICT can supplement tradi- tional ways of teaching but also how it can open up new and different ways of learning” (Ministry of Education, 2007, p. 36). The New Zealand Curriculum has emphasized the importance of students making connections by entering and exploring new learning environments that extend well beyond the classroom. The New Zealand Curriculum has developed as a result of social, economic, and global change demonstrating the progressive nature of schools, governments and employers in New Zealand. They recognise that young New Zealanders need to be equipped with knowledge, competencies and values in order to be successful citizens in the third millennium.
TEACHING AND LEARNING APPROACHES FOR 21ST CENTURY LEARNERS
Theoretical Approaches
The literature identifies different theoretical ap- proaches to teaching and learning for 21st century learners. Roblyer and Edwards (2003) refer to these learning theories as “directed instruction” and “constructivist” (p. 97). Weller (2007) de- scribes two fundamentally differing views of how the technology can best be integrated into educa- tion as “broadcast and discussion viewpoints” (p. 6). The broadcast and directed instructions are grounded in behaviourist learning theory where the learning is content driven and the technology is the instructor. Proponents of this model view learning as the transfer of knowledge to the learner through online learning environments (Piccoli, Ahmed & Ives, 2001). The constructivist or discussion viewpoints are centred on learning as constructed knowledge where teachers let students participate
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in activities which are meaningful and will allow students to generate their own knowledge (Roblyer & Edwards, 2003).
The role of the educator is to facilitate and support students in their understanding of using learning management systems. Due to the rapid changes in technology and the increasingly com- plex nature of access to knowledge and informa- tion, the traditional, content-based education will no longer prepare students adequately for the future. In order, “to better prepare our students for this new knowledge age, we require future citizens who do not simply survive, but who thrive in the rapidly increasing global community” (Fox, 2008, p. 3).
A solution is to merge these two pedagogi- cal approaches by creating “good content and fostering meaningful dialogue” (Weller, 2007, p. 7). This can be achieved when both sides “find a way to merge the two approaches in a way that will benefit learners and teachers” (Roblyer & Edwards, 2003, p. 51). Literature offers advice for educators, to merge broadcast and discussion approaches, and therefore the educator acknowl- edges that content is just as important as dialogue and collaboration in their pedagogical practice. A learning management system is a medium for both content delivery and dialogue. Educators can be equally effective in terms of the content they deliver and the dialogue they foster in a learning management system, such as KNet, but it does require them to consider both content delivery and dialogue aspects.
Importance of Effective Teaching
In 2006, the Ministry of Education produced an action plan “Enabling the 21st Century Leader” which argued that effective teaching for all stu- dents will depend on teachers becoming confident and capable users of the technology (Ministry of Education, 2006). This argument has been pursued in more detail by Condie and Livingstone (2007) who highlighted how teachers require not only “the
knowledge of their subject but also the competence to create effective learning environments that en- able the active engagement of the students in the learning process” (p. 339). In order to be effective, teachers need to consider how to integrate the use of new technology such as learning management systems into their teaching practice.
A key component to achieving integration of the technology is the importance of teachers being able to collaborate. Effective teachers are willing and able to improve and develop their practice by sharing their knowledge and having conversations with other teachers, leaders and professionals. This reflective discourse with the learning community builds on their existing practice. “Teachers must be able to improve and develop. In order for this to happen, they must be able to take principles and concepts from a variety of sources … and translate them into practice” (Haberman, 1995, p. 779–780). The Ministry of Education (2006) emphasizes the importance of developing networks where teachers and students share their knowledge and ideas. Encouraging collaborative learning environments provides teachers with access to people, information and services. By building these partnerships beyond the classroom the quality of learning is enhanced.
Collaboration is not just linked to teaching practice but also impacts on engagement of all key stakeholders. Weller (2007) highlights one of the main advantages of learning management systems is that they allow collaboration and cooperation amongst students. Technology, which promotes communication and interaction between learners, can effectively develop higher-order thinking skills and build conceptual knowledge when following a collaborative learning model (Pic- coli, et al., 2001). Learning management systems such as KNet allow students greater flexibility and control over their learning especially during online discussions.
Research by Condie and Livingstone (2007), and supported by Chandra and Lloyd (2008), emphasizes how collaboration impacts on teach-
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ing and learning. Students become less reliant on teachers as their primary support for learning as they themselves take on more responsibility. Teachers’ roles move more towards facilitation. This represents fundamental changes in the identity of the teacher and has implications for pedagogical processes that will challenge current practices for many schools.
Impact on Pedagogical Practice
Pedagogical practices that are required to make an impact on students’ learning will depend on teachers making decisions about how to incorpo- rate ICT effectively into their teaching practice. Roblyer and Edwards (2003) emphasized the need for teachers to be “careful, analytical consumers of technological innovation, looking to what has worked in the past to guide their decisions” (p. 10). Teachers need to evaluate any learning man- agement system from an educational perspective to determine whether the new technology can be embedded into their teaching and students’ learning.
The following constraints could impact on pedagogical practice for teachers and schools: a lack of teacher confidence in the technical aspects of using learning management systems; a reluc- tance to relinquish their role as the expert; or a lack of understanding of how to utilise new technology to promote learning (Roblyer & Edwards, 2003; Nash, Dutton & Peltu, 2004; Treadwell, 2008). Prensky (2001) referred to some educators as digi- tal immigrants who assume that “learners are the same as they have always been, and that the same methods that worked for the teachers when they were students will work for their students now” (p. 4). Such an explanation of teacher capability in relation to effectiveness is too simplistic, as Prensky tends to underestimate the interest and competencies of many educators.
Perhaps, too, the emphasis in schools has focused more on professional development for teachers on learning how to use new technology
rather than understanding how to implement ef- fective pedagogical practices when using tech- nology. Research by Weller (2007) examined how various pedagogical approaches could be developed by educators when using learning management systems such as “peer learning”, “resource-based learning”, “collaborative learn- ing”, and “community of practice/socio-cultural learning” (p. 19). These approaches are based around engagement, participation, and interaction, critical thinking as well as content delivery and instruction. It is important schools consider these approaches when developing teacher pedagogy as well as their application to other key stakeholders such as students and parents/caregivers. These approaches, however, should not be viewed as mutually exclusive as they can often overlap (Weller, 2007).
Raising awareness of effective teaching strate- gies for supporting learners in online learning environments will provide the pedagogical sup- port needed by teachers. According to the British Council for School Environments (BCSE, 2007) this support for teachers could include “hands- on practice”. By offering models of professional development based on “practice or work based learning models” these are supported by visit- ing consultants, peer mentors or online forums (BCSE, 2007, p. 7). The BCSE emphasizes that, to make the most of the technology, it is essential that teachers understand its capabilities and the importance of schools’ investing in those who are leading it. The successful integration of learning management systems depends on a number of factors, not least the way in which teachers are supported in the process. A common theme emerg- ing about how teachers can be effective users of learning management systems is: connections need to be made between teachers’ use of, and training in, new technology alongside some professional development in the pedagogy approaches.
The research and literature has focused on the importance of teaching pedagogy when using technology such as learning management systems.
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As innovations are developed (particularly parent portals), careful consideration as to how other key stakeholders, such as parents/caregivers, utilise technology to support learners will need to be given. The implications of this will be discussed in the chapter entitled ‘Case study of a New Zealand school’s use and development of a parent portal’.
What is KNet?
The Horizon Report identifies and describes emerging technologies that are likely to impact on teaching, learning, research, or creative ex- pression within education. This report noted that “the ‘spaces’ where students learn are becoming more community-driven, interdisciplinary, and supported by technologies that engage virtual com- munication and collaboration” (Johnson, Smith, Levine & Heywood, 2010, p. 6). This is certainly true in New Zealand where approximately 20% of schools are currently using a learning management system where the focus on teaching and learning is on virtual communication and collaboration. The New Zealand Ministry of Education has chosen to support learning management systems as they are regarded “as the central hub of the teaching and learning activity” (Ministry of Education, 2010). Although the Ministry of Education does not offer nationwide funding assistance to schools to purchase a learning management system, there was initial funding from the Ministry of Educa- tion for schools to participate in implementation trials and for selected vendors to further develop their products.
The school had many criteria which their selected learning management system needed to contain. These criteria were found to be similar to those identified as important by Ioannou and Hannafin (2008). The system needed to have a preset format that could be adapted to suit the needs of the school and students. It needed to be available for all educational sectors such as pri- mary, intermediate and secondary schools. This provides the potential for students to take their
work with them as they move from school to school assuming the school is using the same system, This would enable both educators and students to monitor progress in learning. The system was expected to be more than just a place to deposit and store documents but have to the capability to embed multimedia files so students, teachers and caregivers could interact through audio, video and using Web 2.0 tools. Dix, Finlay, Abowd and Beale (1993) “argued that it is not enough to have a system accessible for all users; the users should have control over the tool and be given the opportunity to impose their own structure on the way information is presented” (as cited in Ioannou and Hannafin, 2008, p. 49).
The system also needed to allow students to have the space and time to learn. Through using online resources such as digital learning objects, students needed to be provided with opportunities to take responsibility for their learning. Digital learning objects are generally understood to be “digital entities deliverable over the Internet, meaning that any number of people can access and use them simultaneously” (Wiley, 2000, p. 3). These digital learning objects needed to be resourced within the system and used by teach- ers and students to enhance and support learning across the curriculum areas. Therefore enabling students to regulate or check their learning. The school also wanted a system which provided an opportunity for reflection therefore encouraging students to critically view the information avail- able to them from today’s wide variety of sources. Students also needed to have the functionality to look at their work, reflect on this and consider what they had done well, what they could improve on and what their next learning steps might be.
At the end of 2008, the Ministry of Education tendered to select a small number of vendors as development partners for the Ministry’s Managed Learning Environment (MLE) project (Ministry of Education, 2010). One of the vendors developed a learning management system called KNet. The key features of KNet are: it is web hosted so there is
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access anytime and anywhere; privacy is secured, as users need a username and password to log on; each student and teacher has a reflective learning portfolio, centralised access to resources, and a facility for online class discussions; and there are personalised home areas to store files, assignments and work. KNet is a space that engages in online communication and collaboration between the key stakeholders, who are educators, students, parents/ caregivers and the wider community. The vendor has also recently developed a parent portal that actively involves parents in their child’s education.
How KNet Can be Used in Schools
The following sections describe some of the ways learners can personalise their learning experience through a variety of rich communication tools. KNet enables teachers and students to share their understandings, ask questions, debate, reflect, and research information. The advantage of KNet be- ing web-based isthat stakeholders with an Internet connection can view students’ work whilst allow- ing students to share their learning with others in a secure environment. Students are provided with an opportunity to take risks with their learning by encouraging creativity and innovation. KNet personalises the learning for the student, as they are able to select the medium that most effectively conveys the content they are working on. They can select and choose whether to create text, make audio and video files, use images or link to websites which supports their content.
Class and Home Pages
KNet enables students to create a personal learning environment composed of the class work which they have created and completed. This class work could be in their formal classes, subjects or within interest groups they may be involved in. Lubensky (2006) summarised this personal learn- ing environment as “a facility for an individual to access, aggregate, configure and manipulate
digital artifacts of their ongoing learning experi- ence” (para 3). In Figure 1, the web page created by a student demonstrates how they have created their own personal page which not only links to work, subjects and websites but also describes the student’s goals and interests. This encourages students to express themselves creatively through text, images and animations and also develops web design skills. Communication and collaboration across the school is enhanced as the student links to their class page, homework page, team pages and single subject areas such as Arts and Technology.
E-Portfolios
A succinct definition of an e-portfolio is “electronic gathering of a range of student work collected and stored in some electronic format” (Fox, 2008, p. 4). In a learning management system this e-portfolio can contain student self reflections on their work, assessments, and artifacts they have created. One of the key components of an e-portfolio is that it should provide evidence of the learner’s progress and achievements against clearly stated objectives.
“A powerful collection of student work that exhib- its the student’s efforts, progress and achievements in one or more areas. The collection must include student participation in selecting the contents, the critieria for selection, the criteria for judg- ing merit, and evidence of student self selection” (Paulson, Paulson, & Meyer, 1991, p. 60)
This clearly outlines that the student has re- sponsibility for the material selected and should be involved in the assessment of the work.
In Figure 2 the exemplar of a title page for a student’s e-portfolio demonstrates how KNet can be utilised to collect work. The student has made links to areas in KNet which they want to include as part of their e-portfolio. The advantage of e- portfolios is they can be accessed anywhere and anytime. Unlike paper portfolios, the e-portfolio enables sound to be stored. Technologies such as
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Garageband and Web 2.0 tools allow students, teachers and parents/caregivers to record their thoughts on a piece of work. These files can be attached or embedded into Knet. This is a powerful tool to hear the voices of key stakeholders reflect on the learning. There is no doubt that voice adds depth, emotion, personality and enables closer communication with all those involved.
E-Reflections
The E-Reflection tool in KNet is a place for stu- dents to reflect on their progress over a period of time. The structure and content of the E-Reflection
may vary but generally students describe their progress, areas for improvement as well as provide evidence to support their statements. Students can do this as often as required, so that progress can be measured over a term or a year. Teachers can make comments on the students’ entries, and the student can also reply. Parents/caregivers can comment, and the student can invite peers to com- ment as well. Alton-Lee (2003) described “the role of effective feedback as formative assessment to be one of the strongest influences on student learning” (p. 89). One of the strengths of KNet is that it allows students to receive feedback from teachers, peers, and parents/caregivers.
As seen below, in Figure 3, this Year 8 (12-year- old) student has reflected in depth on their inquiry skills, what they would like to learn, and how inquiry learning benefits their own learning. From this reflection the teacher is provided with invaluable information and data to inform their teaching practice.
Figure 1. Student home page
Figure 2. Exemplar of a student e-portfolio title page
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Learning Journals
The learning journals are tools that allow students to record and present their ideas using a variety of methods. They encourage dialogue and col- laboration as the teacher, parent/caregivers, and peers are able to make comments in the learning journal. Students analyse their own thought pro- cesses following a learning experience or other activity. Students are encouraged to reflect on the process of acquiring new knowledge, behaviours, skills, and values. One of the advantages of the learning journals is they can be used for a range of purposes such as recounting or recollection of events, recording the process the student went through to complete a task or as a place to store information. Students are able to evaluate their own progress as well as the progress of their peers. Students are able to scaffold each other through the learning experience by sharing websites, video clips, images, and information they have researched. Teachers as well as parents/caregivers are able to make suggestions or recommendations on the learning journals. Figure 4 demonstrates
one example of how students, teachers, and peers are using the learning journal.
One of the advantages of the learning jour- nals for teachers is they are easily accessible and provide data that summarises how many entries students, teachers, peers and caregiver have made. Teachers just click the student’s name and the system takes the teacher to the student’s learning journal. Figure 5 below shows how teachers can quickly see the number of interactions made by students, teachers, peers, and caregivers.
Learning Stories
A ‘learning story’ is a narrated story that docu- ments students’ engagement in a range of learning experiences. The stories are presented in students’ portfolios for students, families, and teachers to read and re-read. Narrative assessment tells stories of learning episodes and may include teacher observations, transcripts, student’s work, as well as adults’ or peers’ comments and may be accompanied by artifacts including photographs or short video clips.
Figure 3. Unit of inquiry reflection
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It is important that the learning stories offer clear guidelines for the learner. Alton-Lee (2003) highlights the importance of effective teaching to “actively involve students in their own learning and assessment, make learning outcomes transparent to students, offer specific, constructive and regular feedback, and ensure that assessment practices impact positively on students’ motivation” (p. 89). In Figure 6 the teacher has made the learning intentions and the success criteria clear for the student. The student is actively involved in his or her own learning as they describe the steps they took to create a speech and self-assess themselves through reflection. The student has selected an im- age and used “jing” (free screen-casting software) to record and hear their speech. The teacher and peers are able to listen to the student’s speech and record feedback either using audio or text.
In Figure 6 the teacher and peers have written comments including areas to improve on for the student. This is invaluable as the student can listen to or read the comments by the teacher and peers at school or at home.
Forums
A key component of KNet is the forum or “dis- cussion board” feature that allows students to interact with their teacher and other students on specified topics. Discussion areas can also be used facilitate communication between teachers in staff-only forums or even between schools who are in a shared cluster. It is important to note that students can post a response only to topics initi- ated by teachers.
One of the advantages of forums is that they allow the opportunity for everyone to participate and contribute. Students can share their ideas, think critically about other perspectives, as well as reflect, respond and even question comments made by others. Forums are not just text-driven as the system allows teachers and students to upload images, embed video clips or link to websites. This caters for different learning styles and second-language speakers who use images, videos, or websites to express their ideas. Forums also give students the opportunity to re-think their own ideas. It allows students the time to evalu- ate their answers and back these up with further research before posting them. The forum in Figure 7 demonstrates how the teacher has asked ques- tions to stimulate the students to express their perspective on a piece of art.
The learning management offers a range of tools for educators to utilise. All the tools allow
Figure 4. Learning journal
Figure 5. Learning journal summary table for teachers
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collaboration and cooperation amongst students. Communication and interaction between learners develops higher-order thinking skills and builds conceptual knowledge. Learning management systems such as KNet allow students flexibility and control over their learning as they can select and chose how to present their information. The Ministry of Education (2006) wrote that, by using ICT, teachers could transform their teaching role and “delegate more responsibility to the students to self-regulate their learning, and there are op- portunities for students to collaborate effectively
through peer learning and mentoring” (p. 10). From the examples above, the potential for students to self regulate and learn from each other is evident with the support and guidance of the teacher.
Critique of KNet
This chapter has described the advantages for the key stakeholders using KNet and some of the key features. It is important to note that this particular learning management system has been developed by New Zealanders and hence many New Zealand
Figure 6. Learning story—persuasive speech
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schools have embraced KNet. The Ministry of Education is also currently supporting schools with funding for inter-operability studies between the learning management systems and the student management system Moodle and UltraNet. This funding influences schools when making choices about which learning management system to implement, as do other factors such as the func- tionality of the system, which may vary in appeal to education sectors. For example primary schools may favour the focus on supporting collabora- tion and reflection available in KNet compared to Universities or secondary schools who may prefer Moodle for organisational, management and administration features.
The functionality of any learning management system is an issue especially when comparing its range of operations to the many free online learn- ing systems and Web 2.0 tools that are currently available (Ioannou & Hannafin, 2008).The use of different systems for blogs, wikis, podcasts, in- stant messaging, and photo sharing can encourage learners to draw the best from every environment. The reliability of these multiple systems become crucial if a school is heavily reliant on its learning management system and it goes down. However, it is important to note that the potential complexity of using a broader range of open source products, their functionality, multiple usernames and pass- words also cannot be underestimated.
Figure 7. Forum question and a student response
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Very few learning management systems offer offline facilities that allow learners to access their work at times when they are not connected to the Internet. Students may want to access forum postings, carry out assessments, or work on a homework activity on their own personal computer or device without having to log on to the learning management system. Future students will expect access to educational content and services via handheld devices such as mobile phones. Learn- ing management systems must ensure they are developing in line with advances in technology so students can access, edit and read content on smaller screens.
Learning management systems have been criticised by some educators and researchers as lacking in interactive learning support and using relatively little multimedia. Certainly, if learn- ing management systems are compared to 3D environments such as online gaming or virtual worlds such as “Second Life”, this is true (Kemp & Livingstone, 2006). These 3D environments in schools are a possibility for the future and will be technology that educators will need to consider if they are to continue to create innovation in educa- tion. Educators, no matter which technology they use, will face the same challenges to find ways to facilitate collaboration in schools and the global community that enhance student learning.
The shortcomings of learning management systems may, as previously discussed, have as much to do with teachers’ lack of understanding about how to facilitate learning as with the inad- equacies of the systems themselves. Educators, no matter what the technology, will face the same challenges to find ways to facilitate collaboration in schools and the global community that enhance student learning.
FUTURE TRENDS
This chapter has highlighted some of the possible ways a learning management system can be utilised
in schools. The technology is profoundly affecting the way students collaborate, communicate, and succeed. Certainly there is evidence of change and innovation through using KNet as part of teaching and learning programmes. Teachers and students are fostering innovation and creativity, as well as engaging in self-directed learning. Whether this will prepare all students for the future is hard to say but undeniably these systems encourage all the key stakeholders to be ‘creative, energetic and enterprising’ (Ministry of Education, 2007, p. 8). In the years ahead people will need to continue to adapt and cope with rapid social, cultural, eco- nomic, technological and global change. There- fore, third-millennium learners need this flexibility in their learning as well as learning experiences that reflect the growing importance of innovation and creativity. “Innovation is valued at the high- est levels of business and must be embraced in schools if students are to succeed in their formal education” (Johnson et al., 2010, p. 6).
Another trend that is apparent is how the learning management system is helping teachers facilitate online learning, peer mentoring and independent study for students. Educators need to examine traditional approaches to learning and evaluate the potential of online communities for sharing of knowledge and resources. This does raise challenges for educators as the lack of for- mal training in recent technology and the changes required in pedagogical practice to implement ICT into practice may limit schools.
The value placed on collaboration in this learn- ing management system is high and this certainly is an essential skill that students will need in the workplace. The expectation for the future is that “professionals of all kinds are expected to work across geographic and cultural boundaries more and more frequently” (Johnson et al., 2010, p. 16). The tools in KNet are providing students with op- portunities to work creatively, develop teamwork skills, and consider the different perspectives of people. One of the challenges that learning man- agement systems face is the need to encourage
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collaborative projects involving students at other schools, including those in other countries.
CONCLUSION
This chapter has documented, described and analysed how one specific example of a learning management system (KNet) has impacted on teaching and learning in one New Zealand school. By considering the research on how teachers need to evaluate their pedagogical processes to integrate technology into practice, it is clear that 21st century schooling needs to change and adapt. Learning management systems, when used effectively, sup- port students to take risks, and ensure they have space, time and the freedom to explore (Warner, 2006). By encouraging a culture of change and innovation in New Zealand schools the Ministry of Education and the New Zealand Curriculum strive to develop resiliency, adaptability and flex- ibility in students.
At times this chapter may have read more like an advertisement for KNet than a chapter in an encyclopaedia. The reason all the positive attributes of this learning management system have been identified and explained is because the lead writer has observed and discussed with teachers how a learning management system can help prepare students for the third millennium. It is believed that the positive attributes far outweigh the few disadvantages. The long-term challenge for schools and teachers is to ensure that com- munication and collaboration are enhanced by building partnerships beyond the classroom and expanding the community of learners. The next chapter will focus on the influence and involve- ment of parents/caregivers to follow students’ progress and engagement with teachers. However, it must be noted that further research is required to determine if, and how, the technology enhances student-learning outcomes. Certainly learning management systems are empowering teachers
to guide and support students so they can take greater control of their learning.
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Alton-Lee, A. (2003). Quality teaching for diverse students in schooling: Best evidence synthesis. Wellington, New Zealand: Ministry of Education.
British Council for School Environments. (2007). Learning technologies and schools of the future. Retrieved from http:// www.bcse.uk.net/ menu. asp?id=295&pid=4
Chandra, V., & Lloyd, M. (2008). The methodolog- ical nettle: ICT and student achievement. British Journal of Educational Technology, 39(6), 1087– 1098. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8535.2007.00790.x
Condie, R., & Livingstone, K. (2007). Blend- ing online learning with traditional approaches: Changing practices. British Journal of Educational Technology, 38(2), 337–348. doi:10.1111/j.1467- 8535.2006.00630.x
Dataview. (2010). Parent portal. Retrieved from http:// www.knowledge.net.nz/ parentportal.php
Ferguson, S. (2002). Curriculum stocktake: Re- port on the New Zealand national curriculum. Wellington, New Zealand: Ministry of Education, Learning Policy Division.
Fox, I. (2008). E-portfolios- A personal space for learning. Fox Education consultants. Retrieved from http:// www.foxedu.co.nz/ 2008/ 02/ eport- folios-a-personal-space-for-learning/
Gilbert, J. (2005). Catching the knowledge wave? The knowledge society and the future of education. Wellington, New Zealand: NZCER Press.
Haberman, M. (1995). Selecting star teachers for children and youth in urban poverty. Phi Delta Kappan, 76, 777–781.
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Ioannou, A., & Hannafin, R. D. (2008). Course management systems: Time for users to get what they need. TechTrends, 52(1), 46–50. doi:10.1007/ s11528-008-0111-7
JISC. (2000). MLEs in further education: Prog- ress report. Circular 7/00, JISC. Retrieved from http:// www.jisc.ac.uk/ news/ stories/ 2000/ 07/ circular700.aspx
Johnson, L., Smith, R., Levine, A., & Haywood, K. (2010). 2010 horizon report: K-12 edition. Austin, TX: New Media Consortium.
Kemp, J., & Livingstone, D. (2006). Putting a Second Life metaverse skin on learning manage- ment systems. Proceedings of the Second Life Education Workshop at SLCC. San Francisco, CA.
Lehtinen, E. (2003). Computer supported collab- orative learning: An approach to powerful learn- ing environments. In De Corte, E., Verschaffel, L., Entwistle, N., & van Merriëboer, J. (Eds.), Unravelling basic components and dimensions of powerful learning environments. New York, NY: Pergamon Press.
Lubensky, R. (2006). E-learning & delibera- tive moments. Retrieved from http:// members. optusnet.com.au/ rlubensky/ 2006/ 12/ present- and-future-of-personal-learning.html
Ministry of Education. (2006). Enabling the 21st century learner. An e-learning action plan for schools 2006-2010. Wellington, New Zealand: Ministry of Education.
Ministry of Education. (2007). The New Zealand curriculum. Wellington, New Zealand: Learning Media.
Ministry of Education. (2010). Learning manage- ment system. Retrieved from http:// www.min- edu.govt.nz/ NZEducation/ EducationPolicies/ Schools/ Initiatives/ ManagedLearningEnviron- ments/ LearningMgmtSys.aspx
Nash, V., Dutton, W. H., & Peltu, M. (2004). In- novative pathways to the next level of e-learning. OII Forum Discussion Paper No. 2. Retrieved from http:// ssrn.com/ abstract=1325224
OECD. (2001). What schools for the future. Paris: Report from the Centre for Educational Research and Innovation.
Paulson, F., Paulson, P., & Meyer, C. (1991). What makes a portfolio a portfolio? Educational Leadership, 48(5), 60–63.
Piccoli, G., Ahmad, R., & Ives, B. (2001). Web- based virtual learning environments: A research framework and a preliminary assessment of ef- fectiveness in basic IT skills training. Management Information Systems Quarterly, 25(4), 401–426. doi:10.2307/3250989
Prensky, M. (2001). Digital natives, digi- tal immigrants part 1. Horizon, 9(5), 1–6. doi:10.1108/10748120110424816
Roblyer, M. D., & Edwards, J. (2003). Integrating educational technology into teaching (2nd ed.). New Jersey, Ohio: Merrill, Prentice Hall.
Treadwell, M. (2008). The conceptual age and the revolution: schoolv2.0. Victoria, Australia: Hawker Brownlow Education.
Warner, D. (2006). Schooling for the knowledge era. Victoria, Australia: ACER Press.
Weller, M. (2007). Virtual learning environments: Using, choosing, and developing your VLE. Ox- ford, UK: Routledge.
Wiley, D. A. (2002). Connecting Learning objects to instructional design theory: A definition, a metaphor, and taxonomy. In D. A. Wiley (Ed.). The instructional use of learning objects, 9. Retrieved from http:// www.webcitation.org/ 5XjAL453t
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KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS
Digital Learning Objects: Generally under- stood to be “digital entities deliverable over the Internet, meaning that any number of people can access and use them simultaneously” (Wiley, 2000, p. 3).
E-Portfolio: “Electronic gathering of a range of student work collected and stored in some electronic format” (Fox, 2008, p. 4).
Information and Communication Technol- ogy (ICT): ICT includes any communication device or application encompassing: radio, tele- vision, cellular phones, computer and network hardware and software, satellite systems, as well as the various services and applications associ- ated with them, such as video-conferencing and distance learning (Ministry of Education, 2010).
Intermediate Schools: Provide education for year 7 and 8 students (11- to 13-year-olds).
KNet: Stands for KnowledgeNet which is the name of a learning management system.
Learning Management System: “A software package to manage and deliver learning content and resources to students, usually comprising a variety of applications amalgamated as an ‘inte- grated’ package” (Ministry of Education, 2006, p. 2).
Learning Story: A narrated story that docu- ments students’ engagement in a range of learning experiences.
Parent Portal: An online portal that gives key stakeholders up-to-date, “on-demand” ac- cess to an individual student’s education progress (Dataview, 2010).
Second Life: A virtual world developed by Linden Lab that was launched on June 23, 2003 and is accessible via the Internet.
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Chapter 33
DOI: 10.4018/978-1-61350-068-2.ch033
Gregory C. Petty University of Tennessee, USA
Deborah H. Joyner East Tennessee State University, USA
The Efficacy of Continuing Education Technology for Public Health Physicians
Practicing in Remote Areas
ABSTRACT
This chapter is an investigation to determine the receptivity of family physicians to new technologies of continuing learning. Family physicians that were active members of the Tennessee Academy of Family Physicians (TAFP) served as the research group for this study. A response rate of 55% was achieved. Most responding family physicians perceived that Continuing Medical Education (CME) activities af- fect their practice of medicine. This study revealed that physicians thought the CME activity must be relevant, applicable, and the content and quality important to the learner for participation by distance education. Computer usage via the Internet, CD ROM, and email are being used more frequently and have a higher degree of receptivity by public health physicians than non-computer generated modalities. It is recommended that specialized marketing efforts, online Web-based courses, CD ROMs, and other modes of distance education delivery could change the level of interest in using distance education as a viable option for CME.
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INTRODUCTION
Continuing Medical Education (CME) is consid- ered to be the best way to increase the professional competence of practicing physicians. The chal- lenge for physicians today is one of keeping up with the rapid change in information technology, changes that has been well documented by many authors (Sagan & Leighton, 2010). The historic goal of CME for public health physicians has been to exchange information so that physicians can remain current with the latest developments in medical and scientific information (Rosof & Felch, 1992; Wentz & Harrison, 1994). This information explosion has challenged CME professionals to provide opportunities for transfer of this new knowledge to physicians in the most effective manner (Gebbie, Raziano, & Sterling 2009).
According to Gebbie and others, public health physicians particularly have experienced compet- ing and sometimes conflicting demands due to the constant addition of new information and emerg- ing technologies that have changed their practice (Gebbie, Raziano, & Sterling 2009).
In this new environment professional compe- tency is no longer limited to knowledge, skills, and performance. Physicians who formerly func- tioned in isolated practices, are now required to integrate into medical systems and to be part of teams. Increasingly the transition to medical teams and systems integration has placed demands on physicians that they have not been prepared to handle (Arah, Ogbu, & Okeke, 2008; Rivo, 2000).
Family physicians are also faced with the limited numbers currently practicing family medicine and the increasing average age of those in family medicine as well as the limited number practicing in rural areas (American Academy of Family Physicians. 1999). Other complicating considerations have been an increased number of physicians in group practices, advances in medi- cal technology, increased demands of certifying boards, and an emphasis on research as it related to managed care outcomes (Moore, Green, Jay,
Leist, & Maitland, 1994; Wentz, & Harrison, 1994). With increased consumer demands for improved patient care, many medical units have forced physicians to implement and continue with their medical education, forcing CME providers to evaluate current mechanisms for CME delivery and the development of new ones (Gillette, 1999).
The utilization of distance education, espe- cially the internet, have shown promise for solv- ing the problems busy physicians have to access new information. Curran, Hoekman, Gulliver, Landells, and Hatcher in two volumes published in 2000 (a,b) and Peterson (1999) have identified distance education as an instructional tool capable of exploring, enabling, and linking physicians, curriculum, and new technologies. Other studies by Petty and Carter (2011) and Petty and Loboda (2011) trumpet the advantages of online learning.
BACKGROUND
In today’s managed care environment, family physicians and primary providers are the back- bone of an ideal health care system (AAFP, 1998). Unfortunately, the availability of primary care providers has remained problematic, particularly in rural areas. Only small numbers of physicians selected rural practice and the retention of those choosing a rural community became a challenge due to the draw of the urban environment. Rural physicians face professional isolation and the number of rural hospitals also has declined com- pounding the shortage of health professionals (Puskin, 1992). Gruppen, Wolf, Van Voorhees, and Stross’s (1987) indicated that primary care physicians use colleagues and “educationally influential” physicians in the community as re- sources as for sources of information.
Distance education has long brought the latest information directly into the physician’s setting. For more than 25 years, telecommunications tech- nologies including interactive video, telemedicine, and computers have been promising tools that have
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helped address the CME needs of these physicians (Barow, 1993; Manning & Petit, 1987).
The purpose of this chapter is to explain the receptivity of family physicians to different technologies of distance learning. The study that was the basis for this chapter was conducted to ascertain the efficacy in the attitudes of physicians toward the use of distance education to acquire CME (Petty, & Brewer, 2011).
The American Academy of Family Physicians (AAFP), founded in 1947, required in its bylaws that a minimum of 150 hours of approved CME be completed to retain membership (AAFP, 1999). Managed care organizations as well as the Joint Commission on Accreditation of Healthcare Or- ganizations (2000) have reinforced the need for CME by requiring documentation from hospitals of their CME practices as part of the certification process (Jencks & Wilensky, 1992).
PRESENT PERSPECTIVES
Merriman and Caffarella (1991) concluded that self-directed learning occurs when “adults decide what they want to learn, formulate goals, and then proceed to select learning activities, resources, and ways to evaluate their learning” (p. 210). According to investigations of both Tough (1982) and Knowles (1980), adults directed and planned their own learning activities (Petty & Carter, 2011). Self-directed learning was seen as the vehicle by which adult practitioners provided for their professional needs (Schon, 1987;Tough, 1971).
Some authors have noted that self-directed learning was preferable when learners are intrinsi- cally motivated, responsible, and high achievers. Further, when learners were from varied back- grounds, with diverse proficiencies, and with focused interests, they were effective self-directed learners (Merriam, 2001).
Physicians as adult learners have been viewed as “self-directed and experientially oriented”, and physicians have a “must see and feel” attitude
about their learning experience (Scott, 1994, p. 92). Slotnick, Raszknowski, and Lichtenauer (1995) researched adult learning themes and concluded that physicians wanted to participate in their own instruction and that the multiple demands on physician’s lives were in conflict with their decision to attend CME activities. They further noted, “Clearly adult learning theory applies to CME” (p. 15). Other research indicated that the learning experience of physicians is impacted by the stage of their professional life and by their age (Bennett, 1990), and also by the year in which they completed their education (Savatsky, Haitz, & Sterns, 1981).
To understand and to apply adult learning principles to CME, Knowles (1989) illustrated four assumptions about adult learning: (a) ac- knowledgement of the role that self-concept plays in learning, (b) previous experience in learning, (c) the adult’s readiness to learn, and (d) previous orientation to learning. Merriam (2001) mentioned that adults learned best when they found the learn- ing experience practical and reality-based.
Slotnick, Raszkowski, Jensen, Wentz, and Kuntz’s (1994) research indicated that physi- cians’ CME attendance choices reflected “issues of practicality, multiple demands in their lives, and satisfying multiple needs through education” (p. 173) which were grounded in adult learn- ing philosophy. Fox, Mazmanian, and Putnam, (1989) concluded that by applying adult learning principles, CME professionals could reinforce the quality of the activity and could increase at- tendance at continuing education activities. In ad- dition, physicians more readily attended activities when they met specific needs that could impact their practice and the quality of health care they delivered (Fox, et al., 1989). Knox (1990) and Slotnick, et al. (1994) both critically reviewed the continuing education participation patterns and influences as well as the motivational factors that were key to physicians’ decisions to participate in CME. Citing that relevance and achievement
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of a level of proficiency were desired outcomes of the CME experience.
Gelula and Sandlow (1998) noted that with so much information available to the physician, programming should be designed to meet the specific needs of individual physicians. They further found that self-directed activities could be used to customize programming to meet their specific needs.
New Paradigm for CME
Research conducted by Leist and Kristofco (1990), found that extensive use of technology to convey CME extended from CD-ROM technology to computer-assisted instruction. They noted that these new modes of instruction were “no longer a passive medical school-based experience” (p. 174). Linkages with rural physicians that provided the ability for consultations and diagnosis are made possible through distance education. These advances have created a capability to bridge time and distance with the rapid movement of informa- tion on a global basis. The addition of computers to physicians’ practice provided access to databases and electronic consultation networks.
CME Application of Innovation for Distance Education
Lubar (1993) documented the dramatic change information technology has had on society. Com- puter technology, especially access to the Inter- net, were segways or transitions to rapid access information, a means to communicate medical information in a myriad of formats and access to information to a larger number of practicing physi- cians (Christensen & Armstrong, 1998). A 1997 study at Georgia Tech indicated that Internet use had risen to 36 million users in the United States by late 1997 (Graphics, Visualization, & Usability Center, 1998) and that in 2004 it is predicted that there will be 90 million households with Internet capability (McGarvey, 2000).
It has long been realized by those providing resources to physicians and medical professionals that Internet usage was growing at a phenomenal rate (Eager, 1997). Specialized publications such as M.D. Computing (1999) provided resources to connect computing to medicine. The now famil- iar, information super highway, opened a door to many CME resources including databases, previously difficult to obtain journal articles, the National Library of Medicine on-line collection and CD- ROMs providing CME information and programming at minimal cost (Crandall & Coggan, 1994).
Dillion (1996) indicated, “Current definitions of distance education ignore the fact that the inte- gration of telecommunications technology in the learning environment is blurring the boundaries between ‘self-directed’ and ‘institutional-directed’ learning”. Her definition continued “as the link- age of learners and learning resources separated by time and or distance” (p. 6). Autunano (1993) defined distance education as “learning situa- tions in which the instructor and the learner(s) are separated by geographical location or in time and consequently have to rely on communications technology, computer technology, and/or printed materials for instructional delivery” (p. 876).
Telemedicine was not new to medicine, since in 1955 the concept existed in various formats (Brick & Schreiber, 1993; Peredina, 1995). In the early radio years, broadcasts on CME topics were avail- able. Development has continued in telemedicine and has expanded in the related communications technologies to facilitate and deliver medical and patient care information. Teleconferencing likewise has been an effective method of conduct- ing instruction via audiographic workstations to “create, transmit, and receive graphic and video images” between various hospitals for consulta- tion (Peredina, 1995, p. 14).
A research question was developed to investi- gate the problems offered in this review of litera- ture. This question was based on the current level of knowledge concerning distance education and
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continuing medical education for physicians and the prediction for the future direction of distance education for CME by family physicians.
Research Question: How receptive are family physicians to CME provided via distance educa- tion modalities?
TAFPS Survey
The population for the survey was limited to 1064 physicians holding the M.D. (Doctorate of Medi- cine) or D.O. (Doctorate of Osteopathic Medicine) degrees and maintaining active membership in the Tennessee Academy of Family Physicians (TAFP). Requirements for active membership include completing a family medicine residency program (three years), or an American Osteopathic Acad- emy approved residency program and meeting CME requirements of 150 hours of accumulated continuing education hours during the three years immediately preceding the application.
To obtain an updated and pertinent survey of rural physicians, Joyner (2001) surveyed (with the TAFPS) the entire population of 1064 active Tennessee Association of Family Physicians members. She collected 585 returns that were included in the statistical analysis. The return rate of qualified respondents was 55%.
The survey was designed to answer the research question developed for this study. For this purpose, sixteen survey items were designed to determine the types and perceived usefulness of distance learning modalities as recommended by Petty (2009). The survey consisted of three parts: (a) an introductory letter that explained the purpose of the study and gave directions for completion (b) a 16 item, five-point Likert-scale close-ended, multiple-choice and fill-in-the-blank question; (c) a demographic section that provided information about the respondent and his or her practice.
Of the sixteen items used in the survey, the first two survey items related to the use and receptivity of CME via distance education. The first item was designed to measure the use of distance education
modalities for CME during the last 12 months. Seven modalities were listed for this item, with categories for ranking ranging from never to al- ways. The modalities selected to measure current use included: CD ROM instruction, interactive video, videotape, audiotape, video conferenc- ing, Internet, and E-mail. The second item was designed to measure respondent’s receptivity to CME via distance education. The same modalities that were surveyed were the same as for question one. However, the response categories were on a scale from low to high receptivity.
The third item was designed to investigate the influence of respondent’s participation in CME activities. The following 10 factors are used: per- ceived quality, content, applicability to practice, convenience, only way to get information, loca- tion, cost of CME activity, distance away from practice, the influence of relevant content, and time away from family. Respondents were asked to rate each factor from very weak to very strong.
Two survey items (fourth and fifth) concerned access to the Internet and computer ownership. Re- sponses were either yes or no for these two items.
Items six and seven were intended to measure the opinion of each respondent to whether or not CME activities, via distance education improved knowledge and skills and in general, affect his or her practice at all. The scale was low to high.
The eighth item concerned the adaptation of CME habits over the past four years as a result of practice location, managed care, family changes, and computer access. Ranking categories ranged from no change to a great deal.
Items nine to sixteen were designed to pro- vide demographic characteristics of respondents, including community type, county in which they practice, years in practice, type of practice, whether or not they held board certification, gender, birth year, and medical school graduation year. These items were either fill-in-the-blank or multiple choice.
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Results of the Study
The largest numbers of physicians responding to the survey participated in group practices with a significant number of the respondents being be- tween the ages of 40 and 49 (40.2%). Figure 1 il- lustrates the distribution of age for the respondents. Slightly more than one-half (50.9%) indicated that they had been in practice for 14 years or less, and 23.6%were in the lower quartile of five years of practice or less. Most of the respondents (90.6%) who were board certified at the time of the survey.
Male physicians responded to the survey by a ratio of four to one to females; of the 585 respon- dents, 459 were males, 117 were females, and 9 did not identity.
Computer usage is prevalent among 93.7% of the respondents. They stated they had computers and 88.9% reported that they had access to the Internet.
How receptive are family physicians to CME provided via distance education modalities?
The survey item providing the data to answer research question one said, “Please indicate your receptivity for the different formats to receive CME by distance education modalities”. Respon- dents were asked to rate their receptivity from low to high. Figure 2 indicates that the respondents were most receptive to the use of the Internet and to audiotape. A total of 32.6% indicated a pref- erence for both modalities when the categories
Figure 1. Age of respondents
Figure 2. Frequency table for receptivity of distance education modalities
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of moderately high and high are combined to determine more than a moderate level of interest.
Using the evaluation at the moderate level, it can be seen that the order of interest according to respective modalities was videotape, CD ROM, Internet, audiotape, interactive video, email, videoconference. The frequency rate for the cat- egory of moderate for the videotape modality was 34.9% and CD ROM was 30.8% indicating that the response group had at best a moderate interest in distance education using these modalities.
In general, the survey indicated that the com- puter based, CD ROM, email and Internet are the modes of acceptance for distance education in CME. As a whole, the population is not receptive to the use of distance education modalities for CME because most respondents indicate receptivity to CME via distance education modalities in the low or moderately low categories
Research Question
Does the current receptivity of family physicians to CME provided via distance education vary in relation to previous use of distance education modalities?
To address this question the researchers com- pared the use of distance education modalities to that of receptivity, using a chi-square with a p value of.05 level of significance. The results, as shown in Figure 2, indicate a general trend for low frequency in all modes for distance educa- tion. In the midrange, (sometimes used) ranking, the following was seen: audiotape, CD ROM, Videoconference, email, interactive video. Nearly an inverse of these modalities was show in the ranging of never used: interactive video, email, videoconference, CD ROM, videotape, Internet, audiotape. The Chi-square analysis revealed a significant level of association for each of the distance education modalities: CD ROM instruc- tion, interactive video, videotape, audiotape, video conferencing, Internet, and email. This relation- ship is caused by the low use of the modalities
and by the low receptivity of interest in using the modalities, resulting in few or no responses in some categories. Respondents did acknowledge greater acceptance of distance education than they reflected in their current use. Responses identify that the Internet has the highest level of relationship. Overall, respondents indicate that they do not currently use distance education mo- dalities for CME and that they are not interested in using this method. This was indicated in the frequencies in Figure 3 illustrating low receptiv- ity and low use for each of the modalities. The exception with slightly higher use was audiotape, with p<.00001 and a chi-square value of 517.65, indicating a statistical association. The audiotape modality also offered the highest frequency of use and receptivity. However, the researcher expected that the p values could be low because of the pos- sible association of use and receptivity. However, it appears that if the modality were never used it had low receptivity and as one would expect, if the modality were sometimes or greater used, it had better receptivity, (e.g. audiotape and email versus interactive video). Respondents indicated a higher use of audiotape than other modalities.
This study indicates that a minimal number of family physicians currently use distance education as a vehicle for obtaining CME. Additionally, there is a higher receptivity for future use of distance education, particularly in the areas of computer based CME such as instruction over the Internet, email and CD ROM. The use of audiotape is the most widely accepted and the most used distance education modality. It was found that older physicians tended to use the audiotape modality to meet their CME needs.
Respondents indicated to a high degree that CME activities both in general and via distance education affect their practice of medicine by maintaining or enhancing knowledge or skills. This group of family physicians also indicated that their CME habits changed the most in rela- tion to time factors.
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CONCLUSION
The results of this study illustrated that family physicians have not yet entered into a structured self-directed learning model as illustrated by Houle (1980) and Tough (1979) due to the low receptivity of distance learning modalities.
1. Most Family Physicians responding per- ceived that CME activities affect their practice of medicine.
2. CME is relevant, applicable, and the content and quality influence CME participation by distance education.
3. Computer usage via the Internet, CD ROM and email are being used more frequently and have a higher degree of receptivity by Family Physicians.
Most family physicians accept CME as a method for improving their practice of medicine and becoming appraised of the most scientific and technological information. However, modern modalities of computer-based education are not the major source for this educational need. The recep- tivity to the use of distance education modalities
i.e. computer-based technology was slightly more positive than was the current level of use. Most family physicians have and use computers and as computer integration becomes apart of current medical practice these physicians will integrate educational modalities as part of their learning environment but presently, they are somewhat receptive to considering it as an option.
The process of understanding physician par- ticipation and receptivity to new learning is com- plicated (Fox et. al, 1989; Moore, et al., 1994a). The challenge of the CME planner is to meet the learning needs of the individual practitioners and to provide CME resources appropriate for physicians’ preferred learning format. Diffusion of new information is an evolutionary, slow- moving process. The conclusion of this study embraces the above premises and confirms that family physicians in Tennessee are receptive to CME provided via distance education but are not currently using these distance education modali- ties. This research could give practical answers to those planning CME educational strategies to assist them in understanding the rate of acquisi- tion for the distance education learning formats.
Figure 3. Frequency table for use of distance education modalities
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At the time of this survey, limited numbers of TAFP physicians were using CME via distance education but, a slightly greater number were re- ceptive to the use of distance education modalities. There could be other possible explanations for the limited use of distance education. For example, there were a number of other ways or opportunities available for these physicians to meet their CME needs. These could include the traditional didactic formats of seminars and of grand rounds lectures that could be offered at their practice locations or at hospitals. Also, the TAFP offers a statewide conference each year that provides CME hours.
As technology continues to advance and as physicians begin to integrate computer usage into their practices adaptation of computer-based CME learning will increase more rapidly. Although limited, there is an implication in this data from the audiotape case study indicating that younger physicians are moving away from audiotape and toward computer-driven modes. It is interesting that these physicians seemed to acknowledge that CME could affect their practice by increas- ing skills and knowledge both in general and via distance education modalities but yet indicated low use and receptivity.
FUTURE TRENDS
Perhaps the future trends for technology use with continuing education can best be summed up by Sagen and Leighton (2010) who said; “It took the telephone seventy-five years to reach fifty million users; it took television thirteen years. It took the Web just five … It now connects nearly a quarter of the total world population… By 2013 there will be 2.2 billion Internet users worldwide” (Sagan & Leighton, 2010, p. 119). The dynamics of future trends for physicians and their continuing education encompasses more than just technology. Acceptance of the need for continuing education is also a concern.
Nearly forty years ago, Houle (1967) said, “While continuing education will not cure all the problems of the professions without it no cure is possible” (p. 50). Everett Koop (1990) was an advocate of continuing education for physicians. He concluded in 1990 that “…the era in which we live makes it critical that we embrace the concept of continuous learning. Embrace is the key word” (p. 103). The recognized need for CME has grown to the extent that in 1994 CME was a $343 mil- lion industry (Mazmanian & Duff, 1994). Over the past four decades, CME also has experienced growth in the number of activities offered and in the number of accredited CME sponsors. Despite this growth, the challenge of linking the physi- cians’ practice with education remained.
Manning and Petit (1987) believed that com- puters would provide more individualized CME and that they could be better directed to individual needs (Petty, Lim, & Zulauf, 2007). Crandall and Coggan (1994) identified a need for CME in the rural setting. They suggested that CME training could be enhanced by information technology. These resources could reduce rural primary care physicians’ sense of isolation with “access to in- formation needed for clinical training, continuing education, professional growth, and consultation” (p. 209). Physicians need to acquire new skills and knowledge affect patient outcomes and to improve the cost effectiveness of health care (Leist & Kristofco, 1990; Smedley, Finestone, Thomas- King, & Sylvester, 1994). With new management strategies, diagnostic advancements and govern- ment requirements, the medical profession is in a period of rapid transition intensified by changes in technology (Petty & Loboda, 2011). Through the maze of technological advancements and the uncertain climate of health care reform, physi- cians must find strategies and resources to meet specific practice needs.
Societal and governmental concerns about access to health care, health care cost, and the quality of health care services have been driving forces for accountability (Moore, et al., 1994a). In
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this quickly changing environment, maintaining professional competence and the ability to continu- ally evaluate the quality of care were important needs of physicians (Jennett & Swanson, 1994; Moore, et al., 1994b). Not only must physicians routinely evaluate their professional competence, they are also responsible to patients, managed care organizations (MCOs), and regulatory entities (Berwick, 1989; Berwick, Godfrey, & Roessner, 1990; Wentz & Harrison, 1994).
RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH
A longitudinal study of the association of age and changes in the use of distance education modalities could provide on-going needs assessment for CME planners. Also related are the age and generation issues associated with acceptance, utilization of distance education and the overall usage as the baby boomer generation increases in age. Other opportunities exist for research relative to a variety of other comparisons such as (a) distance educa- tion verses traditional CME and the evaluation of its effectiveness; (b) the cost benefit for the use of distance education, and (c) user satisfaction such studies could potentially be vehicles for program improvement. Further, some of these recommendations could be structured to provide direct patient outcomes research. Additionally, a comparison of virtual instruction or distance education to a hands-on learning environment or for a different geographical region would be an appropriate follow-up to this study.
Based upon the review of literature, distance learning and its many modalities have a tremen- dous potential to change CME. Providing edu- cational resources when and where physicians require access is central to the lifelong learning commitment of the medical professional.
As the new generation of physicians appears, their use of technology is expected to be more directly integrated into practice and diffusion of
innovation is expected to evolve. For example, consultation with other colleagues by computers and on-line could become more common, rather than discussions in the hallways of a conference facility. The predominate concern found in the research, was family physicians in Tennessee that they were not using distance education to meet their CME needs and were not receptive at this time. From this study, the researcher concludes that family physicians in Tennessee are currently using distance education modalities in small num- bers to meet their CME needs and that they are increasing receptive for using distance education in the future. Over time, greater exposure, access and familiarity with distance education modalities family physicians in Tennessee will provide op- portunity to embrace this method as part of their lifelong learning experiences.
As the use of the Internet becomes more prevalent and integrated into the work-lives of physicians, distance learning options will also become apart of their CME by distance learning. Crawford (2000) identified reasons for possible integration:
1. Patient’s use of the Internet will further increasing pressure for physicians to stay current.
2. More physicians becoming skilled in utiliz- ing the Internet and finding it a straightfor- ward method of to obtain CME.
3. The sprouting of well-financed companies ready to invest in “e” commerce willing to support CME activities, more CME courses developed specifically for the Web.
4. The increased offering of live presentations as part of Web-based CME.
5. The continued integration of computer- based technology into the medical school environment.
It will be the challenges of CME professionals to help physicians adopt learning modes that fit with their time and lifestyle demands. Perhaps
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the variety of computer-based distance learning options will gain momentum and provide the array of options needed by physicians.
The concept of diffusion of innovation forms a base of understanding for the potential for new ap- plication. As the use of internet learning increases and as physicians include information technology as part of their professional development plans it will potentially lead them to a multitude of learning options. For CME planners it will be as essential to stay cognizant of the needs of their learners and sensitive to the political, social, and organizational content (Caffarella, 1994; Cervero & Wilson, 1994). The practitioner’s experience with distance education is closely linked to the use and future interest in distance learning modalities. As the concerns of time restraints escalate, physi- cians will gravitate to new options of educational opportunity. To continue as leaders in medical education, CME planners must recognize these changes and must be aware of the developing technologies for distance learning via computer- based technologies.
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KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS
Adoption: The decision to make full use of an innovation as the best course of action.
Audioconferencing: Interactive audio com- munications between individuals or groups at three or more locations.
CD ROM: Acronym for compact disc read- only memory, an optical storage system for com- puters that allows vast amounts of data, text, and images to be stored and retrieved off a compact disc” (National University of Continuing Educa- tion Association, 1994, p. 61).
Computer Conferencing: A telecommunica- tions system that makes use of a computer as a platform for processing information.
CME: Continuing Medical Education is the process that provides information and activities designed to maintain and improve the ability of the family physician to provide quality patient care (AAFP, 2000).
Distance Education: The linking of learners and learning resources separated by time and or distance (Dillion, 1996).
Diffusion: Communication of an innovation, through certain channels and over time, among the members of a social system (Evans, 1982).
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Chapter 34
INTRODUCTION
The incidence and prevalence of high school dropouts is not a new problem and may be viewed
as an issue that has been researched time and time again with no clear next-step solutions. Although there does not appear to be a single key to unlock- ing the dropout problem there are ways to help mitigate the factors that lead students to drop out of school. Over the last 20 years the incidence
Tonya Balch Indiana State University, USA
Dropout Prevention: Unpacking the Mentor-
Mentee Relationship
ABSTRACT
The high incidence and prevalence of high school dropouts is not a new problem and may be viewed as an issue that has been researched time and time again with no clear next-step solutions. Indeed there does not seem to be a single key to solve the problem of students dropping out but, there are ways to help mitigate the factors that lead students to drop out of school. This chapter will provide research based indicators for identifying students at-risk for dropping out and present a myriad of approaches to reduce the dropout rate. While no one approach will likely yield large improvements, multiple approaches thought of in systemic terms can have a positive impact. Mentoring has been proven as an effective tool if implemented appropriately. Key indicators from highly effective mentoring programs are closeness of the mentor-mentee relationship, mentor characteristics, consistency of interaction, duration of mentor- ing, and contextual variables relative to the mentee’s social world. The ultimate goal is to improve the high school graduation rate and ensure students are college and career ready.
DOI: 10.4018/978-1-61350-068-2.ch034
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of high school dropout rates has not changed significantly (National Educational Goals Panel, 2002; Woods, 1995), and economic downturn only deepens the consequences for those students who do drop out.
Recent estimates indicate that over a lifetime, the difference in lifetime earnings between gradu- ates and dropouts will be $260,000 (Dynarski, Clark, Cobb, Finn, Rumberger, and Smink 2008). This number potentially will increase as low-skill jobs become scarce. Communities, states, and the federal government are directly impacted by the dropout population by smaller tax contributions, and increased reliance on government programs such as food stamps, housing assistance and wel- fare programs (Carnevale & Desrochers, 2003; Rouse, 2005; Sum, Khatiwada, McLaughlin, & Palma, 2009). Dropping out of school has a significant impact on the personal well being of the individual in addition to financial challenges. Freudenberg and Ruglis (2007) cite educational attainment as one of the strongest predictors of health. The more education a person acquires the more positive correlation to better health. Dropouts are more likely to engage in risky health behaviors, including smoking, lowered physical activity, and increased body weight (Lantz, House, Lepkowski, Williams, Mero, & Chen, 1998). Of those students who drop out, according to Sum, Khatiwada, McLaughlin and Palma (2009), na- tionally “black dropouts were the least likely to be employed (31%) followed by Asians (43%), Whites (46%) and Hispanics (53%)”(p.3). These researchers also examined the nation’s incarcera- tion rates among these 4 groups and found that black men under the age of 30 had the highest rates of incarceration. These factors combined have re-committed communities and educators to dropout prevention.
Many organizations, federal and state agencies, colleges and universities, and K-12 schools are focused on dropout prevention. Local communities too are now focusing their efforts in this important issue. The desire to have all students graduate from
high school and keep communities healthy and viable has led to restructuring schools, develop- ing innovative programming, and implementing a variety of interventions. Through federal funding, dropout prevention guides were developed to as- sist schools and communities address the dropout issue on a local level. The National High School Center produced executive summary detailing ef- fective, research-based steps to indentify students at-risk for dropping out of high school (Kennelly & Monrad, 2007). The National Dropout Prevention Center based at Clemson University has developed 15 effective strategies for dropout prevention (Smink & Schargel, 2009). Alternative schools were designed to meet the educational needs of students who were not successful in traditional K-12 settings. This can include students who are substantially behind academically, have poor attendance, or behavioral issues (Aron, 2006). Alternative schools can be at any grade level, are typically part of a public school district, and have a clear vision and mission that defines the type of student attending, structure of the school, and pathway to completion. Charter schools are a fast growing phenomenon and the most popular choice alternative. There are approximately 3,000 charter schools across the United States, serving roughly 700,000 in 40 states that have passed charter school laws (US Charter Schools, 2010). Charter schools were envisioned to provide choice for families and stronger accountability for achievement. At the heart of these initiatives is a desire to close achievement gaps, increase graduation rates, and decrease the number of students who exit school.
Across each initiative common themes emerge, predominantly related to the relationships students form with adults and what population is choosing to exit school. Identification of at-risk students has historically been related to race, ethnicity, socio- economic status, and single-parent households. Research has yielded factors that cut across all demographics. Key indicators include: core sub- ject grades, attendance, promotion trends, and engagement (Azzam, 2007; Kennelly & Monrad,
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2007). Likewise, preventive measures emerged that will increase student persistence through high school. Measures include relationships with adults, more engaging learning, experiential learning, differentiated instruction, and academic supports. Consistently, students reported the critical nature of school climate, having their voices heard, caring teachers, and a strong connection to at least one individual (Azzam, 2007; Kennelly & Monrad, 2007). This personal connection, sense of belong- ing, and self-worth can all be fostered through formal and informal mentoring. Mentoring pairs students with school personnel, community mem- bers, formal programs and informal relationships. Mentored youth are more likely to be in school, have better overall attitudes, experience decreased rates of drug and alcohol use, and enjoy improved relationships with adults (Jekielek, Moore, Hair, & Scarupa, 2002).
This chapter will review effective dropout prevention programs and focus upon mentoring and supporting persistence from a strength-based approach. Mentoring programs geared toward at- risk populations, such as African-American males will also be discussed.
BACKGROUND
Seven thousand students become dropouts every school day (Alliance for Excellent Education, 2009). This is approximately 1.3 million students annually who elect to leave school. The dropout crisis impacts all of America, but affects males, Blacks, and Hispanics particularly hard. According to the Center for Labor Market Studies (2009), in 2007, an astounding 16% of persons between 16 and 24 years of age (nearly 6.2 million people) were high school dropouts. Among these dropouts, 60.1% were men, 18.8% were Black, and 30.1% were Hispanic. In addition:
• Nearly 1 in 5 U.S. men between the ages of 16-24 (18.9%) were dropouts in 2007.
• Nearly 3 out of 10 Hispanics were drop- outs (27.5%), including recent immigrants.
• More than 1of 5 Blacks had dropped out of school (21%), versus a dropout rate for Whites of 12.2%. (Center for Labor Market Trends, 2007)
There is a moral imperative to address the dropout crisis for both individuals and the economic and social well-being of the country. Research from the National High School Center (Kennelly & Monrad, 2007) and Viadero (2006) have indentified key indicators to predict who is at-risk for dropping out. These indicators are significantly stronger predictors than the histori- cally used demographic indicators such as race, ethnicity, gender, socioeconomic status, and single parent homes. Key indicators are:
• Poor grades in core subject areas • Low attendance • Failure to be promoted to the next grade,
and • Disengagement in the classroom, including
behavior problems (Kennelly & Monrad, 2007; Viadero, 2006).
Many future dropouts can be identified early on by simply studying attendance, academic, and engagement patterns of students during elementary and middle school. Understanding who is at-risk for dropping out allows schools to focus resources toward these individuals to support persistence and eventual high school graduation. Researchers have studied why some students persist in an effort to inform effective dropout prevention strategies. Knesting (2008) found four critical factors for supporting student persistence:
• Listening to students – having their opin- ions valued and heard.
• Communicating caring – having caring, re- spectful teachers, counselors, and adminis-
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trators who can communicate this sense of caring with students.
• The school’s role in dropout prevention – how classroom teachers, counselors, and administrators cared for, supported, respected, challenged and empowered students.
• Student’s role in dropout prevention – must see a purpose in graduating and put forth effort.
The most effective programs and initiatives address the key indicators (i.e. grades, attendance, promotion, and behavior) and utilize compo- nents of the four strategies (i.e. listening, caring empowerment, and purpose) related to student persistence (Knesting, 2008). Many school dis- tricts and organizations, at the national, state, and local levels, have developed programs and initiatives based upon these indicators. Examples include the Institute of Educational Sciences (IES) Practice Guide: Dropout Prevention, 15 Effective Strategies for Dropout Prevention, and alternative education opportunities.
IES Practice Guide: Dropout Prevention was developed as a tool to assist schools and com- munities in planning and implementing dropout prevention strategies (Dynarski, et al., 2008). It includes specific recommendations and examples from dropout programs that had an impact on persistence and completion of high school. Their six recommendations, with two implementation examples for each include:
1. Utilize data systems that support a realistic diagnosis of the number of students who drop out and that help identify individuals at high risk of dropping out. ◦ Use longitudinal, student-level data to
accurately assess student population ◦ Monitor students’ sense of
engagement 2. Assign adult advocates to students at risk of
dropping out.
◦ Choose adults who are committed to investing in the student’s personal and academic success.
◦ Establish a regular time in the school day or week for students to meet with the adult.
3. Provide academic support and enrichment to improve academic performance. ◦ Provide individual or small group
support. ◦ Provide extra study time and op-
portunity for credit recovery and accumulation.
4. Implement programs to improve students’ classroom behavior and social skills ◦ Utilize engaged adult to assist students
with attainable academic and behav- ior goals, including benchmarks.
◦ Establish partnerships with commu- nity based program providers and other agencies.
5. Personalize the learning environment and instructional process ◦ Establish small learning communities. ◦ Encourage student participation in
extracurricular activities. 6. Provide rigorous and relevant instruction
to better engage students in learning and provide the skills needed to graduate and to serve them after they leave school. ◦ Integrate academic content with ca-
reer and skill-based themes. ◦ Partner with local businesses to pro-
vide opportunities for work related experiences.(Dynarski, et al., 2008).
Recommendations two and four are compo- nents students reported as significantly helping them persist through high school. A strong rela- tionship with a caring adult was noted by Knest- ing (2008) as significantly impacting persistence. A variety of programs across the nation have implemented ‘One Mentor, One Child, One Hour’ initiative to ensure at-risk students are connecting
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with a caring adult. Anecdotal findings have been very encouraging.
Fifteen Effective Strategies for Dropout Pre- vention were developed by The National Dropout Prevention Center based at Clemson University under the direction of Smink and Schargel (2009). These 15 strategies have been found effective for students K-12 in rural, suburban and urban schools. Each strategy has been found to be effective when used alone, but is significantly more impactful when used in conjunction with one another. The strategies have been divided into four domains (Smink & Schargel, 2009):
1. The Basic Core Strategies ◦ Mentoring/tutoring ◦ Service learning ◦ Alternative schooling ◦ After school opportunities
2. Early Interventions ◦ Early childhood education ◦ Family engagement ◦ Early literacy development
3. Making the Most of Instruction ◦ Professional development ◦ Active learning ◦ Educational technology ◦ Individualized instruction
4. Making the Most of the Wider Community ◦ Systemic renewal ◦ School-community collaboration ◦ Career and technical education ◦ Safe schools
Mentoring provides students with a one-on- one trusting and supportive relationship. Caring adults and relationships with school personnel, be it teachers, counselors, administrators, or staff has a strong voice in a student’s decision to drop out or persist (Knesting, 2008). One of the most effective means of providing dropout prevention is to start at an early age with enriching classroom instruction and experiences. Setting the tone for a child’s educational experience is related to school
climate, which begins in the classroom. Teach- ers who teach for a variety of learning styles and utilize different problem solving methods help students achieve (Smink & Schargel, 2009). An over reliance on one teaching method (e.g. pre-test/post test, lecture) can hinder achieve- ment. Utilizing community groups can provide additional resources for students. When schools and community groups collaborate together for students they can provide resources for students to feel connected, learn, graduate, and become a productive member of society.
Alternative Education has a rich history in the United States. The focus of alternative education changed during the 1980’s to focus more directly on disruptive or failing students (Lange & Sletten, 2002). A variety of alternative schools have been made gains in lowering the number of students who opt to drop out. Programs include: Diploma Plus, implemented in 29 schools, serving over 4300, and Multiple Pathways, currently implemented in Boston, New York, Philadelphia, Portland, and San Jose, and local alternative schools such as Solution-Focused Public Alternative School in the Austin Independent School District (Diploma Plus, Inc., 2009; Franklin, Streeter, Kim, & Tri- podi, 2007; & Youth Transition Funders Group, 2007).. These programs have several factors in common. These include:
• Targeting high need students who have not been successful in traditional schools
• Performance based approach • Effective supports for teachers and schools • Commitment to students • Attention given to personal relationships • Emphasis on students’ choice and personal
responsibility.
Each school has a direct focus on students, building strong relationships, and improved school culture. The strong personal relationships with caring adults can positively impact a students’ ability to persist and graduate (Knesting, 2008).
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Furthermore, there is a clear imperative to prepare each student for college and career readiness.
Each of these programs has been creative in their approach to dropout prevention. An emer- gent theme from both the research and innovative programming has been the emphasis on personal relationships. Mentoring provides a venue for car- ing adults to positively impact the next generation and beyond.
Mentoring
Mentoring programs designed for at-risk students are rapidly growing across the United States. Cur- rently, three million youth are in formal mentoring relationships, having expanded six fold over the last 10 years (Rhodes & Dubois, 2006). Mentoring programs employ a variety of approaches. Each program includes an emphasis on the mentor- mentee relationship (Keating, Tomishima, Foster, & Alessnadri, 2002). The overall record of effec- tiveness of mentoring programs is uneven. Several studies have shed light on what components are necessary for mentoring programs to be highly effective and positively impact student reten- tion, persistence, and graduation. Key indicators from highly effective programs are closeness of the mentor-mentee relationship, mentor charac- teristics, consistency of interaction, duration of mentoring, and contextual variables relative to the mentee’s social world. An analysis of these indicators reveals their relationship to successful mentoring programs, and their limitations.
Closeness
The mentor-mentee relationship is the sole mea- sure of success for any well-intending mentor. Herrera, Sipe, and McClanahan (2000), noted that:
“at the crux of the mentoring relationships is the bond that forms between the youth and mentor. If a bond does not form, then youth and mentors may disengage from the match before the mentoring
relationship lasts long enough to have a positive impact on the youth.” (p.31).
When the mentee perceives the relationship as strong and positive, they are likely to earn higher grades, attend college, and less likely to experiment with drugs and alcohol (Jekielek, Moore, Hair, and Scarupa, 2002). Factors influencing the close- ness of the mentor-mentee relationship include authenticity, empathy, having fun, and enjoying each other’s company (Rhodes & DuBois, 2006).. Effective programs arrange activities to facilitate relationship development. This is also fostered by careful matching of mentors and mentees, with a focus on targeting students most likely to benefit from mentoring (Cavell, DuBois, Karcher, Keller, & Rhodes, 2009).
Mentor Characteristics
Careful pairing is vital to a successful relationship. Big Brothers and Big Sisters matching processes is carefully administrated and monitored and focused on meeting the child’s needs (Grossman & Resch, 1995). Cavell, et al., (2009) notes the importance of rigorously screening and training mentors. Not any adult yields positive results. Mentor training, on-going professional development, and prior experience in helping roles all positively impact the mentor’s ability to effectively mentor students (Grossman & Resch; Rhodes & DuBois, 2006). Other mentor characteristics found to positively impact the mentoring process include: under- standing socioeconomic and multicultural issues facing students, having a sense of efficacy in the mentoring process, modeling positive behaviors (i.e. work related skills, avoiding substance abuse), and providing structure and support throughout the mentoring process (Rhodes & DuBois, 2006).
Consistency
Mentors who stayed in close contact with their mentees had significantly stronger outcomes, in-
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cluding increased attendance and grades, college attendance rates, reduced incidences of substance abuse, and self-reported greater confidence in their own abilities (Jekielek, et al., 2006). Indirect consequences of frequent contact are evidenced as well. By virtue of spending time consistently together, the mentor has an opportunity to provide more authentic emotional and academic support, and gain a better understanding of the students’ social network and where gaps occur (Rhodes & Dubois, 2006). Reliable contact with a non- parental adult has been linked to enhanced feel- ings of security and attachment in interpersonal relationships (Keller, 2005; Rhodes, 2005).
Duration
Length of mentoring is a strong predictor of the success of the mentor-mentee relationship. In The Big Brothers and Big Sisters program, students who were mentored for at least twelve months had improved attendance and grades, felt more confident, and were less likely to use drugs or alcohol (Tierney, Grossman, & Resch, 1995). The longer a relationship persisted; the positive effects became progressively stronger (Grossman & Rhodes, 2002).
Contextual Variables
Viewing a student holistically can enhance the mentoring process. A study of the Sponsor-A- Scholar program found increased GPAs and college attendance rates for mentees when their mentor knew their parents well (Jekielek, et al., 2002). Involving people from a mentees broader interpersonal context can enhance the mentoring process. When the mentor is able to develop rela- tionships with key people in their mentee’s social world, the effectiveness of mentoring is enhanced (Cavell, et al., 2009; Rhodes & Dubois, 2006).
Results
The Big Brothers and Big Sisters Mentoring program incorporates all five key components of successful mentoring. Careful matching facili- tated a close mentor-mentee relationship, ensured mentor characteristics were paired with mentees, monitored consistency and duration of mentoring, and trained mentors to be cognizant of contextual variables relative to the mentee’s social world (Tierney, et al., 1995). After spending 18 months in the mentoring relationship, little brothers and sisters were:
• 46% less likely to begin using illegal drugs • 27% less likely to begin using alcohol • 52% less likely to skip school • 37% less likely to skip a class • More confident of the performance in
schoolwork • One-third less likely to hit someone • Getting along better with their families
(Tierney, et al., 1995).
Another study was conducted by Child Trends (Jekielek, et al., 2002). The researchers reviewed 10 mentoring programs including nationwide and local programs. Their findings were grouped in three domains: educational achievement, health and safety, and social and emotional develop- ment. Their findings indicate that overall, youths involved in mentoring experienced academic suc- cess. This was measured by attendance, increased chance of pursuing higher education, and better attitudes toward school. The health and safety domain was centered on substance abuse and de- linquent behavior. Their evaluation found students were 46% less likely to initiate drug use during their mentorship, minority youth were 70% less likely to initiate drug use, and 27% were less likely to initiate alcohol use. Some evidence was noted for reducing delinquent behaviors; misdemeanors and felonies reduced from 4% to 1% after program participation, of those with a prior history, and
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38% were less likely to commit a major offense. Some specific behaviors did not see any gains, this included office referrals for disciplinary reasons, instances of stealing or damaging property, tobacco use, fighting, or cheating (Jekielek, et al., 2002).
Local schools and districts have implemented mentoring programs on very select groups. Lit- erature suggests that African American males develop differently due to racism, socioeconomic disadvantages, and oppression (Wyatt, 2009). Fur- thermore, a growing body of evidence indicates that inner-city young African-Americans are at greater risk for poor academic growth, substance abuse, and criminal behavior. According to the Schott Educational Index (2010) black males graduation rate nationally is 47% compared to their white counterpart’s 78%, a glaring gap of 31%. The Chicago Public School System imple- mented an afterschool mentoring program, The Brotherhood, for African-American males to address their dismal male graduation rates, 39% of African American, 51% Latinos, 58% whites, and 76% Asian (Wyatt, 2009). The Brotherhood meets afterschool and implements a 30-week cur- riculum based upon the American School Counsel- ing Standards, empowerment theory, and Nguzo Saba, an Afrocentric approach to male mentoring. Over a three year period, Brotherhood members overall GPAs increased by 16%. The results of this study indicate a need to provide continuous academic, personal/social, and career support through mentoring groups (Wyatt, 2009).
Limitations
Mentoring programs that are based upon key indi- cators from highly effective programs, closeness of the mentor-mentee relationship, mentor char- acteristics, consistency of interaction, duration of mentoring, and contextual variables relative to the mentee’s social world have been proven effective. When mentoring is not grounded in best practice and research, it can have either no impact or a negative impact on the mentee (Rhodes
& DuBois, 2006).. The factors most impactful were: lack of compatibility, weak mentor skills, inconsistent and/or brief periods of mentoring, or poor understanding by the mentor of the mentees social world or challenges (Rhodes & DuBois). Keating, Tomishima, Foster, and Alessandri (2002) reported the negative impact of mentor- ing programs that were designed on a six month model. Again, suggesting that mentoring is not effective unless there is consistency and a time frame of at least 12 months.
FUTURE TRENDS
The overall success of mentoring programs is promising although not consistent. Given the cur- rent state of education, particularly for minority and at-risk students, mentoring programs offer a viable solution for encouraging persistence and high school graduation. Recommended next steps include (Cavell, et al., 2009):
• Measured expansion of effective program, based upon strong data
• Evaluation and oversight of innovative ap- proaches to mentoring
• Leadership on a national level to address quality assurance, evaluation, and support for mentor recruitment and retention
Research opportunities with mentoring are plentiful. Suggestions include longitudinal stud- ies of identified at-risk elementary students that follow each through high school, focused quan- titative and qualitative research with specific at-risk populations, such as African – American Adolescents, and dropouts who re-engage and complete either a high school diploma or General Educational Development (GED) Test and a focus on programming for rural populations serving low socio-economic status children.
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CONCLUSION
The efficacy of mentoring has been researched and proven as a viable tool to assist struggling youth, particularly at-risk populations. Key predictors for likely dropouts include:
• Poor grades in core subject areas • Low attendance • Failure to be promoted to the next grade,
and • Disengagement in the classroom, including
behavior problems (Kennelly & Monrad, 2007; Viadero, 2006).
Understanding the target population allows schools and communities to intervene and support students’ persistence and graduation. Key compo- nents have been identified that when implemented systemically, significantly impact student achieve- ment, attendance, and positive behaviors relative to substance abuse. These components are:
• Listening to students – having their opin- ions valued and heard
• Communicating caring – having caring, re- spectful teachers, counselors, and adminis- trators who can communicate this sense of caring with students.
• The school’s role in dropout prevention – how classroom teachers, counselors, and administrators cared for, supported, respected, challenged and empowered students.
• Student’s role in dropout prevention – must see a purpose in graduating and put forth effort. (Knesting, 2008).
With the continued focus on achievement gaps among and between populations, every tool avail- able should be utilized to assist underperforming students. Organizations such as the Education
Trust and Schott Foundation for Public Educa- tion highlight states and districts making gains in closing the achievement gap. At the heart of each high achieving school initiative or state initiative is a strong focus on relationship with students. Mentoring, either by school personnel or commu- nity members, has been an effective mechanism to foster relationships. Mentoring can positively impact a student’s academic achievement, career opportunities, and the community at-large.
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Schott Educational Inequity Index. (2010). The Schott 50 state report on public education and black males. Retrieved from http:// www.black- boysreport.org/ bbreport.pdf
Smink, J., & Schargel, F. P. (2009). 15 effective strategies for dropout prevention. Schargel Con- sulting Group and National Dropout Prevention Center. Retrieved from http:// schargel.com
Sum, A., Khatiwada, I., McLaughlin, J., & Palma, S. (2009). The consequences of dropping out of high school. Center for Labor Market Studies, Northeastern University, Boston Massachusetts. Retrieved from http:// www.clms.neu.edu/ publi- cation/ documents/ The_Consequences_of_Drop- ping_Out_of_High_School.pdf
Tierney, J. P., Grossman, J. B., & Resch, N. L. (1995). Making a difference: An impact study of big brothers and big sisters. Philadelphia, PA: Public/Private Ventures.
US Charter Schools. (2010). History. Retrieved from http:// www.uscharterschools.org/ pub/ uscs_docs/ o/ history.htm
Viadero, D. (2006). Signs of early exit for dropouts abound. Education Week, 25(41S), 20.
Woods, E. G. (1995). Reducing he dropout rate. School Improvement Research Series. Northwest Regional Educational Laboratory Office of Edu- cational Research and Improvement. Retrieved from www.nwrel.org
Wyatt, S. T. (2009). The brotherhood: Empowering adolescent Africa-American males toward excel- lence. Professional School Counseling, 12(6), 463–470. doi:10.5330/PSC.n.2010-12.463
Youth Transition Funders Group. (2007). Mul- tiple pathways to graduation: A collaborative philanthropic initiative. Chicago, IL. Retrieved from http:// www.ytfg.org/ documents/ MPGFI- NAL.pdf
KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS
At-Risk Students: Students who have poor attendance, low core subject grades, have been retained or have disengaged in the classroom.
Dropout Prevention: Programs or strategies designed to help students persist and graduate.
Dropout Rate: Portion of students who are not in school and who have not completed high school or high school equivalent program in a given year.
Graduation Rate: Portion of students who begin 9th grade and graduate from high school in 4 years.
Mentee: Child or adolescent who is paired with an adult for a specific purpose, usually related to concepts such as graduating from high school, skills building, or character development.
Mentor: Adult working with an identified stu- dent for a specified purpose such as persistence in school, character development, or skills building.
Mentoring: A relationship between a mentor and mentee with the goal of personal development for the mentee.
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Copyright © 2012, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
Chapter 35
DOI: 10.4018/978-1-61350-068-2.ch035
INTRODUCTION
Writing is one of the two pillars of basic literacy. Writing allows us to express ourselves personally and publicly, communicate with others, gather and clarify information, explore our thoughts and feelings, document and transmit our findings, and exercise our rights and duties as citizens.
“At its best, writing has helped transform the world. Revolutions have been started by it. Oppres- sion has been toppled by it. And it has enlightened the human condition. American life has been richer because people like Rachel Carson, Cesar Chavez, Thomas Jefferson, and Martin Luther King, Jr. have given voice to the aspirations of the nation and its people” (National Commission on Writing, 2003, p. 10).
Success in school requires basic writing skills (Graham & Perin, 2007c). Students must learn to
Joanne Sanders-Reio Florida International University, USA
Thomas G. Reio Jr. Florida International University, USA
Writing: The Neglected “R” in the Workplace
ABSTRACT
Writing proficiency is a foundational skill for success in the workplace. Rapid change driven by economic pressures and technological advances requires workers skilled at communicating flexibly and effectively. Nevertheless, writing skills are weak across all segments of the U.S. population. This chapter focuses on the state of affairs in the U.S. regarding writing, which the National Commission on Writing calls the “neglected ‘R’” in the classic trilogy of reading, ‘riting, and ‘rithmetic. Some empirical research is available on how to facilitate adults’ acquisition of writing skills, but it is remarkably scant. Some suggestions for improvement in schools, universities, and workplaces are provided.
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write clearly and effectively so they can compose reports, take exams, and otherwise express them- selves in their classrooms, both online and face to face. Students also need to be able to write to learn by refining their thoughts, developing criti- cal thinking skills, and learning essential subject matter (Graham & Perin, 2007c).
Writing is also required in the workplace, where the writing skills necessary for successful employment are now equivalent to those needed in college (Graham & Perin, 2007c). Roughly 98% of our occupations require writing in some form (Taylor, 1989). Writing skills can be particularly crucial for student interns and newhires asked to perform the writing tasks related to their new jobs (Reio & Sutton, 2006). Basic writing skills include composing clear emails and memos, and provid- ing written directions for coworkers via email. Higher-order skills might entail extensive analysis, synthesis, and/or evaluation while preparing a corporate report for stockholders (Philippi, 1996; Schneider & Andre, 2005).
The National Commission on Writing for America’s Families, Schools, and Colleges, which surveyed 120 human resource directors in compa- nies affiliated with the Business Roundtable and employing almost 8 million people, confirmed that writing is an essential “threshold skill” (National Commission on Writing, 2004, p. 3) for highly skilled, well paying, professional work. “People who cannot write and communicate clearly will not be hired and are unlikely to last long enough to be considered for promotion,” according to one human resources director (p. 3). “Writing ability could be your ticket in…or it could be your ticket out,” agreed another (p. 3). Human resource directors in state governments concur. A survey of the state human resources directors conducted by the National Governors Association revealed that good writing is even more important in state government jobs than it is in the private sector (National Commission on Writing, 2005).
Advances in technology have made writing skills even more important than they were in the
past (National Commission on Writing, 2004). To address the mounting need for rapid and accurate communication locally, nationally, and globally, industry and business leaders increasingly are employing written communication in email, blogs, Facebook, Twitter, and wikis, all of which are specific genres or types of writing. For example, 15 years ago, email was cutting-edge technology in the workplace, and its use as a communication tool for employees and customers was sporadic at best. Currently, one would be hard pressed to find a workplace where email is not used extensively. Similarly, even five years ago, managers and prin- cipals had little need to be knowledgeable about blogs and wikis; now such expertise seems almost a requirement for maintaining effective commu- nication. We can thus expect that new computer skills will be in continual demand for a variety of workplace contingencies (e.g., introduction of a new phone system, computer software, or diagnostic equipment). Such innovations require the ability not only to write, but to write well. In addition, today’s multicultural contexts demand an even more sophisticated and culturally sensi- tive understanding of writing, as crosscultural misunderstandings can create unnecessary conflict and deter worker productivity (Lim & Teo, 2009).
Sociologists and economists argue that literacy (reading and writing) is probably the most basic form of human capital (Becker, 1975). Individuals who invest time and money in developing their literacy skills can expect a better quality of life both in the short and long term (Krahn, 1997). As President Vartan Gregorian (2007) of the Carnegie Corporation of New York stated, “the ability to read, comprehend, and write—in other words, to organize information into knowledge—can be viewed as tantamount to a survival skill” (p. 2). On the organizational level, both small and large employers expect high school and college graduates to perform job tasks for which they have little to no previous experience without re- mediation. If investments in employees are to be made, organizations want this training to develop
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higher-order skills related to leadership, creativity, and research, not basic skills already invested in through federal, state, and local taxes.
On a societal level, individuals need writing skills to be active, functional citizens and partici- pate fully in society. People need writing skills to apply for jobs, formally complain about inadequate service and contracts that are not fulfilled, voice their preferences to their elected representatives, participate in web-based communities with others, blog about issues that are important to them, and write letters to the editors of their newspapers. Weak literacy skills can unnecessarily complicate access to important information about medical care, social services, one’s children’s assign- ments and performance in school, local news and weather alerts, adult and higher educational opportunities, public transportation, and many other aspects of life. In Gregorian’s (2007) view, keeping democracy and our society available to all entails ensuring that all citizens have access to information and knowledge, and thus the power to improve and assert themselves, support their families, and thrive.
Those who enrich themselves by learning to read with understanding and write with skill and clarity do so not only for themselves and their families, but for our nation as well. They learn in order to preserve and enhance the record of humanity, to be productive members of a larger community, to be good citizens and good ancestors to those who will follow after them (Gregorian, 2007, p. 2).
Nations must thus invest in their citizens’ writ- ing skills to remain functional and competitive. Likewise, organizations and societies can make considerable investments in their employees and citizens, with reasonable expectation of future return on these investments. By contrast, human capital can be lost if organizations hesitate to invest in their employees through training and development (Reio, Wormley, & Boyle, 2005).
This chapter will explore the current state of writing proficiency and instruction in the U.S., particularly as it relates to the workplace. It will also delineate some of the steps the nation must take to move forward.
BACKGROUND: WRITING IN THE UNITED STATES
In Schools
Despite their importance, writing skills in the United States are poor across all segments of the population, from school children to college students to working adults (Graham & Perin, 2007c; National Commission on Writing, 2004; Salahu-Din, Perksy, & Miller, 2008). With respect to school children, the most recent report of the National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP), “the Nation’s Report Card” (Salahu- Din et al.), indicated that only one-third of the 8th graders and one-quarter of the 12th graders were proficient in writing. Twelve percent of the 8th graders and 18% of the 12th graders lacked even basic skills. A mere 2% of the 8th graders and 1% of the 12th graders were advanced. A review of the results from 1998 through the most recent tests in 2007 indicates that we are making progress in moving students up from below basic to basic, and to a lesser extent from basic to proficiency. However, few students are progressing from proficient to advanced.
NAEP writing scores reflect a number of achievement gaps with respect to gender, race/ ethnicity, socioeconomic status, and whether stu- dents are English language learners (Salahu-Din et al., 2008). For example, both 8th- and 12th-grade females have had higher scores than their male peers since 1998, and this gap shows no sign of decreasing. In 2007, 93% of the 8th grade girls demonstrated at least basic skills as compared to 82% of the boys, and 41% of the 8th grade girls were at least proficient compared to half as many
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boys. By contrast, differences among racial/ethnic groups show signs of becoming smaller. Among 8th graders, Blacks and Hispanics are gaining on Whites and Asian/Pacific Islanders. However, among 12th graders, Whites, Blacks, Hispanic, and Asian/Pacific all improved their scores, but the gaps among them remained about the same. With respect to socioeconomic status, 8th graders who were eligible for free or reduced-price school lunches had much lower writing scores than those who were not eligible. Similarly, the scores of the 12th graders whose parents had more formal education were higher than the scores of students whose parents were less educated. Hillocks (2008), in a discussion of the 1998 NAEP scores, called these achievement gaps “a problem that we ignore at our peril” (p. 327).
In College
Our colleges and universities are also reporting that students lack necessary writing skills (Fallahi, Wood, Austad, & Fallahi, 2006). In one study, professors complained that 50% of the high school graduates were not prepared for college-level writing assignments; 62% of these professors said that the public schools are not doing an adequate job of teaching students to write. Because of this poor preparation, professors often find themselves spending inordinate amounts of time teaching skills that their students should have mastered in high school (Achieve, Inc., 2005), and two-year colleges are struggling to find the resources to remediate the large number of students with in- adequate skills (Graham & Perin, 2007c).
College students themselves are alarmed that their academic preparation may be less than ad- equate for workplace environments demanding precise and effective written correspondence in various genres (Johnstone, Ashbaugh, & Warfield, 2002). Students’ opinions about whether they are adequately prepared for workplace writing vary
by academic program. In a Canadian study of one university’s cooperative education programs, Schneider and Andre (2005) investigated the perceptions of students in three disciplines—man- agement, political science, and communication studies—with respect to their university prepara- tion for the realities of workplace writing. All of the students participated in cooperative education programs where their work placements required writing. The management students in particular believed they had “very positive” preparation for workplace writing because of their grounding in analytic and research skills, instruction and prac- tice in job-relevant genres, collaborative writing experience, and precise feedback about their work. By contrast, although they would seem to have the strongest preparation for workplace writing, the communication studies majors felt ill prepared to write the press releases, feature stories, and public service announcements they were expected to produce. These students also felt they lacked both adequate skills in research methods (e.g., “how to write a survey, using SPSS”) and experience in collaborative writing. All of the students agreed that professors need to impose higher editorial standards and provide more feedback on papers. Some bright spots do exist, however. In one study of engineering newhires from a cooperative education program, Reio & Sutton (2006) found that employers were satisfied with the newhires’ writing skills (defined as their ability to interact effectively with a diverse audience by writing accurate reports and documents) and saw their competency in writing as one of the factors that enabled them to adapt successfully to their jobs.
Students seem to appreciate programs that hone their writing skills. Vest, Long, Thomas, and Palmquist (1995) found that the most satisfied engineering newhires from a number of universi- ties were those who graduated from schools where written communication was an integral component of their engineering courses.
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In the Workplace
Writing skills are also lacking among U.S. work- ers. Employers surveyed in one study estimated that 38% of the recent high school graduates do not write well enough to function at work (Achieve, Inc., 2005). Human resources direc- tors interviewed by the National Commission on Writing (2004) concurred, including one who frankly stated, “The [writing] skills of new college graduates are deplorable” (p. 14). These accounts are corroborated by international studies of adult literacy, which indicate that U.S. adults have lower literacy skills than do their counterparts in all but a few of the industrialized nations (Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development, 2000). This lack of basic literacy creates a national competitive disadvantage.
Among segments of the U.S. population, the incidence of adequate literacy skills, including writing competency, is lower for older workers and immigrants (Grief, Meyer, & Burgess, 2007; Krahn, 1997; Smith & Reio, 2006). Ceniceros (2006) reported that the U.S. population is grow- ing at the rate of one international migrant every 24 seconds. Recent immigrants often have little to no schooling, are semi-literate or illiterate in their native language, and have not held jobs in a Western setting (Askov, 2000; Sparks & Peterson, 2000; Taylor, 1989). In Canada, as in the U.S., almost half of the immigrants over age 30 are functionally illiterate; they cannot write, read, or use numbers well enough to meet the demands of today’s society. This group tends to have considerable adjustment problems, and their employment outlook is uncertain. Those with learning disabilities can also have poor writing skills (Pressley & Harris, 2006).
As migrants and immigrants from other coun- tries continue to arrive at an increasing rate and live in areas of the country previously unaccus- tomed to ethnic diversity, educational programs designed specifically for adults who recently immigrated are rapidly becoming overtaxed. For
example, more than 2.5 million adult Americans were enrolled in adult basic and literacy education (ABLE) programs in the U.S. in 2001, with more than half of these individuals in English-as-a- Second-Language programs for adult immigrants who cannot read or write effectively in English (U.S. Department of Education, 2002). By 2005 enrollment in these programs had increased to more than 3.8 million (U.S. Department of Edu- cation, 2007).
ISSUES WITH RESPECT TO THE STATE OF WRITING RESEARCH AND INSTRUCTION IN THE U.S.
Despite the dire need for strong writing skills among students, workers, and citizens, the em- phasis in educational research and reform has been on reading and mathematics, not writing (National Commission on Writing, 2004). High- quality investigations of reading, the other aspect of literacy, have been plentiful enough to support the publication of a series of handbooks of reading research for decades (the first, edited by Pearson, Barr, Kamil, & Mosenthal, was published in 1984). However, it is only in the last few years that writ- ing research has been sound and plentiful enough to merit the publication of the first handbooks of writing research (Bazerman, 2008; MacArthur, Graham, & Fitzgerald, 2006; Smagorinsky, 2005). Thus, research on writing is only beginning to meet the nation’s needs for sound and tested approaches to writing instruction (Graham & Perin, 2007b). Frustrated with this state of affairs, the National Commission on Writing has called writing “the neglected ‘R’” of the classic trinity of reading, ‘riting, and ‘rithmetic with respect to school reform (National Commission on Writing, 2003). The Commission has called on the nation’s leaders to “place writing squarely in the center of the school agenda” (p. 26) so American education can “real- ize its potential as an engine of opportunity and economic growth” and create “a writing revolution
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[that] puts language and communication in their proper place in the classroom” (p. 3).
In Schools
The lack of research and instructional resources has left teachers unprepared to remediate the nation’s writing crisis. Although teachers are trained to teach students how to read, they have little or no training in teaching students how to write. Few states require preservice teachers to take any courses in teaching writing. As a result, teachers report that they feel unprepared to teach writing or to assess students’ written work. It is thus no surprise that they spend little time doing so (Coker & Lewis, 2008).
In College
Most college and university professors also lack the skills needed to remedy this crisis. Professors are heavily trained and accomplished in their areas of expertise, not in writing instruction, especially for basic skills. They also lack the large amounts of time needed to provide the extensive feedback necessary to foster students’ basic writing skills. Thus, although they decry the lack of student preparation and skill needed to write proficiently, professors may tacitly accept poor writing to fo- cus on developing students’ content knowledge in the courses they teach (Boice, 1990). Unfor- tunately, this lack of formative and summative writing feedback can limit students’ progress in writing during their college experience. On the institutional level, colleges and universities tend to rely heavily on freshman composition courses to develop essential writing skills for students who do and do not require remediation. Yet these courses do not sufficiently support writing across the curriculum (Fallahi et al., 2006).
Another problem is that academic writing differs markedly from workplace writing. With respect to purpose, content, and form, academic writing assignments often allow considerable
student choice with respect to topic and content, while workplace writing usually has a more nar- row purpose and practical function (Schreiber, 1993). Thus, while professors often define writing assignments by general topic or length (e.g., a 5,000-word or 20-page research paper), managers tend to define assignments by their purpose or mis- sion, and audience (e.g., materials for the company web page that will impress environmentalists with respects to the company’s green initiatives). The processes that produce academic and workplace writing also differ. Academic papers are usually crafted by a single author, while workplace writing is commonly prepared by teams of collaborators representing various facets and levels of the orga- nization and numerous areas of expertise. Papers written for school are usually reviewed by a single professor with expert knowledge who evaluates manuscripts in narrow and specific ways, while workplace writing commonly goes through mul- tiple revisions and must often satisfy the demands of numerous and varied reviewers, followed by a diverse audience of customers and/or in-house employees (Schreiber, 1993). Academic papers are rarely revised after they are initially submitted, but workplace writing often goes through multiple iterations and extensive rewrites. While academic papers are often thrown out after they are graded, workplace writing is usually put to use in support of the organization’s mission (Coker & Lewis, 2008). In the experience of the senior author, who taught workplace writing for almost 20 years, writers who are experienced only in academic writing, with its relatively cursory review process, are frequently dismayed and even alarmed when their work is returned to them liberally annotated with comments, edits, and suggestions. Plainly, writing in academic and workplace contexts serves different functions, and more must be done to ensure a smoother transition from the culture of academic writing to that of workplace writing.
However, in some respects, it may be unre- alistic to expect college coursework to prepare students for jobs that require writing (Dias, Freed-
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man, Medway, & Paré, 1999). Merely providing students with school-based simulations of work- place writing, in genres such as memos, decision papers, and press releases, and giving students tips on email etiquette will not prepare students for the workplace. The broad range of workplace writing genres and their respective interactions with highly complex, variable workplace contingencies may make it unfeasible to replicate workplace writing conditions in the classroom.
In the Workplace
Unfortunately, the buck stops with businesses and government entities, which are also ill-prepared to develop their employees’ writing skills, but are forced to spend billions annually to train workers in the literacy skills they should have acquired in high school (National Commission on Writing, 2004). The frontline in this effort to shore up employees’ writing skills and ensure that they become productive members of the organization is often comprised of managers, particularly first- line managers, and human resource development professionals. However, they, too, are usually not trained to help employees master the craft of workplace writing. During her career teaching business writing in workplaces and training cen- ters, the first author would routinely ask managers how much training they had received in mentoring and managing other people’s writing. In almost 20 years, not one person reported having had any such training whatsoever.
FUTURE DIRECTIONS
Considerable effort and investment are needed to develop the writing skills our nation needs to remain competitive. These efforts must include increased basic and applied research on writing and the development of writing strategies and teaching techniques. In their report to the Carnegie Commission of New York on the development
of effective writing strategies for adolescents, Graham and Perin (2007c) wrote, “Reading re- search was once limited in much the same way as writing research now is, but consistent attention from the academic community brought forth a flood of knowledge about many aspects of the reading process. Writing must be next” (p. 27). Basic research can lead to the development of a better understanding of writing problems, more information about the mindsets and strategies of both strong and weak writers, and teaching techniques for various types of writers, genres, audiences, and reviewers. We need the tools to help students not only to hone their mechanical writing skills, but also to obtain substantive writing skills. We must support writers in schools, colleges, and workplaces, as they write to diverse audiences in a wide array of genres. We also need strategies that will help not only writing instructors, but also college professors, first-line managers, and human resource development professionals as they train writers to work in emerging and traditional genres.
In addition, we need to pay attention to the research and expert recommendations that we already have. For example, discussions about writing often provoke people to recount horror stories about poor grammar and spelling, and the lack of adherence to writing conventions; this in turn often leads to calls for a return to the “basics” of grammar instruction. However, more than 100 years of research has made it clear that direct instruction in grammar (e.g., working on grammar worksheets, diagramming sentences) is not only ineffective, but detrimental to writing performance. In 1963, Braddock, Lloyd-Jones, and Schoer published the first review of writing research in the U.S., in which they took the fol- lowing strong and unequivocal position: “The teaching of formal grammar has a negligible or, because it usually displaces some instruction and practice in actual composition, even a harmful effect on the improvement of writing” (pp. 37- 38). In the mid-1980s Hillocks (1986) conducted the second U.S. review of writing research and
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found that direct instruction in grammar had a statistically significant, negative effect on student writing. “The teaching of grammar and mechanics has had, at best, mixed results even for teaching correctness,” he wrote (p. 141). More recently, Graham and Perin (2007b), in the third major U.S. review of the research on strategies for teaching writing, found, “One thing that does appear to be certain is that there is little support for continuing with traditional school grammar programs” (p. 329). Finally, a review of studies examining the explicit, decontextualized teaching of grammar in all of the English-speaking countries (Andrews, Torgerson, Beverton, Freeman, Locke, Low, Robinson, & Zhu, 2006) also found no evidence that this type of instruction improves either the quality or correctness of student writing. The authors wrote, “There has been no clear evidence in the last hundred years or more that such inter- ventions are helpful” (p. 52). In addition, recent research indicates that apprehension about mak- ing grammatical and other mechanical errors can have a pronounced negative influence on writing performance (Sanders-Reio, 2010).
This is not to say that grammar and correct- ness are not important, only that many traditional methods for teaching them do not work. Both the Andrews group (2006) and Graham and Perin (2007a) do point to other techniques of teach- ing grammar and correctness that are effective. These teaching strategies include instruction in sentence combining and teaching grammar within the context of writing. On the basis of such find- ings, the National Council of Teachers of English (National Council of Teachers of English, 2008) counsels teachers to provide grammar instruction in context so students learn how words, phrases, and sentences work together to make meaning. Teaching techniques that minimize anxiety about grammar may be able to support the use of these more effective strategies for grammar instruction (Sanders-Reio, 2010).
On the positive side, research indicates that direct instruction of writing strategies (e.g.,
brainstorming, peer revision) is effective (Graham & Perin, 2007c). Recent research defining the writing strategies and mindsets of strong versus weak writers may be laying the groundwork for a worthwhile new leverage point for helping individuals master writing skills (Sanders-Reio, 2010). As Graham, Schwartz, and MacArthur (1993) noted, “The knowledge, attitudes, and beliefs that students hold about writing play an important part in determining how the compos- ing process is carried out and what the eventual shape of the written product will be” (p. 246). For example, Sanders-Reio reports that expert writers tend to anticipate and meet the needs of their audi- ences and to emphasize clarity and simplicity, as well as the development and explication of their positions and ideas. Weak writers, on the other hand, try to impress readers with the use of big words and complex sentence constructions, and to be reluctant to stray from established formats, what authorities say about a subject, and how they should teach it. Skilled teachers and corporate trainers can use this information to steer writers to adaptive rather than maladaptive mindsets and strategies.
Many of the researchers cited above as well as the National Council of Teachers of English are calling for writing assignments in school that are more authentic or similar to writing that people do at work and as citizens outside of school, and with more collaboration, revision, and review. They want students to have writing experiences that are more flexible and varied in terms of purpose, audience, and genre, as opposed to rule-based and mechanical techniques such as cutting and pasting, and closely following prescribed formats. NCTE recommends that writing instruction be more holistic and that skills be taught in the context in which they are used, not in isolation. Thus, the development of educational experiences like stu- dent internships, where writing skills can be honed in the context of performing authentic workplace tasks with appropriate feedback, seems promising. NCTE also points to the need for writing assess-
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ments, including those on high-stakes tests, that are more authentic than those that demand that students write in response to a prompt in a short amount of time with no opportunity to reflect, revise, or use most of the writing strategies they have learned.
Training programs in writing instruction need to be developed for current and preservice teach- ers as well as managers. In the meantime, basic skills training is needed to deal with our current writing skills deficits. Employers are realizing that, despite the cost, they must invest continuously in developing job-related literacy skills such as writing to allow employees to accomplish their tasks and perform optimally (Reio et al., 2005; Sparks & Peterson, 2000). Technological inno- vation demands rapid adjustment and continu- ous employee learning; skill development must therefore be supported. If this type of investment is not made, employees will not have the tools to perform adequately, and our organizations and nation will suffer.
CONCLUSION
The dearth of writing skills across segments of the U.S. population is creating a cultural crisis and competitive disadvantage that demands the attention of our nation, schools, and workplaces. Researchers must persist in their efforts to conduct basic research on writing development that can serve as the basis for interventions at the school, college, workplace, and civic levels. Organizations must invest to improve the learning and eventual performance of all their employees. Writing, a crucial element of basic literacy, must be next.
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KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS
Blog: Short for web log, an Internet site consist- ing of a publicly accessible online personal journal where one may post their thoughts and feelings.
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Human Capital: The collective value of an organization’s competencies, knowledge, and skills. Unlike structural capital (e.g., a building), human capital is not reflected in financial state- ments, but it is extremely valuable to an organiza- tion in that it is a renewable source of creativity and innovation.
Human Resource Development (HRD): A series of systematic, planned activities offered by organizations to provide workers opportunities to learn the necessary skills required to meet current and future job requirements. HRD generally con- sists of training and development, career develop- ment, and organizational development activities.
Literacy: The ability to read, write, and use numeracy to function effectively in society, to real-
ize one’s goals, and to advance one’s knowledge and capabilities. Students, workers, and citizens alike need literacy skills commensurate with the changing demands of today’s society.
NAEP: National Assessment of Educational Process. NAEP is a congressionally mandated achievement test for U.S. 4th, 8th, and 12th grade students. NAEP measures student performance in writing, reading, math, science, history, and geography and is administered by the U.S. Department of Education’s National Center for Education Statistics.
Wiki: An Internet site that allows users to add and update content using their own Web browser. It is free, but can be inaccurate because almost anyone can update or edit the site.
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Copyright © 2012, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
Chapter 36
DOI: 10.4018/978-1-61350-068-2.ch036
INTRODUCTION
Nilles (1998) coined the term “telecommuting” while conducting research for energy conservation during the Arab oil embargo of the 1970s. Since the 1970s, the number of telecommuters as well
as interest in offering telecommuting as a viable management option has risen steadily. Thompson (1999) reported that a 1995 survey indicated that almost two thirds of all Fortune 1000 companies had a telecommuting program in place, although only a small percentage of those programs were formal. The majority of companies offered telecommuting as an ad hoc option for selected
P. J. Snodgrass University of Tennessee, USA
Ernest W. Brewer University of Tennessee, USA
Leadership in Higher Education in Adopting a Telecommuting Program
ABSTRACT
This study explored the perceived motivators and constraints that influence adoption of a telecommuting program at higher education institutions. Participants were 102 members of the College and University Professional Association for Human Resources (CUPA-HR) from 11 southern states. Sixty-four partici- pants completed a 4-part survey via the World Wide Web; 38 participants completed the survey by mail. Both adopters and non-adopters of telecommuting programs identified that the primary motivator for adopting a telecommuting program was improvement of overall benefits to employees. Whereas adopters reported that cost of implementation was the primary constraint to adopting a telecommuting program, non-adopters reported a variety of other factors as the primary constraint. Results of this study have implications for implementation of and research on telecommuting programs in higher education.
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employees. Companies offering formal telecom- muting programs have included Apple Computer, Bell Atlantic, Boeing, CISCO Systems, Compaq, IBM, Intel, MCI Communications, Novell, Oracle, Pacific Bell, and many others (Langhoff, 1999).
As indicated by Langhoff’s (1999) list, high- tech and information technology (IT) organiza- tions have been the first to embrace telecommut- ing. Higher education institutions—with a history of being slow to adopt innovative programs—have fallen behind corporate America in adopting telecommuting programs. A search of the lit- erature yielded just one study—Goldberg’s 1993 research—that examined telecommuting program adoption in higher education. Because higher education institutions generally have structures and levels of complexity not found in business and industry, there might be differences in fac- tors influencing adoption of new programs such as telecommuting as well. Therefore, research addressing telecommuting program adoption in higher education is needed. This study takes a step toward filling that void by exploring motiva- tors and constraints to adopting a telecommuting program at higher education institutions.
BACKGROUND
Organizational Characteristics and Consideration
Factors Present in the Adoption Decision Process
Among the characteristics identified in the litera- ture as being related to the adoption of telecom- muting is the level of innovation in an organization (Bernardino, 1996; Tomaskovic-Devy & Risman, 1993). Furthermore, innovation is constrained by such characteristics as size and age of an organi- zation and level of bureaucratic control. Larger organizations generally have been less innovative
and more bureaucratic than smaller organizations (Tomaskovic-Devy & Risman).
Rogers (1983) addressed the attributes of inno- vations and their adoption rate. He described five attributes of innovations: (a) relative advantage, (b) compatibility, (c) complexity, (d) trialability, and (e) observability (p. 211). The first attribute indicates the strength of reward or punishment as a result of adoption of an innovation. Compatibility is how closely the innovation matches the existing social and cultural beliefs and need for innovation. The attribute complexity addresses the difficulty of using and understanding the innovation, and trialability is the degree to which an innovation undergoes experimentation. According to Rogers, these attributes are part of the complex process of determining the rate of adoption of innovations.
Other organizational characteristics that might influence adoption of a new program like telecom- muting include trust in an organization’s culture (Brewer & Snodgrass, 2007; Harrington & Ruppel, 1999) and the decision-making process that is in place (Yen & Mahmassani, 1997). Harrington and Ruppel wrote about the importance of culture in an organization and how trust and group values affect the adoption level of telecommuting. Yen and Mahmassani reported that the complexity of an employer’s decision to adopt telecommuting is obvious because of the various means of decision- making in an organization. For example, whereas some organizations have one decision-maker, others have teams or groups who make decisions about changes on the scale of telecommuting.
Ellison (1999) studied the state of the art of telework research. Kraut (as cited in Ellison) stated that resistance to change was firmly surrounded by a long history of bureaucratic organizational structures. These structures are easily threatened by change; therefore, adoption of new technol- ogy (e.g., telecommuting) is met with resistance. Along the same theme, Goldberg (1993) stated that academia has been slow to adopt telecommuting because of the diffusion of administration. Since bureaucracy and diffusion are found frequently in
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academia, the adoption of telecommuting could meet with serious resistance.
Among the studies in the literature address- ing adoption of telecommuting and the level of innovation in an organization, only Goldberg’s 1993 study was set in a university environment. His findings were supported by a report in The Chronicle of Higher Education that indicated that institutions of higher education were less likely to adopt innovations and on average waited 25 years before adopting a new innovation such as information technology or changes in curriculum (Siegfried, Getz, & Anderson, 1995).
Goldberg (1993) conducted interviews with administrators in higher education who had been involved in planning and implementing a telecom- muting program. One interviewee articulated the complications involved with implementing tele- commuting in higher education: “The difference between the university and any other organization is the faculty; faculty aren’t like corporate people, and the faculty have a different view of things” (p. 120). Another respondent in the same study summarized the telecommuting program planning process as follows:
Do it as you should do all plans, and that is have everyone involved who’s going to be impacted by it. That includes the employees, the supervi- sor, if they are a union shop, the union should be involved. You know, all the people who could be impacted by this situation. (p. 121)
Administration and decision-making in a higher education setting can be complex. Depend- ing on the nature of the institution, governance bodies could include federal, state, and local governments, a board of trustees, faculty, a faculty senate, accreditation boards, administration, and students (Karol & Ginsburg, 1980). Birnbaum (1988) stated, “American colleges and universi- ties are the most paradoxical of organizations” (p. 3). Problems of governance are rooted in the complex reporting structure that includes trust-
ees, faculty, and administration. To compound the problem, the larger the institution, the more likely there are other influences on management and decision-making. Legal issues, federal regula- tions, implementation of technology, and politics are a few of these. Birnbaum also wrote that larger institutions experience increased isolation between faculty and administration, in part due to workload and division of purpose.
Telecommuting Program Considerations
Implementation planning of a telecommuting program is a crucial step in the decision-making process. The literature contains a wealth of sources for guidance in implementing a telecommuting program. However, these sources, with one excep- tion, do not address implementation of telecom- muting in an academic setting.
Several researchers and authors agreed that obtaining top managerial or administrative support is essential to the success of any telecommuting program (Fusco, 1990; Hartman, Stoner, & Arora, 1991; Weiss, 1992). Nilles (1998) stated that the chief executive officer of the organization must at least be neutral to the idea of telecommuting or willing to try it personally. Nilles also stated that the entities listed as crucial to telecommuting success are an advisory board and one or more champions.
Program Design and Implementation
Critical to the success of a telecommuting program is the design and implementation of the program itself. Designing a telecommuting program re- quires research of employees’ needs, potential pitfalls, and benefits inherent in offering the program. Employee selection for telecommut- ing must be studied carefully and implemented carefully to increase the success of the program (Goldberg, 1993).
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Information on how to implement a telecom- muting program is plentiful and remarkably easy to discover. In addition to the library as a viable source of information, many organizations publish their telecommuting programs, strategies, and design factors on the World Wide Web. Factors to consider during implementation include equip- ment requirements (Deeprose, 1999; Hartman et al., 1992), safety and security (Fairweather, 1999; York, 1999), management’s resistance to change (Ellis & Webster, 1999; Fairweather,1999; Gainey, Kelley, & Hill, 1999; Harrington & Ruppel, 1999; Pearlson & Saunders, 2001), and training (Dav- enport & Pearlson, 1998; Deeprose, 1999; Fister, 1999; Gordon, Jossi, Kiser, Lee, & Stamps, 1998; Kurland & Bailey, 1999).
Advantages of Telecommuting
Scholarly research as well as anecdotal data have identified many advantages of telecommuting programs. Although most literature labels these factors as advantages, some reports label them as motivators or benefits. This study assumed that the advantages of a telecommuting program were tied closely to the motivators of adopting a program. For example, an employer may offer telecommuting because it is expected to increase productivity, and it also is seen as an advantage.
The motivators for offering telecommuting cover a wide range of elements. Many states now have legislation that facilitates and encourages telecommuting because of heavy commuter traf- fic and pollution by vehicle emissions (Goldberg, 1993). Goldberg also noted that because many aca- demic institutions are public, they are more likely to be impacted by state and local environmental laws and highway use. Positive factors associated with adoption of a telecommuting program include lower office space cost and support (Ahmadi, Helms, & Ross, 2000; Davenport & Pearlson, 1998; Deeprose, 1999; Ellison, 1999; Greenbaum, 1998; Kurland & Bailey, 1999; Kurland & Egan, 1999; Mariani, 2000; Schilling, 1999), increased
employee productivity and performance (Ahmadi et al. 2000; Cole-Gomolski, 1998; Davenport & Pearlson 1998; Deeprose, 1999; Gordon et al., 1998; Khalifa & Davidson, 2000; Kurland & Bailey, 1999; Solomon, 2000; Wilde, 2000), reduced job-related stress (Gainey et al., 1999; Mariani,2000; McCune, 1998; Schwartz, 1997; Spillman & Markham, 1997), and better balance of work and family (Ahmadi et al 2000.; Ellis & Webster, 1999; Gainey et al.,1999; Khalifa & Davidson, 2000; Mariani, 2000; Solomon, 2000; Wilde, 2000).
Disadvantages of Telecommuting
Naturally, there also are disadvantages to adoption of a telecommuting program, many of which are reported widely in the literature. Other labels of these same concepts are constraints and deter- rents. This study assumed that disadvantages and constraints were related closely. For example, if an employer expected the cost of supporting an employee to increase if that employee began telecommuting, offering a telecommuting program could be deemed a disadvantage.
Bernardino (1996) identified lack of upper management support, cost, legal or regulatory issues (including union negotiations), and lack of interest from employees as constraints to implementing a telecommuting program. Other negative factors associated with adoption include communication difficulties with co-workers and supervisors (Coutu, 1998; Davenport & Pearlson, 1998; Deeprose, 1999; Greenbaum, 1998; Kurland & Bailey, 1999), feelings of isolation (Deeprose, 1999; Ellison, 1999; Greenbaum,1998; Kurland & Egan, 1999; Schilling, 1999; Solomon, 2000), corporate culture conflict (Davenport & Pearlson; Ellison,1999; Kurland & Bailey, 1999), and lack of office services and reference materials (Khalifa & Etezadi, 1997; Kurland & Bailey,1999; Spillman & Markham, 1997).
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Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study was to explore some of the factors that influence the decision whether or not to adopt a telecommuting program in a higher education setting. The study examined the perceived constraints and motivators that influence adoption (or not) of a telecommuting program at an institution. Two research questions guided the study:
1. What is the relationship between the primary constraint to adopting a telecommuting program at an institution of higher educa- tion and the flexibility of the telecommuting program design?
2. What is the primary motivator that could be used to adopt a telecommuting program at an institution of higher education that does not have a telecommuting program?
Methodology
This study was designed to research some of the factors that influence the decision whether or not to adopt a telecommuting program in a higher education setting. Factors studied included the primary motivators and constraints involved in adoption of a telecommuting program. The study was conducted exclusively in higher education.
Population and Sample
The population for this study consisted of 347 members of the College and University Profes- sional Association for Human Resources (CU- PA-HR), a network of more than 6,500 human resources administrators representing nearly 1,700 colleges and universities. The targeted members came from 11 southern states. A random sample of 181 members was drawn from the population. This number was determined by data provided by Gay, Mills, and Airasian (2009).
Instrumentation
A survey instrument was developed by the re- searchers to explore the primary motivators and constraints experienced by academic institutions when considering adoption of a telecommuting program. It was comprised of four parts.
Part I of the survey collected data about the respondent’s tenure at the institution. Part II of the survey requested basic information about the institution where the respondent was employed. Part III of the survey targeted those participants who indicated that there was a telecommuting program currently in place at their institution. Questions in this section addressed the design of the telecommuting program and assessed the program’s level of flexibility. Part IV targeted respondents who indicated that their institution currently did not have a telecommuting program. Questions in this section were designed to deter- mine the constraints that the respondent perceived as preventing the institution from offering a tele- commuting program.
Respondents rated each question on a five-point Likert-type scale: 5 (strongly agree), 4 (agree), 3 (undecided), 2 (disagree), and 1 (strongly disagree). The instrument was pilot-tested and revised per recommendations of the pilot group.
Data Collection and Analysis
The survey method followed the procedures for collection of data as prescribed by Dillman (2000). The medium for survey distribution was the World Wide Web. After the participants were randomly selected, their email addresses were obtained from the CUPA-HR directory when possible. In 18 cases, an email address could not be found. In these cases, the member’s postal address was obtained and used instead of the email address.
Members of CUPA-HR who had an available email address received an email with the universal resource locator (URL) of the survey in the body of the message. This provided the possibility for
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immediate action on the part of the respondent. Each survey participant was asked to enter his or her email address on the survey instrument. The email and the letter promised confidentially but explained that the email address was needed to limit follow-up notifications.
Approximately 2 weeks later, a second email or letter was sent to non-respondents. Eight days later, a letter with a copy of the survey and a self-addressed, stamped envelope was sent to the remaining non-respondents. The last request to respond was sent out 3 weeks later. Emails were sent to final non-respondents who had a valid email address. Postcards were sent to those final non-respondents for whom an email address could not be found. At the end of 7 weeks, the survey was removed from the Web.
At the conclusion of the data collection process, it was determined that only 12 of the 101 respon- dents indicated they had a formal telecommuting program in place. Of those 12, 6 respondents failed to complete all of the questions about the program. The researchers contacted them by telephone and collected the remaining survey data. This resulted in 10 usable surveys that reported the existence of a formal telecommuting program. Responses were analyzed using descriptive statistics, t-tests, and chi-square analysis.
Findings
A total of 105 responses were collected. Three responses were deleted because they were dupli- cate entries in the database, leaving a total of 102 valid responses. Only 10 of the 102 respondents reported being adopters of telecommuting. Be- cause a sample size of 10 did not provide enough statistical power in some cases to conduct rela- tional tests, research questions that were originally intended to be analyzed using relational statistical tests were reported using descriptive statistical methods instead.
Primary Motivator for Adopting a Telecommuting Program and Program Flexibility
Due to the small number of responses, it was not possible to examine a statistical relationship between the primary motivator for adopting a telecommuting program and the level of flexibility of the telecommuting program design. Therefore, the data are presented in descriptive form.
Twelve respondents indicated there was a telecommuting program in place at their institu- tion. Of the 12 respondents, 10 provided sufficient data to report. Eight respondents reported on the length of time their telecommuting programs had existed. The average length of time was 3 years and 2 months. The range of time was from 6 years and 5 months to 2 years. Ten respondents supplied information about the maximum and minimum number of days an employee could telecommute. The fewest was number of days was zero; the highest was 5. The mean for minimum and maximum days was 3.
Information about respondents’ telecommuting programs also was collected. Due to the small sample size, statistical tests could not be run to test the relationship between the motivating fac- tor and program design elements. The item most frequently offered to telecommuters was the provision of a computer. Figure 1 displays the items offered to telecommuters and the frequen- cies for how often those items were offered. The most frequently cited motivator to adopt for this group was to “improve overall benefits.” Those data are presented in Figure 2.
Primary Constraint to Adopting a Telecommuting Program and Program Flexibility
Due to the small number of reported telecom- muting programs, descriptive statistics were used to analyze primary constraint to adopting a telecommuting program and the flexibility of the
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telecommuting program design. Not enough data were collected to test for a relationship.
Two constraints tied as the most frequently mentioned items. These were cost of implementing the program and legal or regulatory issues, each receiving 42.9% of responses. The remaining responses were for the “other” category.
Primary Constraint for Adopting a Telecommuting Program
Figure 3 presents the frequencies for responses about the primary constraint for adopting a telecommuting program. The most frequently selected response was “other,” with 33.3% of the valid responses. Respondents were allowed to enter comments if “other” was indicated as their responses. The researchers grouped these responses into four general categories: (a) a program is in the early stages of development or
consideration; (b) there is an informal program or policy in place; (c) there is no perceived need or suitable jobs; and (d) various negative issues have or would be created if employees were al- lowed to telecommute.
There were 24 comments in the four categories. In the first category, 4 responses were counted. These responses indicated that a program was being developed or consideration was being given to development. The second category, total- ing 7 responses, indicated an informal arrangement was being used. For the third category, 5 respon- dents indicated either that no need was perceived for telecommuting or that no jobs at the institution were suitable for such an arrangement. The fourth category had 8 responses and included statements such as “need office coverage,” “perceived reduc- tion in organizational effectiveness,” and “exten- sive time is needed to place a new program.”
Figure 1. Items offered as part of telecommuting program
Figure 2. Primary motivator to adopt—adopters
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Primary Motivator for Adopting a Telecommuting Program
The most frequently cited motivator to adopt telecommuting was “improvement of overall employee benefits.” The second highest primary motivator was “employee interest.” Figure 4 con- tains data relative to the frequencies of primary motivators to adopt a telecommuting program. For those respondents who indicated “other” as their response, comments were varied. Examples of comments were “parking and environmental issues,” “lack of existing office space,” and “increased retention rate for any category of employee, not just IT staff.”
Institutional Characteristics and Telecommuting
To determine if a relationship existed between size of institution and whether or not the institu-
tion offered a telecommuting program, the means for the number of employees and the number of students were calculated for adopters and non- adopters. The average number of employees for adopters was 3,942. The average student body size for the same group was 14,278. For non-adopters, the average number of employees was 1,575. The average student body size was 6,832.
A t-test was run to compare institution size of adopters and non-adopters. Variances were unequal for both measures so equal variances were not assumed. The results of this analysis revealed that for number of employees (p =.089) and for number of students (p =.082). These are not significant at the selected.05 level; however, they would be significant at a.10 level. This indicates that larger institutions may be more likely to have a telecommuting program. Analysis of those data is presented in Figure 5.
Carnegie Classification was used to categorize responding institutions by type. To determine if
Figure 3. Frequencies of primary constraint to adopt—non-adopters
Figure 4. Frequencies of primary motivators to adopt – non-adopters
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there was a difference between the classifications and whether or not a telecommuting program existed, a chi-square test was run and an exact p value calculated. An exact p value was used be- cause the default estimated p value is not reliable for small samples. Results were chi-square = 16.439, df = 8, and exact p value =.044. This indicated a relationship between the type of in- stitution and the existence of a telecommuting program. Among the adopters, 45.5% were clas- sified as Research University I. In comparison, 29.7% and 21.6% of non-adopters were classified as Master’s Universities and Colleges I and As- sociate of Arts Colleges, respectively. Figure 6 displays the results of the classification of those institutions cross-tabulated by adopters and non- adopters.
CONCLUSION
Discussion
Motivators influenced the decision to offer a tele- commuting program. Adopters and non-adopters both cited “improvement of overall benefits” as the primary motivator to adopt a telecommuting program. Similar results were reported by Ber- nardino (1996). Her study revealed that employers were “primarily motivated by the need to address employees’ needs” (p. 55). However, these results
are in contrast to Goldberg (1993), who reported the primary motivating factor discovered in his study was legislative mandates. However, many of the respondents in Goldberg’s study were from universities in California where legislation regard- ing telecommuting was passed in the early1990s.
Universities have an apparent interest in im- proving work life and overall benefits. However, the interest could mean offering more liberal vacations, flexible hours, flex-time, and other benefits tailored to the employee population at the institution. Universities could possibly be invest- ing time and energy in more mature, well-defined programs instead of telecommuting programs. In his 1983 research, Rogers defined attributes of innovation that could be related to the adoption of telecommuting. Considering the complexity of decision-making and the process of implement- ing a new program, it could be that the relative advantages are not as readily observed as is needed in the higher education setting. Additionally, the compatibility component of the adoption process could pose several problems in that telecommuting changes the way people work and are supervised. Legislation regarding telecommuting might serve as an impetus for higher education institutions to focus on implementing telecommuting programs.
For adopters, the most commonly cited con- straint was cost of implementing the program. This is supported by the literature (Davenport & Pearlson, 1998; Khalifa & Etezdi, 1997). The
Figure 5. Size by existence of program
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cost factor also could be related to the number of respondents who reported budget cuts in the last 3 years (42 of 96). Telecommuting is not a well- defined employee benefit in comparison with other work life benefits such as flex-hours, day care, and on-site health clubs. This could possibly deter employers from launching a program, particularly in lean budget times.
Constraints impact the decision to offer a telecommuting program. For non-adopters, the most commonly cited constraint selected was “other.” Their explanations for citing “other” fell into four categories: (a) a program is in the early stages of development or consideration; (b) an informal program or policy is in place; (c) there is not perceived need or suitable jobs, and (d) various negative issues have or would be created if employees were allowed to telecommute.
This finding is different from most research reported on primary constraints to adopt tele-
commuting. Bernardino (1996) reported that one of the major barriers to the wide acceptance of telecommuting was managerial concern. Goldberg (1993) reported that “convincing management” (p. 216) of the benefits of telecommuting was an issue. This finding might be indicative of one of the many differences between higher education and other industries. Therefore, future research on telecommuting that focuses on the higher educa- tion community is warranted.
Size of institution could be impacting the need for telecommuting. In the present study the average size of the adopters was much larger than the aver- age size of non-adopters. Other possible factors embedded in that statistic could be the proxim- ity to large cities, which would entail increased competition from private industry for workers, a wider variety of jobs, and, subsequently, more positions suitable for telecommuting. Smaller institutions where employees are required to
Figure 6. Cross-tabulation of Carnegie Classification and existence of telecommuting program
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perform many job functions would be less able to offer telecommuting.
A partial of the description of a Research University I includes criteria such as giving “high priority to research” and “offering graduate educa- tion through the doctorate degree” (The Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching, 2001, Table 4, ¶ 1). Type Research University I institutions also receive at least $40 million dollars in federal support, which implies a large student body and workforce. The number of Re- search University I institutions in 2000 was 89. With this small number, it is possible the number of institutions able to support telecommuting is relatively small.
Recommendations
Although this study revealed some promising data, additional studies could build on the results of this study and provide a greater wealth of knowledge in this area. Future research should be conducted in conjunction with Rogers’ (1983) research on adoption of innovations. Using the categories of adopters and attributes of rate of adoption, a comprehensive study using Rogers’ theory would reveal much more about the estimated level of telecommuting adoption in a specific industry such as higher education. Further research should be based on the decision-making phase of the adoption stages as described in Rogers and Shoe- maker’s (1971) paradigm that shows functions in the authority-innovation decision process.
This study found that size and type of institu- tion are influential in the decision to adopt tele- commuting. Future studies should concentrate on those institutions found to be more likely to have a formal telecommuting program in place. Since this study found that large institutions and those classified as Research University I are more likely to have adopted telecommuting, these institutions should be targeted specifically. Using the Carnegie Classification categories as a dependent variable could prove useful in determining the specific
organizational characteristics present in institu- tions choosing to adopt telecommuting programs.
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KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS
Adopter: Adopters reported that cost of imple- mentation was the primary constraint to adopting a telecommuting program.
CUPA-HR: College and University Profes- sional Association for Human Resources.
Non-Adopter: Non-adopters of telecommut- ing programs identified that the primary motiva- tor for adopting a telecommuting program was improvement of overall benefits to employees.
Telecommuting: Flexible work arrangement that allows employees to work at home.
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Copyright © 2012, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
Chapter 37
INTRODUCTION
Learning about healthy behavior is critical in an era when chronic diseases are strongly linked with personal lifestyle choices. E-mail is emerg- ing as a successful instructional strategy as well as a useful supplementation to various types
of learning environments (Garside, 1996). The use of e-mail for health promotion efforts at the worksite presents educators with the freedom to deliver messages outside the boundaries of time and location. Although the use of e-mail messag- ing at the worksite to affect health behavior is in its infancy, preliminary studies suggest that it is an effective means to encourage positive health behavior (Tate, Wing, & Winett, 2001).
Betsy B. Aumiller Penn State College of Medicine, USA
The Role of Targeted E-Mail Messaging at the Worksite
ABSTRACT
Employers are vested in pursuing educational strategies that work to improve employee health and decrease health care utilization. The use of e-mail for health promotion efforts at the worksite presents the freedom to deliver messages outside the boundaries of time and location; preliminary studies sug- gest that it is an effective way to encourage health behavior. This chapter explores health behavior change, adult learning theory, and media effects research regarding targeted e-mail messaging at the worksite to offer insight into how people perceive and interact with different forms of messages and what kinds of visual enhancements may positively impact perception of the message itself. Results of a qualitative study investigating employees’ interpretations of message meaning, perceptions of visual e-mail enhancements and associated health behavior change will be discussed as promising research in worksite health promotion.
DOI: 10.4018/978-1-61350-068-2.ch037
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While theoretical frameworks like the Health Belief Model (Janz & Becker, 1984) and Stages of Change Model (Prochaska, Norcross, & DiClemente, 1994) seek to explain the factors influencing individuals’ health behavior, they do not offer much insight into how people perceive and interact with different forms of messages and what kinds of visual enhancements may positively impact attention, memory, or positive perception of the message itself (Sundar & Kalyanaraman, 2004). The purpose of this study was to explore how employees at the worksite make meaning of the lived experience of health-related e-mail messaging and how those meanings relate to cur- rent and future health behavior. Specifically, this chapter explores health behavior change, adult learning theory and media effects research regard- ing targeted e-mail messaging at the worksite. The findings have implications for adult leaning and health education, two fields that offer insight into how adults make sense of electronic messaging in relation to their health habits, worksite setting, and potentially other venues.
BACKGROUND
This study concerns itself with the meaning and interpretation associated with receiving health- related e-mail messages at the workplace. What is it about how people perceive e-mail messaging at the worksite that brings certain meanings or concepts into their conscious awareness regard- ing their own health or health behavior? With the growing presence and effectiveness of worksite health promotion efforts, the characteristics and instructional uses of electronic mail technology offers possible solutions to workplace health promoters the success of electronic mail as a message delivery and instructional tool brings a new dimension to how people might receive or seek information to increase health behavior knowledge or change.
In a time where average sized businesses spend approximately 10.2% of total payroll costs for health costs (Employee Benefits Research Institute, as cited in “What Health,” 1994), employers have a vested interest in improving employee health. For the millions people who go to work each day, the workplace can be a forum for encouraging healthy behaviors and enforc- ing supportive policies. To encourage healthy employee practices, health education program- ming and related initiatives at the worksite are becoming very common (Association for Worksite Health Promotion, 1999). Sparked by specific national goals (U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 1990) calling for the increase of worksite-based health education activities that would impact adult health behavior change, educators began to theorize how the use of health messages might be effectively transferred into the workplace. Studies have shown that companies can gain significant health changes with limited intervention programs (Blake & Dehart, 1994). It has been estimated that over 104 studies have been conducted studying the impact of workplace health promotion programs (Pelletier, 2005). Throughout this time, researchers have strove to devise methods of capturing data that meet the needs of both health educators and economists. Although the focus of much of this research has been to demonstrate the cost savings to employ- ers in the areas of reduced absenteeism, increased worker productivity, and decreased health care costs, the changes in health behavior that have resulted in improved worker health underlie the positive outcomes of these lines of investigation. Landmark investigations regarding the impact of corporate health promotion programs have shown a return of investment of 6.47 to 8.81 for every dollar invested (Pelletier, 1999b). These initiatives not only improved the company’s financial health, but also the status of its employees’ well-being, as medical expenditures and absenteeism rates were significantly impacted (Pelletier, 1999a, 1999b). While such research joins the ranks of other such
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workplace studies done in the past five to ten years that demonstrate moderate to significant health behavior change outcomes, Pelletier (1999a) notes that the effectiveness of such research should be viewed with cautious optimism.
Some reasons for this cautious approach are associated with some criticisms of worksite health education: it has low impact on high utilizers of health care, other competing corporate training initiatives are more important, and some employers are inflexible in allowing worker participation in onsite health education interventions (Glascow & McCaul, 1993; Heaney & Goetzel, 1996; Lewis, 1995; & Pelletier, 1999a). How can worksite health educators address these barriers? Kok, van den Borne, and Mullen (1997), referring to the effec- tiveness of health education, concluded that “The potential effectiveness of interventions in practice may be increased by systematic development of adoption and implementation strategies, includ- ing the creation of ‘linkage systems’ between intervention developers and representatives of the target and user systems” (p. 19). One such linkage system would be the use of educational technology for health promotion efforts within the worksite. Harnessing the potentials of computer- based technology, including such mediums as e-mail messing, on-line instruction and electronic communications, presents educators with the freedom to deliver educational messages outside the boundaries of time and location. Through these mediums, tailored programming will play a major role in meeting the educational needs of today’s adults (Main & Berry, 1993; McCullough & McCullough, 1994).
Worksite health promotion activities studied that have impacted health behavior and status have generally involved the use of some form of educational intervention activity, such as print materials or classes, that is implemented after a health status and/or employee interest assess- ment, to encourage workers to adopt healthier lifestyle habits that would result in health risk reductions. The fact that e-mail usage is the most
used application among the majority of all kinds of Internet users, that the workplace is the most common place that the Internet is accessed (U.S. Department of Commerce, 1999), makes e-mail technology, as a potential learning device or in- structional supplement, very appealing to educa- tors that want to reach adults in a setting where the tools for information delivery are available and already being used regularly. Findings suggest that e-mail communicators do not simply exchange messages as electronically linked senders and receivers; users “…perform social acts in action situations that are normatively regulated by, and already have meaning within, the organizational context” (Ngwenyama & Lee, as cited in Williams, 1998, p. 7). Thus, senders and recipients are active producers of meaning based on the contextual factors surrounding the e-mail communication, opening many avenues for e-mail to be used as a delivery mechanism for education and training (Barron, 1998).
How has health-related messaging been used in the worksite? In reference to educational e-mail effectiveness in this venue, studies by Tate, Wing, and Winett (2005), among others have examined usage of targeted e-mail messaging to affect weight loss, risk of diabetes, or physical activity The content of these messages were constructed to be a short health “tip,” or a recommendation or reminder to pursue a certain health behavior with option to pursue further information via an embedded web link. In these studies, employee participants were assigned to either a treatment group (received e-mail) or a control group, with greater changes in positive, physical health indi- cators among the treatment group. The measure of e-mail’s success as an instructional tool at the worksite needs to be studied in more detail, par- ticularly in relationship to foster health behavior change. The need to prove tangible physical be- havioral changes associated with e-mail use will probably continue, but much waits to be answered concerning how e-mail could be used for reflec- tion on behavior change or collaborative learning
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among employees to affect health improvements among a workforce. Understanding outcomes, whether positive or negative, is so closely linked to understanding the processes by which the out- comes evolved. A logical question and implication for future research would be — why did e-mail succeed or fail at the worksite? Knowing that an employee did lost weight or did not increase physi- cal activity while receiving e-mail messaging does not explain how this method impacted the health behavior change process. Three areas paramount for future research are message construction, message outcomes, and message integration into a more detailed model of learning.
PRESENT PERSPECTIVES
What is it about how people perceive e-mail mes- saging at the worksite that brings certain mean- ings or concepts into their conscious awareness regarding their own health or health behavior? The theoretical framework of this study is grounded in three intersecting theoretical discussions of the Health Belief Model (HBM) (Janz & Becker, 1984), Stages of Change Model (SOCM) (Pro- chaska, Norcross, & DiClemente, 1994), and Transformational Learning (TL) (Mezirow, 1991). Health behavior change theories, like the HBM and SOCM provide useful frameworks by which health educators can explore the factors influencing health behavior. The HBM and the SOCM are used predominantly by health education professionals to explore the processes by which individuals’ enact health behavior change. These models involve a person’s progression through a series of understandings and decision making that lead to a choice about a particular health be- havior. Although valuable, these theories do not offer much insight into how change occurs over time or how adult learning processes lead to a desired health behavior outcome. While looking outside these traditional health models, it is ap- parent that the theory of Transformation Learning
(TL) (Mezirow) has some similarities with these two models. TL offers much more insight into the cognitive processes involved in learning, the organization of meaning perspectives, and the role of critical thinking and discourse with others dur- ing the change process. Although e-mail has been studied in both educational and worksite settings, this research does not offer much insight into how people perceive and interact with different forms of messages and what kinds of visual enhancements may positively impact attention, memory, or posi- tive perception of the message itself. Specifically, how does current media effects research regard- ing graphics, animation, interactivity and media source impact recall, recognition, perception and/ or behavioral intent associated with an e-mail message? Within the media effects literature, the impact of source, interactivity, navigability, and modality are often referenced as important factors affecting one’s sensory reactions to a particular media form ((Diao & Sundar, 2004; Heo, Sundar, & Chaturvedi, 2001; Reeves & Nass, 2000; Sundar, 2000; Sundar & Kalyanaraman, 2004; Sundar & Nass, 2001). In regards to the type of e-mail mes- saging referenced in this work, the influence of source and modality (and in particular, animation) appear to be the most relevant elements within the limitations of the message design/function itself, that could be modified to impact perception, orienting responses and memory enhancements (Diao & Sundar; Sundar & Kalyanaraman) on e-mail recipients.
A qualitative methodology is appropriate for this study because understanding the subjective experiences of the e-mail recipients and their in- terpretations of meaning are central to the study’s purpose. The sample for the study was obtained by recruiting participants from worksites currently using e-mail messaging as part of their existing wellness program for at least six months. The e- mail message itself was a full page template with a header, footer, and placeholder for message con- tent. This study was conducted within the context of three guiding research questions focused on (a)
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the meaning and effect of the overall health e-mail message as it relates to an employee’s current and future health behavior; (b) the meaning that em- ployees at the worksite make of the actual e-mail message content regarding suggested practices to effect health behavior; and (c) the aspects of the message appearance and construction as related to an employee’s process of meaning making as it relates to their health behavior. Each participant completed a primary interview at the employees’ place of work lasting 1 ½ - 2 hours, followed by a secondary interview, of 1 hour in length, to clarify information discussed, and allow expansion of content. Following this, the researcher conducted a one-hour, tape-recorded focus group with study participants in order to clarify information shared in the interview processes, as well as promote further analysis by participants.
The findings included six main themes related to the employees’ meaning of health-related e- mail messaging at the worksite (a) Appraisal of Meaningful Content; (b) Influence of Worksite Setting; (c) Structure and Appearance; (d) Recipi- ent Characteristics; (e) Health E-Mail Message Assessment and Application; and (f) Maximizing Message Impact. In most cases, participants re- vealed both simple and complex health issues that they were currently struggling to alter; most men- tioned health behaviors that they had addressed or changed in a way they defined as “successful” to them within their own contexts and health beliefs. This study revealed that there are many layers to the participants’ experiences of receiving health- related e-mail messages at the worksite. Some of the layers were easily described as tangible ele- ments — factors related to basic comprehension of words in the message, elements surrounding the use of e-mail in conjunction with other work responsibilities, or items linked to the visual ap- peal of a structural element. Other layers of the experience were less tangible; these factors were more related to the ways that participants found relevance in the message content and continued in some fashion to integrate that thought or meaning
within their own experiences. Depending on the relevance of the message, content may have bur- rowed into other layers that gave rise to attitudes and associated behavior. The layers described were similar, but the relative importance of the multiple layers was different for each participant. Additionally, the sequences in which interviewees assessed or attended to those assorted layers were varied both between and within participants. It was a multifaceted experience that resulted in a specific meaning for these e-mail recipients; frequently this meaning was leveraged in ways that related to participants’ health in some way.
The themes listed addressed factors cited by participants that were important or appealing to them as they evaluated message value and rel- evant personal meaning. First, through a cursory appraisal of content and message appearance, participants formulated an impression in their mind of how and why a particular message held meaning for them. Interestingly, these findings suggest that message appearance represents another “layer” in the meaning making process. To the extent that this set of elements was either prominent or tangential to employees’ appraisal varied between participants and messages; regard- less, this means that design and structure can make a difference in ways that are very personal and specific to the recipient. In addition to noting the title of a particular message, participants described a simultaneous assessment of multiple visual ele- ments that formed a first impression of the mes- sage itself. This appraising “glance” was cited as something that piqued their interest in exploring the message further. Once drawn into a message, participants’ were more specific in describing how certain design elements were intertwined with the meaning that was being made regarding the mes- sage. The use of bullets, bolding, and symmetry were mentioned as elements within the message layout that assisted participants in quickly as- sessing whether the message was relevant and meaningful or too unattractive visually to continue reading. Additionally, graphical animation was
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another message element assessed in the focus groups that shed light on prior literature (Sundar & Kalyanarman, 2004). Apart from appraising a particular graphic, color or font as notable or “attractive” in some way, most participants in this study went further to describe a specific feature as especially integral to their overall meaning making of the message. This means that placement and appearance of text and graphics within an e-mail message is critical for message recipients: the overall appearance leads to an impression that supports or discourages further reading or favor- able receptivity to the health information itself.
E-mail delivery of health information was noted as a unique modality in relation to worksite context. Implications regarding its value as a com- munication medium, as well as an integrated com- ponent of an overall corporate wellness program were discussed. A discussion of how participants found relevance in specific health e-mail messages lead to implications suggesting that traditional needs assessment methods utilized in targeting particular employee health needs or interests in a company wellness program might consider meaning making processes in gauging targeted initiatives. The numerous elements included in the worksite context further enveloped the meaning making process and brought uniqueness to how participants perceived message content as unfold- ing for them in this environment.
The final piece of this section pertains to findings related to the theoretical intersection of all three frameworks. Interviewees’ comments evolved to express how specific message content and accompanying personal meaning interacted with their readiness to change, health beliefs, and actual health behavior change efforts. Participants’ perception of message meaning on a continuum between “easy,” or “difficult,” was wrapped within a layering of smaller appraisals that eventually culminated in a kind of decision about how to categorize, store, or somehow use the information provided by the message. The appraisals employed were related to readiness or receptivity, perceived
confidence or self-efficacy to modify, and percep- tions of potential health outcomes being immediate or long term. Along the way, some participants saw things in the messages that catapulted them outside of their typical appraisal system; they had to rethink what they thought was “true,” and come to some new understanding of what this content meant to them in terms of health beliefs and behavior. It was difficult for participants to identify or pinpoint where in this process the mes- sage meaning went from encouraging a new health practice, to promoting actual adoption of a new health behavior, or perhaps serving as reinforce- ment to previous or newer health habits. It was a challenge for participants to “tease” apart these different processes or to describe the specific role of the e-mail message versus additional aspects of the wellness program or other external health messages in this progression of events.
FUTURE TRENDS
Within the worksite context, literature in this arena has shown wellness programming to be cost-effective in many scenarios; the challenge to design an effective program to address em- ployee health continues to exist in a changing workplace and fluctuating economy (Pelletier, 2005). This research closely examined a specific wellness strategy that integrated health-related e-mail messaging with other health promotion activities already in use within two companies. The important interplay between the meaning of e-mail messages and the worksite context was a significant finding of this research. This study’s findings imply that the interplay between mes- sage content and meaning influenced message relevancy for participants. Because sets of as- sumptions that participants held were used as criteria to judge message content, practitioners need to consider these elements as they consider traditional assessment results. Topical information on a targeted health issue provided to employees
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needs to consider these criteria as a means to influence relevancy. Also, participants in this study perceived these messages as important or unique because they were being sent from their worksite management; these messages also had a unique meaning because of their use in tandem with other related worksite wellness elements. The combination of the perceived legitimacy of the content and the perception that the message is being sent by a worksite entity with authority could be more compelling or appealing to mes- sage readers.
Secondly, the use of these messages in tandem with other worksite activities holds further im- plications for practice. Participants in this study recognized message content as being related to other wellness elements currently taking place within the worksite; it was perceived as an im- portant piece of the overall wellness context. This identification was essential in two ways: partici- pants were more attentive to messages perceived as being part of the overall wellness program and, related to this participants recognized message content or meaning as being similar or reinforcing to other concepts seen or heard within the well- ness program. Based on this, practitioners could strive to use e-mail to reinforce or reiterate what is already going on with the wellness strategy of the company. Based on this, practitioners could strive to use e-mail to reinforce or reiterate what is already going on with the wellness strategy of the company. More purposefully, the use of e-mail to reinforce thematic learning objectives that are being targeted is another key way to provide cyclical messaging that is fortifying to an overall strategy.
Study findings highlight the interplay between message meaning, content and design and present implications for practice that are more theoretically based. Participant findings provide insights into how e-mail design and structure might be lever- aged to enhance e-mail’s use as part of a general instructional strategy, as well as how it’s used within this study’s context. This study’s findings
indicate that participants found design elements, such as color, graphics, font and animation, to be a crucial factor in maintaining attentiveness and formulating related message meaning. The impli- cations of this are varied and important within the worksite and other contexts. Practitioners need to consider e-mail structural factors as an intentional part of the recipient’s learning experience.
Other practice implications are connected to the creation of content that has linkages to health behavior change theories (SOCM and HBM) and TL. The findings of this study indicate that participants’ meaning-making process was inter- connected to some of the variables included in the HBM, SOCM and TL. The highly cognitive understanding of how experiences and meanings unite (TL) is greatly informed in a practical sense by providing theorists with a way to situate these thoughts within a framework (HBM and SOCM) that allows participants to describe or categorize what is happening to them in this realm. As such, there is reason to hypothesize that e-mail mes- sage content could be constructed to maximize this connection. Content would be formulated in such a way as to influences health beliefs such as perceived barriers, or benefits (HBM). Stage specific information could be provided in varying sequences to encourage a participants’ readiness to consider change (SOCM). Further, the ability of a message to deliver content that may influence or reinforce self-efficacy to consider change is sup- ported by this research and could be a purposeful message inclusion. Similarly, cues to action that are carefully constructed and informed by thought- ful employee assessment procedures should be considered for content inclusions. In reference to TL, e-mail content delivered to reflect theoretical constructs should be contemplated by practitioners to improve practice. Specifically, the ability of message content to encourage the questioning of health-related assumptions should be leveraged in the message construction process. Certainly, the consistent presence of misinformation regarding health issues coupled with the every-changing
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face of most current health knowledge creates an environment for the delivery of message content that can function to question recipients’ existing assumptions regarding health beliefs and behav- ior. Further, e-mail content should be considered that fosters critical reflection of current health beliefs and a sense of immediacy in expected health outcomes, perhaps gradual shifts in mean- ing schemes, and potentially, eventual change in health perspectives.
CONCLUSION
With the advent of emerging educational technolo- gies, the implications of these findings for future research are varied and promising. First, much is left to be explored regarding the use of e-mail messaging at the worksite and leveraging content to influence health behavior change. While the importance of messaging and employees’ meaning making in regards to health habits was explored in this study, the demand by corporations to see obvious physical changes in employee health risk factors will likely continue. This context creates a potential need to combine both qualitative and quantitative methodologies when investigating this issue. These types of results will provide continued evidence of the cost effectiveness of health promotion in addition to providing valuable insights into the design of effective behavioral in- terventions. Further, the nature of health behavior change lends credence to the need for longitudinal studies that examine change processes over time. This body of research would benefit from the inclusion of experimental and control groups to further discern the multiple influences of differing modalities of health information delivery.
In relation to the literature regarding media effects, this research might act as a springboard to further areas of e-mail investigation. The con- sideration and manipulation of message structure elements such as graphics, animation and layout as connected to recipient message meaning require
further study as related to adult learning about health practices. Further, while these study’s find- ings did not specifically examine the concept of interactivity and health-related e-mail messages, the idea of leveraging the e-mail modality to engage audiences with potential sources of inter- activity is an important area of study. This might include the examination of e-mail messaging as a springboard to take users to other instructional interfaces, such as electronic newsletters, message boards, webinars, electronic discussion groups, websites, blogs, or related podcasts to address a particular health topic or area of health behavior change. Perhaps included in the body of research would be the use of text messaging and its inte- gration with phones and other electronic devices. The widespread use of such technology provides a means to reach a broad audience within a short period of time.
Interrelated among all the implications for further research is the important study of the SOCM, HBM, and TL within not only the con- text of e-mail messaging and adult learning, but also within other disciplines such as instructional technology, organizational learning, and social sciences. With technological systems and their power to deliver a wide range of messages and messages appearances, further research is needed to discern the role of message meaning in relation to theses three frameworks. Most likely, the concept of “messaging” will extend far beyond the typical use of e-mail messaging as seen within a recipi- ent’s inbox at work. Messaging for the intent of health behavioral intent or other ends will likely be integrated into a multitude of online learning environments in numerous settings. Continued exploration of health beliefs, stages of readiness and transformation elements will provide valuable insights into how messaging can be leveraged to influence behavior change and quality of life. Meaning is critical to understanding how change occurs. These insights are critical when striving to create an environment that offers a steady stream of messages that encourage new thinking, self-
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efficacy, reinforcement, and critical reflection important to fostering health behavior change.
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Barron, A. E. (1998). Designing Web-based training [Electronic Version]. British Journal of Educational Technology, 29(4), 355–370. doi:10.1111/1467-8535.00081
Diao, F., & Sundar, S. S. (2004). Orienting re- sponse and memory for Web advertisements: Exploring effects of pop-up window and anima- tion. Communication Research, 31(5), 537–567. doi:10.1177/0093650204267932
Garside, C. (1996, April). Teaching and learning with electronic mail: Pedagogical perspectives [Electronic Version]. Paper presented at the An- nual Meeting of the Central States Communication Association, St. Paul, MN.
Heo, N., Sundar, S. S., & Chaturvedi, S. (2001). Wait! Why is it not moving? Attractive and distrac- tive ocular responses to Web ads. Paper presented at the Advertising Division At the 84th Annual convention of the Association for Education in Journalism and Mass and Mass Communication, Washington, DC.
Janz, N. K., & Becker, M. H. (1984). The Health Belief Model: A decade later. Health Education Quarterly, 11(1), 1–47.
Mezirow, J. (1991). Transformative dimensions of adult learning. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
Pelletier, K. R. (2005). A review and analysis of the clinical and cost-effectiveness studies of com- prehensive health promotion and disease manage- ment program at the worksite: 2000-2004 update (VI). Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine, 47(10), 1051–1058. doi:10.1097/01. jom.0000174303.85442.bf
Prochaska, J. O., Norcross, J. C., & DiClemente, C. C. (1994). Changing for good: A revolutionary six stage program for overcoming bad habits and moving your life positively forward. New York, NY: Avon Books.
Reeves, B., & Nass, C. (2000). Perceptual band- width. Communications of the ACM, 43(3), 65–70. doi:10.1145/330534.330542
Sundar, S. S. (2000). Multimedia effects on pro- cessing and perception of online news: A study of picture, audio, and video downloads. Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly, 77(3), 480–499.
Sundar, S. S., & Kalyanaraman, S. (2004). Arousal, memory, and impression-formatting effects of animation speed in web advertising. Journal of Advertising, 33(10), 7–17.
Sundar, S. S., & Nass, C. (2001). Concep- tualizing sources in online news. The Jour- nal of Communication, (March): 52–72. doi:10.1111/j.1460-2466.2001.tb02872.x
Tate, D. F., Wing, R. R., & Winett, R. A. (2001). Using Internet technology to deliver a behavioral weight loss program [Electronic Version]. Journal of the American Medical Association, 285(9), 1172–1179. doi:10.1001/jama.285.9.1172
U.S. Department of Commerce. (2002). A nation online: How Americans are expanding their use of the internet. Retrieved from http:// www.esa. doc.gov / reports/ anationonline2.pdf
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Williams, E. (1998). Predicting e-mail effects in organisations [Electronic Version]. FirstMonday: Peer-Reviewed Journal on the Internet, 3(9), 1–14.
Winett, R. A. (2001). Using Internet technology to deliver a behavioral weight loss program [Elec- tronic Version]. Journal of the American Medical Association, 285(9), 1172–1179. doi:10.1001/ jama.285.9.1172
KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS
Electronic Messaging (E-Mail): Electronic mail is an interactive, computer-driven technology that facilitates two-way interpersonal communi- cation among individuals or groups, and is fast becoming a pervasive communication medium across the globe (Williams, 1998).
Health: A dynamic state of complete physi- cal, mental, spiritual and social wellbeing and not merely the absence of disease of infirmity (World Health Organization, 1998).
Health Behavior Change: “…refers to the actions of individuals, groups, and organizations
as well as their determinants, correlates, and conse- quences, including social change, policy develop- ment and implementation, improved coping skills, and enhanced quality of life” (Parkerson, 1993).
Health Education: “A broad and varied set of strategies to influence both individuals and their social environments, to improve health behavior, and to enhance health and quality of life” (Glanz, Rimer, & Lewis, 2002, p.10).
Health Prevention: An action taken to de- crease the chance of getting a disease or condition (National Institutes of Health, 2006).
Transformational Learning: “… the process by which we transform our taken-for-granted frames of reference to make them more inclusive, discriminating, open, emotionally capable of change, and reflective so that they may generate beliefs and opinions that will prove more true or justified to guide action” (Mezirow & Associates, 2000, p. 7).
Workplace: The environment (as place, tools, social connections, physical well being) enabling work to be done (PDK High Performance Work- places, 2006).
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Copyright © 2012, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
Chapter 38
Jeff Allen University of North Texas, USA
Ashwini Joshua Gojer University of North Texas, USA
Mariya Gavrilova-Aguilar University of North Texas, USA
Denise Philpot University of North Texas, USA
Sustaining Organizational Innovation
ABSTRACT
Organizational change is a situation, while innovation is an attitude of change. Organizations cannot, in a global economy, remain static and rooted in current practices. Organizational innovation is the necessary ingredient for successful change. More difficult than both change and innovation is the sub- ject of sustainability. Change is often a temporary “fix” that quickly reverts to status-quo. This chapter recommends practices for change management and organizational innovation by reviewing change theories, describing innovation models, referencing sustainability leadership, and providing examples of technology integration. Educators, trainers, performance specialists, change agents, managers, and organizational development professionals will benefit by understanding the principles and future trends of innovation. Both educational institutions and industrial organizations will utilize the guiding ques- tions to determine their readiness to embrace organizational innovation. The goal is to instill the need for an attitude of change in all stakeholders of the organization in order to be well equipped to direct the nation’s workforce.
DOI: 10.4018/978-1-61350-068-2.ch038
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INTRODUCTION
Globalization, rapid technological advancement, emergence of social technologies, focus on a ser- vice economy, change in workforce demographics, increase in retiring education and management professionals, and requirements for effective teamwork have affected not only our organizations and communities but societies as a whole. People are more mobile, strive to achieve work-life bal- ance, and take responsibility for their own learn- ing and professional development. The mediums and speed with which information is transmitted and responses generated have now transformed the workplace into a heterogeneous group with conflicting demands. Total Quality Management (TQM), mergers and acquisitions, and business process reengineering emerged as responses to the constantly evolving workplace and social landscape. Today, the challenges associated with change are not whether it will occur but whether the organization has the capabilities to diagnose the external and internal environments as well as plan, implement, and direct change initiatives. Nevertheless, change is ill-received, innovation is reluctantly accepted, and potentially impactful whole-scale initiatives are often unsustainable in the long-run.
Organizational change is a situation, while innovation is an attitude of change. In order to ensure sustainability of the initiatives, organiza- tions should embrace a culture that encourages participation, promotes innovation, and aligns change efforts with specific business goals. A clear understanding and commitment toward innovation will perpetuate improved productivity, cost and resources savings, and a sustainable competitive advantage.
Defining Change, Innovation and Sustainability
Change and innovation are often used inter- changeably to refer to new initiatives introduced
to solve problems or new products and services that address modified stakeholder needs. Change should be interpreted as an attitude while innova- tion represents a complex process, rather than an event. Becker and Whisler (1967) stated that both the internal and external environments of many organizations underwent rapid and extensive change in the years following World War II, which led to increased research interest in organizational adaptation, change and innovation. While ear- lier literature treated these terms synonymously, Becker and Whisler (1967) hypothesized orga- nizational innovation as distinct from (although related to) organizational change or adaptation. They consider innovation to be an organizational or social process; one that follows invention but can be separated from it in time and location. In- novation studies began to emerge as a separate field of research in the 1960s (Fagerberg, 2005). Rowe and Boise (1973) defined organizational innovation as “the successful utilization of pro- cesses, programs or products which are new to an organization and which are introduced as a result of decisions made within that organization” (p. 6).
For organizations, change is associated with a new way of functioning, structuring, and al- locating resources that have evolved over time (Huber et al., 1993 as cited in Weick & Quinn, 1999). As a behavioral initiative, change modi- fies the workplace by enhancing opportunities for individual development that ultimately improve organizational performance. Weick and Quinn (1999) distinguish between episodic and con- tinuous change. The former refers to infrequent, discontinuous, intentional efforts introduced when entities are in disequilibrium. The latter is manifested in organizations that view change as a constant and improvise (i.e. continuously modify work practices), translate (i.e. continuously adopt and edit practices), and learn (i.e. alter skills and knowledge). Basically, institutional change rep- resents differences in form, quality, or state over a period of time (Hargrave & Van de Ven, 2006).
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Innovation is a means of changing the organiza- tion either proactively or reactively (Damanpour, 1991). Fagerberg (2005) states that a firm does not innovate in isolation but depends on extensive interaction with its environment Innovation is a prime example of a variety of phenomena too complex to be analyzed from a single disciplin- ary perspective. The ultimate goal of innovation, however, is to engage in opportunities through collective learning (DeGraff & Bacevice, 2006). It connects people, ranks, and tasks thus deliver- ing business results (Atkins, 2010). As a defini- tion, innovation has been associated with the terms radical, incremental, really new, imitative, discontinuous, architectural, modular, evolution- ary, administrative, technical, innovativeness, advantage and newness (Harmancioglu, Droge, & Calantone, 2009). Yet, Khan and Al-Ansari (2005) offered the simplest definition: “Innova- tion is discovering new ways of creating value.”
In the context of change, sustainability repre- sents “the degree to which a program of change is continued after the initial resources provided by a change agency are ended (p. 376, Rogers, 2003). Another definition offered by Trends E-Magazine states: “finding ways to improve the quality of hu- man life while living within the carrying capacity of supporting ecosystems”. According to Zairi and Al-Mashari (2005), sustainable innovation must be process-based, not project-based. The goal is to limit competitors from adopting the innova- tion and continue to respond to existing as well as create new markets. In addition, organizations need to provide continuous training, recognize in- novation efforts, and reward change agents. Tello and Yoon (2008) credit sustainable innovation with developing and ensuring the well-being of humans as well as institutions while conserving natural resources. Sustainable innovations result in cost and resource savings, enhanced productiv- ity, and improved market agility (Atkins, 2010).
CHANGE
The focus of organizational change theories and models on environmental change can force or influence the choice of organizational form, both mechanical and organic (Burns & Stalker, 1961), which in turn can be linked to the emphasis on innovation (Hage, 1999). It is also posited that environmental change leads to changes in the nature of organizational form and especially a movement toward (or away from) organizational innovation (Hage, 1999).
Many different theories and models of organi- zational change exist throughout multidisciplinary literature bases. This chapter focuses on theories related to organizational change rather than hu- man, biological or grand change theories. While the terms theory and model are not necessar- ily interchangeable, literature on change theory seems to have used them as such (Kezar, 2001). The theories listed here have shared at least a few characteristics but the categories described below hold fairly independent assumptions that provide insight into organizational change. Kezar (2001) identified six main categories of change theories (1) evolutionary, (2) teleological, (3) life cycle, (4) dialectical, (5) social cognition, and (6) cultural. Each model or theory has a distinct set of assumptions about the reasons change occurs, how the process unfolds, its key aspects, and the benefits and criticisms of change.
Evolutionary Theories
Evolution implies change. The main assumption underlying evolutionary theories is that change is a response to external circumstances, situational variables, and the environment faced by each organization (Morgan, 1986). Social systems as diversified, inter dependent, complex systems evolve naturally over time because of external demands (Morgan, 1986). Evolutionary theories have been applied to understand the emergence of new organizations and new forms of organiza-
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tion, changes in organization, and the life cycle of industries (Barron, 2003).
The evolutionary model presents a systemic, rational approach of a stimuli-and-response cycle (Kezar, 2001). The process is unplanned, reactive, and includes “developing sensors (structures to determine necessary change and ability to adapt to new realities); determining organizational fitness; self-organizing, and local adaptation” (p. 30).
Organizations are complex systems with in- herently unpredictable dynamics. Barron (2003) posits that uncertainty appeals to our intuition be- cause of the ways organizations change. However, not all change is evolutionary. For a process to be considered evolutionary, it must include three dis- tinct mechanisms: blind variation, selection, and retention. Blind variation represents the different ways in which innovations are introduced. These include new technologies, new forms of organiza- tions, new products, or even adopting an existing practice in a novel context. This is known as the process of variation. The process of selection is that mechanism which distinguishes beneficial from non-beneficial or even harmful innovations. When this beneficial innovation spreads from the original innovator to other units, it represents the process of retention.
Examples of evolutionary theories include modified theories of natural selection applied to organizational change, the resource dependence model, the strategic choice approach, population ecology models and more recently, the chaos the- ory applied to change (Goodman, 1982; Cameron, 1984; Sporn, 1999; Wheatley, 1999). Illustrating the impact of context and environment on change was a radical approach as opposed to the scientific management theory, which examined organiza- tions as self-contained entities (Morgan, 1986). The change in the thought process of organizations as systems also progressed the erstwhile view about change, identifying new reasons for and approaches to change. Many empirical studies illustrate the strength of evolutionary models for certain types of changes (Burnes, 1996; March,
1994; Phillips & Duran, 1992; Sporn, 1999). Kezar (2001) emphasizes the strong empirical research tradition that is not characteristic of many other theories as another advantage of evolutionary- theories. Criticisms about evolutionary theories have included failure to recognize organizations as social phenomena, their overly deterministic nature, and over emphasis on the impact of the environment (Collins, 1998; Burnes, 1996).
Teleological Theories
Teleological theories assume that organizations are purposeful and adaptive (Kezar, 2001). A teleo- logical theory relies on the philosophical doctrine that goals guide organizational change. This ap- proach assumes that an organization “constructs an envisioned end state, takes action to reach it, and monitors the progress” (Van de Ven & Poole, 1995, p. 516). Teleological theories, also referred to as planned change, scientific management, and rational models, emerged alongside evolutionary theories. Change occurs because leaders, change agents, and others see the necessity for it. The process for change is rational and linear, as in evolutionary models, but individual managers are much more instrumental to the process (Carnall, 1995; Carr, Hard, & Trahant, 1996).
Key aspects of the change process include planning, assessment, incentives and rewards, stakeholder analysis and engagement, leadership, scanning, strategy, restructuring, and reengineer- ing (Brill & Worth, 1997; Carnall, 1995; Huber & Glick, 1993). Organizational development, continuous quality improvement, and TQM and reengineering are popular strategies within the teleological approach.
Kezar (2001) listed the benefits of teleologi- cal theories. They have led to the development of strategies for analyzing and categorizing change. Secondly, leadership and change agents in the process were identified. Thirdly, the role of teamwork has transformed our understanding of each member’s contribution to the change process.
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The first criticism of teleological theories addresses the overly rational and linear process of change (Dufty, 1980). The second criticism encompasses the overemphasis on human cre- ativity, thoughts, and decisions. A third critique argues that teleological theories do not examine change contextually and ignore the substance of change, the need for change, and the politics of change (Pettigrew, 1985).
Life-Cycle Theories
Life-cycle models of change evolved from stud- ies of child development and focused on stages of growth, organizational maturity, and organi- zational decline (Levy & Merry, 1986). Change is conceptualized as a natural part of human or organizational development. They share many assumptions with evolutionary theories and in- clude adaptation and systems approach (Kezar, 2001). Unlike evolutionary theories, however, they emphasize the human element, including systematic individual change.
Within the life-cycle models, change is typi- cally progressive, and rational (Miller & Friesen, 1980). The process is simple - organizations take birth, mature, and gradually decline. Change is not a necessity, but a natural progression. Change occurs as individuals within the organization adapt to its life cycle.
Lifecycle theories propose an ambiguous and threatening environment, thus leading to adjust- ment using processes that include training and development, communication, and other structures allowing growth (Bolman & Deal, 1991; Kezar, 2001). Scholars have proposed different life-cycle models, including Weick’s social psychology of change theory. The three stages in the model are enactment, selection, and retention. Organizations constantly cycle through these phases, in which participants select changes and make choices about retention. Change is described as commonplace
across different stages—enactment, selection, and retention happen among all employees within all life cycles, but with some distinctions in the process (Van de Ven & Poole, 1995).
The benefits of life-cycle models emphasize the phases of change, the people involved in each phase, and the importance of training to many change efforts. The criticisms include the lack of empirical research on the models, and their overly deterministic character.
Dialectical Models
Dialectical models, also referred to as political models, characterize change as the result of clash- ing ideology or belief systems (Morgan, 1986). Organizations pass through long periods of evo- lutionary change and shorter periods of what is called second order or revolutionary change. These models also examine how a dominant culture (also known as the power culture) shapes organi- zational processes (Benjamin, 1996). Moreover, both dialectical and cultural models emphasize social movements and subcultures. Dialectical models also focus on social inactivity, human motivation, and needs.
Conflict is an inherent attribute of human in- teraction. Change processes are considered to be predominantly bargaining, consciousness-raising, persuasion, influence and power, and social move- ments (Bolman & Deal, 1991). Collective action had the primary focus even though leadership was crucial within these models (Kezar, 2001). Many examples of dialectical models include Marx, Kotter, Bolman and Deal.
The advantages of these models include their departure from the focus on rationality and lin- earity, which were the fundamental constructs of earlier theories. However, similar to other theories discussed above, their deterministic nature and little guidance to organizations or leaders evoke criticism (Kezar, 2001).
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Social-Cognition Theories
Social-cognition theories describe change as be- ing tied to learning and mental processes Change occurs because individuals see a need to grow, learn, and change their behavior. Concepts like knowledge structures, paradigms, schema, cyber- netics, sensemaking, cognitive dissonance, cause maps, and interpretation are key concepts within these theories (Bushe & Shani, 1991; March, 1994; Morgan, 1986).
The process of change in social-cognition theories is a multifaceted, interconnected, overlap- ping series of processes, obstacles, and individu- als (Kezar, 2001). These theories examine habits and organizational identity. Facilitating change represents the process of allowing people to let go of the identity attached to past strategies and successes (Morgan, 1986). An example of social- cognition theory is Argyris’s (1982) single- and double- loop learning theory. Single-loop learn- ing refers to retaining existing norms, goals, and structures and improving on current methods while double-loop learning refers to the process by which existing norms, goals, and structures are reformulated to create innovative solutions (Argyris, 1982, 1994).
A major contribution of these theories is a more phenomenological approach to the study of change depicting it as not always progressive or positive (Kezar, 2001). Criticisms include their de-emphasis of the effects of environment and external forces on change, and the emphasis on thinking, mental processes, and learning that tends to exclude other aspects in understanding the nature of change, how it occurs, and why it occurs (Bolman & Deal, 1991; Kezar, 2001).
Cultural Theories
In cultural models, change occurs naturally as a response to alterations in the human environment; cultures are always changing (Morgan, 1986). Cultural approaches share many assumptions with
social-cognition theories. For example, change can be planned or unplanned, regressive or progres- sive, or have intended or unintended outcomes (Smirich, 1983). Change tends to be nonlinear, irrational, nonpredictable, ongoing, and dynamic (Smirich, 1983).
The change process tends to be long-term and slow. Change within an organization entails alteration of values, beliefs, myths, and rituals (Schein, 1985). Some researchers suggest using several models or categories as each unveils dif- ferent aspects of organizational life (Van de Ven & Poole, 1995). Cultural models are similar to dialectical models because they emphasize irra- tionality. Cultural models blend the assumptions of the social-cognition and dialectical methods (Kezar, 2001). Based on the assumption that reality is socially constructed, interpretative strategy views the organization as a collection of cooperative social agreements in which individu- als strive for the good of the overall organization (Chaffee, 1983).
According to Collins (1998), important contributions of cultural scholars emphasize context, complexity, and contradiction. Another important contribution is the revelation of the relationship between institutional culture and change (Kezar, 2001). Criticisms have included over-simplification of the notion of culture and impractical application.
Scholars have suggested the use of multiple models to examine organizational change because they combine the insights of various change theories. Bolman and Deal’s (1991) reframing of organizations and Morgan’s (1986) organi- zational metaphors illustrate how assumptions from teleological, evolutionary, political/cultural, social-cognition, and lifecycle models can be combined to understand change. Senge’s (1990) model of learning organizations blends evolution- ary, social-cognition, cultural, and teleological models. Lewin (1951) developed a three-step model (Figure 1) of organizational change that has become one of the most prominent frameworks
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to implement change. The first stage, unfreezing, requires identifying the driving and resisting forces and determining the goals to be accomplished. This includes challenging current practices and developing a clear vision for the organization. The second stage, move, encourages participation and involvement in the process. People begin to prob- lem solve and support the change. The third stage, refreezing, establishes policies and standards and rewards success of the change effort. The key principle is to use the change continuously and consistently while establishing stability within the organization.
Regarded as a true expert on change manage- ment, Kotter (1995) proposed an eight step model focusing on effective communication to transform both large-scale and small-scale orga- nizations (Figure 2). The first step stresses the importance of establishing a sense of urgency to increase the “felt-need” for a change initiative. Forming a powerful coalition to collaborate and implement the project is the second step. Creating a clear vision to guide the process represents the third critical step. The fourth step is the constant need to communicate the vision, the strategies, and the expected new behaviors. This is followed by empowering others to act and removing ob- stacles. The sixth step requires developing a plan for short-term wins that would reward improve- ment. Afterward, all improvements should be consolidated and new change agents and re- sources should be identified. The last step includes
institutionalizing new approaches by ensuring that all levels in the organization understand how the change effort impacts the business and ac- complishes goals. This model has an initial high level of energy that clearly establishes the vision and continuously attracts people with more del- egated responsibilities and accountabilities.
Figure 1. Lewin’s three-step model (1951)
Figure 2. Adapted from Kotter’s eight-step model (1995)
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These models are widely used before and dur- ing the innovation process to guide the organiza- tion in its change initiatives.
INNOVATION
The innovation process in organizations includes five mutually dependent stages grouped in two phases each representing a sequence of events that occur when an innovation is introduced (Rogers, 2003). The initiation phase is characterized by agenda-setting and matching. The objective is to collect all necessary information, overview orga- nizational problems, match these problems with an innovation solution, and decide to implement. The agenda-setting stage involves identifying a per- formance gap and prioritizing the needs and then gathering information about the organizational structure in order to implement the innovation in areas with the highest potential benefits. This stage usually lasts for several years. During the second phase, implementation, redefining/restructuring, clarifying, and routinizing occur. Redefining/ restructuring necessitates that both the organiza- tion and innovation change (i.e. technological innovation). The process of gradually embedding the innovation in the organization occurs at the fourth stage, clarifying. The change agents and innovation champions clarify the meaning of the innovation and address the uncertainties as- sociated with the initiative. Routinizing, the last stage, illustrates the adoption of the innovation and its sustainability. The key factor responsible for sustaining the innovation is the participation rate and degree to which individuals own the innovation. This is a critical stage because an innovation may be discontinued (i.e. replacing a new applicant tracking system with another after a few months).
Rogers (2003) identifies three types of con- sequences of innovation at the individual and system level: desirable versus undesirable, direct versus indirect, and anticipated versus unantici-
pated. Desirable effects are functional and yield benefits. Direct effects are visible immediately after an innovation is introduced. Anticipated ef- fects reflect the degree to which the change was intended and recognized. Some innovations are functional for the organization but dysfunctional for the individuals, usually depending on whether they are adopters or rejecters.
The rate of adoption of innovation, stemming from the concept of diffusion of innovations, has served as a measure of organizational innova- tion for several decades. Rogers (2003) defines diffusion of innovation as “the process in which an innovation is communicated through certain channels over time among the members of a social system” (p. 5). Based on the rate of adoption with which consumers embrace innovativeness, Rog- ers, (2003) defined five categories of adopters: innovators, early adopters, early majority, late majority, and laggards (Figure 3). Although the categorization is incomplete, ideal, and asymmet- rical, it provides a functional and widely accepted model to illustrate the time at which one person adopts an innovation relative to others. The model is partially based on a normal distribution curve representing the two largest groups as late adopters and late majority. The first category, innovators, are willing to take risks with the innovation and act as gatekeepers. Uncertainty is a key element during this first stage but they are willing to take the risks of failure with the innovation. Early adopt- ers, the second category, demonstrate high degree of opinion leadership. Change agents involve the early adopters because they have the respect of their peers and dissolve the uncertainty concerns. The early majority is characterized by following as opposed to leading the innovation process. The late majority are skeptical and uncertain; for them adoption represents an economic necessity or derives from increased peer pressure. Laggards are the most traditional group and the last to adopt the innovation. They have limited resources and demand caution. This categorization of innovation adopters has been embraced by professionals in
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different disciplines; in marketing it is used to describe the product-life cycle model.
The following section describes the chal- lenges associated with the sustainability of in- novations and provides suggestions how to remove barriers and encourage long-term involvement.
Sustaining Innovation
Devane (2007) discusses four evidences of change: direction, energy, distributed leadership, and appropriate mobilization of resources. Before implementing sustainable change, authorities need to ensure that the change effort is meaningful and appropriate for the organization. Organizational leadership should encourage the exchange of ideas at all levels of the organization, foster mutual respect and appreciation, and address personal concerns. Evidence of distributed leadership ma- terializes when all members are committed to advancing the change and are mutually account- able. According to James and Tolchinsky (2007), keeping the energy level high can be achieved by providing meaning, direction, and plans for the organization, achieving tangible results, monitor- ing and communicating results, and keeping the system whole and functioning. People at all levels of the organization should be empowered to share their expertise and participate in the change effort.
Creating cross-functional teams to spearhead and promote the initiatives and providing continuous feedback are strategies that will sustain the change effort after its completion.
Obstacles to sustainability include lack of time, lack of money, ties to the status quo, perceived value of sustainability activities, the occasional sustainability afterthought, and change manage- ment strategies (Devane, 2007). The author lists the following approaches to foster implementation: designing early for sustainability, going slowly at first, conducting a risk analysis and having a contingency plan, evaluating systemic issues in the diagnosis and action planning stages (start of the effort); engaging people and increasing participa- tion, reporting progress in a transparent manner, designing for multiple stakeholders (middle of the effort); and establishing clear responsibilities and a mechanism to follow-up, reinforcing desired new behavior, and instituting learning processes and practices to sustain momentum (end of the change effort).
Klein and Sorra (1996) reveal that the degree of innovation within an entity depends on the organizational climate and the extent to which the innovation initiative corresponds to personal goals. Effective implementation happens when all targeted employees continuously utilize the innovation. Successful innovative initiatives
Figure 3. Adopter categorization by Rogers (2003)
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usually yield higher profitability and productiv- ity, improved customer service, and elevated employee morale. Providing training and sup- port and acknowledging employee efforts and success create sustainable innovation programs. However, having a fit between the organization’s strategic direction and the values of employees will not necessarily result in an effective innova- tion implementation because of obstacles such as employees’ lack of access to resources to make decisions.
According to Rogers (2003), sustainability of the innovation depends on the degree to which an organizational problem is successfully matched with an innovation designed to solve the problem. Cameron and Green (2004) use alignment, at- tunement, critical mass, organizational capability, and mechanisms to encourage individual learning as features of effective change plans. Alignment relates to the entire integration of the plan’s sec- tions. Attunement advocates considering organi- zational values without neglecting employee’s needs. The ability to build momentum and develop a comprehensive method for sustainability will draw more champions of change management. Training and coaching can also result in a more committed workforce that is ready to implement the change initiative. When implementing a suc- cessful cultural change, organizations should align the change efforts with the organizational vision; continually reinforce the need for change; involve stakeholders; act as role models, create a community of focused and flexible leaders, and insist on collective ownership of the change.
PRESENT PERSPECTIVES
Employees embrace continuous learning as a means of attaining a competitive edge for them- selves and their organizations. As the theories evolved and organizations learned how to suc- cessfully promote change and integrate innovation into their culture, researchers examined what was necessary for change to occur and how organiza- tions could ensure positive change results.
Not surprisingly, change must occur at all levels. Successful change starts at the top of the organization. Leadership must embrace change and promote it within to gain followership. Good communication skills and programs are funda- mental to successful change initiatives (Sutton, 2010). The culture of the organization must rec- ognize the necessity for strategic initiatives that lead to sustainable competitive advantages. On- going communication at all levels of the organiza- tion is essential if change strategies are to be successfully implemented (Dailey, 2010). Orga- nizations that embrace change encourage risk- taking with the understanding that failures will occur and that lessons learned from those failures should be used to generate the next generation of innovative ideas. Clark (2008) examined 53 cases of large-scale change and found that of those that failed, 70 percent did so because of people. These people failures were traced to leadership and Human Resource Management (HRM) sys- tems. The leadership of the organization must ensure that HRM policies support and promote the desired behaviors necessary for the change initiative to be successful (Clark, 2008). Ditkoff
Box.1
Kraft Foods, a $46 billion company, understands the impact of change and the need for everyone to become involved. Recently their IS department was instrumental in the change efforts to deploy new processes globally. A focused education program was the solution to ad- dressing the needs of the IS organization. Kraft Foods change management specialist Debra J. Pekin partnered with an outside vendor to develop the necessary training programs on change management. With employees in over 160 countries an online program was deployed all over the world including remote places such as Asia the Middle East and Africa. As a result of the very successful deployment of this program to IS managers Kraft Foods is exploring ways to deliver this training to their entire employee population of more than 100 000 workers (Paradigm Learning 2010).
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(2008) compares creating a culture of innovation to creating a garden and shares eight steps neces- sary to sustain growth. Step eight, celebrating the harvest, should recognize employees for their successful contributions to the harvest. Thus, their morale improves.
In the past, companies worked alone to achieve their goals. By including suppliers and resellers to collaborate on technology and process improve- ments that will benefit everyone in the supply chain, businesses can reduce design time, pro- duction costs, and time to market (Atkins, 2010). Empowerment, a buzz word from the 1980s, is just as important in today’s work environment. Employees that feel empowered to make decisions about how their work is done will offer creative solutions to everyday problems. Implementation and recognition of these forward-thinking ideas will foster inspiration in others and result in en- gaged and motivated stakeholders that generate innovative ideas that positively impact the bottom line (Agin & Gibson, 2010).
In the final evaluation of success, individual employees are responsible for their participation in the change by supporting the mission and vi- sion. Kaufman (2010) refers to the basic building block of change, the individual, as “The Power of Ones”. Every employee has an ethical obliga- tion to add value at each level of the value chain, thus adding value to all stakeholders (Kaufman, 2010). Skill development needs and the desire to move within an organization to jobs that offer increased opportunities for growth and contribu- tion motivate individuals to participate in the creation of innovative ideas supporting organiza-
tional goals. These individuals will implement those new ways of thinking from one department to the next, thus transferring the concepts to other employees that have not reached that same level of innovative thinking (Agin & Gibson, 2010). The Change Agent is the individual in the organization that actively and effectively promotes change. The Chief Learning Officer leads the change initiative and designs the plan to imple- ment the change strategy throughout the com- pany. The focus is on understanding the workforce composition and determining the learning needs that must be addressed to affect change at the individual level. Dailey (2010) states that leaders of the future must be both learners and teachers that can develop their own strengths as well as their team’s. Leaders have the unique opportu- nity to mentor, coach, and provide the appropriate teaching activity based upon the context and situation. Thus, the leader actively supports a learning culture that fosters sustainable innova- tion. The common thread in these case studies is that organizational culture supports innovation, employee commitment to learning, and an entre- preneurial spirit that encourages teamwork to achieve organizational goals. Leaders of these organizations communicate effectively the need for dynamic change and innovation to remain competitive in today’s global marketplace.
TECHNOLOGY AND INNOVATION
Innovation is a social process (Brown & Duguid, 2002). Wineman, Kabo, and Davis (2008) con-
Box 2.
Hormel Foods embarked on a project to create a more ecofriendly party tray packaging. Hormel asked their suppliers to submit package design proposals. The chosen company (their previous supplier was not chosen due to the lack of innovative solutions) was asked to join a cross functional team that would collectively design the final tray to meet customer and manufacturing needs. This newly designed square tray with a smaller label is projected to save 174,000 pounds per year in corrugated materials and 100,000 pounds per year of shrink wrap materials. In addition, the more compact packaging results in 71 fewer truckloads a year to distribute the same volume of product (Casey, 2010). These combined efforts have a large impact in many areas, including reduced raw materials, fuel, and labor. Not only is Hormel improving its bottom line, but it is reducing its impact on the environment.
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cluded that spatial layout impacted the develop- ment of social networks at the workplace, which in turn enhanced organizational innovation. Kelley (2010) advocated that social technolo- gies enable knowledge sharing, communication, and collaboration, build a community, and make innovative ideas visible. However, he cautioned that these media could act both as stimulators or inhibitors to innovation. For small and medium- sized organizations, investments in information technology aligned with innovation can support core competencies and impact profitability and growth (Dibrell, Davis, & Craig, 2008).
Awazu, Baloh, Desouza, Wecht, Kim, and Jha (2009) encouraged organizations to use information-communication technologies (ICTs) to aid the innovation by gathering ideas from internal and external sources. ICTs help during idea generation and development; design, testing and refinement of ideas, and idea commercializa- tion stages. During the first stage, organizations understand the sources of ideas by gathering infor- mation from customers through various ICTs (i.e. radio-frequency identification devices, customer relationship management systems). Then they document sources through digital space groups (i.e. I-Pipe) and share ides by open communica- tion and collaboration (i.e. IdeaCentral). For the second stage, testing and refining products and services, ITCs provide simulation capabilities and platforms for online collaboration. Idea adoption and commercialization, the third stage, is support- ed by ITCs such as Wikis, customer relationship management systems, and Internet-based ordering
systems (i.e. Toyota Prius). Awazu et al., (2009) summarize that as a result of ITC integration, customers and users actively participate in the innovation process.
GUIDING QUESTIONS
Before introducing any type innovation, the fol- lowing guiding questions should be considered.
• What is the purpose of the initiative? What are the expected business outcomes?
• What if innovation does not occur? What are the consequences of not innovating?
• What should be sacrificed in order for in- novation to happen?
• Who needs to be involved at different stag- es of the innovation? How would one en- sure that both the needs of the people and the organization are met?
• Who are the innovators in your organiza- tion? It will be easier to engage them.
• Are there any projects that have their own resources, owners, and timeline? Would the key stakeholders of these projects in- corporate the innovation into the project?
• Is there a crisis area or a growing oppor- tunity in your organization? Would it be feasible to attach the innovation to one of those areas?
• Can you easily demonstrate the benefits and outcomes of the innovation? What
Box 3.
The ability to create a culture of sustainable innovation exposes the success or failure of industrial leaders. A company known for innovations 3M released over 1000 new products in 2009. Many products can be found in offices and classrooms while others are found in automobiles, hospitals and fishing rods. To support and encourage innovative ideas 3M awards annual Genesis Grants up to $100,000 to company scien- tists. Under the current leadership of George Buckley the new CEO with a Ph.D. in electrical engineering 3M has returned to its business model of generating 30% of its revenue from products introduced in the past 5 years. Buckley removed Six Sigma from the research labs and returned the labs to their former success currently employing 6,500 people. 3M is not focused on making the Next Big Thing but rather on inventing hundreds of the Next Small Thing. They understand the importance of their core technologies abrasives, adhesives,imaging and films and develop products that expand the use of existing products or improve their effectiveness. Started over 100 years ago they remain a leader in innovation (Gunther 2010).
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metrics to measure the impact of innova- tion can be established?
• Is the market ready for the innovation? Otherwise, the organization’s risks benefit the competition.
• What is your current organizational cul- ture? Would it assist the innovation or stifle it? Is your organization ready to inspire?
• Is your organization willing to take risks or is it failure-phobic? Innovation involves failures, too.
FUTURE TRENDS
Organizational innovation is the main driver for companies to prosper, grow and sustain high profitability (Drucker, 1988; Christensen, 1997). While changes continue to foster growth as well as decline, only those organizations that embrace innovation will be successful in a future market quite distinct from today’s conditions. Great business ideas for the future fail miserably when presented to an organization that is focused solely on the present (Bate, 2010). Innovative organiza- tions require capable leaders.
The global environment requires new leader- ship. Heifetz and Laurie (1997) charge leaders with scanning the environment and engaging others to lead adaptive challenges such as culture or core process changes instead of problem solving is- sues employees can do on their own. Supporting this view, Lipman-Blumen (2002) advocates that leaders can no longer remain strictly visionary; they have to be connective. Connective leaders are ethical and politically savvy. They are authentic and accountable. They search for common ground and build communities. They think long-term but act short-term by coaching and encouraging successors. They lead through expectation and engage supporters in meaningful change efforts. Connective leaders appreciate diversity and pro- mote collaboration, a factor that is preeminent in innovation.
Bate (2010) also emphasizes the importance of an organization to discover and align around a strategic frontier to guide its innovation efforts. This will determine if the innovation results desired are incremental or breakthrough. The innovation process should begin with a more fundamental discussion about the future of the business, its strategic intent, and aspirations.
Management consultants PTRM conducted the annual Global Innovation Trends Survey 2009 in conjunction with the Product Development and Management Association (PDMA). Nearly fifty global manufacturing and service companies from the automotive and industrial, consumer goods, energy and natural resources, and high-tech and telecommunications industries responded. The survey revealed six major findings on global in- novation:
1. Emphasis on corporate strategy to drive innovation will increase significantly.
2. Innovation success is impacted by lack of a compelling vision and an intolerance of innovation failure.
3. Companies will draw from a wider range of internal and external sources of innovation.
4. Companies continue to focus innovation metrics on improved revenue.
5. Product and service innovation remains predominantly in Europe and North America.
6. Linking business strategy and innovation delivers three-fold return on investment (ROI).
Factors organizations should consider include:
1. Paying attention to the locus of innovation
The innovation process does not necessar- ily take place within the boundaries of the firm (Elmquist, Fredberg, & Ollila, 2009). Paying attention to the locus of innovation is important. This also leads us to a second factor in innova-
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tion trends, namely, the large number of actors involved in the process of innovation
2. The extent of collaboration
‘Wisdom of crowds’ is a current movement in innovation regarding the ability to collaborate with many (Surowiecki, 2005). This assumption emphasizes that the collective intelligence of a large group exceeds that of a few, both in terms of ideas and knowledge (Elmquist, Fredberg, & Ol- lila, 2009). Organizing the collective intelligence to create meaning out of the multitude of existing information is a primary concern.
Elmquist, Fredburg and Ollila (2009) discuss crowd sourcing and mass collaboration as two solutions for the aforementioned problem. Crowd sourcing involves using the minds of many to find solutions to well-defined problems (Lakhani & Jeppesen, 2007). In crowd sourcing, the firm or the product is the focus and individual and team assignments support the process of innovation. Mass collaboration (e.g., Wikipedia) is char- acterized by self-organizing, bottom-up driven movements that carry the idea as the focus of the organization. The difference between crowd sourcing and mass collaboration is the center of the innovation process.
CONCLUSION
Change is inevitable. It is a constant force that requires flexibility from individuals, teams, and organizations. Globalization, the emergence of social technologies, and the change in workforce demographics have forced organizations to rethink their strategies and processes. Successful innova- tion results in reduced costs, improved productiv- ity, and increased employee morale. Effective and encouraging leaders, an alignment with business goals, strong culture promoting excellence and improvement, and technology integration ease in- novational efforts. The ultimate goal of change is
to improve results and outputs thus adding value. Corporations and educational institutions do not want to lag behind in a network economy. They must nurture an organization ready to sustain in- novation in the 21st century.
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KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS
Change Agent: The individual in an organiza- tion that actively and effectively promotes change
Continuous Change: Change that recycles through a defined process frequently focused on performance, quality improvement or learning by organizations that view change as constant and necessary for success
Episodic Change: Change that is a result of a single event, is infrequent, and while it is intentional, it is short term
Innovation: A complex process that leads to changes in processes, new products or services that address a business or market need
Organizational Change: Reaction, at the or- ganizational level, to forces which can be internal or external, that demands a response in order for the organization to be successful. This reaction can include processes, attitudes, culture or leadership.
Organizational Innovation: The successful utilization of processes, programs, or products which are new and introduced as a result of deci- sions made within the organization
Sustainability: The degree to which a program of change is continued after the initial resources provided by a change agency are ended
Sustainable Innovation: The ability of an innovation to continue after initial resources have been expended; long-term outcomes should con- sider the people, institution, and natural resources
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Copyright © 2012, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
Chapter 39
INTRODUCTION
The New Zealand Education Curriculum has a focus and vision that New Zealand children will grasp the opportunities given by new knowledge and technologies to provide an overall positive
future for the country. By providing an online network of individuals who engage, collabo- rate and share an area of knowledge/interest (a Community of Practice) children are better able to meet this vision. An online Community of Practice (CoP) can share knowledge, resources, expertise, experiences, tools and methodologies. This collaboration improves the learning of both
Jacob Prisk Takapuna Normal Intermediate School, New Zealand
Kerry Lee University of Auckland, New Zealand
How to Utilize an Online Community of Practice (CoP)
to Enhance Innovation in Teaching and Learning
ABSTRACT
Involving the community in supporting students’ learning is something most educators would consider high in importance. Communities of practice have proven they assist authentic learning to take place. Developing an online community of practice adds a layer of complexity to classroom learning, as it is more than simply converting activities to Web-based interactions. This chapter provides background to what communities of practice are and how they function. It outlines the considerations needed to design a successful and sustainable community of practice. Utilization, considerations for implementation and future trends will also be elaborated upon.
DOI: 10.4018/978-1-61350-068-2.ch039
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the individual and the group as a whole. An online CoP gives learners opportunities to engage, col- laborate and share knowledge on a local, national and international platform while minimizing time and space matters.
This chapter will provide background to what communities of practice are and how they func- tion in the New Zealand context and curriculum.
If online communities of practice (CoPs) are to be sustainable and have an effect on teaching pedagogy, they need to be designed to improve existing teaching practice. The design focus of a successful online CoP needs to consider techni- cal, pedagogical and organizational issues. How to establish and develop an effective online CoP from a bare platform will be explained as well as identifying important aspects, which need to be included.
This will be followed by a section, which will focus on the application of online CoPs. A great deal of the literature focuses on the significance of collaboration as a teaching and learning practice in virtual and e-learning environments. Subsequently there has been growing research emphasizing the importance of CoPs as a hub for information exchange, knowledge creation and organizational innovation. Online CoPs also have positive im- plications for teaching and learning practices. An online CoP provides teachers and learners with a participatory process that includes engaging, collaborating and sharing knowledge not simply acquiring it. This interaction can happen across communities and between resources.
This section will be followed by an explanation of the considerations that are needed when imple- menting an online CoP. Detail will be provided on the professional development of teachers and how an online CoP can provide an innovative method of delivering professional development, shifting the emphasis from traditional and conventional, face to face professional development courses and workshops, to learning in practice. Technol- ogy designers need to have a clear understanding of the goals, purpose and the needs of the online
CoP so that the level of usability is one which learners can enjoy and not find difficulties with. This section will also explore the importance of trust and acceptance of Information and Commu- nication Technology (ICT), as without those two components it is very hard to build a successful online CoP where learners can trust and accept each other.
The last section will explore the future trends associated with online CoPs. ICT is increasingly described as the ‘fifth utility’, the fact being we can pretty much no longer live, work or learn ef- ficiently without an ICT infrastructure. There is a need for schools to ‘personalize’ pupils’ learn- ing to meet the demands of a ‘knowledge based economy’ where it will be possible to compete with the developing and global markets. The fu- ture benefits that could occur from online CoPs are based around increased collaboration with others rather leaving learners to develop on their own, and the ever-increasing technology that is allowing learners to communicate with others on so many levels.
BACKGROUND
The concept of a community of practice (CoP) began in the 1980s at the Institute for Research on Learning, which was funded by the Xerox Corporation (Daniel, Sarkar & O’Brien, 2004). From this there has been more research outlining the significance of CoPs as a centre point for its members for engagement, collaboration and the sharing of knowledge. The CoP can be a centre point to trade different types of information be- tween its members. Etienne Wenger is recognized as the most knowledgeable and main theorist in CoPs. According to Wenger, McDermott and Snyder (2002) a CoP is:
“a community of practice is not just a Web site, a database, or a collection of best practices. It is a group of people who interact, learn together, build
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relationships, and in the process develop a sense of belonging and mutual commitment. Having others who share your overall view of the domain and yet bring their individual perspectives on any given problem creates a social learning system that goes beyond the sum of its parts.” (p. 34)
Thus, CoPs can be understood as a group of people who are informally bound together by shared expertise, interest and passion for a joint enterprise (Wenger & Snyder (2000). Having a joint enterprise between the groups of people is important to the success of a CoP as without the joint enterprise the CoP cannot function and grow, as it needs the engagement of more than just a singular member.
Members of a CoP connect with each other in the community to conciliate a joint initiative which creates importance, produces practices and standards for these. This process creates more than “just a stated goal, but creates among participants relations of mutual accountability that become an integral part of the practice” Wenger (1998, p. 78). It involves the building of knowledge in an enthusiastic way to better theory and practice. A CoP can only be cultivated and mature by means of agreed participation of its ‘bloodline’, its members.
Through this mutual engagement the CoP members interact with one another, share ideas, knowledge, problems and problem solving techniques. Mutual engagement connections are formulated around common passions and interests not just knowledge exchange, networking or inter- action. Members create a bank of resources that become communal and can be used by all other members. CoPs support engagement, in part, by facilitating members to share their histories, of what they have done and what they have been, Brosnan and Burgess (2003). The link between learning and the membership of a CoP are indis- soluble because the knowledge comes from the participants. Examples of this in action could be members sharing their past experiences of where they have been and what they have done, routines,
artifacts, vocabulary, different styles and problem solving techniques.
Barab and Duffy (2000) imply that CoPs have three main characteristics:
• A common culture and historical heritage. CoPs have a significant history and mem- bers share a common historical heritage, with shared practices, goals and meanings.
• An interdependent system. Members of a CoP work and interconnect with the com- munity, sharing purpose and identity.
• A reproduction cycle. CoPs take in new members (peripheral members) who then become practitioners and guide the com- munity into the future.
From these characteristics it should be observed that CoPs all carry knowledge building fundamen- tals and that without members no learning would be able to occur.
The evolution of the Internet along with in- novative web technologies and tools has impacted on the way individuals communicate. This has greatly enhanced the development of communities online and provided the opportunity for online CoPs to facilitate the engagement, collaboration sharing and use of knowledge effectively between individuals (Lai, Pratt, Anderson, & Stigter 2006). These innovations have also changed the ways that communities developWellman and Haythorn- thwaite (2003) remind us that “we are moving away from a world of Internet wizards to a world of ordinary people routinely using the Internet as an embedded part of their lives” (p. 6).
An online CoP is more than just a process of moving a CoP from somewhere outside the internet to an online setting. Technology infrastructure has to be made to facilitate the functioning of online CoPs to defeat obstacles that an ordinary CoP does not meet. These obstacles include time zones, group size (membership may be large and need numerous locations), affiliates (members spread across many organizations), and culture.
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The New Zealand state schooling system allows such innovations to have a place in their educa- tion setting.
The New Zealand state school education setting is underpinned by The New Zealand Curriculum (2007). A review of the New Zealand Curriculum was undertaken in the years 2000-02 and a draft, which took into consideration the review’s recom- mendations was developed and published in 2006. After feedback from teachers and the education community the final version of the curriculum was published in 2007. This document is a clear statement of what the New Zealand government deems important in education. It gives a vision for the young people of New Zealand to be life-long learners who are confident and creative, connected and actively involved in their learning. It states a clear set of principles on which to base curriculum decision-making. Values that are to be encouraged, modeled and explored are clearly stated. Five key competencies (thinking, using languages, symbols and texts, managing self, relating to others, par- ticipating and contributing) are defined and said to be critical to sustained learning and effective participation in society (Ministry of Education, 2007). The document’s “principle function is to set the direction for student learning and to provide guidance for schools as they design and review their curriculum” (Ministry of Education, 2007, p.6).
In the New Zealand Curriculum (2007) en- terprise is embedded in the ‘Key Competency’ of ‘Managing Self’: “Students who can manage themselves are enterprising, resourceful, reliable, and resilient. They establish personal goals, make plans, manage projects, and set high standards” (Ministry of Education, 2007, p. 12). This implies that the skills of ‘enterprise’ can be attained by instilling habits, behaviors or ways of think- ing through learning experiences that will treat students as independent learners who have pre- acquired knowledge and are taught to be resilient and self-reflective.
By instilling these enterprising habits and behaviors a set of enterprising attributes can be developed. Gibb (1987, p. 6) states these enterpris- ing attributes to be initiative, persuasive powers, moderate risk taking, flexibility, creativity, inde- pendence, problem solving, need for achievement, imagination, leadership, hard work and internal locus of control.
An online CoP can support these attributes and provide a platform to be able to put into practice the key competency of “Managing self”. This can be done by letting students manage their own learning and enabling students to take collective responsibility for managing the knowledge they need. Van Winkelen (2003) believes “communi- ties of practice are fundamentally social structures which take responsibility for fostering their own learning, managing their own knowledge building and developing competencies within the group”. When considering school curriculum design, the New Zealand Curriculum (2007) guides teachers to ‘significant themes’ that could be used to inte- grate the ‘Key Competencies’ and the ‘Learning Areas’ (curriculum content). One of these themes is future focus; “The curriculum encourages students to look to the future by exploring such significant future focused issues as sustainability, citizenship, enterprise and globilisation” (Ministry of Education, 2007, p.39). Therefore the New Zealand Curriculum embraces the innovation of online CoPs.
Designing Effective Online CoPs
It is important that if online CoPs are to grow, mature, stay alive and have an effect on teaching pedagogy, and learning, they have to be designed to improve teaching practice. Technology, infra- structure, teaching and organizational matters need to be thought through. In addition to this, significant choices have to be made by the com- munity facilitators, leaders and administrators. An effective online CoP is one that is cultivated to grow naturally, designed to support sociability
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and participation, created to attract a diverse mem- bership, managed by providing different roles, include technology, designed with functionality to support knowledge sharing and give a mixed approach towards development where offline and online activities support each other (Lai et al., 2006). These design principles will be explored in this section.
An effective online CoP needs to be grown rather than made. CoPs are a mix of design and growth and the design must allow growth. Al- though an online CoP must be carefully planned and designed in order to meet the members’ needs, it also needs to be organic by nature. To be an energetic and prosperous online CoP the design must provoke interaction between its members. Members working together forming partnerships and learning and supporting each other, allow the CoP to grow and function. Members become fully involved team players and as such they drive its growth and development. The design should have a goal of pushing out the communities’ inner paths, personalities and energies. An online CoP must also be designed in a manner that permits and motivates development. A bottom-up design gives its members a sense of belonging to the community. Technology can build the online CoP however its participants must themselves grow and cultivate the community. For Wenger and his colleagues (2002), the key to developing a successful CoP is to plan for a sense of aliveness so as to generate “enough excitement, relevance, and value to attract and engage members” (p. 2) in the community. CoPs therefore have to be designed so that they “invite the interaction that make them alive…to bring out the community’s own internal direction, character, and energy” so that the community is “natural, spontaneous, and self-directed” (Wenger et al., 2002, p.2).
Eight design strategies have been recognised to cultivate the growth of online CoPs, these have been summarized in Figure 1 (Lai et al., 2006). The first strategy is that of completing a needs assessment so that a clear goal and motive can be
identified. This could be as simple as discussing with school leadership, teachers and students what their needs are and what would motivate them to use the online CoP. Teachers and students could also be involved in the design of the online CoP. Determining the community and its purpose is an important part of CoP development Preece (2000). An online community should have a shared focus on its purpose, needs, service, and support, which provides the member with a reason to belong to the community Preece (2001).
The next design strategy is that of encouraging a sense of ownership. It has been suggested that communities are not built, but grow through member customization, interaction, contribution, engagement and collaboration, but the most sig- nificant factor is that of ownership. Therefore the design must provide many opportunities to give members different situations where they can participate and begin to feel as if they own and are an important part of the online CoP.
Another strategy used to develop the online CoP is giving it time and opportunities to grow and mature. Due to the possibility of conflicting priorities, lack of connection and trust among members of online CoPs, time and effort should be provided to engage all the stakeholders of the CoP to develop a common understanding of the value of the community (Wenger et al., 2002).
For an online CoP to grow and mature it needs to support diversity. If an online CoP is allowed to emerge, it has to allow for diversity, and en- sure that multiple voices and perspectives can be advanced in the community Barab, MaKinster, & Scheckler (2004). An example of this is dif- ferent forums that can be posted on online CoPs where members can share their own perspectives, knowledge and reflections on particular interests or subjects.
According to Preece (2000, 2001, 2004), an experienced online community designer, the key to the design of online communities focuses on two concepts: usability and sociability. Sociability is mostly concentrated on how the participants
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in the community engage, collaborate and share knowledge with one another through the tech- nology. Usability is focused on making sure that the members use the technology successfully to increase their participation in the online com- munity. Preece’s (2000) structure of ‘designing usability, supporting sociability’ is useful for de- signing online CoPs, as it is vital that matters of participation and interaction are addressed from the start. An important issue and difficulty with online CoPs is that of the managing and facilita- tion of active participation. One must comprehend the reasons why individuals wish to participate in the online community and what elements could have an impact on engagement, collaboration and knowledge sharing, at different levels within the community (singular and group). Without active involvement, the online CoP will not progress from the start. There are a number of different strategies that can be used to support sociability and participation these include allowing members time to participate, giving value and importance to the online CoP and building a sense of community within the online CoP (Lai et al., 2006). Through applying these strategies an online CoP can attract a diverse membership effectively.
A heterogeneous membership made up of mem- bers with different levels and areas of knowledge
is required for the online CoP to work successfully. The CoP designers and facilitators then have to choose who should be invited into the community and who not. From this different design plans have to be put into place to underpin an important group mass for a continuous development of the online CoP. Lai et al., (2006) have identified the follow- ing issues /strategies that need to be considered:
Ongoing Recruitment of Members
The need to recruit new members is vital to the life of the online CoP. The recruiting of new members will help grow, mature and blossom the online CoP therefore making it attractive for others to join. This recruitment of new members can be done by current members inviting people to take part, providing high level knowledge that others desire, and making it exciting to be part of the community so others will want to engage.
Encourage Lurkers to Participate
Lurkers are those who include themselves in an online community by confidentially reading mes- sages, forums, blogs and not posting or replying their own and sharing their knowledge. Lurkers can be the biggest population in the community and
Figure 1. Design strategies to cultivate growth of online CoPs
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the most active. Overtime they can be encouraged to become integrated into the active population of the community and engage, collaborate and share knowledge. The encouragement comes from themselves wanting to learn more about an interest and be part of the active community.
Structure to Provide Geographical and Contextual Differences
In designing an online CoP, the issue of how local/ global the community should be also has to be ad- dressed (Wenger, 1998). Constructing a platform that gives opportunities for local and global com- munities to connect should be emphasized. These structures should be built so that sub groups can be formed around various learning areas however these groups can still preserve their connections with the international community.
Numerous studies have identified the impor- tance of attributing roles within the design of a CoP in order for it to be managed successfully Preece (2001). In general these roles can be di- vided up into four different categories; community members, support persons, core members and leadership roles (Lai et al., 2006). For an online CoP to be successful there are particular roles that need to fulfilled. These roles are: the community organisers, technology experts, administrators and facilitators.
Core members are the members who have high levels of knowledge in a field. They go to support members, give guidance to new members to help them comprehend the online CoPs’ culture and practices. These members can sometimes go on and become core members or even leaders of the community. These members also help invite the silent lurkers into the community and encourage them to become active members.
From having these roles in the community par- ticular benefits can occur. These benefits are that of reassurance (that the CoP is taken seriously), continuity (roles connect the CoP’s present and past) and structure (help members share expertise
and knowledge). This knowledge sharing and sociability can only occur if the technology is designed in a way to support it.
Designers need to be aware of the ‘big picture’ as shown in Figure 1 in order to ensure members can use the online CoP effectively and for the online CoP to work efficiently. Not only are they required to consider the needs of the com- munity but also the level of access to technology and funding available (Lai et al., 2006). It is imperative that the technology designers have a clear understanding of the aims, motives, and the requirements of the online CoP as well as the social and pedagogical issues before deciding on the technology. The capacity and compatibility of computer software (Mac or PC) to which possible members of the online CoP have access, needs to be thought about. “The technology needs to work for everyone if the sense of community is to be sustained” (Wenger, White, Smith, & Rowe, 2005, p. 9). One of the major considerations that have to be considered when designing technology is that of funding available, as the amount of funding can shape the type of online CoP, which is going to be available to its members. What kinds of technology tools the CoP can access depends on its budget (Wenger, White, Smith, & Rowe, 2005).
Technology can support online CoPs in various ways, such as connecting members of the com- munity, building knowledge banks, building the feeling of a community, encouraging participation, growth of identity and presence, mentoring and online instruction. Although technology is very important online CoPs still need a mix whereby online activities are reinforced by offline activities.
Reasons for having offline interactions are that they lead to higher level of satisfaction, help build trustworthy, positive relationships and provide a sense of community.
In a 2004 study, the need for face-to-face com- munication support was highlighted. Participants showed a higher level of satisfaction with collabo- ration as a result of face-to-face communication support (Hossain & Wigand, 2004). The research-
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ers identified that establishing relationships built on trust among members was dependent on rates of face-to-face contact.
Collaboration Through the Application of Online CoPs
Online CoPs can be differentiated from other net- works or associations by their rates of collaboration and engagement. Stuckey (2001) states that CoPs can be distinguished from these other groups in terms of the levels of collaboration.
At end of the spectrum are portals. “An online portal gives key stakeholders up-to-date, ‘on de- mand’ access to an individual student’s education progress” (Dataview, 2010). These portals are at the end of the spectrum where there is minimal collaboration and engagement for its members, with the main purpose of the portal being to give members and sometimes non-members, informa- tion on individuals or groups.
Networks or communities that have a desire to share knowledge have higher rates of engagement and collaboration as they are aimed at the desire to share and gain knowledge to sustain their own hunger for learning. Networks are associations where its participants are weakly connected to each other. An example of this is a job vacancy web site where employers search for employees, in this example the group’s purpose is more about social relationships. Duncan, Gordon & Hu (2001). An online CoP is different to this as its members are focused towards a particular interest or topic and that is the strength of the community. From this the social relationships are occurring incidentally and are not a focus of the community.
However sociability is tending towards the high end of the spectrum of collaboration and engage- ment with the advancement of such social sharing websites such as facebook (http://www.facebook. com/) and tools such as blogs and forums.
Blogs sometimes called forums allow members to have a space within a type of online CoP to record their thoughts, ideas, perspectives, experi-
ences, knowledge and expertise and other members can make comments and share their thoughts and knowledge. This is at the end of the spectrum where collaboration is at its highest level.
In schools, blogs can be used by students within a CoP to share their perspectives, knowledge and reflections on particular interests or subjects that the group is exploring through their learning at any particular time. Students can engage and share their experiences with one another building their own knowledge through collaboration. In a school, teachers can also use a blog as a way of communi- cating between each other, sharing resources and knowledge, sharing their own experiences and bank of resources, which saves time and breaks down geographical barriers. Blogs/Forums can also be used as a reflective tool for teachers in a private or public setting where teachers can reflect on practice and other teachers can comment on ways to improve such practice which leads to better practice.
An online CoP should have collaboration as its focus as it gives members different roles to engage and share knowledge. Instead of having one main knowledge guardian, online CoPs can be used to encourage teamwork so members participate and interact with each other. From this they can then teach, learn and share their knowledge with each other, all through collaboration.
Implication Considerations
An online CoP can be very effective as a vehicle for teacher professional development. It shifts formal training to learning in practice, as it goes beyond traditional ‘face-to-face’ forms of train- ing and allows teachers to behave in a way where they are the co-producers of knowledge, which gives increased responsibility for professional development (Lai et al., 2006).
The concept of an online CoP provides an innovative way of approaching professional de- velopment for teachers. Instead of the teachers just receiving professional development, through
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an online CoP the teacher can learn in a participa- tory method that involves “doing, becoming, and belonging, not simply acquiring” (Ng & Hung, 2003, p. 62). From this professional development for teachers should not exclusively rely on the usual systems of gaining knowledge through seminars/ workshops but on teachers’ strengths and expertise which can be shared through an online CoP.
For professional development to be successful through an online CoP there has to be trust within its members to help build the community. Build- ing relationships and trust can be very difficult to support for an online CoP. Trust is often seen as the glue that binds the members of a community to act in sharing and adapting manner. Without trust, members could hoard their knowledge and experience and not bother sharing with or learn- ing from others (Nichani & Hung, 2002, p. 51). Some online CoPs are only short-lived and time is restricted, so the time to form relationships and gain trust is short. For some, membership is only brief so they find it hard to build the trust with one another as members are entering the community and leaving in a short space of time. Without trust, members may not let go of their knowledge to share with others and engage in collaboration. Trust takes time to build and could be enhanced by off-line activities where members can meet each other face- to- face to help build the trust needed for effective use of an online CoP.
Another implication is the functionality of the technology to support the online CoP. The design of the technology should enable it to supply members with online community areas to engage, reflect on past experiences, attach resources collaborate and share their knowledge to improve practice. The technology infrastructure should maintain a knowledge base of best practice for the com- munity and support practice-building projects for groups in the community Wenger (2001), for members to retrieve and analyze the history of online communication and digital artifacts created collaboratively by members of the online CoP (Schlager & Fusco, 2004). These artifacts/re-
sources could range from lesson plans short videos, power points and any other learning materials that teachers could find useful. The technology could also help the efficiency of participation by letting members participate easily within the online CoP therefore attracting them back to participate at a higher rate and trusting the technology to share their knowledge with others. The functionality of the technology may also provide members with opportunities to develop their own personal identity through a profile where members can identify other member’s expertise and question them over it. The experiences the members have had, through the technology, can contribute to the life cycle of the online CoP.
The implication considerations of the life cycle of an online CoP are split into three phases. These are the formation, sustaining/maturing and transformation or disengaging phase (Lai et al., 2006). The formation phase is where a variety of activities occur such as identifying the potential community, determining the purpose and scope of the community, community building, creating a preliminary design for the community and launch of the community (Lai et al., 2006). This stage contributes to the introduction of the community to the start it off. In this stage it is very important to provide opportunities that give members time to establish relationships where trust can be built and opportunities where members can identify interests and needs that are common to other members in the community.
The second phase concentrates on the main- taining and maturing of the online community of practice through an assortment of modes. These modes include leadership, mentoring new mem- bers, seeking relationships and benchmarks outside of the community, establishing the com- munity, assessment points, knowledge banks and assessing aims and directions (Lai et al., 2006). The goal of this stage is to produce advantages for the community, its members and provide organistional benefits, as this should keep the community, sustained, growing and maturing.
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The lifespan of the final phase depends on whether the online CoP will expand, wither away or die. The final phase will somewhat be determined by the success of the previous two phases. In this phase the online CoP will grow and become larger or will wither away and finish.
FUTURE TRENDS
Education to a point is a social activity and there- fore people who try and learn on their own are going to be greatly disadvantaged compared with those who belong to a community of learners. Learners need a community to engage, collabo- rate with and share their knowledge. “Education is not merely the acquisition of new information and skills, but a social activity, where knowledge and skills are demonstrated, criticized, or merged” (Downes, 1998). It is because of this, online com- munities will have much more importance in the future than is seen today. We can see schools, colleges and universities starting to embrace, with the rapid increase of numbers, online CoPs developed to support students learning.
A type of community that will have more im- portance in the future is the topic or interest based community. An ‘interest-based community’ is a group of people who share the same interests. They may be geographically spread around nationally or internationally but share a communal space on the internet. Online educators and facilitators in the future will benefit from knowledge of how to encourage and sustain online communities. Educators will want to achieve this as the better the commitment to the community, the greater the commitment to learning, as learning is the shared experience, which shapes the community (Downes, 1998). Through developing this knowl- edge, educators will also gain an understanding of the technologies and which ones work best in each situation.
Technology should not be used to power the content but neither should it restrict the learning. At
the moment online learning and communities are being provided with material that comes through narrow lanes often to low capacity computers, unreliable software and infrastructure. In the future this will change. Bandwidth (the quantity and quality of information that can be delivered from a server site) restrictions will change. With these innovations it will become faster, be able to carry more information, ever-present and cheaper with more providers. Computers will become more dependable, memory speeds and capacity will increase. They will also have more func- tions to use through an online CoP. “Computer programs of the future will be function based” (Downes, 1998) The student of the future will not need to start up an application, instead when they log into the online CoP the online CoP will start these applications on its own. Technology in education will change.
The traditional learning tools (pen and paper) will be soaked up by new technologies in a very concrete way. The PAD (Personal Access Device) (Downes, 1998) could become the main tool for online learning and communities combining all the traditional tools into an innovative electronic version. Basically the PAD is a lightweight note book computer with touch screen functions, high speed wireless internet access, similar to a contemporary clipboard (weighing the same), containing a high resolution screen, with easy to read text, video, multi media, accepting voice com- mands, recognizing handwriting and accepting a touch screen keyboard (Downes, 1998). Utilizing this technology one’s education would become personal and they would feel they are part of a learning community. Through the PAD students will be able to participate in online conferencing whilst supporting their online-communities and learning.
In the future the innovation of online conferenc- ing could be a vital element in a teacher’s arsenal. Online conferencing provides the opportunity for discussion in an interest area bringing specialists into the community so students can engage, col-
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laborate and gain knowledge. The “effective use of online conferencing will be a skill as important in the future as the social skills taught in schools today” (Downes, 1998).
In the future students will have the best com- puter you can imagine just slipped into their school bag connected to many different resources avail- able on the internet and linked to many different online learning communities with different areas of interest all engaging, collaborating and sharing their knowledge. The evolution of such a tool will make education in the future very strongly per- sonalized. Education will become less traditional classroom based and more interest/topic based, as learners will be driven by their motives to acquire knowledge on a particular topic. This will give the student time to progress through the material appropriate to their own learning ability.
CONCLUSION
CoPs focus on growing a shared bank of com- munal resources. Within a CoP the act of learn- ing and that of membership are joined at the hip. CoPs are different from other associations in that they participate in sharing the best methods and practice of a particular interest or topic with the membership being very mixed and showing a great deal of variety. CoPs do not always focus on a particular exercise however they are continuous learning communities where members are engag- ing, collaborating and sharing their knowledge.
Online CoPs are comparable to CoPs however they are dissimilar in some ways. This can include design, membership, leadership, the type of com- munication, the time it takes to create the com- munity and the technological support needed (Lai et al., 2006). It is significant to acknowledge that developing an online CoP for a particular interest or topic is not as easy as simply bringing a CoP instantly to an online setting and it becoming an online CoP instantly, as more is needed than that. Not all online associations or groups are online
CoPs as online CoPs have higher rates of engage- ment, collaboration and sharing of knowledge than other online communities.
The designing of an online CoP is highly im- portant to the success of the online CoP. Without the correct design the online CoP will not grow, mature, attract or retain members to keep the online CoP sustainable and viable.
The levels of collaboration are very high within an online CoP, which also attracts high levels of engagement and the sharing of knowledge, which make it successful, and learner orientated.
An online CoP can provide an innovative and, effective method of teacher development and classroom practice. It requires trust to be built within the community so that the community members are willing to share information and knowledge. The technology involved needs to sup- port the online CoP so as to attract new members and therefore be successful.
Online CoPs can be very successful in the sup- porting of new learning as it invites collaboration, engagement and sharing of knowledge between learners.
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Barab, S. A., & Duffy, T. M. (2000). From practice fields to communities of practice. In Land, S. M., & Jonassen, D. H. (Eds.), Theoretical foundations of learning environments (pp. 1–29). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
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Lai, K. W., Pratt, K., Anderson, M., & Stigter, J. (2006). Literature synthesis and review: On- line communities of practice. Wellington, New Zealand: Ministry of Education (commissioned report).
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Wellman, B., & Haythornthwaite, C. (2003). Mov- ing the internet out of cyberspace. The internet in everyday life: An introduction. In Wellman, B., & Haythornthwaite, C. (Eds.), The internet in everyday life (pp. 3–45). Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishers.
Wenger, E. (1998). Communities of practice: Learning as a social system. The System Thinker, 9(5). Retrieved from http:// www.co-i-l.com/ coil/ knowledge-garden/ cop/ lss.shtml
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Wenger, E. C., & Snyder, W. M. (2000). Com- munities of practice: The organizational frontier. Harvard Business Review, 78(1), 139–145.
KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS
Bandwidth: The transmission capacity of a computer network.
Blog: Part of a Web site on which an individual or group of users produces an ongoing narrative.
Community of Practice: A community or group of people who are casually tied together by shared knowledge, interest and are motivated for a joint enterprise.
Collaborate: Work jointly with others on an activity especially to produce or create some- thing, which lets the participants, gain a new understanding.
Engagement: When members of a group or organisation establish meaningful contact with other members to participate or become involved in an activity in which they are going to benefit from.
Hub: Forms the effective centre of knowledge where different networks can access it.
Online Community of Practice: A com- munity or group who share a space online on the Internet and who are joined together by expertise, interests and are motivated for a joint enterprise. This community does not have to be in the same geographical location.
Portal: An online portal that gives key stake- holders up-to-date, ‘on-demand’ access to an individual student’s education progress (Dataview, 2010).
Sharing of Knowledge: An activity through which knowledge is exchanged among people or members of a community or organization.
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Copyright © 2012, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
Chapter 40
DOI: 10.4018/978-1-61350-068-2.ch040
INTRODUCTION
There are many reasons to create a learner-centered classroom environment. One is to engage learn- ers more fully in the content. The second is to develop sophisticated and independent learners. The third is to create a community of practice, a safe environment for newbies to learn the nuances of what we as faculty love about our individual disciplines; and finally creating significant learn-
ing experiences to integrate content into a larger learning framework.
What defines an engaged learner in academia has change dramatically over the last 20 years. Students have many choices about what school to attend, what courses to choose and also how to en- gage in each course. The interesting dynamic is that students want each instructor to provide specific direction and freedom concurrently. Faculty and institutions are beginning to meet those demands on a larger scale through providing options such as choice in assignments, deadlines and topics of study. Institutions are offering courses in multiple
Karen Weller Swanson Mercer University, USA
Learner-Centered Course Design
ABSTRACT
A learner-centered instructional design is far more complex than providing riveting discussions or choices within the syllabus. A learner-centered focus demands a developmental understanding of how students transform into adults capable of making individual choices, managing multi-dimensional relationships and creating self-awareness to sustain growth over time. This chapter will address transformation (Mezirow, 2000), learner-centered pedagogy (Weimer, 2002), the demands of the millennial student, and the use of significant learning experiences (Fink, 2003) which incorporates both teaching and learning experience.
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formats such as face-to-face, hybrid or entirely online. These options then create a challenge to more traditional teachers and institutions. Weimer (2002) captures the pedagogical shift when she states “we have stopped assuming that learning is the automatic, inevitable outcome of teaching” (p. 49). This chapter will address ideas of how to systematically shift towards a learner-centered course without losing the richness of content. One step is to understand the developmental process that college students go through as they simultaneously become adults.
Developing sophisticated and independent learners is a pedagogical challenge for faculty. Many factors share importance with the traditional emphasis on content. One issue is sharing power and space during a course. For example, a faculty member may choose to create the assignments, a skeleton of required readings but allow students to determine additional readings and deadlines. Sharing power can range from the meaningless choices to the co-creation of a course experience. The time required to scaffold students’ experiences through a shared process of making informed and important decisions in a course is a salient ele- ment of learner-centered instruction. In terms of independence, the range of learning outcomes must vary because not all students are mature enough to make strong choices. Thus a developmental framework is necessary for faculty to consider when creating a scope and sequence for a course that is learner-centered.
Finally, the enduring purpose in creating inde- pendent, critically aware students is summed up by Brookfield (1995), “We teach to change the world. The hope that undergirds our efforts to help students learn is that doing this will help them act toward each other, and toward their environment, with compassion, understanding, and fairness” (p. 1). A monumental task by any measure, how faculty have the privilege to create rather than manufacture democratically minded citizens,
successful students and dynamic institutions one assignment at a time.
BACKGROUND
Theoretical Framework
The theoretical framework presented here is a culmination of multiple publications by Dr. Karen Swanson (author) and Dr. Mary Kayler over the last seven years. We have been greatly influenced by Dr. Marcia Baxter Magolda in self-authorship, Dr. Steven Brookfield in critical reflection, Dr. Maryellen Wiemer in learner-centered theory and Dr. Kathleen McKinney in the scholarship of teaching and learning.
A broad framework is necessary when faculty consider shifting to a learner-centered course design. Many times the motivation to restructure a course is to respond to student requests for autonomy, to increase engagement or to invigo- rate a traditional teaching style. However, many times faculty become quickly disillusioned if not prepared for the bigger picture of adult learning and how to design a learner-centered activity or syllabus. While both faculty and students begin with the best of intentions, learner-centered teaching and the required independent learning is at first a difficult dance to coordinate. Some of the common issues include student resistance, the time required for faculty to redesign content and instructional plans, the shift from exclusively summative assessment towards the inclusion of formative assessment.
The theoretical framework will begin with adult development for the purpose of providing faculty with an understanding that students are rarely lazy and/or unmotivated. If students are viewed from a development perspective, the in- structional goal is to meet them where they are at and help them become self-directed for progress
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not only in an individual class but how they view lifelong learning.
Transformative Development
A development model has been developed by Baxter Magolda and King (2004) called self- authorship which incorporates three elements which mature with time and experience. The use of a development model by faculty provides a way to organize their content and pedagogical choices and to make it explicit to students. The use of the self-authorship model is the goal for students to be independent, mature learners.
One element is the epistemological area of an individual understands how knowledge is built contextually. They state that contextual knowers internally construct knowledge, evaluate external perspectives thus construction a belief system which evolves based on relevant evidence. The outcomes of a mature epistemology are “intellec- tual power, reflective judgment, mature decision making and problem solving” (Baxter Magolda & King, 2004, p. 9). An instructional example is when introducing new material; faculty should assess student prior knowledge. Based on that information new content is presented in a manner that acknowledges where students may be familiar, where they may have cognitive dissonance and how to help them reorganize or reconfigure to create new understandings. Faculty might use a graphic organizer to guide students through a vi- sual guide of the process or orienting new content. However when new information is presented it requires students to process it in two other areas; the intrapersonal and the interpersonal realms that make up self-authorship.
The intrapersonal area is how one’s values and identities are molded. Over time students develop a consistent identity that is enduring yet flexible. Components which influence a stu- dent’s integrated identity through intrapersonal development are history, confidence capacity for autonomy, connection and integrity (Baxter Ma-
golda & King, 2004, p. 9). In a learner-centered classroom faculty can design activities for with an intrapersonal purpose. Intrapersonal assignments are done in isolation, for example asking students to journal or use marginalia while they read a text. The purpose is to create an internal conversation. A student, with instruction, begins to blend their prior values and decision-making context while in conversation with an author or assigned task.
The third element is the interpersonal which allows individuals to participate in diverse rela- tionships without compromising their own identity (Baxter Magolda & King, 2004). Learning out- comes for individuals and a course are essential to consider through an interpersonal lens. Individuals need to expand their ability to consider multi- perspectives, form criteria for judging others’ ideas and to not be vulnerable in the presence of stronger personalities. Group or cooperative learning is the most common learner-centered structure in classrooms. Interpersonal elements include whole or small group discussions in class or online. Another example is any type of group work such as presentations or projects which re- quires all members to contribute in a meaningful way. The key is in helping students understand that while the assignment is valuable the process of co-constructing understanding with their peers is an equally articulated outcome.
The pedagogical connection of all three elements is the development of self-authoring independent learners; the foundation for a develop- mentally productive learner-centered classroom. As students mature over time, they come to points of conflict between the three elements. The rec- onciliation of cognitive dissidence creates a more self-authoring student (Baxter Magolda & King, 2004, p. 8-9). The responsive, learner-centered classroom provides an explicit dialogue regard- ing how each individual’s journey is valuable, yet for the semester, set contextually within a situated course.
Self-authorship is situated within a frame- work Mezirow (2000) refers to the development
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of thinking like an adult as the transformative work of higher education. He includes contextual understanding, critical reflection of assumption, validation of meaning, our values, biography, cultural as the embedded elements that must be acknowledged for teaching to significantly impact the learner. He defines transformative learning as,
“the process by which we transform our taken- for-granted frames of reference …to make them more inclusive, discriminating, open, emotionally capable of change and reflective so that they may generate beliefs and options that will prove more true or justified to guide action. Transformation learning involves participation in constructive discourse to use the experience of others to assess reasons justifying these assumptions, and making an action decision based on the resulting insight” (Mezirow, 2000, p. 8).
Mezirow suggests that to develop the trans- formative aspect of the learner is in fact a social justice construct to promote freedom, equity, and tolerance through education. For example, faculty facilitate difficult conversations which require students to learn new content (epistemological), remix their personal beliefs and values (interper- sonal) and the creation of a learning community (interpersonal).
Sophisticated and Independent Learners
The desired outcome is the cultivation of so- phisticated and independent learners. Wiemer (2002) suggests five, learner-centered changes to transform a traditional learning environment.
1. The balance of power. She suggests that faculty make too many of the important deci- sions regarding schedule, book choices, as- signment deadlines that could be negotiated with students. The goal is to engage students in understanding and taking responsibility
for their educational outcomes, for example providing students with a variety of choices to demonstrate content understandings.
2. The role of the teacher. Faculty are respon- sible for creating syllabi, set assignment criteria, choose text, creating learning expe- riences, evaluating learning and ultimately assigning grades. “When it comes to who is working the hardest most days in class, we win, hands down” (Weimer, 2002, p. 73). For example, a study by Nunn (1996) found that less than 6 percent of class time involves student participation. There was no evidence of any instance in which students spoke for more than 23 percent of the total class time. The process of shifting from a teacher-centered towards a learner-centered teacher begins with changing the view of ourselves as deliverers of information but rather as facilitators or co-creators. This is messy work; what if they don’t arrive or cre- ate what we intended? Case in point, direct instruction is easier but learner-centered is vibrant and ever-changing because the goal is now learning rather than teaching (Weimer, 2002, p. 77). An assessment example is that faculty now give much more formative feedback on assignments rather than using summative testing to assess learning. This is more time consuming and your office will be filled with both excited and frustrated students needing coaching to improve.
3. The responsibility for learning. How long does the paper have to be? How many sources do I need? These are familiar ques- tions asked in college classrooms weekly. The difference is in the answer. Teacher- centered would give a minimum such as 10 pages or 5 references. A learner-centered response would be the elusive, how many do you need to best express and support your ideas? The result is frustrated students who report your teach style as unorganized or unspecific. However, faculty tend to over-
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structure courses to provide a façade of ensured learning. These structures include attendance, assignment deadlines and other punitive rules of engagement. The goals to create relationships, teacher-student and student-student, that develop as a way of negotiating through the learning process. The objective is to create autonomous students who find value inherent in creating their own meaningful learning experiences and participating fully in a course, rather than performing based on punitive motivation (Weimer, 2002).
4. The function of content. A shift in that “learn- ing should be seen as a qualitative change in a person’s way of seeing, experiencing, understanding, conceptualizing something in the real world—rather than as a quantitative change in the amount of knowledge someone possesses” (Ramsden, 1988, p. 271). The conventional thinking is that more content is better or more rigorous. However the increase in content tends to be associated with a decrease in higher-order learning which is discussed later in this chapter. Weimer state that content is the “foundation of knowledge on which subsequent learning rests, and it becomes the vehicle whereby and through which learning skills and aware- ness are developed” (p. 55). Most faculty feel pressure to cover a vast realm of course content. However, research has shown that what students learn must be balanced with how they learned it in order to maximize retention for the purpose of demonstrating understanding. The promise is in using the content to teach student how they learn and use new information and skills.
5. The purposes and processes of evaluation. The goal of assessment in a learner-centered classroom is to provide feedback on smaller sections of a larger project. The process of interim feedback is formative, in that while there maybe points associated with complet-
ing a section/task feedback is expected to be incorporated in the final, larger product. It is in the final product that a summative grade is assigned. It is recommended that the points for the whole do not outweigh the parts (Wiemer, 2002).
The five recommendations provide an outline for faculty to evaluate and redesign courses. The following sections will discuss the characteristics of the 21st century the learner, designing significant learning experiences, and finally communities of practice.
21st Century Learners
College students are now studied statistically by the National Center for Education Statistics (NCES). Traditionally, faculty taught classes with little regard to the makeup of the audience. However, millennium college students are less traditional than their parents. They are technologically more advanced than the faculty and their lives are more complex. Oblinger (2003) reports the average age of university faculty member is greater than fifty years old. These individuals were in college in the 1970s and had vastly different experiences than those anticipated by students in the 21st century. Student populations are no longer uniform or tra- ditional, NCES (1996) reported that three-quarters of all undergraduates are non-traditional; this is defined as enrolled part-time, working full-time, has dependent children, are single parents and may not have graduated from high school. More current data from the 2009 NCES report states that undergraduate enrollment rose 19% from 2000-2007; increases in enrollment were found for females (over male), full-time (over part-time) and private institutions (over public). Statistical analysis found that 64% of college students were White, 13% were Black, 11% were Hispanic, 7% were Asian/Pacific Islander, 1% Native American and 3% were nonresident alien students. The top four granted bachelor’s degree were in 21% in
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business, 11% in social science and history, 7% in education and 7% in the health professions (Swanson & Kayler, 2010).
The labels attached to students such as Gen- Xers and Millennials signal a change in the ex- pectations of learners. Wendover (2005) defines Generation X as in their late twenties and thirties. These students were the beginning of latchkey kids, rising divorce rates, and the 1980’s recession. These experiences make them leery of institutions, doing things their parents’ way and yet they are very resourceful. These are students who seek a balanced life and are not afraid to ask for what they want. Wendover defines Millennials are those students who have experiences prosperity, a technology boom and child-centered rearing. They want choices and want them fast and convenient. They come to colleges which are technological dinosaurs and become impatient with pace of learning and a lack of common language with faculty. It is imperative for faculty to know about students and their expectations for engagement. Their anticipation of a learning environment that provides respect, support, autonomy, guidance and rigor can be a challenge to design (Swanson, 2010).
At not other time is the demand for connected- ness between faculty and students more necessary while the occurrence of a gap appears greater. 21st century learner outcomes include cognitive ma- turity, integrated identity and mature relationship that together enables effective citizenship requires engaging young adults in the transformation from authority dependence to [independence] (Baxter Magolda & King, 2004, p. 10).
Significant Learning Experiences
The explosion of information today requires faculty provide students authentic opportunities to engage in the content in multiple ways. Fink (2003) has identified learning goals as a starting point in creating a learner-centered course. A focus on too much content creates low levels of learn-
ing in the Bloom’s taxonomy because the focus remains at the recall and understanding phases. Time factors constrain faculty to transition learning towards analyzing and synthesizing understand- ings. Higher order thinking is important because the goal is to situate learning beyond that of re- stating the data towards to create a “new whole” from all the parts. This is reminiscent of the prior discussion of assessment earlier in this chapter.
• Remembering: Retrieving, recognizing, and recalling relevant knowledge from long-term memory.
• Understanding: Constructing meaning from oral, written, and graphic messages through interpreting, exemplifying, classi- fying, summarizing, inferring, comparing, and explaining.
• Applying: Carrying out or using a proce- dure through executing, or implementing.
• Analyzing: Breaking material into constit- uent parts, determining how the parts relate to one another and to an overall structure or purpose through differentiating, orga- nizing, and attributing.
• Evaluating: Making judgments based on criteria and standards through checking and critiquing.
• Creating: Putting elements together to form a coherent or functional whole; re- organizing elements into a new pattern or structure through generating, planning, or producing. (Anderson & Krathwohl, 2001, pp. 67-68)
The goal of a learner-centered course is to design creative and engaging learning goals. Significant learning experiences are defined as teaching that results in “a learning experience resulting in something that is truly significant in terms of the students’ lives” (Fink, 2003, p. 6). The goal is to focus on process and outcomes that result in the following six characteristics:
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• Process • Engaged: students are engaged in their
learning. • High energy: Class has a high energy level. • Results, Impact, Outcomes • Significant and lasting change: course re-
sults in significant changes in the students, changes that continue after the course is over and even after the students graduate.
• Value in life: What the students learn has a high potential for being of value in their lives after the course is over, by enhanc- ing their individual lives, preparing them to participate in multiple communities, or preparing them for the world of work (Fink, 2003, p. 7).
The transition from the characteristics of significant learning experiences is to evaluate or section a syllabus or course design into three types of learning. The first is the delivery of content to provide a foundation for subsequent higher order activities. Content can be obtained through readings, lecture, or online modules to name a few. These activities can incorporate both teacher-directed and learner-centered methods. The second section is to outline the process ele- ments. These would include presentations, design- ing prototypes, community experiences, to name a few. The final section is for students to evaluate and reflect on their learning experience and for faculty to assess their work.
Examples for reflective practice include journaling, portfolios, student feedback. Reflec- tion opportunities tie the developmental aspect of becoming more self-authoring and solidify learning outcomes. However, reflection can also be used in a cyclical manner to provide quality feedback for the instruction. This feedback can be used to better design subsequent classes to meet student-identified needs and to allow students a voice in the community of the classroom.
Brookfield (1995) reported that students’ per- spectives can provide meaningful information on
their learning experiences; a surprising element for faculty instructors. Student feedback can either confirm or challenge instructors intended learning outcomes. The value of student feedback is that results should impact teaching and assumptions about student understanding. Adjustments can be made to groupings of students, the approach to the application expectation of discussions or other interventions necessary to promote a positive community (Swanson & Kayler, 2009).
The USDOE (2009) study found that reflec- tions tools increase student outcomes over any other online tool. The use of self-reflection, self- monitoring, self-regulation prompts were found to have a positive effect on learning outcomes. Reflection could be described as a vehicle toward developmental understanding or more simply what makes learning a personal rather than intellectual endeavor. Reflective practice is at the heart of constructivist teaching and learning; as mention previously it is essential for students to grow in becoming self-authoring.
Assessment of learner-centered work is far more complex than the traditional summative test to determine retention of facts. A rubric provides specific assignment criteria and a description of three to four levels of performance. Rubrics can be designed by faculty for the purpose of creat- ing a valid and reliable instrument to use assess commons assignments across multiple sections of the same course. However, they can be infor- mal and co-designed with students to determine what a successful production should include and look like. Rubrics should be continuously under construction from semester to semester. Student feedback will speak into the effectiveness of the rubric to communicate grading criteria. Faculty will also make adjustments as they learn more about evaluating learner-centered products. While rubrics are used as a summative assessment tool, formative assessment is useful to help students develop proficiencies of new skills or content. Marzano (2006) characterizes formative assess- ment as a process-oriented feedback on assign-
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ments to gauge the degree to which a skill has been mastered. Formative assessment and individual- ized feedback are used to support students and structure to set learning goals towards becoming an independent learners.
Even informal assessments, such as brief stu- dent surveys or reflections, can provide instructors with “snapshots” of where their students are in relation to where they need to be in order to master course objectives. Small, formative assessments enable instructors to address any knowledge or skill gaps prior to administering summative as- sessments, ultimately resulting in greater student mastery of course content and objectives.
Self-assessment also plays an important role in developing self-authoring learners. Examples of self-assessment can include student completion of rubrics which facilitates conversations with fac- ulty about where disparate degrees of evaluation occur. As written previously by this author on the role of self-assessment in e-learning communities (Swanson & Kayler, 2009):
“Formative assessment is a dialogue, either orally or written, that takes place between the faculty instructor and the learner or between peers and the learner in order to increase student understand- ing and support their performance within online learning. Traditionally assessment has been done solely by the faculty instructor to determine if the student has fulfilled the requirements of course assignments or to assess their learning through exams or written papers or projects. The purpose of involving students in assessing their own work is that the determination of whether the stated criteria are met or not is evaluated internally rather than externally. This type of work requires that students be taught how to self-assess on the authentic work they produced so that they under- stand the value of critiquing their own work and the impact of their contributions to others learning. The goal is to increase student engagement in the
learning process to enhance their knowledge base and for them to become skilled at reflecting on their work in order to maximize their learning.” (Swanson & Kayler, 2009)
“Weimer (2002) stated, “The literature on self- directed learning also underscores the importance of assessment, only in this case it is the ability of students to self-assess accurately. Sophisticated learners know when they do or do not understand something. They can review a performance and identify what needs improvement. They know when their lack of objectivity necessitates their solicit- ing external feedback” (p.17). Formative self- assessment promotes students to be self-reflective regarding their contributions, and the types of information they share impacts and influences the development of the online learning community” (Swanson & Kayler, 2009).
Peer assessments such as writer’s workshop can also provide a format for students to learning in community in a less formal and punitive for- mat than formative assessment. Peer assessment however requires time to teach students how to speak into and evaluate their peers work in a way that is valued by both the writer and critic. Many times students only regard faculty assessment as meaningful because faculty assign grades. This is challenge to overcome. It is also a challenge to involve students with lower end skills in the evaluation of peers, however if the goal is to promote growth those with lower level skills can participate in the ZPD with others more advanced than themselves.
It is critical in a learner-centered course to include all three types of learning into course design and to be explicit as to which element(s) of self-authorship are being engaged. Both sig- nificant learning experiences and self-authorship share many over-arching objectives. One way to integrate them is to create a community of practice.
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Communities of Practice
To expand the discussion of the interpersonal as- pect of self-authorship in students is to use social construction of knowledge theory to create mean- ingful interaction and collaboration. We all learn socially, for example making up our own games as children or as adults by watching someone perform a task we are interested in performing ourselves. Learning occurs as a function of activity, context and culture in which it occurs. Social interaction is a key component of situated learning; online discussions, classroom experiences, and readings provided the raw materials for class exercises, writ- ten assignments and other course requirements. Discussion groups, whether in class or online, can serve as a forum for students to be reflective about themselves and others’ experiences. Students are expected to give a critical analysis of others’ ideas in a constructive, professional manner to develop multiple perspectives and continue to blend the epistemological, intrapersonal and interpersonal aspects of developing a self-authoring learner (Kayler & Weller, 2004).
Kayler and Weller (2007) state the goal for dialogue in a community of practice is to refine the manner and level for which the students engage as professionals and develop as independent learners. Students need to be provided a space to discuss and grapple with the complexities of learning, foster alternative perspectives and apply theory to practice. Students can engage in dialogue around issues of culture, research, and course texts and subsequently regulated their learning as a way to promote accountability to their learning (Kayler & Weller, 2007). For example, faculty can use online discussions as a distribution of power in the classroom. Faculty can monitor discussions but not participate and can assemble information from discussion threads to inform class content. Online discussion groups are an extension of the classroom, a place for students to share personal experiences, to make sense of curriculum and to
participate in communities of practice (Wenger, McDermott & Snyder, 2002).
Dewey (1916) described knowledge construc- tion as a social process. A constructivist peda- gogical framework supports the epistemological, intrapersonal, and interpersonal factors, which can influence individual students’ ways of know- ing and their ability to openly participate with others. Within this learner-centered curriculum, students are encouraged to develop ownership of their learning.
Overall, learner-centered teaching involves sophisticated levels of course design, under- standing of adult development and community development. Faculty can begin with simply redesigning a unit or assessment. Another place to begin is to survey current students about what they would like shift from faculty lead to learner- centered. It is sensible to be deliberated about when learner-centered is most appropriate based on the audience, content, course format and time configu- ration. Faculty should expect student resistance, an increase amount of time for preparation and feedback and their own individual development as now a learner of teaching.
CONCLUSION
Learner-centered is the current buzz word that insinuates a direct line to student engagement. However, without a framework such as adult de- velopment, communities of practice, significant learner experiences or learner-centered theory faculty can become disillusioned quickly. Learner- centered requires more planning time, changes in how classroom time is allotted, alternative assess- ment and explicit conversations with students to articulate learning and individual goals.
It is important to include student feedback in creating a community of practice. Students hold information about how new pedagogy is actu- ally playing out through learning. A new course design may have appear linear and logical while
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building the syllabus but not run as smoothly as intended. It is important to systematically get informal feedback from students and to be flexible enough to make immediate changes to benefit the learner. Change can frustrate students however, faculty must be explicit as to how and why changes will occur is the key in producing a trusting learning community. Learner-centered environments become more complex in hybrid and online learning platforms.
Two demands employers are making of 21st century learners are the need for collaboration in the workplace and the role of social justice in a global community. The role of social construction of knowledge through collaboration is a trend in demonstrating workplace skills. Students must be prepared with listening skills, the ability to hold multiple perspectives, develop the aptitude that move a task to completion while valuing the skills of all involved. Parker (2007) discusses the use of collaborative learning as a way to move thinking from the paradox of right/wrong, black/ white, us/them. The goal is to teach students to grow comfortable with undefined paradox and to find pathways toward understanding rather than polarization.
Another 21st skill is using technology to cre- ate and communicate beyond the typical Pow- erPoint presentation. Smith (1998) states “these disconnect between instructional approaches and learning needs is occurring at a time when college graduates require increasingly sophisticated intel- lectual skills to function in the modern world” (p. 49). The use of Glogs, Wikis, shared document software, virtual conferencing such as Skype or Elluminate and social networking systems are cur- rent proficiencies. At no other time in history are students actually ahead of faculty in the use and application of specific technology applications. The responsibility is then on faculty to learn how to incorporate technology elements into course design to allow students to apply their personal technology skills to the learning environment.
Lastly, learner-centered instruction must pro- mote the students’ ability to participate in a global society as mature, creative thinkers.
“Central to the goal of adult education in demo- cratic societies is the process of helping learn- ers become more aware of the context of their problematic understandings and beliefs, more critically reflective on their assumptions and those other others, more fully and freely engaged in discourse, and more effective in taking action on their reflective judgments.” (Mezirow, 2000, p. 31)
Social justice in action is evidence of a trans- formed learner who can hold and manage multiple perspectives which allow for consideration of hegemony and marginalizing of others. While learner-centered teaching initially appears to meet students’ prefer modality of content delivery, a more complex consideration of the aspect of adult learning, structured planning and the broader so- cial implications is evidenced in the multifaceted aspect a simple pedagogy.
REFERENCES
Anderson, L. W., & Krathwohl, D. R. (2001). The cognitive process dimension. A taxonomy for learning, teaching and assessing: A revision of Bloom’s Taxonomy of educational objectives. New York, NY: Longman.
Baxter Magolda, M. B., & King, P. (2004). Learn- ing partnerships. Theory and models of practice to educate for self-authorship. Sterling, VA: Stylus.
Brookfield, S. (1995). Becoming a critically re- flective teacher. San Francisco, CA: Jossey Bass.
Dewey, J. (1916). Democracy and education. An introduction to the philosophy of education (1966 ed.). New York, NY: Free Press.
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Fink, L. D. (2003). Creating significant learning experiences. An integrated approach to designing college courses. San Francisco, CA: Jossey Bass.
Kayler, M., & Weller, K. (2004, July). Building dynamic learning communities through the use of Web-based communication. Learning Technology Newsletter, 6(3), 8–19.
Marzano, R. J. (2006). Classroom assessment and grading that work. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.
Mezirow, J. (2000). Learning to think like an adult: Core concepts of transformative theory. In Mezirow, J. (Ed.), Learning as transformation: Critical perspectives on a theory in progress (pp. 3–34). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
National Center for Education Statistics. (2010). Participation in education. Retrieved from http:// nces.ed.gov/ programs/ coe/ 2010/ section1/ index.asp
National Center for Education Statistics. (2010). Context of postsecondary education. Retrieved from http:// nces.ed.gov/ programs/ coe/ 2010/ section1/ index.asp
Nunn, C. E. (1996). Discussion in the college classroom: Triangulating observational and survey results. The Journal of Higher Education, 67(3), 243–266. doi:10.2307/2943844
Oblinger, D. (2003). Boomers, gen-Xers, and millennials: Understanding the new students. EDUCAUSE Review, 38(4), 37–47.
Palmer, P. (2007). The courage to teach: Explor- ing the inner landscape of a teacher’s life. San Francisco, CA: Wiley and Sons.
Ramsden, P. (1988). Context and strategy: Situ- ational influences on learning. New York, NY: Plenum Press.
Smith, F. (1998). The book of learning and for- getting. New York, NY: Teacher’s College Press.
Swanson, K. W. (2010). Delightfully difficult work: Transformation for teaching and learning. Victor Wang (Ed.), Encyclopedia of information communication technologies and adult educa- tion integration (pp. 169-183). Hershey, PA: IGI Publishing.
Swanson, K. W., & Kayler, M. (2009). The role of self-assessment in e-learning communities. In Wang, V. C. X. (Ed.), Handbook of research on e-learning applications for career and technical education: Technologies for vocational training (pp. 431–443). Hershey, PA: Information Sci- ence Reference. doi:10.4018/978-1-60566-739-3. ch034
Swanson, K. W., & Kayler, M. (2010). Blended learning. In Wang, V. C. X. (Ed.), Encyclopedia of information communication technologies and adult education integration (pp. 795–808). Hershey, PA: IGI Publishing. doi:10.4018/978- 1-61692-906-0.ch048
Weimer, M. (2002). Learner-centered teaching: Five key changes to practice. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
Wendover, R. W. (2005). From Ricky and Lucy to Beavis and Butthead: Managing the new work force. The Center for Generational Studies. Re- trieved from http:// www.allbusiness.com/ sales/ 904082-1.html
Wenger, E., McDermott, R., & Snyder, W. C. (2002). Cultivating communities of practice: A guide to managing knowledge. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Business School Press.
KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS
Adult Development: The process of indi- vidualizing one’s own thoughts in opinions. Development is promoted in the context of others such as parents, teachers and friends. One moves from a state of internalizing the beliefs held by
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others to a more sophisticated state of creating individualized views which incorporate parts and pieces from others.
Community of Practice: A group of individu- als who meet around a common topic which hold specialized vocabulary and ways of knowing. It is within this group that one learns the intricacies of the topic and also helps to build knowledge in other participants.
Learner-Centered Pedagogy: This refers to the process of teaching and learning in which students are at the heart of curriculum design, classroom interaction and evaluation techniques.
For example, students are provided choice of read- ings, assignments and assessment tools in a class.
Self-Assessment: An act in which one evalu- ates their performance based on a previously determined set of objectives. The evaluation is supported by evidence provided by the individual. The purpose of self-assessment is to provide a constructivist approach for an individual to mea- sure their contribution or performance on a task.
Resistance: It is the process of passive or aggressive responses by students to instruction or assignments.
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INTRODUCTION
Educational leadership can be divided into two areas: administrative leadership and instructional leadership. Administrative leadership deals with
leaders leading followers in a certain organization or institutions of learning whereas instructional leadership deals with teaching learners or helping learners learn in classroom settings. In actuality, scholars tend to focus more on instructional lead- ership than administrative leadership because the majority of educators, teachers, or trainers serve
Copyright © 2012, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
Chapter 41
DOI: 10.4018/978-1-61350-068-2.ch041
Victor C. X. Wang Florida Atlantic University, USA
Traditional Educational Leadership:
Instructional Leadership Revolving Around Ralph Tyler’s Four Fundamental Questions
ABSTRACT
This article addresses the traditional instructional leadership (characterized with Tyler’s four questions; teachers prescribe a curriculum; learners assume a submissive role of following instructors) in com- parison with the andragogical or innovative instructional leadership. As more and more scholars cast their doubt on this particular instructional mode (traditional instructional leadership) especially when compared with the innovative instructional leadership, this article seeks to draw on traditional instruc- tional leadership that revolves around Ralph Tyler’s model. In doing so, instructors and practitioners will see clearly what the traditional instructional leadership may bring to most education settings and above all, they may rely on a ready-made formula when planning curriculums, instruction, program planning, or evaluation. While traditional instructional leadership may have come under much criticism lately, there is much to learn from it.
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as classroom instructors or teachers in the virtual environment. A small number of educators are chosen as administrative leaders, such as university presidents, school principals, superintendents. Researchers spend years trying to discover the most effective forms of instructional leadership, and the answer changes with the context.
Researchers have been innovative, trying to determine what prescribed instructional leader- ship may lead to the desired learning outcomes, or student performance objectives as termed by some scholars and educators in some school settings. Indeed, teachers are classroom lead- ers. They are just like drivers of cars or busses. Learners are, in a way, passengers. They do not know where to go until their teachers tell them where to go. This is especially true when learners are traditional age students or children. Teachers provide the direction and structure regarding how learners can embark on their learning journeys. Teachers prescribe curriculums, and they know what ought to happen in their classroom settings, given their prescribed curriculum’s approval by experts in their field and stakeholders in their community. Teachers conform to their school’s mission and goals. They have a clear idea of what is expected of them based on a school’s mission and goals. Once a curriculum is prescribed, they will go about selecting the means for attaining the school’s mission and goals. Then, teachers select the specific instructional methods that will work for a particular class. Finally, teachers have the responsibility of choosing evaluation methods to evaluate student learning. Teachers are driving the bus; they know where they need to go and when they should arrive. However, the route the bus takes to arrive at the final destination is flexible, but the driver, or teacher, needs to assess which route is the best and why.
In recent years, this traditional model of the teacher as the bus driver has come under criticism. Some scholars argue that traditional instructional leadership may lead to docile learners, learners who are high in scores and low in abilities (Ross,
1992). In the Western Hemisphere, researchers focus on critical thinking skills or problem solving skills rather than on rote learning or how much learners can regurgitate information or knowledge (Mezirow, 1991, 2000). Some scholars focus on learners’ “cognitive metamorphosis” rather than on psychomotor skills when the majority of their learners are adult learners. Another movement is that scholars focus more on higher order thinking skills than on the lower order thinking skills based on Bloom’s Taxonomy (1956).
Regardless of the movements or debate re- garding what instructional leadership may lead to the right learning outcomes, all instructional leadership leads to three kinds of educational objectives. In other words, instructional leader- ship is bound to change learners in three domains of educational objectives: cognitive domain, psychomotor domain and affective domain. In plain language, educators and teachers are con- cerned with whether their learners will be able to think, act, and feel differently at the end of their instruction in a classroom setting or in a virtual classroom environment (Wang, 2008). Clearly, being able to think, act, and feel differently by the end of a teacher’s instruction indicates that learners have achieved cognitive change not only through instruction by also via their own learning or efforts. As researchers and scholars focus on the aforementioned movements or debate focused around educational objectives, less attention has been paid to the differences between traditional instructional leadership and innovative instruc- tional leadership. Because more attention has been given to innovative instructional leadership, such as higher order thinking skills (Wang & Farmer, 2008) or transformative learning, some instructors may not even know the theories behind traditional instructional leadership.
Traditional instructional leadership is more akin to pedagogy, which deals with the art and science of teaching children whereas innovative instructional leadership is more akin to andragogy, which deans with the art and science of helping
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adult learn (Knowles, 1970, 1975, 1986). For example, andragogical instructors are learning facilitators, linking learners to learning resources. Pedagogical instructors may be classroom infor- mation presenters, focusing more on pattern drills and evaluation of learning of any kind. Prominent educators point out that the whole educational en- terprise has been frozen to the pedagogical model, which means all learners, young or old, have been educated or trained by conforming to the art and science of teaching children. The question remains, is traditional instructional leadership more effec- tive than innovative instructional leadership such as the art and science of helping adults learn? The answer can be yes and no.
There is no question that those master teach- ers have played a major role in helping students achieve changes in those three domains of educational objectives. These master teachers are knowledge dictators, not learning facilitators. Above all, these teachers conform to the traditional instructional leadership, such as prescribing a cer- tain curriculum, selecting the means for attaining a school’s purposes, organizing effectively those educational activities, and evaluating students’ learning outcomes or performance objectives. These instructors believe that learning can be measured and observed. When this type of teaching is not resulting in learning, the instructors may need to switch to innovative instructional leader- ship, which means that they do not believe that learners can be taught directly. Learning has to be facilitated. These instructors will play a secondary role of trying to link students to learning resources because learners may be self-directed in learning.
The intent of this article is not to argue that traditional instructional leadership has more ad- vantages over innovative instructional leadership or vice versa. Rather, the intent of this article is to give the readers a better idea of what traditional instructional leadership is all about and how it can be used effectively in a classroom setting or in a virtual environment since the whole educational enterprise has been frozen into the pedagogical
model (Knowles, Holton, & Swanson, 1998, 2005), which is the so-called traditional instruc- tional leadership. Indeed, traditional instructional leadership is closely linked to accountability. That is why accreditation bodies want their sponsor programs to conform to traditional instructional leadership and why effective teaching is to linked to learning measured by testing per state and national mandates. The Ralph Tyler Model will be the focus of this article, one of many forms of traditional instructional leadership, but one that innovative instructional leaders can learn from.
BACKGROUND
In fact, traditional instructional leadership traces back more than 6000 years ago when unorganized training existed when fathers had to teach their sons a trade (Wang & King, 2008, 2009). By way of teaching another person, there must be those essential elements in pedagogy such as a cur- riculum, instructional methods, and evaluation methods. Or traditional instructional leadership traces back 6000 years ago in Egypt where scribes were formally trained in order to copy documen- tation from documentation. Some scholars argue that traditional instructional leadership occurred in the 7th and 12th century in Europe where young boys were trained to be clergymen or national leaders. Others argue that traditional instructional leadership occurred when Confucius started to use a variety of pedagogical methods to educate and train adults and children 2500 years ago in China (Wang & King, 2006). Yet, others argue that traditional instructional leadership emerged when Socrates and Plato started to teach children and adults in Europe. Regardless of the debate, traditional instructional leadership has come a long way. Numerous articles, books and articles have been written about instructional strategies initiated by Confucius, Socrates, Plato and many prominent educators. What is truly revolutionary is the book written and published by Ralph Tyler.
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This is not to say that other prominent educators have contributed less to traditional instructional leadership. Ralph Tyler’s book on curriculum de- velopment has dominated traditional instructional leadership since the birth of his book in 1949. The book is still in print and is being used by various educational programs.
Most current theoretical formulations of pro- gram planning in education are borrowed from Tyler’s seminal work in curriculum development (Pennington & Green, 1976, p. 14). Although the critiques of the Tylerian rationale or model do exist, these critiques seem to be invalid as those who created those critiques may not know how to apply Tylerian model to practice. For example, some scholars claim that Tylerian model is lacking in attention to context, neutral with regard to social stratification, vague and too technical-rational (Jarvis, 2004; Slattery, 1995; Sork, 2000). First of all, Tyler was born and raised in a capitalist country. Why would he focus on a social context that is different than the context in which he was familiar? Tyler was interested in curriculums that would work for all. Why would he be concerned with social stratification? The next section will illustrate how clear Tyler’s model is and how it has contributed to traditional instructional leadership. Indeed, Tyler’s model has influenced educators and learners. The essential feature of Tyler’s model is its practicality.
Instructional Leadership Revolving Around Ralph Tyler’s Four Fundamental Questions
The center of Tyler’s model is essentially four questions, the heart and soul of traditional in- structional leadership. Traditional instructional leadership does not deviate from Tyler’s four fundamental questions. Without asking the four questions, teachers or educators are not teaching, using the pedagogical instructional principles. However, asking the four questions is not enough. Instructors should implement the four questions.
Then, instructors conform to traditional instruc- tional leadership. The first question is what edu- cational purposes should the school seek to attain? Schools have learning objectives; departments have learning objectives; classroom teachers have learning objectives for their specific classes. This is such a crucial step in traditional instructional leadership that Tyler dedicates almost half of his book to explaining this step. Instructors are considered content experts, and they should be able to formulate learning objectives. Instructors are also encouraged to take into consideration the needs of learners and the needs of society when formulating learning objectives. In some countries, learning objectives are prescribed by higher authorities such as ministry of education (Cochran, 2007; Wang, 2007). The heart and soul of learning objectives must be started or written in quantifiable, behavioral terms. In other words, learning objectives must be measurable and observable. These measurable and observable learning objectives in turn provide a guide for instructors to select teaching methods.
An example of a well written learning objec- tive can be as follows:
“In a computer laboratory situation, given a simple set of specifications for a data table [situation], the student will demonstrate [learned capability verb] the construction of a database table in Microsoft Access [object] by typing it into the computer [action verbs], using the appropri- ate data types, and selecting an appropriate key [tools, constraints and/or special conditions].” (Gagne, 2005, p. 134)
Also worthy of note is that schools may select their educational purposes based on their lead- ers’ educational philosophies (Elias & Merriam, 2005). To date, there are seven teaching philoso- phies that educators may be equipped with (Lee, 2011). Depending on where the school leaders are educated, they may prescribe a totally different educational purpose. For example, if some school
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leaders are educated in adult education programs, lifelong learning may be their school’s educational purpose. Likewise, if those leaders are educated in a liberal arts college, their school’s purpose may lay in this arena. Based on a school’s educational purposes, instructors must align their educational objectives with their school’s purposes. In other words, their learning objectives cannot deviate too much from their school’s educational purposes. Learning objectives should serve to support the school’s educational purposes.
What Educational Experiences Can be Provided That are Likely to Attain These Purposes?
Traditional instructional leadership specifies that teachers prescribe educational experiences or learning activities. This is the second question of the Tylerian model. Based on learning objec- tives, instructors believe that certain educational experiences or learning activities will lead to achievement of the learning objectives. For example, if instructors want learners to retain as much information as possible, they may provide opportunities to practice behavior implied by the learning objectives. An ESL instructor may specify that by the end of his/her class, all learners should learn by heart 30 new English words. The words must help make meaningful sentences. To practice using the 30 English words in meaningful sentences, opportunities to practice using sentence structures or verb patterns should be provided so that learners can practice using these words again and again in order to memorize these words. Educational experiences must be closely linked to learning objectives. While some experiences may be engaging for learners, if they are not linked to the learning objectives, they are not an effective use of time. Instructors can provide learning tools, instructional materials, instructional aids, and even their own learning experiences to help learners attain these educational purposes or learning objectives. Above all, there is an essential role
that instructors can play in order to help learn- ers attain their learning objectives. If learners’ objective is for “cognitive metamorphosis,” then, instructors are required to rely more on guided lecture, story telling, or symposiums. If learners are predominantly from adult education programs or workforce education programs such as nursing, instructors are required to provide more hands- on educational experiences in order for learners to achieve change in psychomotor and affective domains. This essential role on the part of instruc- tors cannot be underestimated. Without taking into consideration educational objectives, instructors will fail to provide meaningful educational experi- ences that are likely to help attain these purposes or objectives. In a nutshell, providing educational experiences to help attain educational purposes involves selecting the means. The means could mean the right instructional methods or strate- gies. The means could mean providing the right educational opportunities. The means could also mean instructors’ teaching styles. Many factors need to be taken into consideration when trying to select the means. Once the means is successfully selected, teachers come to the third question of the Tylerian model.
How Can These Educational Experiences be Effectively Organized?
The third question addresses the criteria for organizing learning experiences including con- tinuity, sequence, and organization. Educational experiences can be learning activities designed by instructors. This question really addresses the instructional strategies or teaching methodologies. The goal here is to achieve effective instruction. In order to make instruction work in a classroom setting or in a virtual environment, educational experiences should be organized according to principles of instruction or pedagogy or andragogy.
The most used and most abused method of instruction is the lecture. When learners are inexperienced with a subject matter, instruc-
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tors should conform to the use of lecture so that learners can be given enough information about a certain subject. When learners are experienced with a subject matter, instructors should conform to guided discussions in order to link students to learning resources. In order to effective organize any educational experiences, instructors need to study their learners, their characteristics, and their learning styles. If learners are predominantly children, instructors need to be pedagogical in- structors, which means they must provide direction and structure so that learning can occur. If learners are predominantly adult learners, instructors may become learning facilitators, which means adult students are capable of teaching themselves. Their need for instructional assistance may be minimal.
There are many ways to effectively organize these educational experiences. Many factors need to be taken into consideration when trying to or- ganize these educational experiences. There are societal needs, institutional needs and individual needs. And there are subject matter differences. These factors must be given enough consideration when trying to organize effective learning activi- ties. Effective learning activities simply mean that they work for learners. Learners engage in these learning activities and they will lead to the desired learning outcomes so that educators and instructors will be able to observe and measure those learning outcomes in quantifiable or behaviorist terms.
Educational leaders in adult education offer a unique model that instructors of adults can rely on. Of course, the heart and soul of this model revolve around the core adult learning principles. How- ever, educational leaders in this particular field remind all instructors to take into consideration other factors they term as goals and purposes for learning, societal growth, institutional growth, individual growth and subject matter differences. It is true that these factors put a strain on the core principles of adult learning. Based on the core principles of adult learning and the other highly relevant factors, adult educators can organize ef-
fective educational experiences such as giving out learning contracts, negotiating the syllabi at the first classes of a semester or encouraging learner self-evaluation etc. This is just one example to illustrate that organizing effective educational experiences depend on principles of learning. To effectively organize effective learning activi- ties, instructors must rely on other principles of learning such as behaviorism, Piaget’s (1967) developmental theory.
Figure 1 is a borrowed figure designed by Knowles, Holton and Swanson in 1998 to illustrate that adult educators do depend on this figure to organize effective educational experiences. In- structors of children should learn from this model. Clearly andragogy and pedagogy present two different approaches to the education of children and adults. Dewey (1961, p. 255) called these two approaches traditional and progressive. Indeed, as noted by Knowles (1980), “I don’t see andragogy as ideology at all but as a system of assumptions about adult learners that needs to be tested out for different learners in different situations” (p. 59). Here, one can assume that different learners must include children. See Figure 1 to see how effective educational experiences can be organized.
How Can We Determine Whether These Purposes are Being Attained?
The final question addresses evaluation. As noted by Tyler himself (1949, p. 106), “The process of evaluation is essentially the process of determining to what extent the educational objectives are actu- ally being realized by the program of curriculum and instruction.” If those educational objectives are not realized, this means learners have not learned. Once again, there are many ways to evaluate educational objectives. Observation and interview can be an informal method. Learners may learn in a classroom setting or a lab setting. Instructors can choose to observe their learning or to interview them to see whether learning by
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those learning standards has occurred. Learn- ing is all about changes in the three domains of educational objectives: cognitive domain, psychomotor domain and affective domain. If learners can demonstrate that they can think, act, and feel differently by the end of a class, this indicates that they have realized the educational objectives prescribed to them by their course in- structors. Another information evaluation method can be learner self-evaluation. Some scholars are convinced that self-evaluation remains the goal of adult education, including career and techni- cal education (Cranton, 2010). Then the formal evaluation methods can be objectively-scored assessments and subjectively-rated assessments.
Depending on pedagogy and andragogy, in- structors can use different approaches of assess- ments. For example, in andragogy, instructors depend more on learner self-evaluation or learning contracts. In pedagogy, instructors may conform to those objectively-scored assessments such as tests, exams, and quizzes. As argued by Cranton (2010), in most formal education settings, total teacher control over evaluation is the norm. But in more informal and non formal adult education settings, there seems to be the movement towards learner self-evaluation again based on the core principles of adult learning. Figure 2 created by Cranton (2010, p. 10) illustrates such a movement.
Figure 1. Andragogy in practice (Adapted from Knowles, Holton, & Swanson, 1998)
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FUTURE RESEARCH DIRECTIONS
Traditional education leadership, especially in- structional leadership, has been in place for many centuries. It has inspired teachers of generations. Teachers continue to delve into traditional instruc- tional leadership, learning new things about this instructional mode. Scholars in teacher educa- tion keep on studying this particular area and keep on generating new knowledge. There is one thing that most scholars would agree on, that is, traditional instructional leadership does work in most education settings. The methods, strategies, techniques and instructional ideas passed onto us by our predecessors have guided instructors in their classroom settings and even in their virtual envi- ronment. One trend in the future is that scholars will continue to study those prominent figures in history. The work of Confucius, Socrates, Plato, Dewey, Knowles and many others will continue to be tested out for different learners in different situations.
The debate on which educational approach will better help learners achieve changes in the three domains will be another trend. While Western educators argue that educators should emphasize more higher order thinking skills such as analysis, synthesis, and evaluation as revealed
by Bloom’s Taxonomy, educators in some Asian countries indicated that lower order thinking skills characterized by knowledge, comprehension and application should precede higher order thinking skills. Therefore, these lower order thinking skills must be taught first.
Ten years ago, some researchers in United Kingdom showed their fondness for rote learning and memorization, claiming that their research results indicated that for critical thinking and problem solving skills to occur, rote learning and memorization should be taught first (Jarvis, 2002). Rote learning and memorization are just parts of traditional instructional leadership. Their fondness for traditional instructional leadership may spark more research in this area. As far as the innovative instructional leadership goes, it cannot replace traditional instructional leadership as it has been used in most education settings. It will continue to exist hand in hand with traditional instructional leadership. Perhaps the best way to describe its existence is that these two approaches will continue to supplement and complement each other. Scholars will definitely delve into the in- novative instructional leadership. But there is no question that traditional instructional leadership will remain dominant for many years to come. As far as Tylerian model goes, it will remain the
Figure 2. Movement towards learner self-evaluation
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predominant model among many other models as the model focuses more on individual and instru- mental focus (Faillos, 2006). Tyler’s rationale has really formed the foundation for curriculum, and program planning. As time goes on, researchers may come up with different critiques of this par- ticular model. But as the foundation for curriculum and instruction, the Tyler’s rationale will remain a pillar of the educational community.
CONCLUSION
This article has demonstrated that traditional in- structional leadership advanced many centuries ago still remains the predominant instructional mode in the education and training of a nation’s workforce as compared with the innovative in- structional leadership characterized by andragogy. There are some misconceptions associated with the use of the traditional instructional leadership. This article has clarified those misconceptions via robust discussions. It seems that there has been a movement in North America to launch educa- tional leadership programs. As these programs in educational leadership are launched, this article with its pertinent discussion on traditional instruc- tional leadership can serve as the best resource for learning. Of course, the other part of educational leadership concerns administrative leadership. But that is beyond the scope of this discussion in this article.
This article particularly talks about traditional instructional leadership revolving around Ralph Tyler’s four questions. The four questions can be treated as a formula that may guide instructors’ cur- riculum development and program planning. The four questions can be treated as a model as well. They can also be treated as Tyler’s rationale. While the innovative instructional leadership is not the focus of the article, it is addressed in comparison to the traditional instructional leadership so that
readers will see traditional instructional leader- ship more objectively. Without a doubt, traditional instructional leadership has many advantages. Among many, this particular instructional leader- ship can help instructors plan their programs in a linear manner or step by step. Above all, instructors know in advance how to measure and observe student learning. For those instructors who need to control assessment, traditional instructional leadership serves as an excellent model. Even those andragogical leaders such as Knowles borrow the concepts of curriculum development from Ralph Tyler. The four components of the Tyler’s model seem to be essential parts that no educators can remove them if they are engaged in curriculum development and program planning. What they can do is perhaps to add more components. For example, Knowles added a component such as needs assessment to Tyler’s model. This article is by no means indicative of the fact that the tra- ditional instructional leadership is superior to the innovative instructional leadership characterized by andragogy. Rather, it was written in an attempt to show to our instructors that it should be most used, but should not be most abused. Like the lecture, it has many advantages and many disad- vantages. Keeping all the advantages while trying to add more innovative methods will definitely revitalize this traditional instructional leadership as used and desired in most education settings.
REFERENCES
Bloom, B. S. (Ed.). (1956). Taxonomy of educa- tional objectives. London, UK: Longman.
Cochran, J. (2007). Reactions to Western edu- cational practice: Adult education in Egypt. In King, K. P., & Wang, V. C. X. (Eds.), Comparative adult education around the globe (pp. 85–111). Hangzhou, China: Zhejiang University Press.
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Cranton, P. (2010). Working toward self-eval- uation. In Wang, V. C. X. (Ed.), Assessing and evaluating adult learning in career and tech- nical education (pp. 1–11). Hangzhou, China & Hershey, PA: Zheijiang University Press & Information Science Reference. doi:10.4018/978- 1-61520-745-9.ch001
Dewey, J. (1961). Democracy and education. New York, NY: The Macmillan Company.
Elias, J. L., & Merriam, S. B. (2005). Philosophical foundations of adult education (3rd ed.). Malabar. Florida: Krieger Publishing Company.
Faillos, C. A. (2006). Adult education and the empowerment of the individual in a global society. In Merriam, S. B., Courtney, B. C., & Cervero, R. M. (Eds.), Global issues and adult education: Perspectives from Latin America, Southern Africa, and the United States (pp. 15–29). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
Gagne, R. M., Wager, W. W., Golas, K. C., & Keller, J. M. (2005). Principles of instructional design (5th ed.). Stamford, CT: Thomson Learning.
Jarvis, P. (2002). The theory & practice of teach- ing. London, UK: Kogan Page.
Jarvis, P. (2004). Adult education and lifelong learning: Theory and practice (3rd ed.). London, UK: RoutledgeFalmer.
Knowles, M. S. (1970). The modern practice of adult education: Andragogy versus pedagogy. New York, NY: Association Press.
Knowles, M. S. (1975). Self-directed learning: A guide for learners and teachers. New York, NY: Association Press.
Knowles, M. S. (1980). The modern practice of adult education (Rev. ed.). New York, NY: Cam- bridge Book Company.
Knowles, M. S. (1986). Using learning contracts. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
Knowles, M. S., Holton, E., & Swanson, A. (1998). The adult learner. Houston, TX: Gulf Publishing Company.
Knowles, M. S., Holton, E., & Swanson, A. (2005). The adult learner (6th ed.). Boston, MA: Elsevier Butterworth Heinemann.
Lee, K. (2011). Philosopher or philistine? In Wang, V. C. X. (Ed.), Assessing and evaluating adult learning in career and technical education (pp. 23–43). Hershey, PA: Information Science Reference.
Mezirow, J. (1991). Transformative dimensions of adult learning. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
Mezirow, J. (Ed.). (2000). Learning as transforma- tion: Critical perspectives on a theory in progress. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
Pennington, F., & Green, J. (1976). A compara- tive analysis of program development processes in six professions. Adult Education, 27(1), 13–23. doi:10.1177/074171367602700102
Piaget, J. (1967). The mental development of the child. In Elkind, D. (Ed.), Six psychological stud- ies by Piaget. New York, NY: Random House.
Ross, H. (1992). Foreign languages education as a barometer of modernization. In Hayhoe, R. (Ed.), Education and modernization: The Chi- nese experience (pp. 239–254). New York, NY: Pergamon Press.
Slattery, P. (1995). Curriculum development in the postmodern era. New York, NY: Garland Reference Library of Social Science.
Sork, T. J. (2000). Planning educational programs. In Wilson, A. L., & Hayes, E. R. (Eds.), Handbook of adult and continuing education (pp. 171–190). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
Tyler, R. W. (1949). Basic principles of curriculum and instruction. Chicago, IL: The University of Chicago Press.
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Wang, V. C. X. (2007). Chinese knowledge transmitters or western learning facilitators adult teaching methods compared. In King, K. P., & Wang, V. C. X. (Eds.), Comparative adult educa- tion around the globe (pp. 113–1370). Hangzhou, China: Zhejiang University Press.
Wang, V. C. X. (2008). Facilitating adult learning: A comprehensive guide for successful instruction. Boston, MA: Pearson Education.
Wang, V. C. X., & Farmer, L. (2008). Adult teach- ing methods in China and Bloom’s taxonomy. International Journal for the Scholarship of Teaching and Learning, 2(2), 0-15.
Wang, V. C. X., & King, K. (2006). Understanding Mezirow’s theory of reflectivity from Confucian perspectives: A model and perspective. Journal of Radical Pedagogy, 8(1). Retrieved from http:// radicalpedagogy.icaap.org/ content/issue8_1/ wang.html.
Wang, V. C. X., & King, K. (Eds.). (2008). Innova- tions in career and technical education: Strategic approaches towards workforce competencies around the globe. Charlotte, NC: Information Age Publishing.
Wang, V. C. X., & King, K. (2009). Building workforce competencies in career and techni- cal education. Charlotte, NC: Information Age Publishing.
KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS
Cognitive Metamorphosis: A profound change in form from one stage to the next in the life history of an organism, as from the caterpillar to the pupa and from the pupa to the adult but- terfly. Cognitive metamorphosis refers to such a profound change in human beings as a result of self-directed learning or teaching as initiated by others. And this kind of change does not mean psychomotor change. Change in one’s attitude may be involved in cognitive metamorphosis.
Taxonomy: The science or technique of clas- sification. In this article, it refers to the most talked about Bloom’s Taxonomy, which contains six levels ranging from knowledge, comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis and evaluation. The six levels also represent both lower order thinking skills and higher order thinking skills. Bloom’s taxonomy has proved useful and helpful in curriculum and program development.
Ralph Tyler: (1902-1994) was an American educator who worked in the field of assessment and evaluation. He served on or advised a number of bodies that set guidelines for the expenditure of federal funds and influenced the underlying policy of the Elementary and Secondary Educa- tion Act of 1965. Tyler chaired the committee that eventually developed the National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP). He earned his PhD from the University of Chicago. His most influential books is perhaps titled Basic Principles of Curriculum and Instruction. Tyler emphasizes the fact that curriculum planning is a continuous cyclical process, involving constand replanning, redevelopment, and reappraisal. Substitution of such an integrated view of an instructional pro- gram for hit-or-miss judgment as the basis for curriculum development cannot but result in an increasingly effective curriculum.
Instructional Leadership: Has been de- scribed as the “process of social influence in which one person can enlist the aid and support of others in the accomplishment of a common task.” Definitions more inclusive of followers have also emerged. Leadership is ultimately about creating a way for people to contribute to making something extraordinary happen. Instructional leadership refers to what instructional leadership roles teachers can play in their classroom settings or in the virtual environment so that learners can achieve the desired learning outcomes. In general, it may refer to the whole process of teaching and learning. It is part of the so-called educational leadership, which includes also administrative leadership.
Psychomotor Domain: Of or pertaining to a response involving both motor and psychological
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components. Psychomotor domain refers to the area where learners seek to act differently by the end of a lesson or a course.
Affective Domain: Concerned with or arous- ing the emotions or affection. Affective domain refers to the area where learners seek to feel dif- ferently by the end of a lesson or a course.
Curriculum: The aggregate of courses of study given in a school, college, university, etc.
John Dewey defines curriculum as a continuous reconstruction, moving from the learner’s pres- ent experience out into that represented by the organized bodies of truth that we call studies… the various studies… are themselves experience— they are that of the race. Ralph Tyler defines it as all the learning experiences planned and directed by the school to attain its educational goals.
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Copyright © 2012, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
Chapter 42
DOI: 10.4018/978-1-61350-068-2.ch042
INTRODUCTION
In this chapter I am focusing attention on the connection between counseling and (adult educa- tion) andragogy – the art and science of helping and facilitating adults in their learning – for a very specific reason within a unique context. I am professionally educated and have practiced in both fields. My Master of Theology (Th. M.)
Degree is in pastoral counseling. I engaged in my clinical counseling education internship at Cook County Hospital in Chicago, and used counsel- ing as part of my full and part-time ministry in a local church during four decades. My Doctor of Education (Ed. D.) Degree is in andragogy. I have used my andragogical competencies in my full time university faculty career during four decades. Hence, I have merged the two fields in my professional practice and personal life, and they are part of the ‘warp-and-woof’ of who I am
John A. Henschke Lindenwood University, USA
Counseling in an Andragogical Approach
ABSTRACT
The introduction provides the unique professional preparation of the author in both fields for merging counseling and andragogy – the art and science of helping adults learn. Providing general counseling information, he then gives a sketch and time gaps of publication in adult education and counseling. Next, he presents a chronology of publications merging the two fields. In the future trends section, a comprehensive model for counseling in adult education is constructed, including: an andragogical approach, dimensions of maturation, closely connecting counseling and learning, with life tasks, chal- lenges, and dealing with our human values and priorities within human systems of adult life. Examples are articulated of both the professional and learner implementing the model.
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as a person. The objectives of this chapter are: 1) to present aspects of both fields; 2) to provide a model of how I have merged counseling with an andragogical approach; and, 3) to suggest to others consideration of employing this model in their practice.
Thus, the counseling I do in andragogy is focused on a growth and forward looking life model. This is in contrast to a problem-solving model that is the hallmark of many other counsel- ing programs.
BACKGROUND AND UNDERSTANDING OF THE COUNSELING CONCEPT
Counseling is conducted by a person (i.e., coun- selor) in relationship with one who is receiving the reflections and considerations (i.e. counsel) of the other person. In this document, the word coun- seling and counselor will be used along with the word counsel. Counseling is defined as advising, instructing and admonishing. Counselor is defined as any person who gives advice or is authorized by natural relationship – birth, office, profession – to advise another in regard to his/her future conduct and measures. This implies that change, growth and development is meant to transpire from the interchange with a counselor. Counsel as a noun is defined as advice, opinion, or instruction given upon request or otherwise, for directing the judg- ment or conduct of another; opinion given upon deliberation or consultation. Counsel as a transi- tive verb is defined to give advice or deliberate opinion to another for the government of his/her conduct; to advise (Webster, 1996).
If one looks through the eyes of Pitha (1996) at the general field of counseling, the following words and ideas are associated with it: treatment, psychotherapy, advice, advisory, and persuasion. With treatment there are such things as psychiatric care, psychoanalysis, psychotherapy, electroshock and electroconvulsive therapy. The word psycho-
therapy connects with behavior, client-centered, group, family, conjoint, nondirective, supportive, and suggestion therapy; behavior modification; role-playing; the counseling couch; and, hyp- notherapy. Advice is characterized by guidance, recommendation, communication, consultation, words and pearls of wisdom, admonition, moral- izing, preaching, sermonizing, and precept. As an adjective, advisory is deliberative, encouraging, urging, instructive, prescriptive, admonishing, warning and cautionary. However, persuasion relies on influence, inducement, sway, cajolery, coaxing, inveiglement, convincingness, forceful- ness, insistence, pressure, and sweet talking.
• Counseling competency is defined as the abil- ity to help individual persons recognize and understand personal needs, values, problems, alternatives, and goals (Reynolds, 1993). A competency is a cluster of knowledges, understandings, skills, attitudes, values, and interests that are required for the performance of a function. In this case the function would be to be competent in counseling adult learn- ers.
• Maturing carries with it the ideas of refine- ment, improvement, finesse, flawlessness, being without reproach, and polish. This comes from being perfected over time or natural growth as reaching near impec- cability. Applying counseling competency within the field of adult education focuses on helping the adult mature and look toward the future in every aspect of life.
An Overview Sketch of the Literature on Counseling Adult Learners
There are very few definitions of counseling given in the field of adult education. In the books on adult education there has been a surprisingly spotty coverage of the topic. Houle (1992) indicates that of the 1241 books published from 1814 to 1992 on adult education, there were 12 (less than one
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per cent) that addressed the topic of counseling. Those books were published in 1946, 1967, 1968, 1971, 1976, 1977, 1978, 1982, 1984, 1988, 1989 and 1992.
One of the most puzzling discoveries in the adult education literature and research is that there were almost no books published addressing the subject of counseling from 1993 to 2010. With two exceptions, the topic was addressed only in articles. There have been at least ten handbooks of adult education produced on a regular basis in the general field of adult education. However, although they were published in 1970, 1980, 1983, 1990, 1996, 2000 (two handbooks), 2001, 2005, 2010, there is next to nothing on counseling in three of them (1970, 1980, 2005), and nothing on counseling in the other seven of them. A book by Cohen, et al (2003) included the only reference, outside of the 1970, 1980, and 2005 handbooks mentioned above, on counseling and this on emphasized the importance of counseling adult learners in higher education.
In the five eras during which adult education counseling literature has been produced in book form, following are the numbers of articles in each era: three articles from 1946-1970; three articles from 1971-1980; twelve articles from 1981-1990; five articles from 1991-2000; and, thirteen articles from 2001-2010. Fourteen books which included the topic of counseling in adult education were published between1946 and 1992, with one added in each of the years of 2003 and 2005. Thirty-six articles were published on the topic between 1967 and 2010. The following years saw no articles of books published on the topic: 1947-1966, 1972- 1975, 1979, 1981, 1986, 1990-1991, 1994, 1997, 1999, 2000 and 2002.
In the following section each of the eras will include published books and articles within those time frames. Most of the books and articles have been qualitative, opinion or theoretical pieces focusing on the counseling process related to adult education, rather than being based on best
practices growing out of rigorous research and investigation.
A Historical Presentation of the Chronology of Documents Addressing Counseling in Adult Education Reflecting Some Strengths and Weaknesses
1946-1970: Initial Counseling Techniques and Services
A very early work on counseling techniques was provided by Klein and Moffit (1946). Their cen- tral attention was directed toward orientation of adults to the offerings of an instructional center, such as an evening school or a university center. The book is practical and spells out procedures in a systematic fashion.
Thompson (1967) presented an abstract of a preconvention workshop held by the American College Personnel Association in Dallas, Texas, March 17-18, 1967, dealing with the special characteristics and needs of adult participants, implications for counseling, recent progress and remaining area of need in adult counseling, and the selection and training of personnel workers for adults in evening colleges. The main points were the following—(1) the distinctive life expe- riences, problems, and obligations, physical and mental characteristics, and motive of adults call for experience-oriented teaching methods, special facilities, and new approach to testing, admis- sion, financial aid, and students activities—(2) acceptance of the individual, personal consistency and integrity, and understanding are essential counselor attributes—(3) the ultimate goal of counseling is to help the adult discover ways to realize his potential, respond more effectively to new experiences, and work out a meaningful, viable life style—(4) personal trainers should be chosen primarily for appropriate character traits and academic background, and should receive
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broad training that stresses skills in short-term counseling.
Farmer (1967) dealt with intra-institutional personnel services; she shows how registrants in an evening college can be helped to identify and adjust to the course offered. Topics like admis- sions, placement, personal counseling, student activities, and financial aid are considered.
Thoroman (1968) advocated vocational coun- seling. The main categories included were applied to women, veterans, seriously disabled and elderly.
Glick (1969) provided one of the earliest works that depict work in the counseling of adults in education. This is an annotated biography. It dealt with counseling and personnel services in adult education and contains 94 indexed and abstracted entries arranged under four headings; (1) Student Personnel Services, (2) Counseling Services, (3) Admission and Selection, and (4) Retention and Dropout, Financial Assistance.
Harlacher (1970) explained some good practices in community counseling, family life education, and supportive services. However, the problem is that at many colleges student counsel- ing service is not available to the general public, but is available until after one has been accepted and enrolled as a student.
1971-1980: Improving and Refining Counseling Practice
Farmer (1971) described various aspects of counseling services for adults in higher education settings. He identifies the distinctiveness of ap- proach needed with mature people as contrasted with children.
Ironside (1976) gave a brief introduction to the system of counseling assistance provided for would-be learners and to the method of informa- tion seeking that is undertaken by such people. Her main interest, however, is in the provision a fully annotated bibliography of books and papers covering each kind of service.
Ironside and Jacob (1977) intended initially to compile an annotated bibliography of the literature on the general subject of counseling and informational services for adults engaged in learning. They indicated that the major discernible innovative trends in counseling included person- centered non-institutional settings, imaginative use of staff, development of human and mechanical networks, and, harnessing media technologies to serve learners.
Knox and Farmer (1977) insisted that increas- ing recognition throughout the world that coun- seling and information services for adult learners are important, but inadequate. Most counseling of adult learners is provided by people who are not professional counselors and are not suffi- ciently prepared for the task. These services for adult learners are mainly available in developed countries.
Sewart and Richardson (1977) addressed that counseling and student advisory services in the UK Open University play an important role in helping students who are adult learners. They provide advice on course offerings, guidance on available remedial help, and the keeping of personal records.
Schlossberg, et al. (1978) created what is probably the most carefully worked out guide available to the practice of counseling adults. The authors begin with five chapters on basic approaches and follow these with another five chapters on improvement in practice. The book is written simply and directly so that it can readily be understood by non-specialist readers, but its insights and practical suggestions are sufficiently sophisticated to contribute to the knowledge and ability of advanced practitioners in the art of counseling.
Goldberg (1980) found little systematic re- search directed toward the many problems of counseling adult learners. Theoretical analyses are far better developed than the data bases needed to substantiate them.
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1981-1990: Comprehensive Counseling for Growth
Works about counseling were extended to include multi-institutional situations. These showed increasing concern with the personal interaction between the counselor and the person counseled. Van Hoose and Worth (1982) described counsel- ing as it can be used for adults who do not have serious problems but need to talk with a trained, helpful person. The authors treat such interaction as a process of self-discovery and, helpful to the elderly.
Charters (1982) summarized that adult and continuing education is based on the assump- tions that individuals control their lives; and, lifelong education is an essential component of adults’ lives. In addition, the enhancement of adult education resides with adult educators who provide leadership, design policy, translate policy into action, develop learning opportunities for adults, and evaluate programs. He pointed out that counselors of adults should consider themselves as educators of adults in the context of lifelong learning and identify with the field of adult education. Counselors should be aware that in adult and continuing education, learning is a self-directed process.
Benjamin and Walz (1982) conducted a three- year study of adult counseling programs and practices in the United States. Generalizations are presented regarding both the adult experience and appropriate adult counseling behaviors.
Personal author, compiler, or editor name(s); click on any author to run a new search on that name.Moore (Ed.) (1983) gathered 72 articles’ abstracts in counseling from “Teaching at a Distance.” The following topics related to coun- seling at Great Britain’s Open University are covered: (1) general theory of counseling from the Open University perspective; (2) the Open University tutor-counselor; (3) Open University post-foundation counseling; (4) adult learners; (5) Open University student progress, withdrawal,
and drop-out; (6) disabled students; (7) Open University remote students; (8) study skills; (9) study centers; (10) preparatory courses; (11) Open University continuing education; (12) advisory- referral services; (13) vocational guidance; (14) Open University briefing and training; and (15) comparative and international considerations.
Knox (1983) indicated that over the years, libraries have been most successful in effectively meeting some of the counseling and information needs of adult learners in ways that broaden the range of services. Nonetheless, if their counseling is to be effective, library personnel need to develop competence in combining an understanding of adults as learners and their counseling efforts with a commitment to serving these adults.
Schlossberg (1984) was concerned with the ways in which adults can best learn, with the help of professional counselors, to make adjustments in the wake of personal crises, whether these are caused by external events or by personal feelings of need or inadequacy. Such counseling could be considered a form of dyadic education, and it is also often a precursor to programs of organized learning. Schlossberg (1978, 1984) suggests that one has to assess his/her relative strength of various items. This assessment relates to working through a transition that includes growth from one stage of growth of the internal strengths of the self, external supports, and strategies one has developed to handle stress.
Clements (1984) drew a focus on some of the special concerns of the older adults and ways counselors can help. Counseling the elderly most often requires a holistic approach--consistent with lifestyle counseling. Counselors should treat older clients with respect toward emphasiz- ing their strengths, not weaknesses; developing independence while diminishing dependence; and encouraging decision making and action taking.
Gelatt, et al. (1984) proposed the new perspec- tives on a comprehensive approach to counseling adult learners. This includes: 1) balance between learner and environment; 2) resistance toward
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classification; 3) bridging behaviorism and cog- nition; 4) facilitating creative choice; 5) adults as resources for adults; and 6) contributions of technology. Counseling adult learners have indeed become the force of the future. Counselors are in an excellent position to assist adults in acquiring the 4C skills; Confidence, Connectedness, Com- passion, and Choosing. However, it is important that counselors should be able to take leadership in helping others see the vision, the image, the need for those skills, and the compelling necessity to acquire them to make their lives as rewarding and satisfying as possible.
Naylor (1985) surmised that program develop- ment, administration, instruction, and counseling are the areas in which adult development theory can enhance educational programming in plan- ning and implementation. Consequently, among other things, adult educators need a thorough understanding of counseling techniques for use with individuals in transition.
Kerka (1987) proposed a comprehensive adult career counseling delivery system that may help counselors deal with diverse adult populations. The system includes 1) needs assessment, 2) re- source assessment, 3) goal setting, 4) planning, 5) establishment of specific objectives, 6) program development, 7) implementation, 8) evaluation, and 9) modification.
Riverin-Simard (1988) used the vantage point of an adult educational counselor to frame a theory of the phases of work life. In the process, she discovered a general approach to guide her future counseling.
Kerka (1988) shared that retention of adult students is a persistent and perplexing problem for providers of adult education. Instead of taking this attrition personally, administrators and teach- ers need to take the counselor stance to listen, set a climate conducive to learning, and allow open discussion to address and correct the problem.
Wilcoxon et al. (1989) described that Enrich- ing the Adult Student Environment (EASE) is a comprehensive counseling group designed to meet
the needs of adult students. Thus, it discusses the unique needs of adult students in higher education and the issues related to developing a support group for meeting these needs.
Schlossberg, et al (1989) reviewed the prob- lems encountered by adult students as they seek to fit in as “regular” students on campus. These programs are mainly designed for young full-time students.
Spicer (1990) offered another goal for those who engage in counseling and guidance. Adult educators need to make “…the commitment to providing all entering and continuing students the direction and support they need to make informed decisions about their future and to develop plans to achieve their goals” (p. 15).
1991-2000: Emphasis on Career Development Counseling
Houle (1992) found that from the beginning of the adult educational movement in the United States, the community wide coordination of adult educa- tion has been considered important, not only to aid in counseling, but also to discover gaps and duplications of service, to gain the other advan- tages of collaboration and to advance the ideas and programs of adult education. However, the adult education council that was thought to be the best way to accomplish this almost disappeared in the United States.
Conrad (1993) raised the tall order issue re- garding every adult American needing to be able to compete in the global economy and exercise the rights and responsibilities of citizenship. In- dividual, group, and peer group counseling were among those services required to be available to adult learners.
Kerka (1995) gave comprehensive contents on the adult career counseling competencies required in the changing workplace. Adult career counselors should be aware of and able to deal with the new conditions of work and the impact of constant change and uncertainty; family systems theory
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and the relationship between family and work; adult development and adult learning; different approaches for different client groups--dual career couples, older adults, women, ethnic groups; and, selection and use of appropriate career assessment instruments.
Finnerty (1996) wrote that counseling is a part of coaching that helps individuals evaluate their current behavior and discover and learn more productive behavior patterns. This helps to focus attention on the fact that problems often lie within the system, not the employee. It is sure that the employee needs to be coached and that the coaching process can be initiated.
Walther and Ritchie (1998) studied the five differences between adults and youth which are important for counselors. First, education is often a secondary consideration for adults who want to be dealt with as adults. Second, adults have valuable experiences which contribute to the edu- cational process. Third, adult learners want to be able to immediately apply what they’ve learned. Fourth, the adult is likely to be enrolling due to life transitions. Fifth, adults are self-directed and generally more motivated to achieve because they have specific objectives in mind.
UNESCO (1998) provided some practical guidance on starting a career counseling centre in a higher education setting. It indicated that the key essential aspects to be considered about a career counseling centre are assumptions, defi- nitions and theory, responsible people, the tools and resources, format, and process for those who would like to pursue the career counseling center in their educational institutions.
2001-2010: Diversifying Comprehensive Adult Education Counseling
Grubb’s (2001) review of guidance and counseling showed that some colleges have a “…counseling center, a separate transfer center, a career center, and still other centers for low-income or minority
students and for disabled students” (pp 6-7). In addition they need to be equipped “…with trained career counselors providing a range of assessment, and ties to community networks” (p 8).
Cohen and Brawer (2003) indicated that the community college’s several missions have led to the development of various types of counseling services. As a key element in student develop- ment, counseling must be integrated with other campus activities, helping students to reach their potential, focusing on educational, personal, social, and vocational development, and, being student centered, taking into account students’ interests, aptitudes, needs, values, and potential. Comprehensive counseling should include goal setting, personal assessment, and development of change strategies, strategy implementation, evaluation, and recycling of the whole process for each student.
Ryan (2003) investigated how the shifting demographics of community colleges affect the counseling function and offered suggestions that counselors and researchers can employ to ensure the services provided addresses the needs of today’s students. Counseling centers need to re-conceptualize the strategies, models, and man- ner in which they provide services so that their efforts are more in union with the needs of the population being served.
Corey (2004) addressed the advantages of developing an integrative approach to counsel- ing practice. A counselor needs to have a basic knowledge of various theoretical systems and counseling techniques to work effectively with a wide range of clients in various clinical settings.
Holman and Douglass (2004) explored the feminist identity of counseling students. Distinctly including feminist thought in counselor education is a step towards keeping feminism alive for future development of counseling.
Smith (2004) called attention to all practitioners in the counseling profession to reflect on the past and to project some of their best thinking into the future. The great need is for outcomes-based
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research on the efficacy of what it is that profes- sional counselors do with clients compared to other professions.
English, et al. (2005) included some essential characteristics of a learning region. These are: The need to have counseling services to enable citizens to maximize their learning opportunities; new understanding of the centrality for economic and social development of all forms of learning; excellent education and training systems al all levels; to have world-class systems for collection, analysis, management and dissemination of infor- mation; and the creation of social capital through partnerships and networks. She mentioned that four major variables may be used to help classify adult education organizations: funding, functions, geographic spread and mode of delivery. In the aspects of function, counseling and guidance; for as learning and educational certificates have become so important in the labor market, a variety of organizations have been established to provide guidance and to offer help and support to learners.
Jacobson, et al. (2006) indicated clearly that the American College of Preventive Medicine (ACPM) takes the position that primary care providers should incorporate physical activity counseling sessions into routine patient visits and recognizes other important related issues. These include: Improved and easy-to-implement coun- seling programs, standardized counseling assess- ment tools, and important policies, to name a few.
Roach and Young (2007) commented on whether counselor education programs promote wellness in their students. Wellness as a unifying philosophy in counselor education may be a way to prevent impairment and burnout in students and professionals.
Guidance and counseling for adults is an aim within the participating Nordic countries of Sweden, Norway, Finland, Iceland and Denmark (Nordic Council Minister, 2008). The service is primarily provided within the school system and in employment offices.
Igbafe (2009) examined the role counseling plays as a tool in addressing the adult student need. Counseling therefore helps the adult student to develop self-awareness. This can also build relationships, improve and change their life. It helps the struggling student’s build their strength and be highly motivated.
Ryhanen (2010) described that the support and counseling service in adult education is currently one of the main development areas in Finland because it helps develop skilled workers and supports citizens’ participation in the society. However, the quality, effectiveness and focus of adult education on developing customer-oriented information, counseling and support services all need to be improved as well as updating the knowledge and skills taught.
Hewett (2010) studied the guidance and coun- seling services to support adult learners who are interested in transitioning from basic education programming to college. He affirmed that guidance and counseling: Create learning opportunities; establish a supportive and productive learning environment; help students create an education and career plan; build self-esteem and confidence; teach college success and navigation skills; and inspire, facilitate and support change.
In this knowledge-based economy, knowledge is now recognized as the driver of productivity and economic growth, leading to a new focus on the role of information, technology and learning in economic performance. People who qualify with knowledge and information will be able to work and live in this changing world. Most importantly, new issues and questions are being raised regarding the implications of the counsel- ing for enhancing adult learners’ personality and emotional behavior, technology and innovation that help people to easily access the counseling, and the role of educational institutions. This is especially true in higher education, governments, workplace, and communities in the development and maintenance of the counseling programs and
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services that recognized the adult learner’s real needs and interests.
Future Trends Shaping a More Systematic Function of Counseling Adult Learners
The importance of counseling requires better understanding of various points in today’s world. These include: Role of adult educators with com- petence as counselors; quality and responsibility; counseling contents, processes and strategies; best practices for the successful adult counseling programs; monitoring and evaluation processes development of networks (e.g. higher education, governments, workplace, and communities, and other agencies); role of technology and innovation; implications for counselors’ professional develop- ment; and, research studies for further develop- ment. Systematic and comprehensive counseling in adult education and andragogy should include goal setting, personal assessment, development of change strategies, strategy implementation, evaluation, and feedback, as well as involvement of family and community in order to develop the effectiveness of counseling programs and services for different adult learners.
Comprehensive Counseling in Adult Education
Comprehensive counseling in adult education includes: an andragogical approach of treating adults as adults, helping adults mature in every aspect, connecting counseling closely with facili- tating learning, focusing on life tasks of adults, addressing life’s challenges in each decade of life, dealing with our human values and priorities within the huan systems of adult life. One pos- sibility a more systematic function of counseling is looking at the adult educator [andragogue] and seek to apply her/his competence in this important task of counseling the adult learner.
Considering the Andragogical Approach in Adult Education Counseling
Andragogy is the art and science of helping adults learn. Knowles (1970, 1990) and Henschke (2003, 2009) indicate that some assumptions of andra- gogy are as follows: The need to know. Adults have a need to know a reason that makes sense to them, as to why they should learn some particular thing—why they need to learn the subject matter the teacher has to teach them.
• The learner’s self- concept: As adults, we have a deep psychological need to be self- directing—to be perceived by others and treated by others as able to take responsibility for ourselves.
• The role of experience: Adults enter into an educational activity with a greater volume and a different quality of experience than youths. The greater volume is obvious—the longer we live, the more experience we accumulate. The difference in quality of experience arises from the different roles adults and young people perform.
• Readiness to learn: Adults become ready to learn when they experience a need to know or be able to do something to perform more effectively in some aspect of their lives. Among the chief sources of readiness are the developmental tasks associated with moving from one stage of development to another. Any change—marriage, the birth of children, the loss of a job, divorce, the death of a friend or relative, or a change of residence—can trigger a readiness to learn.
• Orientation to learning: Because adults are motivated to learn after they experience a need, they enter an educational activity with a life-, task-, or problem-centered orientation to learning.
• Motivation: Although the andragogical model acknowledges that adults will respond to some external motivators—for example, a
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chance for promotion, a change of jobs, or a change in technology—it proposes that the more potent motivators are internal—such benefits as self-esteem, recognition by peers, better quality of life, greater self-confidence, self-actualization, and so on.
In working with counseling adult learners in educational contexts the professor [teacher, coun- selor, adult educator, supporter, etc.] must know, believe in and be skillful with andragogy—the art and science of helping adults learn. The mark of a professional is being an andragogue. The andragogue is inclined to support and encourage the person being counseled to be self-directed and creative in the solutions they are willing to experiment with and implement.
Dimensions of Maturation for Adult’s Life
Another possibility for a more systematic function of counseling is the contrast of what happens with learners in early stages and learners in the more maturing stages of life.
The idea of maturity as a goal of counseling in adult education needs to be divided into vari- ous dimensions, if it is to serve as a guide (or a counseling mechanism) for facilitating continu- ous learning. Out of the psychological literature comes the notion that there are several dimension of the maturing process, each with its own unique cycle of development. If the really critical dimen- sions of the maturing process could be identified, then adult education could have some yardsticks against which to measure the accomplishment of her/his mission. As a starting point, Knowles (1970) found the following fifteen dimensions of maturing listed in Figure 1 which are nominated for consideration. (Note that these dimensions describe directions of growth, not absolute states of being to be achieved.).
The movement of the learners [or those being counseled] on these dimensions would be:
Although no stage is completely fulfilled at any point in life, one would seek to move along the path of each dimension. The pedagogue would be more inclined to control and direct the person being counseled, thus seeking to maintain them in the earlier stage of each dimension. The andragogue
Figure 1.
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would be more inclined to support and encourage the person being counseled to be self-directed and creative in the solutions they are willing to experiment with and implement, thus seeking to move them forward toward the expanded enact- ment of each dimension of maturity.
Connecting Counseling Closely with Facilitating Learning
Galbraith, M.W. (1991) mentions that a facilitator of adult learning is a major player in the success of the process of andragogy and requires certain characteristics, roles, and skills; i.e. those of an effective counselor. He pointed out several stud- ies that investigated those aspects. For instance, Brockett (1983) examined counseling and helping skill approaches and related them to the process of helping or facilitating adult learners in their learning processes. Based on the work of Egan (1975), such skills as attending, responding, and understanding were identified as basic compo- nents. It is obvious from the approaches mentioned above that the facilitator of adult learning takes on the role of counselor in a transactional process. The implementation of the helping process can- not be accomplished without possessing good communication skills. Another essential skill for facilitator of the transactional process is that of establishing strategies that motivate the learner to engage in meaningful, collaborative, challenging, and critically reflective learning. Facilitators can help establish a learning setting that encourages adult learners to be motivated toward wanting to think and act differently; i.e. more maturely.
Focusing on Life Tasks of Adults
As selected illustrations of tasks in each category to be worked on at each stage in life, I offer the following (Knowles, 1990).
Early Adulthood: 18-30
• Vocation and Career – Exploring Career Options
• Home and Family Living – Preparing for Marriage
• Personal Development – Developing your Religious Faith
• Enjoyment of Leisure – Finding New Friends
• Health – Developing a Healthy Life Style • Community Living – Learning How to
Exert Influence
Middle Adulthood: 30-65
• Vocation and Career – Changing Careers or Dealing with Unemployment
• Home and Family Living – Adjusting to Aging Parents
• Personal Development – Keeping out of a Rut
• Enjoyment of Leisure – Broadening your Cultural Interests
• Health – Compensating for Losses in Strength
• Community Living – Working for the Welfare of Others
Later Adulthood: 65 and Over
• Vocation and Career – Retirement and Finding New Ways to be Useful
• Home and Family Living – Putting your Estate in Order
• Personal Development – Keeping Future Oriented
• Enjoyment of Leisure – Establishing Affiliations with the Older Age Group
• Health – Getting Appropriate Exercise • Community Living – Working for
Improved Conditions for the Elderly
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Each of these areas may be addressed through the developing programs that have to do with addressing various categories of life and keep- ing ourselves (or adult education facilitators/ counselors) helping to work with adults a various stages of their life. More extensive lists of tasks in each category and age are available from various sources. Andragogues may move their counsel- ing of adult learners along the line of working with various age groups and counting them all as equally deserving of their time and energy for the learning and counseling process.
Addressing Life’s Challenges in Each Decade of Life
Another list to be considered that may be more extensive is one that addresses life challenges dur-
ing various decades of life. It also addresses Six Core Human Values and is within eight Human Systems of Adult Life. This framework (Figure 2) even carries one into 100 years of age while following the renewal cycle as a continuous ad- venture and journey (Hudson, 1999).
One Hundred & Beyond
As an illustration of people still vibrant at 100 years of age, I share the following true story:
“I [John A. Henschke] remember in the year 2000 seeing on TV a 102 year old man who had just published a book entitled: “Life is So Good.” He was asked why he wrote this book at this age and he said that he learned how to read at age 98. When asked why he learned how to read at age
Figure 2.
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98, he replied that people were telling him things and he wanted to be able to read and check out whether they were telling him the truth. At this writing the book is still available on Amazon. The man’s name is George Dawson. The book was written with Richard Glaubman.” (Dawson and Glaubman, 2000)
Note: About each decade, adults recognize their lives around a different priorities (Figure 3).
Andragogues are inclined to be forward look- ing. The important thing to remember is that the adult education facilitator/counselor role encour- ages us to keep our eyes on goals that cause us to stretch and press on to the continuing call of life.
Having spent time in professional prepara- tion and practice of both counseling and adult education, I provide the following illustrations (as a professional and a learner) of how I would implement the future trend track with counseling in an andragogical approach.
• Professional: 1. As a professor, I work and discuss with the person until they have their own reason for moving forward with a plan to enhance their life. 2. Help them select a dimension of maturation they wish to develop such as moving from narrow interests toward broad interests. 3. Explain that I will seek to help them (facilitate and support them) to move forward on broaden- ing their interest at their own pace and not at my pace. 4. Since this person is in middle adulthood, their selection of the community life task will be focused on working for the welfare of others. 5. The person chooses a thirties challenge of caring for parents. 6. This core human value would be focused on compassion within the human system of adult life in the family.
• Learner: 1. As a learner, I am very interested in being self-directed in planning and car- rying out my learning. 2. The dimension of maturation I choose is moving from super-
Figure 3.
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ficial concerns toward deep concerns. 3. I understand that moving forward in my life is a choice I make for myself and I don’t expect or depend on others to make this happen. 4. I will seek to keep future oriented in developing personally. 5. Since I am in my late seventies, my challenge in life will focus on blessing and appreciating others. 6. The core human value I select is contribution within the human system of adult life in the social setting.
Other professionals may use the same andra- gogical counseling processes to support the growth and development of individuals and society as a whole. Other learners are encouraged to focus on staying ahead of the curve in trusting the future and sustaining hope. Each person’s selection will be supported in her/his chooing freely their own direction in life. This will help increase focus on a growth and future oriented model of life and will minimize a focus on solving problems.
CONCLUSION
Therefore, the recommendations specifically for several related groups and organizations such as counselors, student services specialists, adult educators, facilitators and administrators is that they recognize their opportunities to inspire each person to move forward in her/his life. These counselor types of people that will undertake and implement the andragogical approach with adults in adult education are persons in helping professions like adult education and counseling, governments, local agencies, and communities, and all sectors in the society. The process of developing and integrating a more andragogical perspective in counseling education and services for adult learners is challenging and highly inter- active. It is hoped that these issues will generate and encourage further dialogue and discussion.
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KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS
Andragogy: A scientific discipline for study of the theory, processes, technology, art and anything else of value and benefit including learning, teach- ing, instructing, guiding, leading, and modeling/ exemplifying a way of life, which would help to bring adults to their full degree of humaneness.
Pedagogy: The art and science of teaching children, and/or the uninitiated learner, in new subject matter with which they are unacquainted.
Counselor: A person who gives advice or is authorized by natural relationship – birth, office, profession – to advise another in regard to his/her future conduct and measures.
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Counseling: The act of helping (admonishing, advising, instructing) another person to consider, reflect, and possibly adopt a plan of action or appropriate behavior.
Counsel: Advice, opinion, or instruction given upon request or otherwise, for directing the deliberation, judgment or conduct of another.
Competency: A cluster of knowledges, under- standings, skills, attitudes, values, and interests that are required for the performance of a function.
In this case the function would be to be competent in counseling adult learners.
Counseling Competency: The ability to help individual persons recognize and understand personal needs, values, problems, alternatives, possible actions or attitudes, and goals.
Maturing: Finish, completion, polish, ripe- ness, readiness, idealness, flawlessness, impec- cability, irreproachability, perfected by time or natural growth.
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Copyright © 2012, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
Chapter 43
DOI: 10.4018/978-1-61350-068-2.ch043
INTRODUCTION
In parallel with the development of information and communication technologies, distance educa- tion has been broadly considered as a response to the need for new courses and training in edu- cational settings. Although distance education is not a new field, it now affects people’s lives more significantly than ever because of the use of new
technologies. Many educators and trainers use those technologies to offer courses online, reach- ing learners without limitations of time or place. Moreover, many for-profit institutions have started taking advantage of the ability to have students without any geographic or time zone boundaries, and many students prefer taking courses from a distance, even when they and the institutions are located in the same geographic place. This educational change encourages other institutions to offer technologically driven courses in new
Harun Yilmaz The Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey, Turkey
Distance Education at University Settings
ABSTRACT
Distance education has become a feasible alternative to traditional face-to-face education especially in support of new technology advancement. In order to see the current status of distance education, it is important to look at how distance education has evolved since its inception in the 1830s. Distance education has also affected the pedagogical paradigm throughout the years in parallel with its evolu- tion. Therefore, when designing and developing a distance education course, a systematic approach needs to be employed using instructional design model, focusing on interactions provided by several technologies and collaboration techniques, as well as assessment methods. Specific emphasis is given to Web 2.0 technologies and how these technologies improve the collaboration in web-based courses.
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forms as well as traditional classroom-based courses, and almost every institution now has its own distance education department or institution. Distance education is used to provide opportuni- ties for people who have some time or geographic restrictions to enjoy long-term and cost-effective education, and to increase the quality of education by providing new learning opportunities, among its other benefits.
Since distance education has significantly influenced the education system, it is important to view the phenomenon as both a result of and a reason for changes, including changes in educa- tional technologies. When we look at the historical roots of distance education, it becomes especially clear that its main purpose has been to provide opportunities to improve knowledge and skills for people who formerly had no physical access to education or training. It is also important to re- member that the main philosophy behind distance education involves the way in which learners and instructors are separated, even if they are in the same geographic area. An examination of the current tools and platforms available for distance education will make this clearer.
BACKGROUND
Moore and Kearsley (2005) define distance edu- cation as “…planned learning that normally oc- curs in a different place from teaching, requiring special course design and instruction techniques, communication through various technologies, and special organizational and administrative arrange- ments” (p.2). Distance education is not as easy to offer as traditional courses and training, so when designing and developing a new distance course, there are many factors to be considered, such as instructional design and technological infrastruc- ture. Regarding distance education, Moore and Kearsley (2005) ask some key questions, such as: “…who decides what is to be learned, when and how it is to be learned, and when learning has been
satisfactorily completed? If such decisions are not made in a classroom, this is not distance educa- tion. If they are made, and communicated from instructor to the learner by means of a technology, the program is distance education” (p.3). Since learners and instructors are in different places, the shape of distance education depends on how courses are instructionally designed and the type of technologies used to create interactions among learners, instructors, and content.
History of Distance Education
In order to understand what distance education is, it is important to look at how distance education has evolved and the challenges that now face distance education today.
Correspondence Study
The history of distance education started with instruction offered through the postal services; at the time, it was called correspondence study. Instruction by mail in Europe, especially in Germany and Great Britain, began in the 1830s (Holmberg, 1986). The main purpose of corre- spondence education was to provide instruction to improve skills and knowledge related to the correspondents’ professional development.
In the United States, this movement was started by Bishop John H. Vincent, who created the Chautauqua Literary and Scientific Circle in 1878 to offer instruction in reading. Correspon- dence study was used in higher education by the Chautauqua Correspondence College to offer courses through mail (Scott, 1999). The learners in this correspondence study were primarily adults, who wanted to improve their work-related skills and knowledge.
Broadcasting by Radio and Television
When radio was first used as a new technology in the 1920s, it attracted interest as a new way to
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deliver educational instruction. Some American universities, such as the State University of Iowa and the Ohio State University, started offering courses by converting correspondence study materials for delivery via radio, to reach more people at the same time. Radio remained a popular medium of distance education until the use of tele- vision began in the 1930s. At that time, the State University of Iowa launched some educational programs via television broadcasting. However, until the 1950s, the use of television remained limited. After World War II, educational television gained popularity as a delivery tool for distance education, especially with the contributions of the Ford Foundation, giving grants for education. The Public Broadcasting Service (PBS) has also supported American educational programs since it was founded in 1970 as a provider of distance education. Since the operation of cable television began, television-based distance education has re- mained in use continuously and has facilitated the provision of numerous courses and programs by colleges, universities, and governmental agencies.
In the 1970s, institutions around the world began to take advantage of the development of satellite communications. Both audio-conferenc- ing and video-conferencing were widely used to access people located in different places. While the first educational audio-conferencing was used by the University of Wisconsin, the University of Alaska and the University of Hawaii also devel- oped programs using satellite technology. Both audio-conferencing and video-conferencing were used for the purpose of continuing education. Even overseas organizations such as Uğur Der- shaneleri, which prepared high school students in rural areas of Turkey who had no access to such services for the university entrance exam, used satellite-based instruction. In the late 1980s, the global business sector stepped into the realm of satellite-based training. IBM and Kodak used satellite technology to provide training opportu- nities for their employees. In addition to higher education institutions and corporations, the Star
School program was initiated by the Star Schools Program Assistance Act, passed in 1987, to pro- vide instruction in mathematics, science, foreign languages, and other subjects for K-12 students using satellite technologies in four US states. At the beginning of the 1970s, satellite technology was very expensive in terms of both infrastructure investment and service connection. However, with the development of the Internet and, later on, mo- bile technologies, audio- and video-conferencing have remained in use without the need for a direct satellite connection.
Open University
In the beginning of the 1970s, to deliver high- quality courses and programs at a low cost, differ- ent information and communication technologies were used together, including, but not limited to, printed materials, correspondence study, radio and television broadcasting, and tapes. The main motivation behind this movement was not only to deliver better content for learners, but also to serve different learning styles and give learners a chance to choose the learning methods best suited to their individual styles and situations. This initi- ate was launched by Charles Wedemeyer at the University of Wisconsin between 1964 and 1968. The use of various media was both a challenge for and the success story of distance education. Based on his success at Wisconsin, Wedemeyer was invited to Germany and the United Kingdom to tell his story. The British government set up a planning committee to develop a new institution responsible for reaching more adult students, who requested educational opportunities beyond tradi- tional institutions, and teaching them using various communication and information technologies. In 1969, the United Kingdom Open University was established. Following this, other countries launched open universities, such as Universidad Nacional de Educación a Distancia in Spain in 1972, Anadolu University in Turkey in 1982, and Indira Gandhi National Open University in India
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in 1982. There is still a large interest in this type of institution; for example, while the UK Open University’s student enrollment was 256,382 in 2008, Indira Gandhi National Open University had over two million students enrolled in 2009 (Holtz, 2009).
Web-Based Education
When the Sputnik program was launched by the USSR, it affected the USA deeply. To respond to this, and to regain leadership in technology, much research was funded by the US govern- ment. This technological research impacted not only the military, but also the field of education. In 1958, the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) was established. Later on, the ARPANET was created to connect computers in military offices, universities, and contract agen- cies. In 1973, TCP protocol was developed by Vinton Cerf and Robert Kahn, and in 1983, TCP/ IP protocol became the operational protocol on the ARPANET. In 1985, the National Science Foundation funded the development of NSFNET, and TCP/IP protocol was also used in this network. In 1989, Internet service providers (ISP) started their operations. In 1991, the World Wide Web (WWW) was introduced by the European Or- ganization for Nuclear Research (CERN). With the introduction of the WWW, distance education had its most important medium, offering differ- ent types of computers and software, and audio, video, simulation, collaboration, synchronous, and asynchronous communication opportunities for learners from different locations and time zones to interact with peers, content, and instructors, as well as administrative people. To benefit from the advantages of the Internet and the WWW, more institutions started offering computer-based courses and programs for educational purposes. Having Internet technologies available, more people were online more often. For example, according to the Harris Interactive Poll (2009), American adults are now spending an average of
13 hours weekly online. In parallel with trends in the use of the Internet, many distance education institutions have been going online and offering both campus-based and web-based courses and programs. It would be safe to say that more adults prefer to take courses online than in traditional settings. The United Kingdom Open University and the University of Phoenix, for example, have more students in the online environment than face-to-face. Many courses and programs are being offered only online today. For example, the Instructional Technology Master’s program (ITMA) was established by the Department of Learning Sciences and Technologies at Virginia Tech in 1999; it offers a master’s degree program totally online to prepare teachers and other pro- fessionals to become professional instructional technologists.
Web-based education has grown popular worldwide for several reasons. It offers great flexibility to learners in terms of geographic freedom and flexibility of time. Learners do not need to go to campus, attend classes, or spend money for travel and living expenses. This is especially relevant for people in rural areas who have no such local educational opportunity, and for working people who have no time flexibility. Web-based education enables learners to engage with instructions whenever and wherever possible. For example, soldiers in war zones do not have a specific time or place to continue their educations, but asynchronous web-based instruction provides them an opportunity to interact with their peers using email, threaded discussions, listservs, blogs, and even Facebook or Twitter, as well as with instructors and course content.
Furthermore, web-based education offers a high quality of instruction; it has been found that there is no significant difference between tradition- al education and web-based education (O’Neal, Jones, Miller, Campbell, & Pierce, 2007). The web-based learning outcomes are mostly similar to or better than those in traditional on-campus learning, according to previous studies (Hanson,
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Maushak, Scholosser, Anderson, & Simonson, 1997). Meeting the academic quality standards established by accreditation organizations, many online institutions have been duly accredited. For example, online institutions such as the University of Phoenix and Walden University, having created their own systems including rigorous academics and professional technical support, have been evaluated and accredited by national and regional accreditation organizations.
Web-based education offers an economical choice for learners, even though its average course credit is more expensive than that of traditional education. When considering living expenses, travel expenses, and time, many people prefer to take web-based courses, finding them more financially viable overall. In addition, because of the global economic crisis, many universities have increased their tuition fees, as they do not receive sufficient funding from the government. Therefore, many institutions see web-based education as an alternative for accessing more learners from different places, instead of opening new on-campus courses, although its initial cost is very high.
Challenges
Web-based education requires more planning, design, and development time than traditional education, as web-based instruction should be error free when it is launched. Therefore, web- based education is not as simple as converting traditional courses to an electronic format, such as developing PowerPoint presentations or uploading reading materials to the Internet (Bork, 2001). In order to prepare web-based courses, a systematic approach must be employed, taking into account learner characteristics, content analysis, learning theories, learning environment, interaction, col- laboration, and technology and media selection. Furthermore, web-based education requires a team consisting of an instructional designer, subject matter expert, instructional technologist, graphic
designer, and production professional to design and develop the web-based instruction. The WWW has a great number of resources, which holds both advantages and disadvantages for instructional designers and instructors. They need to choose the best content-related resources or create their own resources for their instruction and learners accordingly, weeding out that which is not suit- able. Since learners who take web-based courses are mostly adults, a self-motivated, independent, and goal-oriented learning approach should be considered for courses. Instead of teacher-based instruction, student-based instruction, collabora- tion, self-directive learning, reflection, and social interaction should be considered during the design and development of web-based courses (Dab- bagh, 2007).
Another challenge for web-based education is the learners themselves and their character- istics, as mentioned above. In general, learners of web-based education have higher motivation than learners in traditional education, and time is very important for them. However, studying in a nontraditional setting, they face a unique challenge of time management. This challenge leads more learners to drop out of courses, even though they initially have high motivation when deciding to enroll.
Instructional Design for Web-Based Courses
Instructional design is a systematic process to design and develop instructions effectively and efficiently for education and training programs. The system approach is employed during the instructional design process, aiming to analyze an integrated set of components that interact with each other and to coordinate other activities, including design, development, implementation, and evaluation. Different aspects of instructional design processes have been described (e.g. Reige- luth, 1999; Gagne, Golas, Keller,& Wager, 2005; Dick, Carey, & Carey, 2005; Smith & Ragan,
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2005); however, all systematic processes have the common phases of analysis, design, development, implementation, and evaluation, to make sure that course goals, objectives, instructional strategies, materials, and both formative and summative evaluations all serve in a consistent and reliable manner for instruction.
The analysis phase includes conducting a needs analysis (Kaufman, 2000), identifying a perfor- mance problem or opportunity, and identifying goals (Mager & Pipe, 1997). Web-based education requires more time for analysis because it has more technical and pedagogical characteristics to be considered than do traditional classroom settings. When conducting a needs analysis, technological resources, including servers, network connections, learning management systems (e.g. Blackboard or WebCT), course development tools, and sup- port facilities, should be considered. In addition to this, human resources, such as subject matter experts, course developers, and support personnel (e.g. course facilitators, technical support people, and course graders), need to be analyzed before the design process. Learner analysis is another important issue; course designers and developers need to be aware of the learners’ academic back- grounds, demographic profiles, learning styles, and technical backgrounds, including frequency of Internet use and connection speed.
The design phase includes writing objectives (Dick et al., 2005), determining learning activities such as simulation and interactive content, and identifying media (Smaldino, Russell, Heinich, & Molenda, 2005). Since web-based education should be learner-centered, instructional designers and developers need to select the media so as to have students engage in learning through use of a variety of means, such as e-mails, chats, discussion boards, listservs, and blogs. When designing the learning activities, they must ensure that students are provided with opportunities to explore spe- cific course content and with flexible learning. Furthermore, interaction between learners and
learners, learners and instructors, and learners and content should be identified so that learners have more opportunities to learn from different sources.
The development includes the preparation of course materials such as content, web pages, as- sessment, and learning activities. In order to cre- ate such materials, various authoring tools, web development tools can be used during this phase.
The implementation phase requires delivering the developed course materials in the specified setting, such as a course management system (e.g. Blackboard).
The last phase is evaluation, which includes both formative and summative evaluations of the course. In formative evaluation, data are col- lected to identify problematic areas of the course implementation, focusing on the process of the course. However, summative evaluation focuses more on the overall effectiveness and value of the course, placing emphasis on the outcome. Based on the evaluation results, course revision might be conducted.
Characteristics of Instructional Design
Several characteristics of the instructional design process were identified by Gustafson and Branch (2007). These characteristics, as follow, need to be considered when employing the process (Gustafson & Branch, 2007, p. 13):
1. Instructional design is learner-centered. 2. Instructional design is goal-oriented. 3. Instructional design focuses on meaningful
performance. 4. Instructional design assumes outcomes can
be measured in a reliable and valid way. 5. Instructional design is empirical, iterative,
and self-correcting. 6. Instructional design typically is a team effort.
Today, technological advancement in informa- tion and communication technologies continues,
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offering learners the ability to control their learning more than ever by using the Internet and mobile technologies. Therefore, learners have more op- portunities to explore, navigate, and build con- nections when taking web-based courses without time or place restrictions. This flexibility allows instructional designers and developers to employ constructive learning, in which learners construct their own understanding and knowledge through interactive experiences and ideas (Jonassen, 1999). In a constructive learning environment, while learners play the role of active participants during the learning process, the instructor plays a facili- tator role, which involves showing the learning directions, promoting interactions, and provoking learners to use tools, through problem-solving, reflection, and inquiry-based learning activities.
Interaction Through Technologies
In order to create a learner-centered environment in web-based courses, interaction should be pro- vided, because it is considered a key for successful learning (Vygotsky, 1978). According to Vygotsky, a child’s social interaction, through talking or other means such as online activities, plays a fun- damental role in the child’s development (Yilmaz & Sağlam, 2011). Furthermore, Sotillo (2000) claims that learners’ collaborative efforts serve as a mediational tool to create new understanding and knowledge. Therefore, interaction is a crucial factor in keeping learners motivated and offering collaboration in web-based courses, in which there is often insufficient contact. Web-based courses can consist of synchronous, asynchronous, or mixed learning environments. In a synchronous environment, learners simultaneously interact with each other and are required to be present online at a specified time, just as they are in face-to-face classroom settings. Technologies used in synchro- nous learning environments include, but are not limited to, chat, audio- and video-conferencing, instant messaging, application sharing, and shared
whiteboards. In an asynchronous environment, learners are not online with each other at the same time, so they are not required to give responses immediately to their peers or instructor. Learners in asynchronous environments have more time to think about their responses and write them articulately; as a result of this, they are able to focus on both the grammatical side and the mean- ing of their responses more so than learners in synchronous environments, which require faster and more constant interactions.
For technological reasons, most distance education (e.g. correspondence study or broad- casts through radio and television) is offered asynchronously. Developments in information and communication technologies have brought great flexibility with the ability to offer courses synchronously; however, this is not the best choice in many cases. According to Jonassen (2000), learners studying in synchronous environments focus more on course materials, while learners in asynchronous environments tend to concentrate more on the issues presented in class. Further- more, in synchronous environments, learners feel more pressure on themselves, and they do not feel confident learning with and from each other when the instructor is present in the environ- ment, similar to face-to-face classroom settings (Dede, 2002). Thus, asynchronous environments give learners more flexibility in controlling their learning process and pace. Moreover, asynchro- nous environments offer more opportunities for shy learners to participate in and contribute to class discussions. Whether promoting interaction through either asynchronous environments or syn- chronous environments, or both, the technological infrastructures of institutions and learners should be considered accordingly. Since synchronous environments require a secure and continuous Internet connection and bandwidth, connection problems can cause substandard interaction and create frustration among learners in web-based courses.
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Making the Best Choices for Interaction
When making a decision about the best way to promote interaction in asynchronous and synchro- nous web-based course environments, there are many possible tools to be considered.
E-mail is an effective means for delivering mes- sages, both one-to-one and one-to-many. Although e-mail is considered as a personal tool, it is a powerful way to distribute information, and easy to use to promote interpersonal relationships. When using e-mail in web-based education, there should be common expectations among the learners and instructors. Otherwise, students can become frustrated when sending e-mails to the instructor, because they might expect a prompt response from instructor. On the other hand, the instructor can be overwhelmed by receiving too many e-mails, so the ground rules for the use of e-mail should be identified before the course starts.
Listservs
Listservs are one of the commonly used mailing systems in web-based courses for distributing a message to many subscribers. There is a modera- tor for each listserv to manage the subscription process, and sometimes they can be operated automatically. In order to participate in a list- serv, the user needs to send a message to either a moderator or a predetermined email account. This method makes it convenient for learners to remain updated with class-related activities and announcements.
Discussion Boards
A discussion board is a tool that gives learners the opportunity to submit questions or comments asynchronously. In this system, users who are
members of the same board may have the right to read and post comments on other posts and to create a new discussion, called a thread. Bulletin boards, threaded discussion boards, message boards, discussion boards, and forums are names that are interchangeably used for this concept. Depending on the class or group size, access to discussion boards can be made public or private. There are several advantages of discussion boards, such as giving learners the chance to participate in discussions and to extend their knowledge and communication skills, posting their questions and receiving feedback not only from instructors but also peers, while sharing their knowledge with oth- ers. Other advantages include, but are not limited to, learners being able to reflect on their thoughts about others’ postings without a time limitation, and the archiving of the learners’ postings for future references.
The instructor may divide the class into groups so that each group works together to complete a group assignment. Learners in each group can delegate some responsibilities for group work and share their contributions with other group members by using discussion boards. Further- more, the instructor may post some questions specifically designed for each group, to convert the group to a team. The instructor facilitates learning through the posting of some provocative comments, or postings to either class or group discussion boards. Discussion boards can also be used for giving feedback about learners’ projects or papers. In this case, the instructor may create some learner-specific threads and/or threads from which all learners can benefit.
Chat
As a synchronous communication tool, chat is widely used by many people, and it is mainly text- based. In general, a chat is hosted by a server and uses software such as ICQ, Yahoo Messenger, Win- dows Live Messenger, or Gmail Chat. Although these tools offer text-based communication, they
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also permit video calls, file sharing, photo shar- ing, SMS, and emoticons. With chat, it is easy to create an interpersonal relationship, to exchange information between users, and to provide im- mediate feedback. Such instant messaging tools provide users with the flexibility to control their own “buddy list,” to see who is online from the list and who sends instant messages. Furthermore, to distinguish many lines of discussion from each other, individual users can be associated with dif- ferent fonts. When users from the list come online, other users will be informed by the software. Since chat is a synchronous tool, feedback is given to users without delay. Therefore, it is a convenient tool for instructors to create online office hours.
Web-Conferencing
Web-conferencing has both video and audio features, so it supports multimedia applications synchronously. It provides collaboration and communication opportunities for users at differ- ent locations. Moreover, it offers helpful white- boards for users to work on the same graphical interface, which are updated simultaneously. Web-conferencing can be used when multiple learners are present, and it provides annotation tools (e.g. pencils or sticky notes) for collabora- tion. Web-conferencing tools also have some features for the purpose of communication, including teleconferencing, Voice-over-Internet- Protocol (VoIP), text chat, and video-conferencing. Therefore, web-conferencing is a powerful tool for web-based education. However, the cost of web-conferencing, the connection speed of the users, the use of continuous motion, and compres- sion mechanisms such as.mpeg and.avi CODECs should all be considered before implementing any web-conferencing tools, such as Adobe Acrobat ConnectPro, Microsoft Office Live Meetings, or Zoho Meeting.
Many course management systems, such as Blackboard and WebCT, are designed and devel- oped to manage learning and teaching through the use of these various asynchronous and synchro-
nous web-based tools in a higher education setting. In addition to offering collaborative opportunities to learners, course management systems provide a collection of tools, such as multiple choice test and portfolios, for assessment.
Web 2.0 Technologies for Interaction
Teaching and learning depend on technologies in web-based education. To increase interaction between learners and instructors in web-based courses, Web 2.0 technologies enable course participants to be more active than ever before. Web 2.0 is considered the second generation of the WWW, offering high-level interaction and col- laboration for learners. O’Reilly (2005) describes Web 2.0 as a new platform, facilitating collective intelligence, contribution, modification, and cre- ation of users’ understanding and knowledge in new ways. Since constructivism requires learn- ers to engage in their learning actively, Web 2.0 provides an ideal learning environment for con- structivist practices, by promoting collaborative learning and allowing learners to be constructive and generate knowledge (Seitzinger, 2006). There- fore, it is believed that Web 2.0 technologies have brought many new opportunities and have caused a paradigm shift in distance education.
There are various potential benefits of using Web 2.0 technologies in teaching and learning at a distance. Crook, Fisher, Graber, Harrison, and Lewin (2008) listed four such benefits:
1. It stimulates new modes of enquiry. 2. It provides new opportunities for engaging
in collaborative learning activities. 3. It allows students to engage with new litera-
cies, express themselves in different media, and gain confidence and skill in speaking and presenting.
4. It provides students with opportunities to publish new content, create a sense of own- ership, promote audience engagement and awareness, assess peers, and learn outside the classroom.
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Web 2.0 technologies have the potential to increase interactions and require deeper learner involvement in web-based courses, so they need to be adopted to enhance learning online. While many course management systems have integrated or are in the process of integrating some Web 2.0 technologies, the following Web 2.0 technologies are most commonly used or linked with web- based-education.
Blogs
Blogs are used to distribute information by one or many authors by submitting a new post and posting commentaries. They can be used to conduct web-based courses, or to ask students to post their assignments for feedback from peers. They do not require users to know or manipulate HTML knowledge.
Wikis
Wiki is a system that allows users to generate or change content with permission. Wiki can be used to create collaboration among learners, to collect data, and to build new content. Groups in web-based courses can work to create more than one wiki simultaneously and share what they have with others. The use of wikis (e.g. Wikipedia) has become very popular, and some course manage- ment systems, such as Blackboard, have integrated wikis into their system.
Podcasting and Vodcasting
Podcasts and vodcasts, or podcasting with the addition of video, are the delivery of content in the form of both audio and video to the WWW so that users can download and play it on their computers or MP3 players. Instructors post their lectures or class activities to the WWW using podcasting or vodcasting “just-in-time.” Learners can create podcasts and vodcasts collaboratively or alone to make contributions to the course or to complete assignments.
RSS
RSS (Really Simple Syndication) is a web feed format for sharing information such as news, audio, video, and blog updates on a collabora- tive basis in real time. Instructors use feeds from several sources to update learners in relation to course content. Learners can receive RSS feeds via subscription. Therefore, instructors and learners can stay connected through the use of RSS feeds in web-based courses.
Social Networking
Social networking platforms such as Facebook and MySpace allow a group of users to connect with each other. These platforms are commonly used worldwide and provide users with several ways, such as e-mail, asynchronous discussion, photo sharing, and other media, to interact with each other. Twitter is a social networking platform that allows users to post very short (140 charac- ter) entries called tweets. Unlike on Facebook or MySpace, users choosing to follow someone on Twitter can read all of their tweets. Since Twitter has a character limitation for tweets, instructors post external sources, such as links to websites and readings, to recommend to learners in web- based courses.
Virtual Worlds
Virtual worlds such as Second Life are three- dimensional learning environments in which in- structors and learners can interact with each other synchronously and asynchronously. Second Life has gained popularity within web-based education, and much research has been conducted to evalu- ate its effectiveness (Childress & Braswell, 2006; Wiecha, Heyden, Sternthal, & Merialdi, 2010). Instructors and learners interact in real time using avatars. It provides both instructors and learners with opportunities to speak any time and to post messages to discussion boards.
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Online Office
An online office is a desktop environment provid- ing applications run by the browser. Like Microsoft Office, online offices offer applications such as word processors, presentations, and spreadsheets, free of charge. Instructors and learners work on the same page when creating, modifying, and reviewing course content or assignments collab- oratively, with a history feature. Google Docs is the most important example of an online office.
Social Bookmarking
Social bookmarking is a tool that allows users to save, group, and share online resources. Users can access their bookmarks online even when they are not using their own computers. It is possible to follow others or be followed by others with social bookmarking tools such as del.icio.us or CiteU- Like, if users have similar interests. Moreover, social bookmarking tools have features to provide feeds for users’ lists of bookmarks. Instructors can use social bookmarking to share online course resources with learners in an organized manner.
Video Sharing
Because of the technical problems or size of videos, most web-based educational tools avoid hosting videos. On the other hand, some subjects need to be supported by multimedia, so websites hosting videos, such as YouTube and TeacherTube, have played an important role in filling that gap. Instructors can upload educational or instructional videos to the website as class materials so that learners can watch them.
Assessment
Once the web-based course infrastructure is in place and the design phase, including specification of objectives, learning activities, and instructional media, has been completed, the most challeng-
ing issue for collaborative classes is assessment. There are several issues to be considered during assessment of web-based courses. In order to enhance the interaction between learners and learners, as well as between instructors and learners, individual and team assignments need to be designed. When assessing learners, both the learner’s learning process and product should be considered throughout the course.
During web-based courses focusing on col- laboration, the instructor’s role should be that of a facilitator rather than a teacher. Instructor involvement decreases when groups are formed and learners understand their responsibilities in team assignments. However, the instructor needs to monitor the discussions and the learners’ progress throughout the course to make sure that learners construct knowledge and skills. Otherwise, some learners may feel distant in the web-based course, leading them to fail or drop out.
Self-Assessment
Self-assessment is the process of understanding more about oneself when taking courses (Taylor, 1998). Self-assessment can be conducted during a web-based course to enable learners to reflect on their own performances and make performance improvements before the course ends. This type of assessment is called a formative assessment. Self-assessment can also be conducted at the end of the course, to reflect on overall performance.
Peer-Assessment
Peer-assessment is an essential part of design- ing and implementing collaborative web-based courses to assess learners’ participation and contribution during class, as well as how much each learner has contributed to the final collab- orative product. Use of peer-assessment increases a sense of ownership among learners and gives more autonomy and control during the learning process. Furthermore, learners are provided with
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an opportunity to give and receive feedback from peers. Peer-assessment can positively affect ac- countability and responsibility in groups. Although peer-assessment does not prevent a student from being a “lurker” in a group, the lurker does not get the same grade that active group members receive.
Similar to self-assessment, peer-assessment should be employed formatively and summatively in web-based courses to assess not only the learn- ing process but also the end product of learning.
Assessment of web-based courses is complex. Simply assigning a final grade for the end product of collaborative work does not meet learners’ expectations and does not stimulate a collabora- tive learning environment. Learners need to be active participants in both their learning and their assessment processes.
CONCLUSION
Accompanying technological advancement, dis- tance education has evolved very significantly over the last 180 years. Today, change is a key factor driving the economy, pedagogic approaches, and educators. However, one thing that does not change is the need of education for all people, regardless of their age, location, or background. In the future, there will be new technologies. The value of those new technologies and how much they contribute to the learning process will need to be evaluated in light of principles of teaching and learning at a distance.
The quality of distance education depends on the systems approach and team work, as well as the selection of technologies best fitted to the level of the learners and subjects. Therefore, instead of converting traditional course material to distance materials, instructional design should be employed to ensure the design and development of an effec- tive and efficient learning environment in which learners have opportunities to manage the learn- ing process and construct their own knowledge.
As seen here, the unique nature of distance education generates a multitude of diverse and rapidly evolving methods and tools for both learning and assessment, from which instructional designers and developers must carefully identify and select the most appropriate strategies to meet the needs of their particular group of learners.
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KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS
Asynchronous: In online courses, asynchro- nous term refers to communication that occurs with delay when participants are separated by distance.
Distance Education: Distance education is a method of teaching and learning in which learn- ing takes place in a different/the same time and/ or place from teaching time and place.
Formative Evaluation: Formative evaluation is conducted to determine the strengths and weak- nesses of the course and its components while the course is being implemented.
Instructional Design: Instructional design is a systematic approach to maximize the effective- ness of learning through conducting the main components of instructional design models in- cluding needs assessment, designing, developing, implementing, and evaluating the effectiveness and efficiency of instruction.
Interaction: Interaction is a communication that takes place between and among learners and instructors, as well as content. It includes learner- instructor interaction, learner-learner interaction, and learner-content interaction.
Summative Evaluation: Summative evalu- ation refers to the evaluation that determines the worth of a course at the end of the course implementation.
Synchronous: In online courses, synchronous term refers to communication that occurs in real time even though participants located at differ- ent places.
Web-Based Instruction: In web-based in- struction, the World-Wide-Web is used as the main medium to support a teaching and learning environment.
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Copyright © 2012, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
Chapter 44
DOI: 10.4018/978-1-61350-068-2.ch044
INTRODUCTION
Facilitating learning requires skilled teachers, whether in the classroom or remotely in a dis- tance learning situation. There is confusing and conflicting research on teacher quality and no consensus on objective ways to describe teacher
quality. This chapter describes an approach to the issue of teacher quality as a subjective multivocal synthesis of writings, opinions and comments of many different individuals and groups. A Likert- scale survey instrument consisting of 30 statements adapted from research literature and U.S. states’ Teacher of the Year criteria was taken by the study participants. The quantization of the survey results were subjected to a principal component (factor)
John Moran University of Nevada, USA
Leping Liu University of Nevada, USA
Criteria That Contribute to High Quality Teaching
ABSTRACT
Top-quality teaching fosters high student achievement and high achievers can harness their talents and energies to become successful, contributing citizens. There is confusing and conflicting research on teacher quality and no consensus on objective ways to describe teacher quality. This article describes an approach to the issue as a subjective multivocal synthesis of writings, opinions and comments of many different individuals and groups. The chapter is based on the principal component analysis of a Likert-scale survey instrument which consists of 30 statements adapted from research literature and U.S. states’ Teacher of the Year criteria. The results deliver responses to the question: What are the frequently-cited criteria describing high quality teachers and teaching that can be combined to form named, describable components for high quality teachers and teaching upon which there is a general consensus among students, teachers, parents, and school administrators?
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analysis which yielded five named components or factors contributing to outstanding teacher performance in the 21st century.
The 2004 report of The Teaching Commis- sion states:
“All good schools have one thing in common: good teachers. Top-quality teaching fosters high student achievement—and high achievers can harness their talents and energies to become successful, contributing citizens. … This should serve as a reminder that teaching, our nation’s most valuable profession, is vital to our continued economic well-being and civic stability” (The Teaching Commission, 2004, P.12).
Educational researchers (see Goldhaber & An- thony, 2005; Akiba, LeTendre, & Scribner, 2007; Hanushek, 1986; Rivkin, Hanushek, & Kain, 2005) have failed to reach a consensus over which, if any, readily identifiable teacher characteristics are associated with students’ learning gains. It remains an open question as to whether it is even possible to judge teachers’ effectiveness using measures other than direct observations of their teaching.
While this still may be a correct statement, most academic studies have focused on the external qualifications of individuals or groups of teachers such as: college degrees, scores on teacher qualify- ing tests, state certificates, even past SAT scores of teachers. Many studies have used “productivity function analysis” or “input/output analysis” to compare the teacher qualifications to the results of those teachers’ students, and the above opening statement is where the researchers are left.
These authors took a very different approach, somewhat like a JD Power’s customer satisfaction methodology – ask the “customers.” The seven focus groups of high school students provided criteria that were far outside of most academic research items. Statements regarding respect and
ethnic equity and making learning fun and relevant are what the student “customers” thought really were important and contributed to outstanding teaching. Also the students’ comments did include important items that previous research had ana- lyzed, such as knowing the subject and knowing how to teach the subject and curriculum.
Given that 14 -18 year old “customers” may not always be right, the authors included the opinions of adults who are either actively participating in the education system (teachers, administrators and parents) or who have previously experienced K-12 education. Focus groups and survey responses from these other “voices” generally supported and agreed with the students in what criteria contribute to outstanding teaching.
If indeed high quality teachers have a great impact on students, what constitutes high quality teaching? How do we describe high quality teach- ing? How do universities and teacher colleges educate and prepare new teachers? It has been acknowledged by many researchers that there are different perspectives on describing “high qual- ity teachers” and there is no consensus. This can be summarized by the statement: “I don’t know what constitutes high quality teaching, but I know it when I see it.” Additionally, as the “digital generation” moves through the public education system, what are the new technological knowledge and skills that teachers must acquire and use to be high quality teachers in the 21st Century? The basic research question was:
What are the frequently-cited criteria describ- ing high quality teachers and teaching that can be combined to form named, describable factors or components for high quality teachers and teaching?
This chapter describes the context for the research, the methodology employed, the results produced by the principal component analysis, and the conclusions reached.
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Background
Research Context
The research was guided by three questions:
1. Do teachers really make a difference in students’ learning?
2. What are the characteristics of 21st century learners?
3. What are the impacts of 21st learning on teachers and teaching?
Do Teachers Make a Difference?
With the passage of the 1964 Civil Rights Act, Congress mandated that a survey and report be made “concerning the lack of equal educational opportunities for individuals by reason of race, color, religion, or national origin in public educa- tional institutions” (Coleman, Campbell, Hobson, McPartland, Mood, Weinfield, & York, 1966). The result of this mandate was the Equality of Edu- cational Opportunity Report, often referred to as the Coleman report after James Coleman of John Hopkins University who was responsible for the design, administration and analysis of the report.
This study provided the most complete cross- sectional description of elementary and secondary schools ever produced in this country covering over half a million students and more than 3000 schools. The study provided data on students and it directed attention to the importance of the relationship between school inputs and student achievement (Hanushek, 1979). The consensus of findings from the Coleman report was that ethnic and family socio-economic status (SES) background factors constituted the dominant determinants of students’ educational outcomes.
In simplest terms, the Coleman Report ap- peared to demonstrate that differences in schools had little to do with differences in students’ performance. Instead, family background and
the characteristics of other students in the school seemed much more important (Hanushek, 1986).
The data on the schooling sector suggest a number of puzzles. The most important one is that the constantly rising costs and quality of the inputs of schools appear to be unmatched by improvement in the performance of students. It appears from the aggregate data that there is at best an ambiguous relationship and at worst a negative relationship between student performance and the inputs supplied by schools. Such conclusions cannot, however, be made on the basis of just the aggregate data (Hanushek, 1986).
For example, differences in quality do not seem to reflect variations in expenditures, class sizes, or other commonly measured attributes of schools and teachers. Instead, they appear to result from differences in teacher “skills” that defy detailed description, but that possibly can be observed directly” (Hanushek, 1986).
According to Rowe (2003) the major models of learning processes and the “process-product” research generated by them have primarily fo- cused on “school learning,” or holistic concepts of student learning in classroom settings. This has been the case despite consistent findings indicating that school factors including financial and mate- rial resources, class size, teachers’ qualifications, and classroom organization and teaching methods account for less than 15 per cent of the variance in measures of student achievement (Rowe, 2003).
Findings from the Australian Victorian Qual- ity Schools Project studying a population of 270,000 year 12 students’ achievements on 53 subjects over a six-year period (1994-1999) have yielded several items of interest. After adjusting for measures of students’ abilities, gender and school sector, class/teacher effects consistently accounted for an average 59% of the residual variance in students’ achievement outcomes, com- pared with a mere 5.5% at the school level. There was significantly more variation within schools than between schools, indicating that the quality
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of teaching was by far the most salient factor ac- counting for variation in students’ achievements at year 12 (Rowe, 1999).
Analyzing data from the Tennessee Value- Added Assessment System (TVAAS), a longitudi- nal database covering grades 2-8 within the state, and using mixed multi-level analysis Sanders & Horn concluded that differences in teacher ef- fectiveness were found to be the dominant factor affecting student academic gain (Sanders & Horn, 1998). The importance of the effects of certain classroom contextual variables (e.g., class size, classroom heterogeneity) appeared to be rather minor and should not be viewed as inhibiting to the appropriate use of student outcome data in teacher assessment. Their results indicate that any realistic teacher evaluation process should include as a major component a reliable, valid measure of a teacher’s effect on student academic growth. If the ultimate goal is the improvement in academic growth of student populations, one must conclude that improvement of student learning must begin with the improvement of relatively ineffective teachers regardless of the student placement strategies deployed within a school (Sanders & Horn, 1998). Based upon their results, students benefit from regular yearly assignment to more effective teachers (even if by chance) and have an extreme advantage in terms of attaining higher levels of achievement (Sanders & Rivers, 1996).
In other empirical studies the importance of class/student effects, i.e. teacher quality, has been shown to be the most important factor in student achievement. This means, for instance, that al- though two teachers may go to work each day in the same school, the resources available to them for instruction and the amount of satisfaction they derive from their work may vary quite dramati- cally as a function of the kinds of students and the kinds of subjects they teach (Raudenbush, 1989).
Based on the above research, our conclusion is that indeed teachers do matter and that high quality teaching contributes to student learning.
21ST CENTURY LEARNERS
According to Darling-Hammond (2006), in many of the classrooms most beginning teachers will enter, at least 25% of students live in poverty and may lack basic food, shelter, and health care; from 10% to 20% have identified learning differences; 15% (or more in urban settings) speak a language other than English as their primary language; and about 40% are members of racial/ethnic minority groups, many of them recent immigrants from countries with different educational systems and cultural traditions (Darling-Hammond, 2006).
Conversely, many 21st century learners live in a digital world altered by ever-changing technol- ogy. Learners of today can text instant messages on their laptops, talk on a cell phone, play a video game wirelessly with a friend down the street - all at the same time. They are authors of blogs, de- signers of web sites, and developers of ring tones. Many 21st century learners are goal-oriented and able to multi-task and can absorb a great deal of information, whether it is transmitted via a cell phone, television, the Internet, or MP3 player. Many of today’s students are masters of varying types of technology. These students are always connected with their peers (on average sending and receiving over 80 text messages/day). These students of the digital generation have incorporated 21st century skills into their day-to-day lives by becoming innovators, creative designers, critical thinkers, collaborators, and complex problem- solvers. While these students are having fun, they are also learning (Richardson, 2009).
In most major urban systems, minorities are already well over half of all students. Yet the starkest differences in educational opportunity and achievement are between African American, Hispanic and other minority children, especially in low-income areas, and their more affluent counterparts. By the time they are in third or fourth grades, low income minority students are on average nearly three grade levels behind in
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reading and math. The vast majority never catch up (Childress, Doyle, & Thomas, 2009).
Student characteristics such as poverty, non- English language status, and minority status are negatively correlated with student outcomes. These student characteristics are also negatively correlated with the qualifications of teachers; that is the less socially advantaged the students, the less likely teachers are to hold full certification and a degree in their field and the more likely they are to have entered teaching without certification (Darling-Hammond, 2000).
Other 21st century learners have many educa- tional traits with which older educators may not be familiar or comfortable. These traits include gravitating toward group activities, thinking it’s cool to be smart, being busy with extracurricular activities, identifying with parental values and feeling close to them, respecting social conven- tions and institutions, being fascinated with new technologies, and being comfortable with racial and ethnic diversity. Many of today’s learners are also digitally literate, mobile, experiential and so- cial. Most 21st century learners crave interactivity, are good at reading visual images (though weak with reading skills), and look for fast response times, which often lead to short attention spans (Rodgers, et al., 2006).
The learning preferences of many 21st century learners are to work in teams within a structured or project environment that allows considerable flexibility (Rodgers, et al., 2006). These learners quite often look to be engaged in their learning and to be able to learn through exploration. They also tend to prefer visual and kinesthetic activities over reading and listening activities. Most 21st century learners want to learn things that are relevant to their lives, to be challenged to reach their own conclusions (Rodgers, et al., 2006).
Impact on Education and Teachers
There is a dichotomy in the student populations in the early decades of this century. Our neigh-
borhoods are highly segregated by social class, and thus, also segregated by race and ethnicity (Berliner, 2005). So how does this picture of 21st century learners affect education and educators? The demands on schools and teachers have become more complex. Society now expects teachers and schools to deal effectively with different languages and students’ backgrounds, to be sensitive to culture and gender issues, to promote tolerance and social cohesion, to respond effectively to disadvantaged students and students with learning or behavioral problems, to use new technologies, and to keep pace with rapidly developing fields of knowledge and approaches to student assess- ment. Teachers need to be capable of preparing students for a society and an economy in which they will be expected to be self-directed learners, able and motivated to keep learning over a lifetime (McKenzie & Santiago, 2005).
Many educators and learners have access to new capacities for data collection, analysis, and management that permit them to pose and answer questions and get important information with accuracy and speed never before possible. We have access to new knowledge about human development, the brain, and how people learn that we can apply to address practical problems. There exist new informal systems of learning, such as social networking, software simulations, and video games, with which educators can build new ways to motivate learners. There are also new networks and technologies, such as the Internet, to better connect schools with their partners in education such as parents, other schools, and community agencies. The information and accountability in- frastructure that will support 21st century learning could be different in quality and focus, but it can be built on current foundations (Seidel, 2007).
The technologies that are available to educa- tors today can help create a learning environment and culture in which the learner enjoys enhanced interactivity and connections with others. A major educational question is: How can these digital technologies be integrated and used to help stu-
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dents think and communicate effectively (Rodgers et al., 2006).
Given this dichotomy of 21st century learners and the vast amounts of data and information available today in any given field of interest and the rate at which it increases, education should place less emphasis on the amount of material to be memorized and much more weight on indi- vidualizing instruction, on making connections, recognizing patterns, thinking through issues, and solving problems. Learning in the 21st century is a life-long process of coping with change – learn- ing how to learn is the basis of education today (Rodgers et al., 2006).
The future requires a radical shift in the type of work we expect of our educational system. This shift includes preparing all of our citizens to be self-directed, capable, and lifelong learners. It requires us to move from isolated silos of basic “core subject” knowledge to providing learners with rich and varied curricula and instruction linked to real-world applications (Seidel, 2007).
Underlying the stand-alone teaching tradition is the belief that a single person – the teacher – can meet all of the individual learning needs of the diverse students in a classroom. The stand-and- deliver teaching tradition stands in stark opposition to what we now know about how people learn. The future of education can be built around a clear understanding that quality teaching and learning are not solely individual accomplishments. Quality teaching and learning result from the collective effort of individuals who join forces to teach and learn at a level that is beyond what any of them can accomplish alone – teachers, principals, parents and students working together to prepare students for successful participation in a complex world. In a successful learning organization quality learning requires people to work in teams (Carroll, 2007).
Often schools have been silos of isolation – classrooms isolated from other classrooms, teach- ers isolated from other teachers, schools isolated from the outside world. Many organizations have demonstrated that positive and productive
relationships within and outside an organization enable it to carry out its mission more effectively. When people are connected through technology and/or collaborative arrangements, their effect is multiplied, for communities can accomplish goals that would be impossible through more isolated efforts (Partnership for 21st Century Skills a, 2009).
If America is to meet the needs of 21st century learners, we must move away from the norms that governed factory-era schools. The most persistent norm that stands in the way of 21st century learn- ing is isolated teaching in stand-alone classrooms. Transforming schools into 21st century learning communities means recognizing that teachers will become members of a growing network of shared expertise. Today’s teachers can transform their personal knowledge into a collectively built, widely shared, and cohesive professional knowledge base (Fulton, Yoon, and Lee, 2005).
One common element unites all effective school communities: a commitment on the part of every member to the learning of everyone, children and adults alike. Leading educators have shown that a climate of respect and trust among children and adults is essential to an effective and equitable school (Partnership for 21st Century Skills, 2009a).
Learning does not belong to individual per- sons, but to the various conversations of which they are a part. Learning communities prioritize instruction that builds on children’s interests in a collaborative way. Such schools need also to be places where learning activities are planned by children as well as adults, and where parents and teachers not only foster children’s learning but also learn from them (Smith, M. K. 2009).
Advances in cognitive science support the no- tion that problem solving has a social dimension. We no longer rely on the limits of our single mind to access the information resources we need to solve problems. Problem solving has always involved teamwork and cooperation. Today, though, open source programs, wikis, blogs and other web 2.0 technologies enable total strangers divided by
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space and time to collaborate. Successful problem solving in the 21st century requires us to work effectively and creatively with computers, with vast amounts of information, with ambiguous situations, and with other people (Partnership for 21st Century Skills, 2007b).
The future of education will be built around a clear understanding that quality teaching and learn- ing are not individual accomplishments. Quality teaching and learning result from the collective effort of individuals who join forces to teach and learn at a level that is beyond what any of them can accomplish alone. Teachers, principals, parents and students work together to prepare students for successful participation in a complex world. In a successful learning organization quality teaching is a team effort (Carroll, 2007).
Deep understanding of learning and learning differences as the basis of constructing curriculum has not historically been a central part of teacher education. These domains were typically reserved to psychologists and curriculum developers who were expected to use this knowledge to develop tests and texts, whereas teachers learned teach- ing strategies to implement curriculum that was presumably designed by others. Learning to teach requires that new teachers come to understand teaching in ways quite different from their own experience as students (Darling-Hammond, 2006).
Teachers will have to know how to establish guidelines and procedures that nurture self- direction, risk taking, and collaboration among 21st century learners in a climate of mutual respect. Teachers will have to understand the need to establish a classroom community that embraces the key principles of a democratic society (Holm &Horn, 2003).
Another aspect of 21st century teaching and learning is the growing use of information tech- nology and the Internet for instructional purposes, which may demand more self-management and learning-to-learn competencies from students. For example, the use of instructional reading software may require more student self discipline
and learning-to-learn competencies from each individual student. The question emerges whether schools and teachers are adequately equipped to deal with the challenges posed by such new re- quirements for students (Haar, Nielsen, Hansen, and Jakobsen, 2005).
In order for these dramatic changes in 21st century teaching and learning capabilities to be fully incorporated into the educational system, it is clear that new generations of school teachers and school leaders must themselves experience alternative means of learning and thinking (Gib- son, 2005).
Research Perspectives
This research approached the issue of describing high quality teaching and teachers as a subjec- tive multivocal synthesis of writings, opinions and comments of many different individuals and groups. Initially, the frequently-cited criteria for high quality teaching from educational research literature and over 35 U.S. states’ Teacher of the Year (ToY) criteria were adapted to form a Likert-scale survey instrument of 30 statements. The survey respondents marked their agreement or disagreement to each statement based on 1 = very strongly disagree, 2 = strongly disagree, 3 = disagree, 4 = agree, 5 = strongly agree, and 6 = very strongly agree. This instrument forms the quantitative database for the factor analysis that aggregates related criteria into principal com- ponents or factors. There were 245 completed surveys and these responses are subjected to an SPSS factor (principal component) analysis using quartimax rotation.
Sampling Procedures
Research data on Principal Component Analysis provided a guideline for appropriate sample size. The sample should be between 5 and 10 times the number on variables being analyzed. This research
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survey instrument has 30 variables which required a sample between 150-300 participants.
Students, teachers, parents and administra- tors were enrolled, in person, through individual recommendations of Washoe County School District (WCSD) teachers and administrators and through letters to school principals. The student focus groups were formed from classes taught by WCSD teachers with whom this researcher had previously worked. The type of sampling used is referred to as snowball sampling and this sampling technique was employed for all adults in focus groups and survey takers alike.
Overview of Multivocal Synthesis
In his 1976 article on meta-analysis, Gene Glass states:
“Our problem is to find the knowledge in the information. We need methods for the orderly summarization of studies so that knowledge can be extracted from the myriad individual researches.” (Glass, 1976)
Glass continues by recognizing that literature bases can form databases for further inquiry. This research incorporated the perspectives (voices) of scholarly studies and writings on school and teacher quality, Teacher of the Year criteria from several states, and primary data gathered from teachers, administrators, students and parents in Washoe County and other adults. This type of diverse data is often referred to as multivocal literature.
Multivocal literatures are comprised of acces- sible documents on a common topic. The docu- ments include the views or voices of diverse sets of authors (academics, practitioners, journalists, local school districts, independent research and development firms, and others). They reflect different purposes, perspectives and information bases. Multivocal literatures are characterized by a majority of diverse writings and few systematic
investigations; therefore, reviews of these litera- tures require a deliberate analysis of the words of the people recorded in these diverse writings, as well as a deliberate analysis of the findings reported in empirical investigations (Ogawa and Malen, 1991).
Reviews of multivocal literatures can be seen as a broad-based search for relevant information and a disciplined attempt to identify the themes and patterns embodied in writings on the topic. Reviews of multivocal literatures are instructive, not definitive or conclusive. They do not warrant firm judgments or precise predictions regarding the topic of interest. However, these reviews can generate insights regarding the meanings people attach to the topic of interest. They can reveal how people view the topic and how they describe, assess, and interpret the topic of study (Ogawa and Malen, 1991).
Overview of Principal Component Analysis
Principal component analysis (PCA) is a vari- able reduction procedure. It is useful when the researcher has obtained data on a number of variables (possibly a large number of variables) and believes that there is some redundancy in those variables. In this case, redundancy means that some of the variables are correlated with one another possibly because they are measuring the same construct. Because of this redundancy, it was possible to reduce the observed variables into a smaller number of principal components that will account for most of the variance in the observed variables (SAS Institute Inc., 2008).
Because it is a variable reduction procedure, PCA is similar in many respects to exploratory factor analysis. In fact, the steps followed when conducting a principal component analysis are virtually identical to those followed when con- ducting an exploratory factor analysis. Principal component analysis makes no assumption about an underlying causal model. Principal component
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analysis is simply a variable reduction procedure that results in a relatively small number of compo- nents that account for most of the variance in a set of observed variables (SAS Institute Inc, 2008).
There are a number of controversies regard- ing the use of categorical variables in a factor or principal component analysis. Although it is well known that it is meant for continuous observed indicators, it is often used with dichotomous, ordi- nal, and other types of discrete variables yielding results that might be incorrect, especially since oftentimes categorical variables are not normally distributed. To the extent that normality fails, the solution is degraded although it still may be worthwhile. (Mertler & Vannatta, 2005).
Using SPSS software, the quantized survey database formed the basis for the principal com- ponent analysis for the factor extraction as this method analyzes unique, shared and error vari- ability. This analysis choice provides the best way to understand and interpret the factors or components.
There were several unique components result- ing from the principal component analysis. The quantitative analysis responded to the research question:
What are the frequently-cited criteria describ- ing high quality teachers and teaching that can be combined to form named, describable factors or components for high quality teachers and teaching?
Principal Component Analysis Procedure and Results
After screening the data for completeness and ac- curacy, the research proceeded with the principal component analysis. Given the possibility there may be some downgrading of results, the study used the categorical variables as the input for the PCA. A quartimax rotation was chosen for this analysis over varimax because it converged in less iterations and also resulted in seven potential components. The rotated component matrix for each component identified is displayed in the series of Tables 1 through 5. The rotated matrices in Tables 1-5 highlight one selection criterion for interpreting the number of components. Are there at least three variables with significant loadings (>.40) on each retained component (shown in bold large type)?
Component 1 Name: Get to Know Their Students, Develop Caring and Respect for Their Students
The following survey statements (found in Table 1) comprise Component 1:
• The teacher makes learning fun – brings drama, enthusiasm, humor, creativity, and novelty to classroom.
Table 1. Rotated component matrix component 1
Component 1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Drama, Humor, Creativity .742 -.039 .097 .012 .018 -.232 -.021
Equity of All Students .665 .244 -.038 -.059 -.011 .160 -.230
Develops Interpersonal Skills .664 .068 .211 .151 -.105 .081 .123
Compassionate for Learning .620 .204 .054 -.074 .083 .214 -.023
Communicates Clearly .594 .224 .158 .079 -.325 -.182 .252
Values Student Views .548 -.071 -.097 .169 .273 .035 .182
Student Respect .535 .379 -.187 .144 .045 .178 -.018
Structured Presentation of Tasks .451 .192 .252 .304 .016 -.003 .259
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• He or she models to all students and par- ents a belief in equity of all students re- gardless of gender, religious preference, economic status, or racial, ethnic, or lin- guistic background.
• He or she assists students in developing effective interpersonal skills and positive self-images.
• The teacher is passionate, compassionate, and mission driven for student learning.
• The teacher is creative in approaching problems and challenges, and proficient in communicating ideas clearly, concisely, and effectively with students, parents, col- leagues and school administration.
• The teacher listens to students and values their views, sometimes more than valuing the rules.
• He or she has the respect of students and parents.
• The teacher provides a clear and structured presentation of goals, tasks, and contents.
Component 2 Name: Knowledge, Passion and Enthusiasm for Teaching and Subject Matter
The following survey statements (found in Table 2) comprise Component 2:
• The teacher understands teaching skills/ knowledge (pedagogical knowledge).
• The teacher understands curriculum con- tent and goals, including the subject matter and skills to be taught.
• The teacher requires a State Teaching Certificate for subjects or grades being taught.
• A college degree in the subject(s) that the teacher is teaching is required.
• He or she has knowledge of diverse learn- ers & how they develop and learn.
• The teacher’s classroom is well organized and arranged.
Component 3 Name: Structure with Flexibility in Managing Their Classrooms
The following survey statements (found in table 3) comprise Component 3:
• The teacher has to have computer skills and know enough information technology to keep students on task.
• The teacher incorporates information tech- nology into classroom teaching including how students use technology and how the teacher uses technology as a teaching tool for classroom preparation.
• He or she uses communication and infor- mation technology to personalize learning.
• The teacher clearly incorporates challeng- ing assessments to measure whether or not
Table 2. Rotated component matrix component 2
Component 2 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Pedagogical Knowledge .204 .685 .135 .093 .025 .164 .187
Curriculum Understanding .181 .658 .180 -.095 -.227 .054 .063
State Teaching Certificate .090 .646 .152 -.053 .280 -.132 -.167
College Degree In Subject .010 .635 .042 .112 .348 -.290 .098
Learning Development .356 .602 -.015 .034 -.045 .247 .077
Organized Classroom .205 .467 .136 .259 -.016 .248 -.083
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students meet standards and communicates progress in a positive manner.
• He or she is poised, articulate and has the energy to withstand a busy schedule.
• He or she has had extensive student teach- ing prior to starting personal teaching career.
Component 4 Name: Teach Life Skills, Not Just Academics
The following survey statements (found in Table 4) comprise Component 4.
• The teacher has professional accomplish- ments beyond the classroom such as lead- ership at state and national levels, mentor- ing, and professional awards.
• The teacher is committed to his/her com- munity through service oriented activities, including volunteer work, civic activities and opportunities for parent involvement.
• The teacher is an active leader in educa- tion through professional development and training activities with current and future teachers.
Component 5 Name: Advanced Professional Education and Certification
The following survey statements (found in Table 5) comprise Component 5:
• He or she has a Masters degree in the sub- ject matter he/she teaches.
Table 3. Rotated component matrix component 3
Component 3 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
IT Skills .045 .100 .755 .068 .109 .097 .119
Uses IT in Classroom .051 .318 .642 .221 -.051 -.094 -.196
Personalize Learning .443 -.018 .542 .279 .040 .080 -.032
Challenging Assessments .068 .245 .515 -.135 .051 .220 .338
Articulate Energetic .418 .191 .500 -.084 .161 .107 .029
Extensive Student Teaching .250 .094 .412 .199 .365 .030 -.237
Table 4. Rotated component matrix component 4
Component 4 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Accomplishments beyond Classroom .053 .018 .140 .812 .295 -.007 -.017
Community Service .185 .061 -.029 .752 .113 .106 .054
Development, Training .201 .110 .165 .674 .155 -.077 .080
Table 5. Rotated component matrix component 5
Component 5 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
MS in Subject .126 .087 .007 .251 .796 -.079 .088
Teaching Experience -.047 -.003 .179 .168 .686 .092 .130
National Bd. Certified .118 .339 .136 .180 .552 -.044 -.381
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• The teacher has more than 3 years of teach- ing experience.
• He or she is certified by the National Board for Professional Teaching Standards.
These five components account for 50. 4% of the total variance and 4 of the 5 are congruent with and can be described with similar language as results from a qualitative focus group analysis.
FUTURE TRENDS
As documented in the Research Context section, teachers today are required to develop responses to many different issues from poverty and non- English-speaking students to students who are using technology extensively to participate in social networks. This set of circumstances can be very challenging for any individual teacher who is isolated in a single classroom. How does that individual teacher personalize (with and without information technology) her or his instruction to “make learning fun” for every student? What activities will reach each student to enable him or her to develop the collaborative and problem solving skills required in the 21st century?
To support isolated individual teachers and to better ensure that all students are learning and developing the necessary skills, communities of practice (CoPs) or professional learning communi- ties (PLCs) have begun to assist teachers by creat- ing forums where several teachers discuss practical ideas and best practices that lead to better teaching and increased student learning. These CoPs and PLCs foster open discussions on what contributes to better teaching practices and student learning and produce higher quality teachers and teach- ing. The trends toward more teacher to teacher discussion and group interaction need to grow and begin including students to gradually move the teacher role to more of “learning facilitator”, while the students collaborate with each other in projects and take on “self directed learning.”
Through this process teachers and students make learning relevant and fun.
If the customers of our education systems are saying that teachers: have to get to know, respect and care for their students, have flexibility in man- aging their classrooms, utilize multiple personal- ity traits to inspire students, and teach life skills by example and make subject matter relevant to students, are we educating teachers in the colleges and universities to learn and develop these skills? Are those teachers in the classroom being provided professional development that emphasizes the teaching practices that will satisfy their custom- ers’ expectations? Perhaps even more basic, are colleges accepting potential educators into their teacher programs that exhibit characteristics that could provide “customer satisfaction”? Do our teacher education colleges provide the opportu- nities for their students to work collaboratively on projects, to actively learn and use information technologies to increase flexibility in classroom management practices and see how they might make the subject relevant to students?
CONCLUSION
The research question was: What are the fre- quently-cited criteria describing high quality teachers and teaching that can be combined to form a named, describable factor for high quality teachers and teaching?
This question was analyzed through use of a quantitative principal component analysis. The five components derived from this principal component analysis, outstanding teachers:
• Get to know their students, develop caring and respect for their students
• Have knowledge, passion and enthusiasm for teaching and subject matter
• Use structure with flexibility in managing their classrooms
• Teach life skills, not just academics
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• Receive advanced professional education and certification
To summarize, this chapter reports on research that used a “customer satisfaction approach” to synthesize a number of criteria that the “custom- ers” of U.S. education systems agree upon. This study successfully complements and supplements existing research and literature on the subject. From the results of the research, it is clear that additional and different ways of describing out- standing teaching need to be developed, and just the requirement that teachers have a college degree and state license does not define “high quality” teachers or teaching. It is also clear there are many inter-related components that are required to form a good description of the degree to which teachers actually contribute to student learning over time. While this chapter provides some insights into what is required for outstanding teaching, many questions need further study and more detailed answers before there really are acceptable predic- tors for identifying high quality teaching. Some ideas for further study are stated in the next section on conclusions and recommendations.
Conclusion 1: Outstanding teaching requires a complex mixture of subject knowledge, pedagogi- cal expertise, knowledge of educational standards and personal traits. Personal traits include respect and caring for all students, patience and perse- verance, sense of humor and enthusiasm, and a positive belief that all students can learn.
This conclusion follows directly from quantita- tive results of thisresearch. Outstanding teachers have knowledge, passion and enthusiasm for teaching and subject matter and utilize multiple personality traits to inspire student learning.
Conclusion 4: The education and professional development of teachers does not adequately provide skills development in all the areas of the complex mixture required for outstanding teaching.
Deep understanding of learning and learning differences as the basis of constructing curriculum
has not historically been a central part of teacher education. Learning to teach requires that new teachers come to understand teaching in ways quite different from their own experience as students (Darling-Hammond, 2006).
Recommendation 4: Enhance teacher edu- cation programs by providing more relevant information and skills development on building student rapport and classroom management. It is possible this could be accomplished through the use of computer simulations of actual teacher performance in classroom situations.
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SAS Institute Inc. (2008). The analyst applica- tion (2nd ed.). SAS Institute Inc. Retrieved from http:// support.sas.com/ publishing/ pubcat/ chaps/ 55129.pdf
Seidel, K. (2007). The world is flat, and U.S. education has flat-lined: Designing an informa- tion infrastructure to support a globally competi- tive educational system. In Wehling, R. L. (Ed.), Building a 21st century U.S. education system (pp. 139–149). Washington, DC: National Commission on Teaching and America’s Future.
Smith, M. K. (2003, 2009). Communities of prac- tice. The Encyclopedia of Informal Education. Retrieved from www.infed.org/ biblio/ communi- ties_of_practice.htm
The Teaching Commission. (2004). Teaching at risk: A call to action. Retrieved from www. theteachingcommission.org
KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS
Communities of Practice (CoP): Are groups of people who are brought together by a common
concern, a set of opportunities/problems, and a desire to learn and deepen their knowledge by interacting on a continuing basis.
Multivocal Synthesis: Incorporates the per- spectives (voices) of accessible documents on a common topic. The documents include the views or voices of diverse sets of authors (academics, practitioners, journalists, local school districts, independent research and development firms, and others).
Principal Component Analysis (PCA): In- volves a mathematical procedure that transforms a number of possibly correlated variables into a number of uncorrelated variables called principal components, related to the original variables by an orthogonal transformation
Professional Learning Communities (PLC): Are groups in which the teachers in a school and its administrators continuously seek and share learning and then act on what they learn. The goal of their actions is to enhance their effectiveness as professionals so that students benefit. This ar- rangement has also been termed communities of continuous inquiry and improvement.
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Copyright © 2012, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
Chapter 45
INTRODUCTION
Learning and leadership are often considered to be individual activities, however when one considers the development of organizational learning and the learning organization, leadership plays a key role. Traditional theories of management evolved into theories of leadership and to discussions about the similarities and differences of the two. Numerous
inventories were developed to assess learning styles and leadership styles and suggest ways of utilizing this new self-knowledge to enhance learning and leading. This chapter will include an investigation of the impact of technology on learn- ing and leadership within organizations. Basic communication and information technologies as well as today’s Web 2.0 technologies’ will be ad- dressed at both the theoretical and practical level.
Judith Parker Columbia University, USA
The Impact of Technology on Organizational Learning
and Leadership
ABSTRACT
While the idea of organizational culture and organizational learning have emerged and developed over the past decades, views of leadership have changed significantly as well. In addition to the already complex connection between these ideas, they have all been influenced by emerging technologies. This chapter will investigate and provide examples of these individual ideas, their intersections and the impact of technology on their past and future.
DOI: 10.4018/978-1-61350-068-2.ch045
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BACKGROUND
The Organizational Culture and Organizational Learning
Depending on the context, the term organization can evoke different images in the mind of the individual. It could be a business organization or a non-profit that is very structured or informal in its operation. However, it is universally considered to be a collection of individuals with a common purpose. Therefore, it should not be surprising that those individuals and therefore the organization itself develops its own culture. While the term culture was originally used to describe national culture, Hofstede and Schein, among others, began to investigate organizational cultures. Since the ideas and practices of a culture reflect the values of its members, if learning is promoted and sup- ported as an organizational value, the result is a learning culture.
Schein (2010) provides a comprehensive pic- ture of such a learning culture. He demands that “a learning culture must assume that the appropriate way for humans to behave in relationship to their environment is to be proactive problem solvers and learners. The learning culture must have in its DNA a ‘learning gene’ in the sense that members must hold the shared assumption that learning is a good thing worth investing in and that learning to learn is itself a skill to be mastered (p. 366). He continues to list shared assumptions of a learning culture. A learning culture must
• Have an environment that is to some de- gree manageable.
• Believe that solutions to problems derive from a deep belief in inquiry and a prag- matic search for ‘truth’.
• Demonstrate that communication and in- formation are central to organizational well-being
• Have leaders and members that believe that analyzing and reflecting on their culture is a necessary part of the learning process.
Much of the vocabulary of this learning culture was created by Argyris and Schon in the 1970s with its roots in the 1960s. Argyris and Schon (1996) provide a glimpse of this historical founda- tion when they note that “the systems modeling discipline first developed by Jay Forrester in the 1960s on the basis of servomechanism and control theory – applied in grand sequence first to industry then to cities and finally to the world – has turned in recent years to organization learning” (p. 183). They continue to acknowledge that Peter Senge, one of Forrester’s followers, has published The Fifth Discipline (1993) subtitled ‘the Art and Practice of Organizational Learning’ which united systems thinking with organizational adaptation and a focus on human potential Looking back on their own involvement in the development of these ideas, Argyris and Schon (1996) recalled that “as late as 1978 when our Organizational Learning was first published, such well-respected scholars as Tom Burns and Geoffrey Vickers found the idea confusing and, in some ways, repugnant. Now in the mid-1990’s, it is conventional wisdom that business firms, governments, nongovernmental or- ganizations, schools, health care systems, regions, even whole nations and supranational institutions need to adapt to changing environments, draw lessons from past successes and failures, detect and correct the errors of the past, anticipate and respond to impending threats, conduct experi- ments, engage in continuing innovations, build and realize images of a desirable future. There is virtual consensus that we are all subject to a ‘learning imperative,’ and in the academic as well as the practical world, organizational learning has become an idea in good currency” (p. xvii). Wheatley (1999) adds her support to this systems theory. “We are beginning to recognize organiza- tions as whole systems, construing them as ‘learn-
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ing organizations’ or as ‘organic’ and noticing that people exhibit self-organizing capacity” (p. 15).
In this context of organizational learning Ar- gyris (1999) explains two necessary conditions for learning:
1. when an organization achieves what it intended; that is, there is a match between its design for action and the actuality or outcome.
2. when a mismatch between intentions and the actuality or outcomes is identified and it is corrected; that is, a mismatch is turned into a match.
While these conditions may seem contradic- tory at first glance, Argyris (1999) clarifies this by delineating two types of learning; single and double loop learning. “Single-loop learning occurs when matches are created, or when mismatches are corrected by changing actions. Double-loop learning occurs when mismatches are corrected by first examining and altering the governing variables and then the actions. Whenever an error is detected and corrected without questioning or altering the underlying values of the system (be it individual, group, intergroup, organizational or inter-organizational), the learning is single-loop” (p. 68). However, Argyris & Schon (1996) note that “Double-loop learning in organizational in- quiry calls for an additional step or even several additional steps. It turns the question back on the questioner, exploring not only the objective facts surrounding an instance of inefficiency, but also the reasons and motives behind those facts” (p. 27). This more comprehensive double loop process would be at the heart of a learning organization and is referred to later in this chapter.
Taking this idea of questioning a step further, Garvin, Edmondson, & Gino (2008) not only offer a definition of a learning organization and suggest 3 essential “building blocks” of that organization but also provide an online inventory for assessment. Using this inventory, organizations can assess the
depth of learning in the organization as a whole or in its individual units. They explain that “the power of the instrument lies in the comparisons it allows users to make-within and among an insti- tution’s functional areas, between organizations, and against established benchmarks” (p. 110). The learning within an individual functional area may also be related to the leadership of that unit and to the leadership of the organization as a whole.
Leadership
Similar to the concept of organizational learning, the ideas of leadership have also evolved and the term evokes different images in the mind of the individual. Lojeski & Reilly (2008) recall that the “most traditional view of leadership is that of a manager: one who monitors, controls, and, more importantly, rewards desired behavior and punishes undesired behavior. This kind of lead- ership views the relationship with followers as a series of transactions. I will reward you with something you want (e.g., money) if you do what I ask you to do. Sometimes called transactional leadership” (p. 123).
Schein (2010) offers insights into the progres- sion of his own thinking about the role of leaders and managers in this culture in the 4th edition of his book. He notes that previously, he emphasized the need for leaders to become culture managers. While this need is greater than everh, he now recognizes a new set of cultural challenges and new issues that are surfacing. He proposes “that cultural analysis should begin to focus more and more on the two archetypal issues of ‘authority’ (how power is handled) and ‘intimacy’ (how love is handled). In a multicultural setting, the danger is that we try to understand all of another culture when, in fact, only some cultural dimensions are crucial. Authority and intimacy are two such dimentions” (p. 364). Both would have clear im- plications for leadership within the organization.
Numerous authors have applied descriptors to leadership and have categorized different types of
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leadership in an attempt to discover its essence. In an attempt to profile a type of leader who achieves positive outcomes, Wiseman and McKeown (2010) describe a type of leader they labeled as a “multiplier”. In the presence of the “multiplier, “ideas grew; challenges were surmounted; hard problems were solved. When these leaders walked into a room, light bulbs started going off over people’s heads. Ideas flew so fast that you had to replay the meeting in slow motion just to see what was going on. Meetings with them were idea mash-up sessions. These leaders seemed to make everyone around them better and more capable. These leaders weren’t just intelligent themselves- they were intelligence Multipliers” (p. 5).
Wheatley (1999) notes that “Leadership, an amorphous phenomenon that has intrigued us since people began organizing, is being examined now for its relational aspects” (p. 13). What is this re- lationship between leadership, organizational cul- ture and the learning organization? Schein (2010) provides some clarification in his description of learning leaders. “What then is really needed to exercise learning leadership that will stimulate cultural learning? The learning leader must be able to perceive the problem, to have insight into the culture and its dysfunctional elements. Learning leaders require not only insight into the dynamics of the culture but also the motivation and skill to intervene in their own cultural process. Unfreezing an organization requires the creation of psychological safely, which means that the leader must have the emotional strength to absorb much of the anxiety that change brings with it and must also have the ability to remain supportive to the organization through the transition phase, even if group members become angry and obstruc- tive. If an assumption is to be given up, it must be replaced or redefined in another form, and it is the burden of learning leadership to make that happen. A paradox of learning leadership is that the leader must be able not only to lead but also to listen, to involve the group in achieving its own insights into its cultural dilemmas, and to be
genuinely participation in his or her approach to learning and change” (pp. 380-382). He sums up this description by saying that “Learning leaders must have faith in people and must believe that ultimately human nature is basically good and, in any case, malleable” (p.366).
This focus on people is also a key element in Wiseman and McKeown’s (2010) description of the “multipliers” mentioned earlier in this section. They suggest that there are “four active practices that together catalyze and sustain this cycle of at- traction. These Talent Magnets: 1) look for talent everywhere; 2) find people’s native genius; 3) utilize people at their fullest; and 4) remove the blockers (p. 43).
Some concrete ecamples of these ideas follow. Wiseman and McKeown (2010) present several examples. Among them is “the sales executive was speaking the language of addition (that is, higher growth by adding more resources). The COO was speaking the language of multiplica- tion (that is, higher growth by better utilizing the resources that already exist)” (p. 14). In a political context, Wiseman & McKeown (2010) recount the story of Meg Whitman, then CEO of eBay, introducing Mitt Romney as a candidate for president of the United States. She recalled her personal experience working for him. “On Mitt’s team, people were engaged. He took the time to get to know each person and to understand the capabilities they brought to the team. This went well beyond reviewing their resume. Mitt would determine what people were naturally good at and find a way to use those talents with the client engagement” (p. 34).
Additional examples of leadership styles are provided by Manjoo and Apple (2010) who describes contrasts in the organizational leader- ship of Microsoft and Apple. He even suggests that Steve Ballmer, CEO of Microsoft missed an opportunity and might be best replaced by Bill Gates. “Today, this same philosophical battle is being waged over mobile gadgets, the next great frontier in computers. As in the early 1980’s, Apple
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is setting the standard, but its strategy - focusing on a proprietary high end - will leave out the masses. There’s an obvious opportunity for big thinking, for a company to push a revolutionary, cheap, run-everywhere mobile OS for cell phones, tablets, and the smorgasbord of appliance-like machines that are coming down the pike. But Microsoft has been criminally absent from this game. Last February, more that three years after Jobs unveiled the iPhone, Ballmer finally intro- duced a completely redesigned Windows Phone, but he may already be too late. In Microsoft’s absence, Google has emerged as Apple’s main mobile competitor. Gates would never have let such an opportunity slip. When presented with the threat of the Internet in the ‘90’s, he moved mountains to crush Netscape. Some of his actions weren’t very admirable; indeed, there was never a lot to like about Bill Gates the business-man. But at least you can say this: He knew how to win. And he could do it again” (p. 48).
In the midst of examples and adjectives, Schein (2010) asks “What is leadership? Writings about leadership have also exploded, but we are not much clearer today than we were twenty-five years ago about what is a good leader and what a leader should be doing. We have many proposals of what leaders should be and do, and different lists of ‘core competencies’ or trains that leaders should exhibit. Part of the confusion derives from the fact that there is no clear consensus on defining who is a leader – the CEO, anyone at the head of a department, or anyone who takes the initiative to change things. Leadership as a distributed function is gaining ground, which leads to the possibility that anyone who facilitates progress toward some desired outcome is displaying leadership” (p. x).
The “E” in LEarning and LEadership
While the literature about leadership seems to be moving toward ideas of relationships and the human side of the leader and the organization, the influence of technology on learning and leader-
ship must be considered. While various forms of technology have always influenced learning and leadership, Fertik and Thompson, (2010) note that “the Internet has been one of the most powerful and disruptive technologies to emerge since the invention of the printing press” (p. 249).
To add a historical perspective, Kelly (2010) explains the details of this earlier disruption. “In 15th century Europe only one in 20 adult males could write. After Gutenberg’s printing press came along around 1440, mass-produced books changed the way people read and wrote. The technology of printing expanded the number of words avail- able (from about 50,000 words in Old English to a million today). More word choices enlarged what could be communicated. More media choices broadened what was written about. ….In time, the power of authors birthed the idea of authority and bred a culture of expertise. Perfection was achieved ‘by the book’. Laws were compiled into official tomes, contracts were written down and nothing was valid unless put into words. Painting, music, architecture, dance were all important, but the heartbeat of Western culture was the turning pages of a book. By 1910 three-quarters of the towns in America with more than 2,500 residents had a public library. We became a people of the book” (pp. 122-123). This might have evoked the same emotions about the written word as are now expressed about today’s technology. Was yesterday’s “book-worm” viewed in the same light as today’s “nerd” or the ubiquitous mobil devise user?
But books still had access limitations and are not free from some of the concerns often used to criticize information on the internet. Cerf (2010) offers comments and comparisons between infor- mation in books and online. He claims that “the problem is – and this is true of books and every other medium – we don’t know whether the in- formation we find (on the Web) is accurate or not. We don’t necessarily know what its provenance is. So we have to teach people how to assess what they’ve found. That’s a skill, a critical-thinking
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capacity, which is important no matter what the medium. It’s just more dramatic in the World Wide Web where there’s so much justaposition of the good stuff and not-so-good stuff and flat- out-wrong stuff or deliberate misinformation or plain ignorance” (p. 120).
But this new disruption can be viewed through the lens of history. Fertik and Thompson (2010) compare it to an era of American history. “The recent history of the Internet closely echoes this stylized history of the American West, simply substituting an electronic frontier for a physical one” (p. 31). They explain that “in American his- tory, expansion started with the early ‘Wild West’ days, when land was cheap, there was always something new over the horizon, and settlement moved rapidly westward. There were no estab- lished interests that had an incentive to preserve the status quo. And, like all frontiers, the West had little government regulation – which also meant little formal law enforcement and strong need for self-defense (which often became rough vigilante justice). Innovation and experimentation thrived in the Old West; frontiers are always known for spurring entrepreneurs to create new and useful products and services. And the West was a place where new forms of social expression were ac- cepted” (pp 30-31). This description could also apply to today’s Web 2.0 technology and online social networks.
This disruptive technology has not only influ- enced individuals, information access and learn- ing but has influenced the core of organizations. Schein (2010) suggests how it has offered new challenges in leadership because “the leadership task has changed. Leadership in a networked organization is a fundamentally different thing from leadership in a traditional hierarchy. So we will have to examine carefully how the interplay between culture and leadership is evolving as the world becomes more globally interconnected” (p. xi).
In addition to the overarching impact of technology on the organization, technology also
adds an entire new functional area within the larger organization. An information technology department with its own subculture emerges and grows. At the larger organizational level, Schein (1985) warns that “at one extreme this category includes the diffusion of technological innovation and various forms of acculturation where new technologies have subtly changed entire cultures. At the other extreme, it includes the deliberate, managed introduction of specific technologies for the sake of seducing organization members into new behavior, which will, in turn, require them to reexamine their present culture and possibly adopt new values, beliefs and assumptions” (pp. 285- 286). Schein (1985) further explains that “One of the strongest elements of an organizational culture is the status system that arises out of the traditional technology, a system often based on the possession of key items of information or critical skills. With the introduction of sophisticated computerized information systems and automation, it becomes painfully obvious that in many crucial areas the subordinate knows more than the boss, or that group who previously had no power now have a great deal” (pp. 36-37). One of those groups that achieves power within the organization is the often newly formed technology group.
At the level of the new information technol- ogy functional area a different impact is evident. Schein (1985) notes that “new technology brings with it its own occupational culture. Only when change is under way do managers realize that with the new technology comes a whole new set of assumptions, values, and behavior patterns developed in the data-processing occupation. The data-processing fraternity has its own vocabulary, its own norms, its own traditions, its own vision of its importance, and its own perspective on how the technology ought to be used, none of which may match the language, perspectives, and norms of the potential users of the system” (p. 37).
At a fundamental level Schein (2010) sug- gests that “if the boundaries of organizations and occupational communities become fluid, the
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whole question arises of how culture can form and operate in a group of people who interact only electronically. Some of the most fundamental aspects of culture deal with how people manage their interactions, so in the electronic age, new forms of social contract will have to evolve to deal with authority and intimacy issues” (p. 287). The challenge can seem daunting or inspiring for leaders in organizations. The inspired learning leader can view these fluid boundaries as oppor- tunities for new models of organizational learning. Examples of such opportunities are provided in the next section.
PRESENT PERSPECTIVES
Labeling a phenomenon is often useful for discus- sion and analysis but often the ideas and processes exist before the label. The vocabulary discussed in the previous section that emerged with Argyris and Schon’s publication of organizational learning in 1978 is a clear example of this. Organizations had cultures and espoused learning as a core value long before Argyris and Schon provided a title. This section will present examples of how such a learning organization developed and prospered.
Lojeski and Reilly (2008) provide an introduc- tion to this organization and its culture. “Innovation involves taking risks and occasionally failing. Employees have to trust that failure is okay or they won’t take any risks. However, management has to trust employees enough to give them the freedom to come up with new ideas. One of the most innovative companies in the world, the 3M Corporation, trusts its employees enough to al- low them to use up to 15 percent of their time to work on their own innovative ideas” (p. 57). The impact of this innovative culture on learning and the development of a learning organization can be seen in the scenario below.
The story begins in the 1980’s when 3M took bold steps in the reorganization of its Human Re- source Development (HRD) function. This was an
era during which the idea of being close to one’s customer was becoming a popular idea. While the concept is obvious in a sales context, the idea was also promoted internally within organizations. For example, a staff function such as HRD had internal “customers” that received and relied on its services. While no money changed hands and departments were not charged for services, HRD was providing services to its customer groups such as Research and Development, Marketing, Manufacturing, Sales, etc. In the spirit of bringing the HRD staff functions closer to their respective customers, HRD employees who provided train- ing to the manufacturing plants now reported to the Vice-President of Manufacturing. Likewise those providing training to the Sales and Market- ing group reported to the Vice-President of Sales and Marketing, and the author’s group began reporting to the Vice-President of Research and Development. This move not only aligned the HRD function with their internal customers, it also acknowledged the unique culture of each functional group. Under the guidance of the Vice-President of Research and Development this newly formed Technical Development Department became relatively autonomous and able to develop programs unique to the technical community that it served. The department grew from 2 to 13 em- ployees over a decade. While the term “learning organization” was emerging in academic circles, it was not yet in the business world vocabulary but this tradition of a culture of innovation that was the hallmark of 3M’s Research and Development community provided the environment for such a learning organization to develop. In this context, the global research and development community is considered a sub-group of the larger corporate organization.
Under the leadership of the Vice-President of Research & Development, a Technical Educa- tion Advisory Committee was established “to develop a coordinated, broad-based strategy and implementation plan for technical education”. The committee was chaired by a technical director of
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one of the business units. While visibly supported by the management and executive levels of the organization, the true ownership of the initiative was in the hands of the technical community and the technical subject matter experts. This was consistent with an organizational culture of dual track career paths, a strong employee led Technical Forum, and a laboratory motto of “it’s easier to ask forgiveness than permission”. This freedom to step forward and try out new technologies and application surfaced as leadership within the technical community itself. In an interview project that the author conducted with leaders in the organization one quote by a technical manager may sum up the atmosphere. He related that he had joined 3M from a highly restrictive company and soon wrote back to a colleague in his former company that he had indeed “found the promised land” which offered a sense of freedom and being valued as a technical professional.
As a part of this process, subject matter experts were identified in the R & D community for each of 3M’s core technologies. Informal leadership de- veloped within each technology group. A detailed curriculum resulted and resources were identified both within and outside the corporation for each group. Technology played a key role in document- ing and disseminating committee work on the cur- ricula, keeping records of employee development plans and monitoring progress and achievement toward their goals. Accessing resources globally and sharing ideas was facilitated by technology.
The implementation of this plan was equally important and dependent on technology. 3M partnered with several colleges and universities to offer graduate and undergraduate credit bearing courses on campus and at a distance. Graduate courses in chemistry with a focus on analytical or organic chemistry, chemical engineering, ma- terial science and electrical engineering became available to employees. Undergraduate courses were available on site at 3M to enable employees to complete their B.S. in engineering, physics or chemistry. On a more specialized front, leaders
in a 3M technology were employed at 3M in cor- porate technology centers or in business division laboratories at various locations. Because core technologies crossed business lines, employees in one division lab may not have ready access to the knowledge and expertise of a technology expert in another business unit.
Working with the Technical Education Chapter of the European Technical Managers Council, several courses already scheduled for on-site delivery in St. Paul were identified as top priority needs for 3M technical employees in Europe. In one case, the instructor had already produced a professionally prepared video and workbook. A copy was purchased and housed in the 3M labo- ratory in Neuss, Germany. In the other cases, the instructors (3M employees and outside consul- tants) were contacted and arrangements made for professionally videotaping their courses. Copies of the video were made and housed with a master copy of instructor slides in the technical library locations throughout Europe. A European network of education coordinators could borrow the tapes to use in delivering a course. When the course was scheduled, the instructor was scheduled for a live videoconference to answer students’ questions. In one example, an instructor holding a question- and-answer session with 3M employees in the Netherlands was fluent in Dutch and held the session for employees in their native language. In another example, a session was held for employees in Germany and the instructor combined a business trip with a follow up question and answer session live at the employees’ site. When an organization is truly a learning organization, such opportuni- ties can be leveraged for unexpected positive results with little additional cost. The result is a global inclusive commitment to learning and an acknowledgement that expertise is everywhere and that a teaching organization is as important as a learning organization.
The use of technical employees as instructors has always been an important part of the technical education program at 3M. While some companies
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have teams of instructional designers who spend months designing the perfect course, in the re- search and development environment, timing is everything and a compromise must be reached between quick dissemination of knowledge and pedagogically perfect format. Advancing tech- nology continues to make this task easier but the balance must not be ignored. The focus at 3M has always been getting state of the art information to employees who need it as quickly as possible. Employees are coached on teaching techniques for effective delivery. Instructors are encouraged to structure courses in small units over several weeks so they can assign problems and encourage the trial of applications in the students’ own work environments. Employees are encouraged to vol- unteer their time as instructors or nominate their colleagues. 3M management is also encouraged to volunteer their employees’ time as instructors. To reinforce the importance of this practice, the Technical Development department hosts an annual luncheon for volunteer instructors and their technical directors. The Vice-President of Research & Development is always the featured speaker with a message to instructors and direc- tors alike that the teaching activity that they are being recognized for is a key component of 3M’s corporate growth. While a learning organization is good, a teaching organization is equally important, especially for organizations that house the experts in a technology or area of expertise.
With corporate technical centers and labora- tories growing around the globe, technical exper- tise could reside anywhere. This next example illustrates a method for capturing this dispersed knowledge. Experts in 3M’s imaging technology resided in Italy, the UK, New York and Minne- sota. The idea for the course emerged during the author’s business trip to Italy during a discussion of the lab’s collaboration with the University of Genoa. The imaging expert in Italy took on the leadership role of coordinating his colleagues in the company headquarters in Minnesota and the lab in England. During discussions, the Minnesota
contact mentioned that he had been asked by the manufacturing plant in NY for such a course so they became the fourth site. Each week, a differ- ent instructor from a different location taught a live videoconferenced course. It was also video- taped for archival purposes but also for review by participants and anyone missing that week’s session. Since the language of the course was English, these videotapes became an especially valuable resource for those for whom English was a second language. The ability to refiew the tapes and capture any information missed in the initial translation was valuable.
While technology is often cited as a means to reduce costs and travel, it offers additional assets to learning. In the above example the impact of technology exceeded saving. With a nearly equal number of course participants in each of the 4 locations throughout the U.S. and Europe, the cost of travel to a central location would have been prohibitive. The course would never have materialized and the information exchange would never have happened. As information communica- tion technology becomes more transparent to the learning process, creative designs for organiza- tional learning should be implemented.
While technology is often considered for course delivery, it also offers an opportunity for congratu- latory events at the end of a learning experience as well. The Asia Technical Manager’s Learning Forum utilized technology in its delivery but also in its phone conferenced graduation ceremony. After an intense fourteen month action learning project, a virtual graduation ceremony was planned. Since digital employee photos were on record with the corporation’s security department, it was relatively easy to have them emailed to the Technical De- velopment Department for inclusion in a “class photo” to accompany the certificate awarded each participant. The completed certificate was sent to the participants’ managers who were asked to attend the phone conference with the employee and award the certificate at the appropriate mo- ment. During the ceremony, each action learning
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team made a brief presentation about the results of their project, the Research and Development Vice-President made a few congratulatory com- ments, and the certificates were awarded at each location by the student’s manager. From planning, through implementation to graduation, technology played a key role in developing leadership and promoting organizational learning.
FUTURE TRENDS
The future of organizational learning, leadership, and technology will be shaped by a number of factors. Schein (2010) encourages organizations to be active in shaping this future by asking “What is the direction in which the leaders of today should be pushing cultural evolution to prepare for the surprises of tomorrow? What sort of characteristics and skills must a leader have to perceive the needs of tomorrow and to implement the changes needed to survive?” (pp. 365-366). Argyris (1999) notes that this shaping must be done against a backdrop of constant change. “Twenty-first-century corporations will find it hard to survive, let along flourish, unless they get better work from their employees. This does not necessarily mean harder work or more work. What it does necessarily mean is employees who’ve learned to take active responsibility for their own behavior, develop and share first-rate information about their jobs, and make good use of genuine empowerment to shape lasting solutions to fundamental problems” (p. 229). This clearly suggests a need for the double-looped learning discussed earlier in this chapter. Advances in technology and the emergence of Web 2.0 should facilitate this learning.
Anderson and Wolff (2010) note that “The Internet is the real revolution, as important as electricity; what we do with it is still evolving. As it moved from your desktop to your pocket, the nature of the Net changed. The delirious chaos of the open Web was an adolescent phase subsidized
by industrial giants groping their way in a new world. Now they’re doing what industrialists do best-finding choke points. And by the looks of it, we’re loving it” (p. 164).
However, our view of the Internet and the demands we make on it will continue to change. The September, 2010 issue of Wired announced on its cover that “the Web is dead”. While certainly an attention getter on the newsstand, the story inside was less dramatic yet posed a fascinating glimpse of tomorrow’s connected individuals and organizations. It continues to announce “Long live the internet”. In the related article, Anderson and Wolff (2010) explain that “A decade ago, the ascent of the Web browser as the center of the computing world appeared inevitable. It seemed just a matter of time before the Web replaced PC application software and reduced operating systems to a ‘poorly debugged set of device driv- ers’, as Netscape cofounder Marc Andreessen famously said. First Java, then Flash, then Ajax, then HTML5-increasingly interactive online code-promised to put all apps in the cloud and replace the desktop with the webtop. Open, free, and out of control. But there has always been an alternative path, one that saw the Web as a wor- thy tool but not the whole toolkit” (p. 124). But how this toolkit will be effectively used depends on leadership within organizations. While Kelly (2010) credits the printing press with creating “people of the book”, current technology might be credited with creating “people of the screen”.
Looking to the future, Manjoo (2010) notes that “now Microsoft gets in line with Google, Amazon, HTC, Nokia, and HP as companies that Apple seems bent on sidelining. The one-time underdog from Cupertino is the biggest music company in the world and soon may rule the mar- ket for e-books as well. What’s next? Farming? Toothbrushes? Fixing the airline industry?” (p. 70). While the Web has been lauded for provid- ing access to information and individuals around the globe it will continue to impact all aspects of everyone’s lives. This would seem to make a
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good case for the need for a learning society or a learning universe.
CONCLUSION
Argyris and Schon (1996) remind us that “Twenty or twenty-five years ago organizational learning was a rare species among ideas, relegated along with such closely allied notions as “societal,” “public,” and “institutional” learning to the popular literature of social change” (p. xvii). Over that pe- riod, its acceptance and even heroic status has been established. Organizational learning has always demanded a culture that promotes individual as well as organizational growth. Leadership shapes culture. Technology can influence this culture positively or negatively. It is the responsibility and challenge of leaders to utilize technology to shape the organization for learning but also to decide how best to utilize technology to enhance the capabilities of leaders.
REFERENCES
Anderson, C., & Wolff, M. (2010). The Web is dead. Long live the internet. Wired, 18(9), 118- 127, 164, 166.
Argyris, C. (1999). On organizational learning (2nd ed.). Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishers.
Argyris, C., & Schon, D. (1996). Organizational learning II: Theory, method, and practice. New York, NY: Addison-Wesley Publishing.
Barab, S., Kling, R., & Gray, J. (2004). Designing for virtual communities in the service of learning. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
Cerf, V. (2010). Google’s view. Smithsonian, 41(4), 120.
Fertik, M., & Thompson, D. (2010). Wild West 2.0. New York, NY: American Management As- sociation.
Garvin, D. A., Edmondson, A. C., & Gino, F. (2008). Is yours a learning organization? Harvard Business Review, 86(3), 109–116.
Kasworm, C. D., & Londoner, C. A. (2000). Adult learning and technology. In Wilson, A. L., & Hayes, E. (Eds.), Handbook of adult and con- tinuing education (pp. 224–242). San Francisco, CA: John Wiley & Sons.
Kelly, K. (2010). From print to pixel. Smithson- ian, 41(4), 122–128.
Kouzes, J. (1999). Finding your leadership voice. In Hesselbein, F., & Cohen, P. (Eds.), Leader to leader (pp. 37–42). New York, NY: The Peter F. Drucker Foundation for Nonprofit Management.
Lojeski, K., & Reilly, R. (2008). Transforming leadership and innovation in the globally inte- grated enterprise. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons.
Manjoo, F. (2010). Tech edge: Comeback kid. Fastcompany, 146, 48.
Manjoo, F., & Apple, N. (2010)... Fastcompany, 147(112), 68–76,112.
Palloff, R., & Pratt, K. (1999). Building learning communities in cyberspace. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
Schein, E. (1985). Organizational culture and leadership (1st ed.). San Francisco, CA: Jossey- Bass Publishers.
Schein, E. (2004). Organizational culture and leadership (3rd ed.). San Francisco, CA: Jossey- Bass Publishers.
Schein, E. (2010). Organizational culture and leadership (4th ed.). San Francisco, CA: Jossey- Bass.
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Wheatley, M. (1999). Leadership and the new science: Discovering order in a chaotic world (2nd ed.). San Francisco, CA: Berrett-Koehler Publishers.
Wiseman, L., & McKeown, G. (2010). Multipli- ers: How the best leaders make everyone smarter. New York, NY: HarperCollins Publishers.
KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS
Culture: The shared attitudes, beliefs, prac- tices and values that characterize a group.
Double Loop Learning: The learning process that requires a step beyond single loop learning. It requires that the cause of the problem be dis- covered as well.
Leadership: The quality displayed by anyone who facilitates progress toward some desired outcome within an organization or group.
Learning Organization: “A learning organi- zation is a place where employees excel at creat- ing, acquiring, and transferring knowledge. There are three building blocks of such institutions: (1) a supportive learning environment, (2) concrete learning processes and practices, and (3) leader- ship behavior that reinforces learning” (Garvin, Edmondson, & Gino2008, p. 110).
Organizational Learning: A systemic ap- proach to learning within an organization.
Single Loop Learning: The learning process that focuses on the learning associated the solu- tion of a problem.
Web 2.0: The second generation of the inter- net particicularly known for its enhanced social networking features.
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Copyright © 2012, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
Chapter 46
INTRODUCTION
Leadership Characteristics of the Ideal School Superintendent
Like CEOs in large business organizations, school superintendents are hired to efficiently and effec- tively operate the systems in their charge. Like- wise, a superintendent is expected to demonstrate characteristics of effective leadership (Berg &
Barnett, 1999; Brewer & Marmon, 2000; Carifio & Hess, 1987; Hoyle, 1989; Morton, 1990). Report- ing directly to the school board, the superintendent is primarily responsible for the operation of the administrative staff, the compilation and execution of budgets, and the maintenance of communica- tion facilities (Smith, 1982). The superintendent is also responsible for implementing the school board’s policies. Although these responsibilities are managerial, superintendents play a significant role in formulating district policy. Using their professional expertise and resources, effective
Ernest W. Brewer University of Tennessee, USA
Leadership Characteristics of the Ideal School Superintendent
ABSTRACT
This article discusses the characteristics of the ideal school superintendent based on research findings. Research has seen that the challenges to American education have become more complex with the advent of each decade of this century. The effective school superintendent of today and tomorrow must be a principled, empathetic visionary who is able to lead by facilitating and to actively encourage the development of others. While inferences may be made from the efforts of apparently successful superin- tendents, research is needed to scientifically validate excellence and to differentiate between superficially apparent success and long-term effectiveness.
DOI: 10.4018/978-1-61350-068-2.ch046
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superintendents can provide school boards with accurate analyses of problems and can lead boards in making thoughtful, informed decisions. Above all, the superintendent should be an educational leader (Kirby, Paradise, & King, 1992; Klauke, 1988).
Effective educational leadership is most clearly needed when politics enter into the superintendent- board relationship. Analyzing this relationship, Salmon (1992) sketched four types of boards and discussed typical situations in which superinten- dents might become entangled. The two most common types, sanctioning boards and faction- ated boards, are discussed below.
A sanctioning board thoroughly reflects the values of a homogeneous community. Conse- quently, a strong sense of trust between the su- perintendent and board members develops. Such boards function primarily as their superintendent’s interpreters to the community, explaining and defending their joint decisions.
A factionated board is made up of individuals who hold strong and conflicting perspectives on such major controversial issues as busing, taxes, and the nature of basic education. These members reflect their community’s divergent views, thus making effective leadership even more important. Salmon (1992) pointed out that the increasing complexity of education and the evolving nature of modern America’s pluralistic society has led to a decrease in the number of sanctioning boards and a rise in the number of factionated boards. To deal effectively with a factionated board, the su- perintendent must develop strong personal quali- ties and communication skills (MacCoby, 1990).
BACKGROUND
Leadership Qualities and Skills
Toth and Famer (n.d.), in their report on a 1997 survey of West Virginia school superintendents, defined leadership style as “evidenced by a
specific leader is a combination of task-oriented behavior and people-oriented behavior” (p. 4). What are the qualities and skills that characterize effective leadership style? Generally speaking, superintendents are expected to demonstrate all of the qualities found in other good supervisors (Ellis & Dell, 1986). They must be empathetic and understanding; and they must exhibit uncon- ditional positive regard, congruence and genuine- ness (Carifio & Hess, 1987). Any leader who has employees to supervise is in a relational position. The relationships should be goal-oriented, con- structively monitored, open, trusting, supportive and collaborative (Carifio & Hess). Hoyle (1989) asserted that these essential traits would not change substantially even in the next century. Hoyle listed the skills he considered most desirable for a 21st century superintendent in three categories: hu- man skills, technical skills and conceptual skills. Human skills included behaviors that exhibited respect for self and others, high tolerance for am- biguity, a preference for using persuasion rather than coercion and a well-developed sense of humor (Morton, 1990). Technical skills included ability to use a broad range of instructional strategies— such as microcomputers, satellite link-ups, and interactive television. Effective superintendents possess a willingness to think broadly about the educational mission, including community education and education for the industrial and corporate labor force; and they must demonstrate a well-developed ability to communicate effectively through writing, listening and speaking.
Conceptual skills dealt with the appropriate and balanced use of reason and intuition. The su- perintendent should have a broadly defined sense of how the school system works holistically and an ability to express himself/herself creatively in defining the district’s educational vision. To define an educational vision for a district, a superinten- dent needs substantial leadership abilities and a strong commitment to a collaborative work ethic (Beckner, 1990; Freeman, Underwood & Fortune, 1991; Hoyle, 1989; Kirby et al., 1992).
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To better understand exactly what school boards looked for in prospective superintendents, Anderson and Lavid (1985) surveyed school boards that had appointed new superintendents. These 60 school boards listed three areas as “most important factors” for hiring their superintendent: (a) communication skills and knowledge; (b) previous experience; and (c) interest in district personnel and programs. The boards also indicated that candidates’ personal grooming, manner of dress, and physical and mental health were fairly important. In addition, candidates’ motivation for seeking the superintendency was an important fac- tor in determining candidates’ zest for the job. On the other hand, a candidate’s age, marital status, previous salary, awards/recognitions, research and religious preferences were deemed unimportant.
Boards could benefit from a study of how an individual’s personality affects his/her leader- ship style. In an early study of leadership styles, Batlis and Green (1979) found that personality attributes correlated to leadership styles. Lead- ers who were both people-oriented and task- oriented were generally somewhat traditional in their leadership styles. They preferred to make decisions with other people, functioning as the no-nonsense setter-of-goals and priorities. They were cautious and moderate, given to analysis rather than emotions. On the other hand, leaders who were less likely to balance people and task orientations demonstrated sensitivity, introspec- tion, unconventionality and independence. These traits often described younger, less experienced supervisory personnel.
Drawing from literature on leadership theories and developmental psychology and from studies in educational administration, Mazarella and Grundy (1989) concluded that educational leaders were slightly more intelligent than non-leaders. The leaders tended to be more extroverted and coop- erative and to exhibit better communication skills than did their counterparts. They took initiative and possessed a strong sense of personal security. Because they were proactive, they were not bound
by strict interpretations of rules but were willing to make compromises to accomplish goals.
Leadership Qualities
Because a leader’s demonstrated commitment to team goals and processes often translated into ef- ficiency and effectiveness, Glassman and McAfee (1990) inferred that effective superintendents cre- ated effective districts. Employing multiple case analysis methods, Jackson and Crawford (1991) compared three superintendents from school districts with improving student performances with three superintendents from school districts with non-improving student performances. From a fairly extensive literature review, Jackson and Crawford extrapolated seven attributes that characterized the actions and attitudes of the superintendents of the effective school districts. These attributes were examined as they applied to the six superintendents they studied.
Effective school districts had formal district goals that emphasized student learning. The su- perintendents in those districts reported that they used system-wide staff development programs for teachers (Peterson, Murphy, & Hallinger, 1987). They established formal and systematic staff evaluation systems that tied criteria to the accomplishment of district goals. The superin- tendents in effective districts frequently revised evaluation instruments to align with district goals and instructional models (Cuban, 1984; Eller & Carlson, 2009; Murphy, Hallinger, Petterson, & Lotto, 1987; Wallace, 1985; Wilmore, 2010).
Jackson and Crawford (1991) cited Cuban’s 1984 study and pointed out that when superinten- dents emphasized learning outcomes and princi- pals’ accountability for district goals and when they revised evaluation instruments to reflect goals changes, principals realized their job security was linked to attainment of goals. Cuban’s contention was supported in the literature through reports that superintendents in effective districts terminated ineffective principals and teachers (Jacobson,
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1986; Murphy et al., 1987). The literature stated that effective district superintendents were highly involved in curriculum and instruction and that they maintained central control over curricular decisions (DeYoung, 1986; Hallinger & Murphy, 1982; Vickery, 1988).
These and other studies have assisted research- ers in identifying the qualities and practices of effective superintendents. However, as some investigators have noted, recent studies have been narrowly focused. Large-scale investigations are needed to form a definitive profile. To widen the scope of inquiry, the perspectives of major stakeholders—parents, students, teachers and the community—must be included. Further, several complex relationships need exploration. Perhaps the most basic are the linkages involving students in educational leadership programs, superinten- dents and school boards (Myers, 1992; Wilmore, 2008, 2010). Significant theoretical work also is needed before a complete understanding of relationships between leaders and followers can be determined. Recent work on relationships be- tween and differences in business leadership and management may be helpful as well (Cambron- McCabe, Cunningham, Harvey, & Koff, 2005); Eller & Carlson, 2009; Kotter, 1990).
Rural and Urban Districts
There has been some evidence that the skills super- intendents need to function effectively may vary from region to region. Kennedy and Barker (1987) asked school board presidents in rural districts to indicate what leadership qualities they believed were necessary to function effectively in their dis- tricts. The superintendent’s personal commitment, earned respect and belief system were highlighted as essential. Over a six-year period in the late 1980s, Kouzes and Posner (1990) surveyed more than 7,500 managers from a variety of public and private organizations nationwide. They concluded that the most important leadership ingredient was the leader’s earned credibility. Of the four quali-
ties most frequently mentioned, the researchers identified three as credibility factors: honesty, competency and inspiration. These qualities could be identified in the leader’s behavior. Leaders knew their constituents, stood up for personal beliefs, spoke with passion, led by example and were continuing to grow in knowledge and integrity. In the same context, MacCoby (1990) noted the difficulty of leading a constituency weaned on American individualism and personal autonomy. A superintendent facing these problems would be confronted by a variety of competing interests, personalities and situations. Akenhead (1984) argued that different situations called for different leadership styles, echoing much of the literature which called for frequent evaluation and adjust- ment of leadership styles. Akenhead offered four general types of leadership activity—promoting, analyzing, controlling and supporting as neces- sary to ensure effective leadership development.
A study of 24 rural superintendents and their boards (Chance, Ligon, Butler, & Cole, 1992), found that long-term rural school superintendents tended to maintain optimistic and realistic outlook concerning their schools, even in the midst of extreme challenges in the areas of budget and personnel shortages. They also were successful in managing a low level of internal conflict (between board members and between the board and the superintendent). These attributes and interpersonal skills not only enabled those superintendents to remain in their positions but gave them the odds on serving effectively.
North Central Regional Educational Labora- tory (1995) noted that shared decision-making occurred in three main areas: budget, personnel and staffing, and curriculum/programs—with cur- riculum innovation frequently being the primary thrust. The report cited various locations—Chi- cago, Rochester, New York, Dade County, Florida, and Hammond, Indiana—in which corporate/ school efforts had resulted in innovative uses of technology for both curricular innovation and greater administrative efficiency.
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Technology in the Classroom
Highly effective school superintendents realize that today’s students must be computer literate. For the majority of students, that will happen only when their classroom teachers are competent users of the many education applications of computer technology. Ideal superintendents provide not only the equipment and software but also the training and support required.
The possible applications of modern technol- ogy in the classroom are growing daily (Jukes, McCain, & Crockett, 2010; Ohler, 2010). Ranging from instruction to student use, computers have literally transformed instruction by making avail- able vast amounts of useful information through the internet, by enabling students to engage in a variety of creative writing assignments, and by introducing them to simple database applica- tions. Unfortunately, educators have often not made optimal use of this resource due to lack of funding; and expenses of this magnitude must be underwritten by school districts. Dwyer (1994), in an eight-year study of computer use in classrooms across America, concluded that technology had significantly increased learning. However, “There remains resistance to change among teachers” (p. 390). Dwyer asserted that 5.8 million teachers reported little or no use of computers (p. 390). The chief reason for lack of use cited in the study was cost—cost for maintenance, upgrading, staff development, and support of fledgling users.
Those findings were collaborated by Fabry and Higgs (1997), who reviewed Apple’s research over a 10-year period. They found that there were major differences between expected and observed instructional/learning applications of technology in classrooms. Deficiencies in frequency of both student and teacher usage apparently stemmed largely from (a) teachers’ unwillingness to change instructional methods, (b) teachers’ fear of tech- nology based on inadequate skills development, and (c) lack of financial resources to keep current equipment functional and to upgrade.
Clearly the expense of technology adds a burden to already deficient school budgets. One of the tasks of superintendents of the 21st century will be to meet the challenge of providing adequate funding and professional development opportu- nities so that every classroom teacher will be an effective user of up-to-date technology.
National Issues
Effective superintendents keep abreast of the many political issues that affect their districts, and they give proactive responses. The literature reflected three general categories of initiatives at the national level. Most of these have come through the joint efforts of former President Clinton, the Secretary of Education, and the U. S. Congress.
General Priorities for Schools
In Call to Action (Clinton, 1997), President Clin- ton and Secretary of Education Richard Riley announced national educational priorities in the areas of academics (especially reading and math), technology, teachers’ performance, and school environment—physical safety (including facilities improvement where needed) and psychological safety. Specific initiatives were advocated—some to be funded through federal grants, others urged upon states and districts. The U.S. Department of Education has followed through on some of the priorities by recognizing schools for their excel- lence in educating Title I students (Thomas, 1998).
Specific Priorities for School Districts
In addition to highlighting general educational areas, former President Clinton and former Sec- retary Riley presented specific recommendations to states and local school districts:
1. The U. S. Department of Education published results of a study of conditions that might enhance the effectiveness of early reading
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instruction (Thomas, 1998). Researchers concluded that students learned better when they were placed in smaller classes. Thus, former Secretary Riley noted that in Grades 1 through 3 class sizes should be limited to 15-20 students. Twenty-five states have begun to move towards smaller classes, at least in the primary grades (Thomas, 1998).
2. Riley addressed California citizens prior to their voting on Proposition 227 (Green, 1998) urging them to adopt English as the vehicle of education for all students.
3. Former President Clinton has endorsed the concept of charter schools and corporate partnerships with schools (Clinton, 1997).
Other Federal Educational Initiatives
Finally, on the national level, initiatives have tar- geted education efforts outside of the established school systems. For example, $40 million dollars have been awarded in grants to establish 21st cen- tury community learning centers (Clinton, 1997).
Responses: Positive Directions in the ‘90s
Framingham, Massachusetts, School District: Response to Diversity
This district devoted web space to its high school of 7,500 students—29% of whom represented minorities (Framingham, n.d.b). The school boasts that its population speaks 45 different languages. The town maintains a relationship with a sister city, Lomonosov, Russia, and reported that in 1995, 28 students and faculty traveled to Lomonosov on a cultural exchange visit (Framington, n.d.a).
Prince William County, Virginia
The school district’s web site provided impressive information on student achievement (PWCPS, n.d.). Class standardized test scores were posted
for each grade of each elementary school in the district. There were also links for comparison with national averages and for aids in understanding the data. Another link, “A+ What’s Right! In Our Schools,” provided brief updates on positive events in the system. This district appeared to be doing well and has been getting the word out that students are learning.
State of Oregon Superintendent of Schools
This state school system identified three goals for 1997: (a) to raise public awareness of technologi- cal advances, (b) to seek business and community support for educational resources, and (c) to create public and private advocacy groups for technology in the schools (Paulus, 1997).
Seattle Public Schools
Through their web site (Stanford, 1997) Seattle schools advertised the system’s collaboration with Call to Action in key areas: reading, school safety, dropout prevention, site-based manage- ment, teacher accountability, and district/corporate agreements for enhanced educational opportuni- ties. Also, the system has recently established exit criteria for Grades 5, 8 and 11.
Less Positive Responses to Current Issues
Des Moines, Iowa
The Des Moines Independent School District (Des Moines, n.d.) has established policy development and policy review committees. The development committee was chaired by the board president. Each committee stated that it received input from the superintendent and from the school board.
However, the superintendent was not a mem- ber of either committee. Since the superintendent must function largely on the basis of influence
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(Leithwood, 1995; Robinson & Bickers, 1990), the latent possibilities for difficulties in that structure are obvious.
Massachusetts Schools
In response to the Massachusetts Education Reform Act (MASS, 1994), which endorsed the establishment of charter schools in that state, edu- cators published a position paper (MASS, 1994). The paper noted concern that charter schools would place public schools at a disadvantage because charter schools: (a) would reach a minority of the students, (b) could be selective, (c) would receive public school funds for the students they educated, (d) would draw many of the finest students and teachers away from public schools, and (e) would not be accountable for student outcomes.
Also, it was stated that charter schools, due to the very different circumstances of their opera- tion, could not serve as models for public schools. The position paper recommended that charter schools be required to: (a) find a different source of funding, (b) accept all students who wished to attend, (c) place limitations on teachers’ leaves of absence to teach outside their districts, and (d) follow guidelines for accountability.
Further, district educators requested that public schools be given assistance to establish innovative programs and be granted some of the same free- doms enjoyed by charter schools (MASS, 1994).
Revisiting Prince William County, Virginia
A check of central office personnel (PWCSD, n.d.) revealed that 13 of the 27 employees were engaged in information services, community relations, and media. Clearly this school system places a high priority on keeping its stakeholders informed of school programs.
Qualities of Effective Superintendents for the 21st Century
The superintendent’s job has retained the highly political nature noted by Berg and Barnett (1999), Leithwood (1995) and by Robinson and Bick- ers (1990). According to Cunningham, Harvey, and Koff (2005), flexibility and communication skills have become increasingly important for three reasons:
1. There has been increasing public pressure to improve the low test scores of American students in comparison to students of other nations.
2. The increasingly diverse student popula- tion has placed extraordinary demands on schools.
3. The cost of education has increased tremen- dously due to the demand for technological equipment in schools (Leithwood, 1995).
Many aspects of the superintendent’s duties have changed. For example, in an earlier age the superintendent might have spent more time talk- ing informally with the various constituencies and visiting the schools, whereas much of the super- intendent’s time is spent in the office—engaging in formal meetings and telephone conversations (Robinson & Bickers, 1990).
The superintendent must remain a generalist (Sharp & Walter, 1997), being involved to some extent in most aspects of school life as a symbolic leader. However, increasingly the successful su- perintendent must serve as a facilitator—enabling others to take direct ownership of the vision, goals and the outcomes of education.
One significant change emerged in the litera- ture. Formerly the superintendent was expected to be responsible primarily for budgets, personnel, policy, and public relations. However, with the exposure of the inadequacies of American schools in a global society, superintendents and boards of
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education have recently come under criticism. Increasingly they are being held accountable for student achievement.
This need for accountability for school systems has led some school districts to hire two top-ech- elon people to handle the task—one for financial administration and another to oversee curriculum and instruction. Among districts employing such a strategy are Baltimore and San Diego. Another school board that considered a similar path was Seattle. Faced with the untimely illness and death of Superintendent John Stanford, and wishing to retain its effective chief of operations (a public finance expert), Seattle considered the idea of a co-superintendency. The other member of the team would be a well-qualified educator. However, in the words of board President Barbara Schaad- Lamphere, “The idea of a co-superintendency has been thoroughly trashed” (Keller, 1999, p. 5). The reason cited was that it would be difficult to hold anyone accountable if two shared the responsibil- ity. Seattle, too, moved on to consider a plan to hire another expert educator with a second spot under that of superintendent to handle finances.
Relationship to Principals
Although superintendents, as central office ad- ministrators, may not directly influence student achievement, they certainly have an impact through their relationships with school princi- pals. In fact, superintendents, many of whom are former principals themselves, must function as teachers to their principals (VanderBogert, & Boris-Schacter, 1999).
District Culture and Educational Goals
Effective superintendents use their leadership skills to shape the vision of their schools, and that vision highlights students’ learning, collaboration, community building, and advocacy for at-risk students (Houston, 1998). In fact, the American Association of School Administrators (AASA)
recently told its superintendents (The Conference Daily, 2000) that they must be accountable for students’ educational outcomes. “Research by Hoyle and colleagues shows that in those places where student achievement is used to help mea- sure a superintendent’s job performance, both performance and achievement appear to improve” (AASA, 2000, p. 2). Hertling (1999) presented two perspectives on that view. She reported that some believed this made superintendents more accountable for student outcomes, while others feared it pressured teachers to ‘teach to the test’. “While student test scores are the most commonly used indicator [for superintendents’ educational impact], they are also the most controversial” (p. 1). An underlying issue could be phrased, “How can superintendents exert helpful influence at the classroom level?”
In their article, “The Power of the Superinten- dent’s Leadership in Shaping School District Cul- ture: Three Case Studies” (1998), McAdams and Zinck emphasized that effective superintendents accomplish these objectives through modeling, goal-setting and staff development. They also stated that, just as the principal is an instructional leader for the school, the superintendent is the district’s instructional leader. Regarding goal- setting, McAdams and Zinck advocated district- wide planning. “Building-level goals as well as principal and teachers goals are then aligned with the district goals” (p. 4).
Evaluation of Superintendents
According to Robinson and Bickers (1990), 90% of superintendents responding stated they were evaluated annually by their school boards. Two-thirds of that number reported that criteria were established jointly by the board and the superintendent. The broad categories targeted for evaluation were relationships and effective- ness of performance. These categories included relationships with the board, staff, other profes-
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sionals, and the community; and policy and goals implementation.
In a 1989 study conducted by Educational Research Services (ERS) (Robinson & Bickers, 1990), only 32% of the responding superintendents stated they were evaluated on student achievement or personal educational knowledge. However, as indicated by web sites (Paulus, 1997; PWCPS, nd.; Stanford, 1997), superintendents and boards are becoming more accountable for improving educational outcomes. Reporting test scores, offering increased professional development for principals and teachers, and more collaborative efforts between schools and the community also signify central office accountability for educa- tional outcomes.
Every school board is responsible for periodic evaluations of its superintendent’s performance. The process of such evaluations has brought to light the qualities boards and school principals want from their superintendents. Before evalua- tions are conducted, according to Klauke (1988), superintendents and boards must clearly define goals and priorities within several management areas: administration, instruction, finance, op- erations, research and development, public and community relations, and human resources. More emphasis should be placed on the superintendent’s educational leadership—an area often neglected in favor of business and finance. When a superinten- dent’s role as educational leader was emphasized, that person was held more highly accountable to the board for ensuring that district values were translated into policy at the school level. More responsibility often meant increased leadership opportunity. Braddon (1986) argued that the superintendent’s personal qualities often were not addressed in the formal evaluation processes. She argued that these qualities were essential in developing effective district-wide leadership. The prestigious North Central Regional Educational Laboratory (NCREL) issued policy briefs in sup- port of school decentralization (NCREL, 1995). The briefs explained that decentralization would
flatten the organizational structure and place more control in the hands of those who worked most directly with students. The report recommended a redefinition of central office roles to better meet the needs of students and the community. These recommendations followed the earlier observation of Goodlad (1976) that decisions should be made at the level of greatest knowledge and account- ability. Goodlad noted specific occasions when his “rule” was not followed—times when people in authority acted on hearsay and made decisions for which others must be accountable.
International Recommendations
According to Anderson (1991), the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) made global administrative recom- mendations based on their needs assessment. Many of these seemed appropriate for U.S. school superintendents:
1. End-of-the-year student assessments should be conducted to increase learning.
2. Teachers should receive the resources they need for effective teaching.
3. Teachers should be selected according to their communication skills.
4. Schools must provide adequate resources for teacher development.
5. School administrators must create open channels of communication and listen to the needs and concerns of their teachers (Anderson).
CONCLUSION
Research has seen that the challenges to Ameri- can education have become more complex with the advent of each decade of this century. Certainly the impact of so many social changes have called for increased knowledge, flexibility, communication skills, and professional concern
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on the part of every educator. The effective school superintendent of today and tomorrow must be a principled, empathetic visionary who is able to lead by facilitating and to actively encourage the development of others. Unfortunately, there remains a paucity of empirical study on the traits and practices of effective administrators. While inferences may be made from the efforts of ap- parently successful superintendents, research is needed to scientifically validate excellence and to differentiate between superficially apparent success and long-term effectiveness.
In his State of the Union Address (Clinton, 1997), President Clinton unveiled a plan for targeting K-12 public schools in a manner that will require accountability of administrators and teachers. According to Sack (1999), this initiative, which would provide some funding to schools contingent upon their being able to demonstrate that they are successful and withholding it from those that appear to be failing, may be usurping some of the authority of the U.S. Department of Education. The latter has tended to provide funds especially to those schools that serve the economically disadvantaged without requiring accountability for results. This new approach would bring extra funding to schools to provide summer school and after-school programs, char- ter schools, to hire additional teachers, provide funds for building new schools and renovating old school buildings. It would also boost support for safe schools, drug-free schools, and violence prevention programs.
However, to receive much of this funding, schools would have to demonstrate success in the targeted areas by improving standardized test scores, diminishing violence and absenteeism and putting an end to social promotion of students who lack necessary academic skills to succeed at the next level. This initiative, if funded by Congress, will place a burden of accountability primarily on school superintendents and principals.
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KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS
Conceptual Skills: These skills deal with the appropriate and balanced use of reason and intuition.
Factionated Board: A factionated board is made up of individuals who hold strong and conflicting perspectives on such major contro- versial issues as busing, taxes, and the nature of basic education.
Leadership Style: Leadership style evidenced by a specific leader is a combination of task- oriented behavior and people-oriented behavior.
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Sanctioning Board: A sanctioning board thoroughly reflects the values of a homogeneous community.
School Board: Every school board is respon- sible for periodic evaluations of its superinten- dent’s performance.
School Leadership: School leadership is the process of enlisting and guiding the talents and energies of teachers, pupils, and parents towards achieving common educational aims.
School Superintendent: The superintendent of a school system manages and provides leader- ship for the overall school district.
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Copyright © 2012, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
Chapter 47
INTRODUCTION
In the closing years of the twentieth century, many foretold the impact of technology on education, but this hardly prepared us for the raging current of activity that is transforming the learning and educational environment at every level across the globe. In the shadow of the ever-growing Internet, the nexus of computer technology and high-speed animation has created a media / anima-
tion / simulation / gaming / edutainment industry that is ‘taking over’ classical media and cinema to control a significant part of world media. It is likely that such technology will have a major impact on our future in terms of culture, learning, and education.
This technical community also produces edu- cational games to teach subjects, expand concepts, understand events or culture, or assist in learning a skill. Such tools may incorporate games and simulation for experiential learning, as the basis
James Spaulding Penn State University, USA
Technology Enhanced Learning and Education
ABSTRACT
PC-games, video-games, serious-games, educational games, and on-line-games share learning technology that depends on a conceptual framework of experiential learning. These are forerunners of Technology- Enhanced Learning (TEL) we will exploit in the future in myriad ways. This article examines these phenomena along with their conceptual frameworks as compared with e-learning and other instruc- tional designs. It also offers ideas on how we can prepare future developers to create more effective and meaningful learning tools by integrating playful experiential learning with inter-disciplinary practice. Finally, it briefly discusses the infrastructure needed to expedite such cross-disciplinary practice in research and educational communities to create tools for twenty-first century learning.
DOI: 10.4018/978-1-61350-068-2.ch047
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for Serious Games (SG). SGs are designed to solve a problem, or to train, investigate, or advertise, and they may sacrifice entertainment in order to make a serious point. Brown and Thomas (2007) describe the effects of SG in leadership training: “When role-playing gamers team up to undertake a quest… This process brings about a profound shift in how they perceive and react to the world around them. They become more flexible in their thinking and more sensitive to social cues.” (p. 1)
These outcomes show how adeptly develop- ers can simulate real or imagined worlds with imagery and activities that incorporate extreme playability. Some PC-based synthetic learning environments simulate events at a fraction of the cost of large-scale virtual reality simulators. Soon we will see software that adapts to learners and context with personalization, intelligent feedback, and interactivity to support exploratory learning. (Technology-Enhanced Learning: 32 European Research Projects, 2008). Good games demand the integration of design and programming skills with artistic flair and sensitivity to human traits, as well as effective management that can handle a creative workforce in an efficient fashion with good engineering and quality assurance.
Affordable high-bandwidth infrastructure enables massively multi-player online games (MMOG) with experiential social aspects that let us build relationships and experience a sense of belonging. The impact of the Internet on com- munication is also leading to a seismic shift in how we interact and collaborate, and how we tell the stories we use to define ourselves. We are racing headlong into a world that brings comput- ers, phones, tele-media, communications, and mobile platforms into technological and social convergence, so any system taxonomy based on delivery strategies can be ignored in the discourse. As bandwidth and delivery improve, products appear in a delivery-independent environment, so this chapter defines these tools based on the features, functions, and benefits delivered to the learner, rather than how they are delivered.
A term defining this confluence is Technology Enhanced Learning (TEL) which is the focus of this chapter. The challenge is how to educate the next generation who is responsible for creating and distributing such technology. Previously, games might be created by individuals or small groups, but now games require huge development teams and huge budgets. However, the design may still be the responsibility of programming gurus who may be poorly educated in instructional design, educational values, and learning techniques. Conversely, some instructional designers may be barren of the technical skills needed to create products or communicate well with programmers and engineers. Who will educate designers, de- velopers, and managers? How can engineers that design and program new tools become facile with artistic, aesthetic, and affective domains that are essential to human and social values? How do developers find comfort with storytelling and narration as elements in development and learn- ing? What conceptual framework is appropriate to plan the curriculum and courses they need?
Perhaps good answers can be found in a more holistic learning environment, with cross- disciplinary programs targeted to programmers, designers, artists, writers, educators, and manag- ers. This chapter examines the conceptual frame- work of TEL compared with E-Learning and other educational methods and offers ideas on better learning tools by integrating playful experiential learning with narration, game orientation, and simulation. It calls on educators to pursue holistic practices in TEL-oriented learning, education, and research communities.
BACKGROUND
A Conceptual Framework for TEL
Instructional design takes much of its concep- tual framework from constructivism, though E-Learning designs often borrow from Skinner’s
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programmed learning (i.e. behaviorism). Such concepts may not be entirely suitable to exploit the potential offered by current technology, and may become more inadequate as time and technology push the limits of these paradigms. This chapter suggests that a suitable conceptual framework for this discourse must incorporate aspects of experiential learning (EL) with a focus on adult learners playfully interacting with a variety of learning techniques in an environment of evolv- ing challenges and changing technologies. This broader perspective exploits the value of popular conceptual models while integrating elements of experiential learning with situated, embodied, and affective components.
John Dewey claimed that we learn by doing, confirming what Aristotle, Aquinas, and Locke, say about experience as a widespread and effec- tive means of learning. Experiential Learning (EL) builds on Dewey’s pragmatism and focus on education, Lewin’s social psychology and group dynamics, and Piaget’s model of development. A foundational theory comes from Kolb’s work that views learning from experience as an interactive process: experience is grasped, and transformed into meaning from which implications for action and experiences are drawn. Kolb (1984) claims, ”Learning is the process whereby knowledge is created through the transformation of experience” (p. 38). Though EL plays a diverse and fundamental role in adult education, Smith (2005) asserts that Kolb’s model involves a “direct encounter with the phenomena being studied rather than merely thinking about the encounter”(p. 1). EL is innate to games, activities, simulations, and even on-line socially interactive environments, all of which are evolving and growing rapidly.
EL is not a simple hit-and-miss proposition, nor is it merely incidental learning: we must engage with experience and reflect on what happened, how it happened, and what it means. We know that some activity may not result in experience and painful experience may discourage learning. Wlodkowsky (1999) shows that experience can
even lead to mis-educative experiences, or learning the wrong thing. Kolb’s model ties our common- sense experience of trial-and-error learning with important aspects of inductive and deductive reasoning and prior knowledge, to produce intel- ligible guidelines for abstraction and planning. As powerful as Kolb’s model is, it ignores emotion, imagination, and social interaction: which play major roles in adult learning.
Groups change learning as Goodwin and Goodwin (2000) explain, “Cognition is not lodged exclusively within the head of an isolated actor, but instead within a distributed system, one that includes both other participants and meaningful artifacts“ (p. 8). This fits with Smith’s (2005) description of EL as learning to acquire and apply knowledge, skills and feelings in an immediate and relevant setting. Lave (1988) suggests learning is tied to authentic activity, context, and culture, “what people perceive, how they conceive of their activity, and what they physically do, develop together” (p. 21). These authors affirm that the affective and social domains must be integrated into a practical EL model.
EL suggests physical activity, situation inter- action, and mental engagement as well as social and emotive involvment. Merriam, Caffarella, and Baumgartner (2007) assert “the whole person is always involved in learning, even when we think it is just our brain” (p. 187). As used here, the concept of EL is more compatible with Smith’s (2005) description of EL as learning to acquire and apply knowledge, skills and feelings in an immediate and relevant setting. The essence of EL may be the ‘story’ we create in memory to reflect on: interpreting, re-interpreting and retelling in light of new events. This improves with language, writing, and art, eventually becoming the basis for culture itself (Callois, 2001; Huizinga, 1950).
A working definition of EL may be learning as a result of engagement, physical activity and participation in a learning group in a setting which includes physical and/or abstract learn- ing objects along with rules needed to support
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learning outcomes, produce understanding and meaning-making, with knowledge retention and transfer to the real world. A learning experience, whether real or simulated, produces an individual story which may become part of a group narrative that can also be shared with others as experience.
A Broader View of TEL
Discovery learning is a popular experiential inqui- ry-based method supported by Piaget, Bruner, and Papert. As explained by Bruner (1961), “Practice in discovering for oneself teaches one to acquire information in a way that makes that information more readily available in problem solving” (p. 26). Such learning occurs often in play, where a learner draws on prior knowledge and experience to explore and interact with the environment, manipulate objects, wrestle with questions and controversies, and perform experiments. Such learning may cause active engagement, promote motivation and autonomy, develop creativity and problem solving skills, and is widely adopted in the commercial world where it s seen as related to self-identity and motivation. Wlodkowsky (1999) observes that self-identity as an adult is when one “perceives herself or himself to be essentially responsible for his or her own life. Responsibility is the cornerstone of adult motivation“ (p. 10).
Boud, Cohen, and Walker (1993) argue it is: “Meaningless to talk about learning in isolation from experience. Experience cannot be bypassed; it is the central consideration of all learning” (p. 8). Perhaps other learning techniques are ana- logues, metaphors, emulations and simulations of EL, which enable experience to be shared and analyzed as relevant but abstract lessons. How- ever, a paucity of relevant literature suggests that more EL research is needed on social interaction, physicality, situatedness, and emotion (Brown, Collins, & Duguid, 1989).
The role of social relationships in learning is clear and suggests situated cognition, in which context is key to understanding. According to
Merriam and Brockett (1997) “what we know and the meanings we attach to what we know are socially constructed. Thus, learning and knowing are intimately linked to real-life situations” (p. 156). Participation in experience in a communal situation differentiates current thinking from more personal earlier models (Fenwick, 2003). Ap- prenticeship relates learning to authentic practice and pragmatic goals with a profound shift from dependence to self-learning. Darvin (2006) says “When... students... apply their cognitive skills to a personal issue or problem, learning is enhanced and the students experience an affirming sense of accomplishment” (p. 398).
Emotion, imagination and social values affect adult participation and effectiveness. Dirkx (2001) says “significant and meaningful learning is fun- damentally grounded in…the adult’s emotional, imaginative connection with the self and with the broader social world” (p. 65). Wlodkowsky (1999) says they are critical “For adult learners to experi- ence intrinsic motivation, they need to connect who they are with what they learn” (p. 12). However, emotion challenges learning models based only on cognitive and constructivist principles.
Experiential learning may be the essence from which humans evolved other learning capabilities. Young animals and humans minimize the danger of real experience by playing in pseudo-real experiences which supplement real experiences (Burghardt, 2005). The essence of learning may be a story created in memory, re-interpreted as events provide new data and stimuli, and ex- panded through narration. Rephrasing a story with conceptual, verbal, and physical cues, lets it become more useful to the individual and the community. Cultural evolution may have led to playful representation of popular stories as plays, dances, music, and art, enhancing a narrative and retelling it as a basis for culture (Callois, 2001; Huizinga, 1950). Now we see stories becoming part of our internet culture in the form of Digital Storytelling.
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Some researchers claim decision-making is guided by internalized stories that direct our goals, judgments, and actions (Cole 1997; Crites 1986). Such views suggest that the stories we tell about ourselves actually define our selves and help to create our identities. Stories that are heard, lived, and retold provide ways of thinking about the meaning of events. This frames the understanding and meaning of current circumstances, and the means of projecting goals for the future (Cole, 1997). Narratives are often used in safety training as experienced people describe events related to what is being learned. Cole, Wiehagen, Vaught, and Mills (2001) studied simulation exercises or exercise narratives, described as an ”Unfolding story of an actual event that either had the potential to or actually evolved into a serious injury event or disaster” (p. 15). The problem-solving nature of the exercises fosters collaboration for solving real problems.
With so many good methods, it might seem that we are approaching the limit of what can be done. However, new research attests to the vast room for progress that is already foreseeable. For example, narration merges into virtual worlds in project eCIRCUS (Education through Characters with Emotional Intelligence and Role-playing Capabilities that Understand Social Interaction) which investigates the efficiency of role-play, narrative engagement and empathy on cogni- tive and emotional learning in a virtual learning environment. (Technology-Enhanced Learning: 32 European Research Projects, 2008). The ELEKTRA project (Enhanced Learning Experi- ence and Knowledge Transfer) uses storytelling, visualization, and interactivity to depict learning topics as a ‘garden of knowledge’ in virtual 3D landscapes, which the learner can explore freely, or follow a narrated storyline and/or game character. (Technology-Enhanced Learning: 32 European Research Projects, 2008). Such tools are becoming a part of what we are enchanted by in TEL, but go beyond what we can deliver today in a classroom.
Playfulness: The Soul of TEL
The previous section suggests that instructional designers adopt a “blended conceptual framework’ by borrowing from a variety of learning models within a general EL paradigm. In many ways, such flexibility is standard practice for instructional designers in the corporate environment: where results are more important than paradigm purity. Such a conceptual framework can be exploited more effectively if it also embodies a range of af- fective components, including wordplay, creative naming, inside jokes, humorous interludes, and the entire panoply of exhibitions of adult playful- ness. Even for children and other species, as well as adults, play often involves physical movement, and awareness of the body in play may contribute to learning and may engage other forms of learn- ing and meaning-making. Accepting this, many teaching techniques integrate EL and playfulness. (Verenikina, Harris, & Lysaght, 2003).
Play is an engaging activity, but is hard to define, even though we all know it when we see it or do it. Playfulness is the emotional disposi- tion which permits a person to exhibit fun, mirth and jocular interaction with others. Playfulness may strengthen the learning process, enhance quality and retention, and improve likelihood of transfer (Rieber, 1996). A playful situation lets us experiment with assurance that learning errors are accepted by the group, supported by framing cues such as smiling, laughing, giggling, and joking. Dealing with a classroom filled with different learning style preferences suggests that playfulness may help drive participation and more effective adult learning (Silverman, 2002).
Play has a role in serious learning too, as seen when Vitez (2008) describes Helen Davies, 83, a professor of microbiology at University of Pennsylvania Medical School. For 40 years, she composed songs with her classes to memorize material, such as:
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Leprosy, /… Bits and pieces falling off of me. Suddenly, /… I’m not half the man I used to be.
Sung to the tune of “Yesterday,” (Beatles) Her students learn more and better as a result of a playful activity they pursue with little external incentive. This is adult playfulness inserted into a serious situation as an element in learning. It is closely intertwined with the situation and the setting and the social environment, and even the physical activities of the participants
Harris and Daley (2008) explored play as an educational tool and claim, “Play qualities are seen to foster learning by enriching adult learners’ engagement, co-operation and sense of connect- edness with one another as well as with people, resources and information beyond their group” (p. 1). Playfulness may also be about coping and may be a social construct as much as an individual construct. Piaget (1962) did little work with adults, but he did tie EL and play together with learning. Some debate the distinction between children’s and adult’s play, and Rieber (1996) says, “Many researchers dispute this by viewing such distinc- tions as artificial” (p. 3). Much literature can be read with ‘adult’ substituted for ‘child’ and seem quite credible and natural.
Huizinga (1950) warns us to avoid over- defining play, “They attack play direct with the quantitative methods of experimental science without first paying attention to its profoundly aesthetic quality. In this intensity, this absorption, this power of maddening, lies the very essence, the primordial quality of play” (p 3). Play is usually voluntary, even if initiated by others; it is intrinsi- cally motivating or pleasurable for its own sake; it involves active, often physical, engagement; and it has a make-believe quality. Play is an essential ingredient in our personal and social development and important to learning (Gee, 2007; Piaget, 1962; Rieber, 1996; Vygotsky, 1966). Playfulness is an attitude or internal disposition that sparks interest, evokes cognitive resources and helps adults learn better in less time. Playfulness may
strengthen the learning process, enhance quality and retention and improve likelihood of transfer. With a playful attitude, adults are more inclined to embrace challenge, better equipped for failure and opposition, and more likely to find original and novel solutions (Rieber, 1996).
Playfulness in the Real World
A search for playfulness in learning must wander into Csikszentmihalyi’s (1990) concept of Flow, or the psychology of optimal experience, and the work done on ‘serious games’ and Micro-Com- puter Playfulness. Woszczynski, Roth, and Segars (2002) related states and traits to playfulness to synthesize a model of a network of constructs around playfulness in computer interactions. They suggest “there is an important emotional compo- nent of flow that denotes an intrinsic enjoyment of the activity in and of itself” (p. 9). There is also a meta-model called the Learning Combina- tion Lock (LCL) from Wilson and Beard (2003). This offers a systematic process for an educator or developer to select ingredients of the learning process, including emotions. While these do not satisfy the need for a holistic theory, together they represent many of the factors needed in the design of adult learning activities build around playfulness.
Playfulness acts as a structural and motiva- tional force in learning and evokes cognitive, affective and creative resources. Sutton-Smith (1997) explains, “Fantasies are not meant to replicate the world… they are meant to fabricate another world… much more emotionally vivid than mundane reality” (p. 158). Such imaginary worlds can be in a virtual space, as micro-worlds. Rieber (1996) says, “A micro-world presents the learner with a ‘simplest case’ of the domain... Learners immediately know what to do in a micro- world - little or no training is necessary” (p. 49). A micro-world is like a child’s sandbox… the perfect place for a playful activity.
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Adventure education often incorporates play with games, challenges and competition as par- ticipants direct their own learning while striving for an established goal. Such techniques are used in sports and military training to build basic skills and support personal, emotional, and social de- velopment. Most aircraft pilots agree with Malo, Stapleton, and Hughes (2004) who assert, “Noth- ing replaces the importance of the sweat, blood and tears of a live simulated training experience in which all your senses … play into a physical, mental, and emotional life-and-death scenario in a fully 3-dimensional, real-time world” (p. 1). Cole et al. (2001) tell us “Learners appreciate that when the simulation exercises are used, their personal knowledge and experience becomes an integral and legitimate part of the classroom problem- solving activity” (p. 14).
When a learner group accepts a social com- mitment to ‘play around’, the individual is safe in dropping inhibitions, suspending credibility, and nullifying skepticism to engage in playful learning. This state may be described using the concept of FLOW (Csikszentmihalyi, 1990) as a group mental phenomenon that emerges in a playful adult learning environment. Polaine (2005) examines case studies in which flow is applied to interactivity and shows that engagement may begin and end with playful experiences that are satisfying in their own right. In this conceptual framework, we can examine how these elements work together with real people in a real world
We use similar concepts in comedy, humor, enchantment, magical moments, whimsical toys and zany ideas (Altman, 1986). Enchantment is a term that goes beyond the concept of playfulness. McCarthy et al. (2006) describe it as an experience of “being caught up and carried away … as we are awakened to wonder and imagine” (p. 370). Enchantment enables the mind to adjust the rules of reality to fit the desired reality, and expands our understanding of playfulness in learning. We see it in an article about Paul St. George’s ‘Telectroscope’ a Victorian invention he created
with modern tools to look like a giant brass, wood and glass telescope that enables one to see people on the other side of the Atlantic, so New Yorkers see Londoners and verse-vice. Everyone knows it is not real, but they play with it as if it were; enchanted by the whimsiness. The article ends with an anecdote about a boy, Ryan:
Two sisters on the other side of the Atlantic raise their fingers to their lips, and blow a long-distance kiss across thousands of miles. For a moment, Ryan stands still. Then he raises his own hand, catches the kiss, and blows it back. (O’Neill & Shaer, 2008, p. 2)
Playfulness incorporated into learning to in- duce engagement is awkwardly artificial and may miss opportunities offered by playfulness. The designer should approach the task with a play- ful attitude and incorporate playfulness into the development; building playful ideas, objects and methods into the very fabric of the product. Such authenticity shows in the final product in ways that enhance effectiveness beyond expectations. Inherent playfulness adds a degree of enchantment to the learning experience that provides staying power, a sense of affection, and memorability, exhibited by a willingness to reuse and revisit the experience and the associated learning. Playful- ness is not an add-on feature, but an attribute of the developers’ world view, the development process, and the learning experience itself.
Instructional Design for TEL
Huizinga (1950) tied game-based learning to the development of culture, sports, art and language as one of the oldest and most viable forms of learning, but it has greater import with the cog- nitive complexity and fast-paced processing of electronic games and simulations (Spires, Lee & Lester, 2008). Shaffer (2007) describes learning games that permit creative manipulation of a virtual world to promote creativity and innova-
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tion so users learn to adapt and apply knowledge in a variety of real-world situations. A critical key in this process is error creation, recognition, and correction. It seems that we often learn more from mistakes than from successes. Gee (2007) highlights the design of games to examine the cyclical effect of experiential learning on skill development as follows:
“Good games offer players a set of challenging problems and then let them practice these until they have routinized their mastery. Then the game throws a new class of problems at the player, requiring them to rethink their taken-for-granted- mastery, only to be challenged again. This cycle of consolidation and challenge is the basis for the development of expertise in any domain.” (p. 217)
Simulation includes simple role-play as well as complex computer-based virtual worlds. Dewey said, “Imagination is the inner mental side of play. Aside from the games, the value of play is measured by the imagery which finds expression in it” (Dewey, 1991). Physicality is often found in EL, yet a critique of Kolb’s ideas is lack of attention to the body as a site of learning and knowledge construction (i.e. embodied learning). Fenwick (2003) argues that, “Experience exceeds language and rationality, because it reiterates the crucial locatedness of bodies in material reality” (p. 6). Iacucci, Linde, and Wagner (2004) claim, “Meaning is created in use of shared objects and social interaction is related to how we engage in spaces and artifacts. In this interplay the body has a central role, in many ways the body can be seen as the medium for having a world” (p. 7).
According to Goodwin and Goodwin (2000), learning is tightly tied to objects around us. “Cog- nition is not lodged exclusively within the head of an isolated actor, but instead within a distributed system, one that includes both other participants and meaningful artifacts” (p. 8). This views bodies in action in a setting as a system that operate with cognitive activities guided by what we do with
our bodies and with learning objects. Even though the physicality is different, the cognitive effects of virtual objects in virtual learning is similar to real objects in abstraction and imagination (Joolingen, 1999; Zuckerman, 2006).
Simulation is often used for training aircraft pilots, ships officers, medical staff, and business or project managers. Candy (2004) examined learn- ers’ participation in a digital world with computer games and simulation as learning tools. He says “In years to come… today’s technologies are bound to seem crude and undeveloped. As time passes, the technology and the users will adapt to each other; the intuitive ‘user friendliness’ of information technologies steadily advancing more or less in direct proportion to the rising generation for whom they are becoming literally ‘second nature” (p. 312). Computer-based simulations and gaming has also been used to derive useful and credible models of interaction, engagement and playfulness as a factor in, and as an outcome of, learning activities (Gee, 2007). Such research is adding to the functionality of the technology at an ever-increasing rate.
Simulation permits the instructional designer to create virtual worlds populated with learning objects so that learning replicates the kind of learn- ing gained in actual experience, while satisfying requirements and outcomes. There are new and challenging demands since such training is not easily ‘sliced and diced’ as in earlier instructional design models, requiring a more holistic approach to teach, change attitudes, and build cultures. In addition, there is a longer path of tuning and refinement necessary with such sophisticated learning tools.
Turning TEL into Good Learning
Testing and validation take on greater import as we explore new technology and learning op- portunities. A step-wise prototyping approach akin to new product engineering development and management models may be more appropri-
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ate to the testing and validation. Some issues, particularly those that involve humans, behavior and social activities are not necessarily tied to advanced technology, so a better understand- ing of how to apply technology may come from examining simple activities in tightly controlled situations, carefully revisiting the basics, and asking how simply goals can be accomplished. The more technology can be tuned to engage and empower our minds as if we are learning around a campfire in a social group with stories, games, songs, and dancing, the more likely we can ac- complish the proper learning tasks and produce correct outcomes at lower cost, effort, and risk.
This approach is demonstrated in the develop- ment of the PALA (Playful Adult Learning Activ- ity) a roll-play simulation that uses no computer technology, but was adapted as an experimental intervention to assess the effects of playfulness in the classroom. (Spaulding, 2010). The design was refined before actual use through a series of iterations with several prototypes that considered physical, emotional, social, and logistical issues. The result is a collage of easily positioned objects or wearable artifacts of a contextual world that is simulated in a situated and embodied fashion. The artifacts represent learning objects that the mind can quickly place in context, easily decipher how to use, and then play with, using only the rules that are inherent in the context. Inspired by the PALA, adult learners create a micro-world (Rieber, 1996) with cognitive clues that enable them to exploit the context for learning purposes by activating adult playfulness and engaging cognitive resources in a motivated fashion.
The success of EL techniques in the informal learning environment, including business and the military, belies its less enthusiastic reception in academia. EL and playfulness are hard to define, test or fit in a rubric: a collection of powerful learn- ing methods that are seen as tools of practitioners, rather than theorists and researchers. Fenwick (2000) addressed this by suggesting that EL is a reflection-oriented constructivist perspective that
“casts the individual as a central actor in a drama of personal meaning-making” which, in a sense, subverts the power of the teacher role. From a critical perspective, one could suggest that EL challenges the hegemony of expert knowledge and resists knowledge authority. Reeve and Gallacher (2000) argue, “taking experience as the starting point for learning has the potential at least to erode traditional boundaries between knowledge and skills, vocational and academic learning” (p 127).
Though EL is applied in many useful and successful educational activities, there may be a tendency to see it as a less rigorous form of Con- structivism. Practitioners may use EL methods, while the literature presents constructivism as the conceptual framework. Perhaps future theorists will mesh together the valuable aspects of these frameworks, much as instructional designers do, by focusing on outcomes and practice in a prag- matic fashion. Dirkx (2006) tells us “Practitioners in adult and continuing education seek to bring about learning and change. Our work as scholars needs to be and should be anchored in practice” (P. 287). This appearance of a disconnect must be resolved within academia in order to devise educational programs that address the students’ needs in a seamless and coherent fashion.
Some educational programs address game development, but merging and blossoming technologies demand a holistic perception of the roles: with cross-disciplinary programs targeted to programmers, designers, artists, writers, edu- cators and managers. This chapter may generate insights and ideas to guide curriculum planners to create multi- and cross- disciplinary offerings supported by research programs with a similar perspective and a broad conceptual framework. Such a curriculum may help future developers create more effective and meaningful learning tools by integrating playful experiential learning with narration, game orientation and simulation.
In this concept, the proposed curriculum can use similar tools and techniques to what these future TEL developers will create. We must adopt
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an educational approach compatible with experi- ential learning melded with playfulness and en- chantment. Students from Master level programs in Systems Engineering or Instructional Design can use such courses to bridge the gap between disciplines. Engineering schools may such insert design considerations as part of game program- ming classes, and educational schools may discuss learning theory in serious games, while melding disciplines in an integrated fashion. The offerings must be made attractive to students and employers so that students working in such environments will find these courses useful to help round-out their education and clarify skills in the job market. With the right adaptations now in curriculum and courses, the future will take care of itself.
Future Trends: Education with a TEL Flavor
Europe assumed a major role in organizing re- sources around Technology Enhanced Learning with research projects funded in 2008 which are structured around a commitment to communities that can derive standards and encourage funding and cooperation. For example, the KALEIDO- SCOPE network targets integrated cutting-edge TEL research in social, cognitive, and educational disciplines as well as computational sciences and emerging technologies. This was funded as a Network of Excellence by the EC with a mul- tidisciplinary and cross-cultural perspective. The network integrated leading research teams in the field and has created a community of more than 1 000 researchers, covering a range of exper- tise from the educational, social, cognitive and computational sciences. (Technology-Enhanced Learning: 32 European Research Projects, 2008)
This concept of community assumes a con- scious effort to create organizational structures that consistently and explicitly cross lines to satisfy the needs of the learners. Medical Schools have done this by focusing on care of the human body as the central organizing principle. In a similar
fashion, perhaps we can organize to educate TEL development teams rather than teaching the disciplines of Engineering, Business, and Art? Perhaps Universities can organize around communal, corporate, and professional needs rather than academic disciplines. A community of cross-disciplinary individuals and groups can perform research, refine theory, identify training needs, design effective curriculum, and assess the results. They can provide basic competency to examine ideas, experiences and results from mul- tiple viewpoints and engage and inspire creative solutions to problems in technology-enhanced learning environments.
This implies awareness of the value of cross disciplinary dialogue, so steps to accomplish this may begin by inviting speakers from another dis- cipline to each conference and include at least one cross-disciplinary paper in each journal. Perhaps editors and reviewers can address the need for cross-disciplinary views in papers. Such a com- munity also influences the ethical standards of professionals, which may include a requirement for cross-disciplinary due diligence and discourse as a standard of good research. Perhaps all learn- ing can be recognized in degree and certification processes, based on the value of the learning, not the technique.
CONCLUSION
In this chapter, we examined experiential learning with adult playfulness as a conceptual framework for Technology Enhanced Learning, which we hope to exploit in future education in a myriad of ways. This examination focused on the features and benefits of such learning alongside competing conceptual frameworks found in E-Learning and other instructional designs. The context of this examination is framed by how to best educate managers, developers, designers, artists, program- mers, and others who will create such technology and learning systems.
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The answers to this question can be found in a more holistic learning environment, with cross-disciplinary education using Technology Enhanced Learning (TEL) and experiential learn- ing techniques. This chapter develops insights and recommendations to guide curriculum planners to create such multi- and cross- disciplinary educa- tional offerings supported by research programs with a similar perspective. It offers ideas on how to create more effective learning tools by integrating playful experiential learning with narration, game orientation and simulation. This chapter concludes on a call to action to aggressively pursue holistic and inter-disciplinary practices in technology enhanced learning, education, and research com- munities with experiential learning as a conceptual framework powered by adult playfulness.
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KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS
Educational Games: Are games specifi- cally designed to teach a certain subject, expand concepts, reinforce development, understand an historical event or culture, or learn a skill.
Experiential Learning (EL): The process of making meaning from direct experience as a result of engagement, physical activity and participa- tion with physical and abstract learning objects to support learning outcomes, meaning-making, and transfer to the real world.
Playfulness: An emotional disposition which permits a person to exhibit fun, mirth and jocular interaction with others, supported by framing cues such as smiling, laughing, joking and mock admonishments that permit the group to interact while protecting each member.
Serious Game (SG): Are designed for a primary purpose other than entertainment. They can be entertaining, but their main purpose is to train, investigate, or advertise. Sometimes a game will deliberately sacrifice fun and entertainment in order to make a serious point.
Simulation: Creates an environment that lets learners suspend belief to be intimately engaged in an artificial scenario which invokes reactions
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akin to what happens in a similar real-world situ- ation. Examples: Games, practice, mock battles, role plays, virtual reality.
Technology Enhanced Learning (TEL): The goal of providing socio-technical innovations
for learning practices, regarding individuals and organizations. TEL and E-Learning may be used synonymously even though there are significant differences.
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Chapter 48
INTRODUCTION
The rapid advancement in technology and the Internet has made online instruction an alternative means of teaching and learning in post-secondary
education. It has also become a substantial supple- ment to traditional teaching. As online instruction becomes more prevalent, it is critical to design good quality online instructions to help students learn effectively and efficiently.
Instruction, whether it is in an online or a traditional classroom setting, “should be the
Wenzhen Li University of Nevada, USA
Leping Liu University of Nevada, USA
The Effects of the Instructional Video on Pre-Service Teachers’
Technology Learning in an Online Environment
ABSTRACT
This chapter presented an investigation on the effects of the instructional video on students’ learning of technology in an undergraduate level online computer application course for pre-service teachers. An instructional video was developed and added to the online instruction of one learning module to explore the effects of the instructional video on students learning of computer application. A Chi-square test was conducted to examine students learning outcome and yielded a significant result. The result revealed that students who used the instructional video were more likely to complete the learning task success- fully than those who did not, indicating that the instructional video was effective in assisting students learning of technology in an online environment.
DOI: 10.4018/978-1-61350-068-2.ch048
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creation and use of environments in which learn- ing is facilitated (Alessi & Trollip, 2001, p. 7)”. Online instruction has different learning dynamics from traditional classroom teaching. The ever- advancing multimedia presentation technology allows for new possibilities in designing online learning materials. Instructional designers and online instructors have a whole range of presenta- tion methods at their disposal, from text, pictures and animation to audio and video. Technically they are able to integrate a variety of multimedia contents in online instructions that support and enhance student learning. While technology itself is not a means to an end, it can provide a rich interactive learner-centered environment and eas- ily accessible learning resources and support that are considered to be critical elements of online learning (Oliver, 1999).
With fast developments in multimedia tech- nology, the key issue that instructional designers and educators are dealing with is how to present information in instructional materials in such a way that learning is optimized (Muthukumar, 2005). Researchers in educational psychology, educational technology and instructional design have shown interests in the effects different pre- sentation modes have on learning. The impacts of multimedia technology on learning outcomes have been researched substantially in the areas of education and assistive technology, instruc- tional design, computer-based learning, human- computer interaction, education psychology, etc. Studies comparing different multimedia presenta- tion techniques have also been conducted quite often. However, previous studies produced mixed results. Although there were empirical studies that provided evidence that multimedia instructions en- hanced students learning (Cherrett, Wills, & Price, 2009; Choi & Johnson, 2007; Stelzer, Gladding, Mestre, & Brookes, 2009; Zhang, Zhou, Briggs, & Nunamaker, 2006), there was also evidence that indicated no significant differences between different presentation modes (DeVaney, 2009; Fox, 2010). The indecisive results of previous research
indicate that designing effective multimedia in- structions is not an easy task, and evaluating the effectiveness of multimedia instructions could be complicated (Ellis & Cohen, 2001). Therefore, it is necessary to conduct further research to examine how and when to use multimedia instructions to facilitate students learning.
One of the challenges of online instruction is designing a learning environment that motivates students and authenticates their learning experi- ence, especially in a computer software application course. In a traditional classroom setting, students attend a weekly lab section and instructors or lab assistants can guide them through the use of software. When the course is delivered online, students are often expected to learn the software independently using the textbooks or online mod- ules that contain step-by-step instructions with screen captures of the software. Although many of the college students nowadays are considered to be a part of Net Generation who grows up with technology and computers, there are still a large number of people who are affected by computer anxiety and frustration (Wilfong, 2006). For this part of the population, learning computer soft- ware application is hard enough in a traditional classroom setting. Taking a computer software application course online can be very challenging because of the absence of the instructor. There- fore, to accommodate the learning needs of this population, it is especially critical to design an authentic learning environment that facilitates their technology learning, reduce their level of anxiety and enhances their experience. The present investigation was undertaken to look into the issue of how to use multimedia presentation technology to enhance students learning.
BACKGROUND
In the field of cognitive research, Mayer is well- known for his research in multimedia learning. Believing that the design of multimedia environ-
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ments should be compatible with how people learn, Mayer (2001) proposed a Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning, that is, “a cognitive theory of how people construct knowledge from words and pictures” (Mayer, 2001, p. 42). Mayer’s Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning is based on the Dual Coding Theory, which proposed that informa- tion is processed through one of two independent yet interconnected channels: verbal information (e.g., text, spoken words, sounds) processing system, and visual information (e.g., photographs, animations, videos) processing system (Clark & Paivio, 1991). Dual Coding Theory suggests that learning is enhanced when verbal and visual information is received simultaneously. In other words, learning is best facilitated by a combination of visual material and narration (Alessi & Trol- lip, 2001). Mayer applied Dual Coding Theory to multimedia learning and developed a Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning.
The Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning has three assumptions: 1) dual channels: humans have separate systems for representing verbal and non-verbal information; 2) limited capacity: each channel has limited capacity to process informa- tion; 3) active processing: meaningful learning occurs when a learner actively selects, organize, and integrate relevant visual and verbal informa- tion (Mayer, 2001). Mayer has applied his theory to extensive empirical research. His research resulted in the discovery of several multimedia design principles (Clark & Mayer, 2003; Mayer, 2001):
1. Multimedia principle: words and pictures should be presented together
2. Contiguity principle: words and pictures should be presented simultaneously
3. Coherence principle: avoid unnecessary words, sounds and pictures
4. Modality principle: words should be pre- sented as narration rather than on-screen text
5. Redundancy principle: narration and on- screen text should not be presented together
6. Personalization principle: words should be presented in conversational style
7. Interactivity principle: learners should be allowed to control the presentation rate
8. Signaling principle: key steps in the narration should be signaled
Mayer’s theory provides useful insights into why different combinations of media can have different effects on comprehension and learn- ing. Learners’ recall of information depends to a large degree on how the information is presented. Some media may be more suitable than others for allowing people to recognize, retain and recall particular types of information. It is essential that instructional designers and instructors understand that learners process through a dual channel, lim- ited capacity, and active processing system. When designing multimedia instructions, it is better to present information in the way that reduces the cognitive load and increases the working memory capacity.
Research in multimedia presentation technol- ogy suggests that the addition of multimedia can actually improve the learning process (Cherrett, Wills, & Price., 2009; Choi & Johnson, 2007; Zhang, Zhou, Briggs, & Nunamaker, 2006). Multimedia technologies combine several pre- sentation media such as text, graphics, sound, animation, and video. For many learning tasks, multimedia methods are not only more appropri- ate, but also more efficient and effectively. By using auditory and visual methods of presenting information, students can process that informa- tion more quickly, often fostering an enhanced learning process. Multimedia content provides a multi-sensory learning environment that can help maximize learners’ ability to retain information. Much research has shown multimedia instruction enhances students’ problem-solving skills and motivate and authenticate the learning experience.
Video has long been used to support student learning at all levels of instruction in a variety of fields. Video instruction involves not only visual
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but also auditory information, allowing students to learn both verbally and visually, to see sequences in motion, and to listen to narration and other sounds. Research in video-based instructions has indicated that videos can enhance the learning experience. Video instruction is perceived as an effective tool for both face-to-face and online learning environment (Zhang et al., 2006).
The using of instructional video is growing in popularity in online learning. They allow instruc- tors to convey information in a more meaningful and engaging manner (Shephard, 2003). Video provides a multi-sensory learning environment that may improve learners’ ability to retain in- formation. Studies on the impact of instructional video on learning effectiveness and learning ex- periences have found that using instructional video within online learning environment leads to better learning outcomes and higher learner satisfaction (Cherrett et al., 2009; Choi & Johnson, 2005, 2007; Tempelman-Kluit, 2006; Zhang et al., 2006). When compared with traditional text-based instructions, video-based instructions have been found to be more memorable (Choi & Johnson, 2005), and more effective in enhancing students’ learning experience (Cadoni, Botturi, & Forni, 2008; Cherrett et al., 2009) and learner satisfaction (Choi & Johnson, 2007; Zhang et al., 2006), and in improving students leaning outcomes (Choi & Johnson, 2007; Templeman-Kluit, 2006; Schwan & Reimpp, 2004; Stelzer et al., 2009; Zhang et al., 2006). In some circumstances, they were more cost-effective than classroom instruction (Cadoni et al., 2008).
Although research has produced evidence of the positive effects of instructional video on learning, there is also evidence that adding instructional video does not improve student learning outcome; that is, there is no significant difference in academic performance and learner satisfaction between students with and without ac- cess to instructional video (Abdous & Yoshimura, 2010; DeVaney, 2009; Fox, 2010).
In an effort to further the research on the ef- fects of instructional videos, the current study explored the impact of the instructional video on students’ learning of computer software ap- plications in an online environment. The study also aimed to examine students’ perception of the effectiveness of the instructional video. For the purpose of this study, the following research questions were raised:
1. Is there a difference in student learning of technology as measured by their first time successful completion of the assignment between students who received both video- and text-based instructions and those who only received text-based instruction?
2. What are students’ perceptions of the ef- fectiveness of the instructional video?
Investigation on the Effects of an Instruction Video
This investigating employed a quasi-experimental design method to explore the effects of the in- structional video on students learning outcome in an educational technology online course. The course was an undergraduate level one required as a part of the teacher education program, and was delivered online through Blackboard’s We- bCampus platform.
The data was collected in fall 2009 and spring 2010. In fall 2009, only textbook was used for instruction. The textbook contains texts and im- ages (i.e., screen captures) that illustrate specific steps of using the educational software. In spring 2010, an instructional video was created and added to present the content of a specific learning mod- ule—Camtasia Menu Maker. This module was chosen because in the past semesters an average of 25 percent of students failed to complete the learning task of this module successfully at their first attempt for various reasons. The researcher was interested whether or not the adding of instruc- tional video would make a difference in assisting
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students to complete the learning task. The result of students’ completion (at their first attempt) of the learning task in fall 2009 was recorded and used as the baseline data. The result of students’ completion of the learning task in spring 2010 was recorded, then compared to the baseline data and statistically analyzed to examine the effects of instructional video on students learning.
Participants
Two samples of participants were involved in this study. The population from which the samples were drawn was undergraduate students, mostly fresh- men and sophomores, enrolled in an educational technology course in fall 2009 and spring 2010 in the College of Education at a western land-grant university in the United States. This course was required for all teacher education students (i.e., pre-service teachers). The participants in the two sample groups represented a wide breadth and diversity of students from the College of Educa- tion, and may be considered representative of
the mainstream of students attending universities across the nation.
Procedures
An instructional video on the computer applica- tion Camtasia Menu Maker was developed by the researcher using Camtasia Recorder. The video was approximately 8 minutes long, presenting the procedures of creating an electronic menu using Camtasia Menu Maker, and how to write the menu on a CD. The content of the video instruction was consistent with textbook instructions. After the instructional video was developed, it was up- loaded to the course home page on WebCampus and was accessible for all the students. Students enrolled in spring 2010 were informed of the instructional video and highly recommended to watch the video before they started the learning module. A sample frame of the instruction video was presented in Figure1.
After the learning module was completed, students who utilized the instructional video were guided to complete a survey with respect to their
Figure 1. Sample frame of the instructional video
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experiences and their perceptions of the effective- ness of using the instructional video. Their re- sponses to the survey questions were recorded in SPSS.
Measurements
Student learning outcome was measured by the completion of learning task of the learning module at their first attempt. A successful completion at the first attempt was recorded as 1, and an unsuccessful completion at the first attempt was recorded as 0.
A survey questionnaire (see Appendix) with a 7-point Likert scale was used to measure students’ perceived effectiveness of the instructional video and their attitudes toward it. 10 statements were presented and students were asked to indicate their level of agreement with the statements on a scale of 1 (strongly disagree) to 7 (strongly agree). Sample statements included: “The video tutorial helped me learn the computer program effectively;” and “I found it easy to learn the computer program after watching the video.” An additional open-ended question was given asking students about their comment or reflections on their experiences of using the instructional video. This question was to find out students’ perceptions of the effective- ness of the video and their suggestions on how to improve the use of the instructional video for future online courses.
Data Analysis
A chi-square test of independence was conducted to determine whether or not there was a statistically significant difference in student learning outcome by comparing the data from fall 2009 (textbook only instructions) with the data from spring 2010 (textbook instructions plus instructional video). The result of the chi-square test was reported in the following section. The descriptive statistics of students’ perception of the effectiveness of the in- structional video was also reported, followed by a
summary of students’ comments and reflections on their experiences of using the instructional video.
Results
This study investigated the effect of the instruc- tional video on pre-service teachers’ learning of educational technology in an online environment. A total of 91 students enrolled in spring 2010 completed the survey on the instructional video, and the results of their completion of the learning module were used in the data analysis. In order to have equal numbers in the two comparing groups, 91 students were randomly selected from those enrolled in fall 2009. A chi-square test of indepen- dence was then performed to examine the relation between instructional video and student learning outcome (as measured by first time successful completion of learning task). The result of the chi-square test was presented in Table 1, indicat- ing a significant relationship between these two variables, x2(1, N = 182) = 11.85, p < .01. The result suggested that instructional video had a positive effect on students learning of educational technol- ogy. The students who watched the instructional video were more likely to complete the learning task successfully at their first attempt.
Table 2 presented the crosstabulation of in- structional video and the first time successful completion. The observed frequency of the incor- rect completion at the first attempt with video instruction is significantly lower than the one without video instruction, indicating that the in- structional video did increase the chance of completing the learning task successfully at their first attempt.
The descriptive statistics of students’ response to the survey on their use of the instructional video was presented in Table 3. The students responded to the statements favorably. Most of the responses had a mean of over 6.00 out of 7 points, which indicated students’ overall satisfac- tion with the instructional video.
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Table 1. Chi-Square test results for instructional video and 1st time successful completion of learning task
Value df Asymp. Sig.
(2-sided) Exact Sig. (2-sided)
Exact Sig. (1-sided)
Pearson Chi-Square 11.854a 1 .001
Continuity Correctionb 10.501 1 .001
Likelihood Ratio 12.526 1 .000
Fisher’s Exact Test .001 .000
Linear-by-Linear Association 11.789 1 .001
N of Valid Cases 182
Table 2. Crosstabulation of instructional video and students’1st time completion of learning task
1st time completion Total
incorrectly correctly
Video Instruction
no Count 23 68 91
Expected Count 14.5 76.5 91.0
% within Video Instruction 25.3% 74.7% 100.0%
yes Count 6 85 91
Expected Count 14.5 76.5 91.0
% within Video Instruction 6.6% 93.4% 100.0%
Total Count 29 153 182
Expected Count 29.0 153.0 182.0
% within Video Instruction 15.9% 84.1% 100.0%
Table 3. Descriptive statistics of students’ perception of the instructional video
N Mean Std. Deviation
The video tutorial was clear 91 6.29 1.344
The length of the video was appropriate 91 6.24 1.177
It was convenient to more the video backward/forward to where I wanted 90 5.99 1.646
I like that I had control over the video 90 6.21 1.402
The video helped me understand how to use the program 91 6.27 1.165
The video helped me learn effectively 91 6.19 1.134
It was easy to learn after watch the video 91 6.12 1.290
The video was a good supplement to the book 91 6.29 1.344
I enjoyed learning software from watch video 91 6.14 1.330
I’d like to have more video tutorial 91 6.07 1.436
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At the end of the survey there was an open- ended question asking participants to provide comments on their learning experience with the instructional video. 74 out of 91 students (81.3%) responded to this question. The most common themes in the respondents’ feedback were that the instructional video was helpful and easy to follow, and they enjoyed or liked the video tutorial. One of the respondents stated, “I really enjoyed using the video(;) it made everything easy to follow. The textbook is very good but I think it (the video) helps to visually see everything happen. I’ll help me to remember better in the future when I go to use the program again.” Another respondent reported, “The video tutorial was very helpful; by following it, I was able to complete the lab without any major problems.” And another re- spondent commented, “This video tutorial was easy to follow and help me understand the mate- rial a lot faster than it did when I read about it.” The 5 most common themes were presented in Table 4.
FUTURE TRENDS
This investigation has produced some positive findings on the effects of instructional videos. However, only one learning module was involved in this examination. Future investigations may look into (a) whether similar effects can be obtained on more learning modules or the entire course; (b) whether different designs of instructional videos,
such as task-based or procedure-based design, can make a difference in students academic per- formance; (c) variables that may affect student learning, such as gender, learning style, computer attitude, computer anxiety, etc.
CONCLUSION
This investigation looked into the impact of the instructional video in an online educational technology course. The chi-square test of inde- pendence yielded a significant result, suggesting that instructional video had a positive effect on students learning of educational technology. Students in this study who used both instruction video and the textbook were more likely to com- plete the learning task successfully at their first attempt than those who only used the textbook. This result provided further evidence to the exist- ing literature that instructional videos, when well designed and used appropriately, had positive effects on students learning outcome (Choi & Johnson, 2007; Templeman-Kluit, 2006; Schwan & Reimpp, 2004; Stelzer et al., 2009; Zhang et al., 2006). Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Leanring holds that multimedia presentations offer the po- tential to improve human learning (Mayer, 2001). Learning is best facilitated by a combination of visual material and narration (Alessi & Trollip, 2001). In the present study, the instructional video complemented the text and static graphic based instruction, and provided an enriched learning environment in which information was conveyed to the learner through multiple senses. The students learned not only from the text and graphic instruc- tion, but also from listening and watching the video. The video instruction helped bringing the textbook instructions to life by making connections between verbal and visual representations, which was very helpful in an online environment where the instructor was not present during this learning process. This result implied that the instructional
Table 4. Theme of student comments on their experiences of using the instructional video
Themes of student comments
1. The students enjoyed or liked the instructional video.
2. The instructional video was helpful.
3. The instructional video was easy to understand and follow.
4. The students would like more instructional videos.
5. The instructional video was good.
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video can be used to enhance student learning of educational technology in an online environment.
The students’ responses to the survey also indicated their overall satisfaction with the in- structional video, which is consistent with the existing literature that instructional videos had positive effects on students’ learning experience (Cadoni, Botturi, & Forni, 2008; Cherrett et al., 2009) and learner satisfaction (Choi & Johnson, 2007; Zhang et al., 2006). The comments written by the students suggested that they liked to learn educational technology with the instructional video. They stated that the video helped them understand better and was easy to follow along. They agreed that by watching the video they were able to complete the learning task in a more ef- ficient way.
This investigation provided some empirical evidence to the value of instructional video in an online learning environment. Previous research on multimedia instructions have produced mixed results. The findings in this study provided some insights on how to integrate instructional video in an online learning environment in a meaningful way so that learning is enhanced. Videos, as one component in the online learning environment, can enhance student learning outcome and learn- ing experiences when designed and integrated thoughtfully. Merely adding videos in the instruc- tion may not help student learn more effectively.
REFERENCES
Abdous, M., & Yoshimura, M. (2010). Learner outcomes and satisfaction: A comparison of live video-streamed instruction, satellite broadcast instruction, and face-to-face instruction. Comput- ers & Education, 55(2), 733–741. doi:10.1016/j. compedu.2010.03.006
Alessi, S. M., & Trollip, S. R. (2001). Multimedia for learning: Methods and development (3rd ed.). Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon.
Cadoni, E., Botturi, L., & Forni, D. (2008). Learn- ing by seeing: The TEMAS multimedia learning objects for civil engineers. TechTrends, 52(5), 17–21. doi:10.1007/s11528-008-0190-5
Cherrett, T., Wills, G., & Price, J. (2009). Making training more cognitively effective: Making videos interactive. British Journal of Educational Tech- nology, 40(6), 1124–1134. doi:10.1111/j.1467- 8535.2009.00985.x
Choi, H. J., & Johnson, S. D. (2005). The effect of context-based video instruction on learning and motivation in online courses. American Journal of Distance Education, 19(4), 215–227. doi:10.1207/ s15389286ajde1904_3
Choi, H. J., & Johnson, S. D. (2007). The effect of problem-based video instruction on learning on learner satisfaction, comprehension and retention in college courses. British Journal of Educational Technology, 38(5), 885–895. doi:10.1111/j.1467- 8535.2006.00676.x
Clark, J. M., & Paivio, A. (1991). Dual coding theory and education. Educational Psychology Review, 3, 149–210. doi:10.1007/BF01320076
DeVaney, R. A. (2009). Impact of video tutorials in an online educational statistics course. MER- LOT Journal of Online Learning and Teaching, 5(4), 600–608.
Ellis, T., & Cohen, M. (2001). Integrating mul- timedia into a distance learning environment: Is the game worth the candle? British Journal of Educational Technology, 32(4), 495–497. doi:10.1111/1467-8535.00218
Fox, K. (2010). Investigating the impact of multi- media design principles on learning in an online context. Ph.D. dissertation, Capella University, United States -- Minnesota. Retrieved November 15, 2010, from Dissertations & Theses: Full Text. (Publication No. AAT 3397444).
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Mayer, R. E. (2001). Multimedia learning. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.
Muthukumar, S. L. (2005). Creating interactive multimedia-based educational courseware: Cogni- tion in learning. Cognition Technology and Work, 7(1), 46–50. doi:10.1007/s10111-004-0171-1
Oliver, R. (1999). Exploring strategies for online teaching and learning. Distance Education, 20(2), 240–254. doi:10.1080/0158791990200205
Schwan, S., & Riempp, R. (2004). The cogni- tive benefits of interactive videos: Learning to tie nautical knots. Learning and Instruction, 14, 293–305. doi:10.1016/j.learninstruc.2004.06.005
Shephard, K. (2003). Questioning, promoting and evaluating the use of streaming video to support student learning. British Journal of Educational Technology, 34, 295–308. doi:10.1111/1467- 8535.00328
Stelzer, T., Gladding, G., Mestre, J. P., & Brookes, D. T. (2009). Comparing the efficacy of multime- dia modules with traditional textbooks for learning introductory physics content. American Journal of Physics, 77(2), 184–190. doi:10.1119/1.3028204
Tempelman-Kluit, N. (2006). Multimedia learn- ing theories and online instruction. College & Research Libraries, (July): 364–36.
Wilfong, J. D. (2006). Computer anxiety and anger: The impact of computer use, computer experience, and self-efficacy beliefs. Computers in Human Behavior, 22(6), 1001–1011. doi:10.1016/j. chb.2004.03.020
Zhang, D., Zhou, L., Briggs, R., & Nunamaker, J. (2006). Instructional video in e-learning: As- sessing the impact of interactive video on learning effectiveness. Information & Management, 43, 15–27. doi:10.1016/j.im.2005.01.004
KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS
Online Instruction: Refers to the instructional process in which students and instructor are not in the same place (NCES, 2008). In this proposal, online instruction and online education are used interchangeably.
Online Course: Refers to courses that are delivered one hundred percent online.
Online Learning Environment: Refers to the environment where teaching and learning take place through the use of computers and the Internet.
Streaming Video: Refers to a video that is sent over the internet and viewed using a program such as Windows Media Player or Quick Time.
Instructional Video: Refers to a video that is used for instructional purpose. The instructional video used in this study is streaming video.
Multimedia Technology: Refers to the tech- nology that uses text, graphic, animation, sound, and animation to deliver information.
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APPENDIX
Video Tutorial Survey
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Chapter 49
DOI: 10.4018/978-1-61350-068-2.ch049
“At first, any playground seems a confusion of noise and movement, but patient observation can reveal a rich and dynamic oral culture.” Elizabeth Grugeon, 2005
INTRODUCTION
What does play have to do with play therapy? Play is an essential part of childhood. It is a fun-
damental event in growth and development from infancy (Harvey, 1980). Play refers to a spontane- ous, voluntary, enjoyable activity; an attitude or sprit; a vital element in the total learning process; something not associated with work; a response to life and one in which the child can be involved actively or passively (Arnaud, 1975; Baker, 1975; Hartley & Goldenson, 1957). As previously stated, I argue that play is the purest, most effective form of communication language and self-expression available (walls, 1982). Through play, a child
Debra Leigh Walls Rosenstein Mercer University, USA
Play and Play Therapy
ABSTRACT
Play is the most powerful, the purest, and the most effective form of communication language and self- expression available (walls, 1982). The concept of therapy through play was derived from Melanie Klein (1921) and Anna Freud (1952). Unfortunately, play is a rapidly declining art due in large part to our ever-changing, fast paced and technologically driven society where recesses are being cut and children often turn to video games instead of the outdoors. With this in mind, incorporating play into the daily academic life of children is critical and vital for their total well being – physically, socially and intellectually. The focus of this chapter is to explain the importance of play, provide a review of the literature, and discuss the theoretical framework, techniques and current trends. Special attention will be focused on how educators can utilize play therapy to enhance self-esteem, social, interpersonal and problem solving skills and reduce the everyday stress that surrounds our children today.
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reaches out into his/her world of intellect, emo- tion, and physical space in effort to gain control in the surrounding environment (Baker, 1975; Landreth, 1991; Petrillo & Sanger, 1980). Play is a major part of a child’ s life; and it is the most complete of all the educational processes in terms of influencing the development of emotions, in- tellect, and physical growth (Elkind, 2007). In a 2007 statement issued by the American Academy of Pediatrics, Dr. Kenneth Ginsburg of the Univer- sity of Pennsylvania refers to play as essential for healthy brain growth and development leading to imagination and creativity, as well as prompting resilience in children (Miller, 2009). Recently, there has been a tremendous decline in outdoor and creative/imaginative play among children. Hof- ferth, (2010) states there is little, if any, time spent playing outside compared to growing amounts of time that children are playing on computers and video games. The American Academy of Pediatrics states that active and creative play help children achieve success more effectively than sitting in front of the computer or television (Elkind, 2007; Miller, 2009). Play is the language of childhood. It is a critical element of healthy child develop- ment. Well known play researcher, Dr. Joe Frost (2008), states that “spontaneous play is the deli- cate dance of childhood that strengthens the mind and body, and nourishes the soul.” The results of a 2009 study on school recess and its effects on group classroom behavior conducted by Romina Barros and her colleagues, Ellen Silver and Ruth Stein, suggests children who were provided with daily recess of at least fifteen minutes in length had better classroom behavior reported by their teachers than children not given a daily recess.
With this noted, why in 2010 have many schools taken away recess? Why have most schools eliminated physical education from their curriculum? Why has the preschool curriculum taken the “joy of play” out of the day where they spend more time on “academic work”? Why is our world today stripping from our children the love of life, the world of wonder, and the inability
to get along? The impact of eliminating play is taking a toll on the overall development of our children today. The use of play as a therapy is increasing in the practice of professionals who work with children. Children are being seen by play therapists for a variety of academic and social issues. I am consulted frequently to provide sup- port and recommendations for teachers who have students who are displaying difficulty with their social skills and have an inability to get along with their classmates. This not only impacts the child’s social and academic growth, but it affects the other students in the class. During an observation as the play therapist for a preschool program for 3 and 4 years, I noticed that a number of children were unable to play cooperatively with each other. One child in particular, let’s call him Bailey, constantly was grabbing toys from other children, but not actually playing with them. The teacher’s response to this action was “instead of taking a toy from your friend you need to ‘use your words’.” By the look on Bailey’s face and the continued action of taking toys from his classmate, it was obvious to me that the he did not understand what “use your words” meant. I asked Bailey if I could play with him and he nodded yes. I sat down beside him and began building blocks. Bailey began taking the blocks off the tower that I was building. I asked him if he would like one of my blocks and he nodded “yes”. I said “Bailey, if you would like one of my blocks, I need for you to ask me.” He looked at me and took another block. I said “Bai- ley, I need for you to say “may I please have one of your blocks?” At this point it was clear to me that Bailey did not have the language to actually play with someone else. He did not know that he needed to use words like “may I please have one of your blocks?” or “can I build a tower with you?” I had to teach Bailey the “rules” of sharing and playing cooperatively with others. This is just one example that acknowledges that we can no longer assume that children know how to play.
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BACKGROUND
There are a variety of theoretical frameworks defining play and the value that it has on a child’s ongoing development. The underlining treads of these theories provide the intellectual foundation for play therapy.
Two of the classic theories of play were de- veloped by Herbert Spencer (1873) and G.T.W. Patrick (1916). As early as 1873, Herbert Spencer described play in his surplus energy theory as critical in allowing children to release their energy through play. Parents and teachers noticed that children were more relaxed after strenuous play. However, in 1916, G.T.W. Patrick proposed that the purpose of play was the renewal of energy. His theory was that when children were relaxed play kept them from being bored, in turn restor- ing their energy.
The later contemporary play theories includ- ing the psychoanalytic approaches of Sigmund Freud, Anna Freud, and Eric Erikson are based on the psychological value that play has on a child’s intellectual, social and emotional development (Hughes, 2010). Sigmund and Anna Freud noted that play provided opportunities that allowed children to help with their fears and anxieties (Freud, 1974). Erikson’s Social Development Theory (1963) suggests that play can enhance a child’s self-esteem through the development of his/her physical and social skills. Play through the lenses of the cognitive theorists, such as Jerome Bruner (1972) and Brian Sutton-Smith (1967), is a vehicle for intellectual development. It provides an environment where children can learn to problem solve.
Cognitive theorist Jean Piaget (1962) noted that play bridges the gap between concrete experi- ences and abstract thought. Piaget discussed the different forms of play as they relate to his stages of intellectual development: sensorimotor stage (sensorimotor/practice play), preoperational stage (symbolic /make believe play), and operational stage (games with rules). Piaget also separated
the operational stage into concrete operational and formal operational stages; those in the former stage perfecting their ability to use logic and those in the latter stage being able to perform analytical, abstract, and hypothetical cognitive functions.
Psychologist Mildred Parten’s (1932) clas- sification of children’s play is a framework that is based on developmental stages that continue to be used today. This classification includes six different types of play. It is interesting to note that the first four categories of play do not involve much interaction with others, while the last two do. Parten’s classifications include: unoccupied play, solitary play, onlooker play, parallel play, associate play and cooperative play. In Frost’s 1992 Play and Playscapes, the author defines and describes Parten’s six categories as follows:
• Unoccupied Behavior: The child is not playing but occupies herself with watching anything that happens to be of momentary interest. When there is nothing exciting taking place, she plays with her own body, gets on and off chairs, just stands around, follows the teacher, or sits in one spot glanc- ing around the room (playground).
• Onlooker Behavior: The child spends most of her time watching the other children play. She often talks to the children being observed, asks questions or give suggestions, but does not overtly enter into the play. This type differs from unoccupied in that the onlooker is definitely observing particular groups of children rather than anything that happens to be exciting. The child stands or sits within speaking distance from other children.
• Solitary Play: The child plays alone and in- dependently with toys that are different from those used by the children within speaking distance and makes no effort to get closer to other children. She pursues her own activity without reference to what others are doing.
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• Parallel Play: The child plays independent- ly, but the activity chosen naturally brings her among other children. She plays with toys that are like those the children around her are using, but she plays with the toys as she sees fit and does not try to influence or modify the activity of the children near her. She plays beside rather than with the other children.
• Associative Play: The child plays with other children. The communication concerns the common activity; there is borrowing and loaning of play materials, following one another with trains or wagons, mild attempts to control which children may or may not play in the group. All the members engage in similar activity, there are no division of labor, and no organization of the activity around materials, goal, or product. The children do not subordinate their individual interests to that of the group.
• Cooperative Play: The child plays in a group that is organized for the purpose of making some material product, striving to attain some competitive goal, dramatizing situations of adult and group life, or playing formal games (Frost, 1992)
Overview of Play Therapy
Although it has been in existence for some eighty years, play therapy is considered by Clark Mousta- kas (1973) to be “a relatively new psychological field of human endeavor”. It is based upon the concept that play is the child’s natural medium of self-expression (Axline, 1947). It is a way in which the child is able to “play out” his feelings and problems (Axline, 1947; Moustakas, 1973). Play therapy has often been thought of as “a set of attitudes in and through which children may feel free to express themselves fully, in their own way, so that eventually they may achieve feelings of security, adequacy, and worthiness through
emotional insight” (Axline, 1947 p. 2). In 1997, the International Association for Play Therapy’s board of directors developed a more generalized definition of play therapy:
“Play therapy is the systematic use of a theoreti- cal model to establish an interpersonal process wherein trained play therapists use the therapeutic powers of play to help clients prevent or resolve psychological difficulties and achieve optimal growth and development.” (Association for Play Therapy, 1997, p.7).
There are many approaches to play therapy, all with different philosophies and theories of per- sonality dynamics (Moustakas, 1973). However, these approaches are similar in the respect that they contain human values which the therapist attempts to communicate (Axline, 1947; Moustakas, 1973). Play therapy may be directive or non-directive in form. Directive play therapy involves the therapist as the one responsible for guidance and interpreta- tion; whereas, non-directive play therapy allows responsibility and guidance to be determined by the child and not the therapist (Axline, 1947; Moustakas, 1973). Axline (1947) and Moustakas (1973) both emphasize that non-directive play therapy is more applicable than directive play therapy. A variety of theoretical models will be described in the chapter.
Play therapy presents a unique experience for all children and puts them in an atmosphere where they can express fear, anger or hatred; be resent- ful and/or silly, hilarious or joyous (Moustakas, 1973). They are free to explore whatever feelings, attitudes, minor problems and frustrations they wish (Axline, 1947; Moustakas, 1973).
The concept of therapy through play was derived from Melanie Klein (1921) and Anna Freud (1952). They both emphasized that play is a way of coping with pain and that play can be the medium for indicating the sources of problems in a child’s life. It is the role of the therapist to
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attempt to understand the child’s activity. Berta Bornstein (1945) believed that play was important to the therapist, not only as a vehicle for inter- pretation, but as a fruitful and natural source of knowledge for the child. Bornstein also believed that preparation for traumatic experiences or recovery from them, through play, could allow the child to recover faster. The application and use of play and play therapy techniques is well established as being significantly effective in hospitals and in residential care. (Cassell, 1965; Dockar-Drysdale, 1968; Petrillo & Sanger, 1972; walls, 1982).
Theoretical Models of Play Therapy
There are several theoretical models or approaches of play therapy. They are psychoanalytic play therapy, release play therapy, relationship play therapy, nondirective play therapy and child- centered play therapy. Overviews of each of these theories are as follows.
Psychoanalytic Play Therapy
Hermine Hug-Hellmuth (1921) has been noted as one of the first therapist to emphasize play as critical in the therapeutic process. She provided a variety of play materials in her therapy sessions to enable children to express themselves (Hughes, 2010; Landreth, 1991; O’Connor, 2000). This was followed by the work of Anna Freud (1946/1965) and Melanie Klein (1955) both mentioned earlier in this chapter. They used play as a means to es- tablish a therapeutic relationship with a child, as well as to encourage children to express themselves freely. While Klein believed in interpretation of the child’s play and the symbolic meaning of it, Anna Freud did not (Landreth, 1991). Freud uti- lized play as a means for the child to establish a positive bond with the therapist to gain a positive relationship with the child.
Release Play Therapy
David Levy (1939) was responsible for develop- ing release play therapy. This type of therapy is a structured play therapy approach for children who have encountered some sort of stressful situation. The role of the therapist is to provide appropriate play materials and toys that would provide an outlet to recreate the particular stressful situation. The “playing out”/”acting out” of the stressful situation can help a child release the tension and pain of the particular events. The child may be allowed to choose her own toys for this process, enabling her to be more in control of the play. The child may also invite the therapist into the “play scene.” During this scene the therapist interjects any verbal and nonverbal feelings expressed by the child. (Hughes, 2010; Landreth, 1991; O’Connor, 2000). This type of play therapy can be very effective when working with children who have been hospitalized for a variety of reasons, including children with life-threatening diseases such as cancer and cystic fibrosis, and children with traumatic injuries such as burns and brain trauma. Applications for this type of play therapy will be discussed later in the chapter with examples from my own practice.
Relationship Play Therapy
Relationship play therapy evolved from the work of Otto Rank (1936) who stressed that the development of the therapist-client relationship should be centered on the present and not the past. Rank was instrumental in influencing the works of Jesse Taft (1933), Fredrick Allen (1942), and Clark Moustakas (1959). Each writer stressed that children should be free to play or not to play and to be “in charge” of what and how they are playing. In this approach children ultimately are responsible for their own play. The role of the therapist is to assist the child with her concerns rather than those of the therapist (Hughes, 2010; Landreth, 1991; O’Connor, 2000). The emphasis
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of this type of play therapy is the quality of the relationship between the therapist and the child (Landreth, 1991; Schaefer & Kaduson, 2007). The positive and safe relationship that the play therapist has with her client is critical to achieving progress in play therapy sessions. Children who have difficulty following rules and getting along with their peers would benefit from this type of play therapy.
Nondirective Play Therapy
Carl Rogers (1942) expanded the concepts in relationship therapy and developed nondirective therapy, which is now known as client-centered therapy. Roger’s student, Virginia Axline (1947) applied nondirective therapy principles to children in play therapy. The two major objectives of nondi- rective play therapy are the child’s self-awareness and self-direction (Hughes, 2010; Landreth, 1991; O’Connor, 2000). In a well stocked playroom, the child has the freedom to play as she likes or not. The role of the therapist is to reflect actively on the feelings or any thoughts that the child expresses during play. In Axline’s (1947) classic text on play therapy, she indicated eight basic principles which serve as guidelines for the play therapist in a non-directive approach to play therapy. The principles are as follows:
1. The therapist must develop a warm, friendly relationship with the child, in which good rapport is established as soon as possible.
2. The therapist accepts the child exactly as she is, without praise and without criticism.
3. The therapist establishes a feeling of permis- siveness in the relationship so that the child feels free to express her feelings completely. The child is not forced to use any of the ma- terials in any particular way. There should also be no probing questions that pertain to the child’s life experiences.
4. The therapist is alert to recognize the feel- ings the child is expressing and reflects those
feelings back in such a manner that the child gains insight into her behavior.
5. The therapist maintains a deep respect for the child’s ability to solve her own problems if given an opportunity to do so.
6. The therapist does not attempt to direct the child’s actions or conversation in any man- ner. The child leads the way; the therapist follows.
7. The therapist does not attempt to hurry the therapy along. It is a gradual process and is recognized as such by the therapist.
8. The therapist established only those limita- tions that are necessary to anchor the therapy to the world of reality and to make the child aware of her responsibility in the relation- ship. (pp. 73-74).
Axline (1950) explained that “a play experi- ence is therapeutic because it provides a secure relationship between the child and the adult, so that the child has the freedom and room to state herself in her own terms, exactly as she is at that moment in her own way and in her own time” (p. 62).
Child-Centered Play Therapy
Landreth (1991) believes that child-centered play therapy is a philosophy, an attitude and a way of being. The therapist’s focus is on emotional growth of the child and the belief in self. There are five principles to child-centered play therapy according to Louise Guerney (2001).
1. The child is the director of the play and the therapist is the follower.
2. It is not problem specific. It can be used with children regardless of issues or traumas without looking at symptoms directly.
3. The focus is on the way in which a child communicates in a play therapy session. The play is not so much interpreted by the therapist; instead the therapist’s goal is to
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provide a safe environment for the child to express herself on her own timetable.
4. Child-centered play therapy is not a set of specific techniques that are used by the therapist.
5. The therapist must believe that the child is the director of her healing and the therapist’s role is to provide full therapeutic support to the child when necessary.
Landreth and Sweeney (2003) state that “this approach is widely applicable because it does not rely solely on the child having an identified problem; instead this approach is based upon how the child feels about his/her self, allowing the focus to be on the child’s point of view and the perceptions of life events are driven by the child’s perspective” (p. 78).
Play Therapy Techniques
There are a variety of techniques that can be used in play therapy in differing environments – indi- vidual and group settings, school settings, hospital settings and residential care settings. There are a range of types of play and materials that can be used in these settings.
The types of play and materials allow children to be expressive in their thoughts and feelings verbally or nonverbally. Some of the most effec- tive techniques used in play therapy are puppet play, sand play, “dress –up” or costume play, water play, block play, telephone play, dramatic play, and bibliotherapy. Bibliotherapy is the term used to describe the art of literature through storytelling and/or reading to assist a child in deconstructing a stressful or traumatic event. The use of artistic “visual” media; such as mud, clay, painting us- ing fingers or brushes, and drawing with crayons or markers is one of the most popular forms of the expressive therapies. The use of art, puppets, drama, and water will be discussed in more detail.
Art
Art has many benefits for all children. It can be used as a tool in which children can express themselves using a variety of art materials. The focus is on the process of creating art not on the end product. Art used in therapy has been around since the 1400’s (Rubin, 2005). Art therapy is defined by the American Art Therapy Associa- tion (n.d.) as the use of the creative process of art to improve and enhance the physical, mental and emotional well-being of individuals of all ages. It is based on the belief that the creative processes involved in artistic self-expression help people resolve conflicts and problems, develop interpersonal skills, manage behavior, reduce stress, increase self-esteem and self-awareness, and achieve insight. Through creating art and reflecting on the artistic products and processes, people can increase awareness of self and others, cope with symptoms, stress, and traumatic experi- ences; enhance cognitive abilities; and enjoy the life-affirming pleasures of making art. Although art therapy originated in psychiatric settings in the 1940’s it has grown quickly in settings such as specialized centers, hospitals, schools, deten- tion centers and hospices (Rubin, 2005). When children paint, draw pictures or model clay it is interesting to note their mood and their feelings. Are they gentle in their strokes? Do they hold their crayons tightly as they color? Do they color in easy or aggressive strokes? Are they willing to use their fingers to paint? Do they fill up the paper or only use just a section of it? How do they handle clay? Are they afraid to get dirty? Are they pounding the clay or throwing it up and down as they create? As a play therapist my goal is not to analyze the art of a child, but to observe the way in which the child creates art. As a play therapist in the hospital setting I worked with children un- able to paint, color or draw due to being hooked up to IV’s or having their hands wrapped due to an injury. I was able to paint, color or draw for a child when she could not physically do the activity
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herself. The child directed what I drew, the colors I used and how I would use them. The child was still in control which is important because in the hospital the child often has little if any control of her environment. When children have issues with getting dirty or messy as they paint, I often put the paint in a Ziploc bag, seal it up and paint on top of the bag, creating art without getting messy.
Puppet Play
Puppet play is a useful technique to assist chil- dren who are having difficulty expressing their thoughts and emotions. The value of puppets in play therapy has been around for a very long time (Broomfield, 1995; Dockar-Drysdale, 1968; Irwin & Shapiro, 1975; McMohon, 1992). Puppets of all kinds can be used by children when acting out certain events or scenarios. The play therapist serves a role as facilitator allowing the child to take control. Puppet play is effective because some children are more comfortable and feel safer sharing their emotions using a play toy such as a puppet to communicate with adults. This is especially true of children who need to reenact traumatic events. In my experience, children who are unable to express their feelings about traumatic events to adults directly are often able to express those same feelings using puppets as their voice. Often in the hospital setting children are admitted due to some traumatic injury or event. I have used puppets when working with children to help them “act out” what they were feeling. I also have used puppets during medical play when the child was able to give the puppet “pretend shots” and then place band-aids on the puppet. Observing how the child participated in medical play, whether they were gently giving the puppet a shot or jabbing the puppet as they gave the shots was reflective of what they were actually feeling about their experiences in the hospital. It was a method that allowed them to be in control.
Drama
The therapeutic benefit of using dramatic play incorporates the three areas of development: intellectual, affective and social (Mellou, 1994). Intellectual benefits of dramatic play for a child include the stimulation of creative thinking and the improvement of language and reading skills (Dan- sky, 1980). The development of self-awareness, self-control and self-confidence are all part of the child’s affective development (Hughes, 2010). In pretend play, the child can have an opportunity to play out unpleasant experiences often creat- ing happier endings and solving social conflicts (Bretherton, 1986; Frued, 1974: Piaget & Inhelder, 1969). It provides children an avenue to imitate situations and experiences from real life which can be, in some cases, therapeutic (Frost, Wortham, & Reifel, 2008). Dramatic play is highly social. The involvement in dramatic play can foster a child’s ability to participate in social activities and reinforce cooperation in a group situation (Hughes, 2010). This aspect of dramatic play can be used when working with children who need help in the development of their social skills by providing them with specific scenarios that help to facilitate social interactions.
Water Play
Most children love splashing in the water. They love bath time rituals playing with toys while getting clean. They love blowing the bubbles that bubble baths can make.
Splashing in water creates laughter and giggles for children unless a child has been hurt by water. (See applications section for additional informa- tion on water play related to the hospitalized child.)
Applications
As the play therapist at the Jaycee pediatric burn center in Raleigh, North Carolina, I utilized play therapy throughout the course of my 10 year
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tenure. Hospitalization can be a frightening and stressful experience causing profound changes in the lifestyle of a child (Petrillo & Sanger, 1980). The child is often thrust into an environment of painful intrusive procedures and unfamiliar sights, smells, sounds and strange people who, at times, may inflict pain in order for the child to get better (Piaget, J., 1972; Lockwood, 1972; Petrillo &Sanger, 1980; Tisza & Angoff, 1961; Whitted & Scott, 1962). Many emotional needs of the hospitalized child are met by providing opportunities for the child to play (Azarnoff & Flegal, 1975; Lockwood, 1972; Tisza & Angoff, 1961). One form of release play therapy has al- ready been mentioned – it is the playing or acting out of the stressful situation. Doctor play is where the child is given the opportunity to re-enact medical events and medical procedures that the child has experienced or is going to experience. Doctor play is a means of releasing feelings of fear, frustration and anger; and it helps the child have a better understanding of the medical events and procedures that are happening. Using a doll or stuffed animal dressed in hospital clothing can help a child understand what is going to happen next. During this type of play, the play therapist can reinforce the idea that a hospital has a purpose. The anxious and frightened child can learn to accept medical instruments such as stethoscope, syringes, and tongue blades when allowed to ex- plore at her own pace (Chan, 1980). Using water play in a pediatric burn unit is critical; especially for those children whose burn injury was a result of water. The treatment for this type of burn injury is “tanking”. This is where the child is submerged in water and is surrounded by nurses and medical technicians who are dressed in masks and gowns. The purpose of this procedure is to debride the dead skin, which means that they pick the dead skin off the part of the body that is burned. This is an extremely painful procedure, which may result in the child being fearful of water. Debridement can be a daily medical procedure often resulting in the child being extremely anxious and fearful
of being placed in the water. One of my roles as a play therapist in the burn unit was to accompany children when they asked me to go with them to the “tanking” procedure. I would bring a variety of toys that we could play with while the pro- cedure was taking place. The toys ranged from plastic boats and animals to making water guns out of syringes. Giving the child an opportunity to squirt the nurses and medical technicians with water during the debridement procedure became a “ritual” in the tank room. It gave the child some control over the situation. Using bubbles during this procedure was also beneficial for the child. I either blew the bubbles and the child would pop them or when able, the child would blow his/ her own bubbles. These strategies provide an ef- fective way to distract children from the pain of intensive procedures such as debridement. Prior to being discharged from the burn center, I would have several “water play” sessions with the child in the playroom. I would often invite the parents to participate for the purpose of guiding them on how to help the child be less fearful of the water. Several parents shared with me during the child’s follow up clinic visits how valuable it was to be shown what they could do with their child to make “bath time” fun again.
FUTURE TRENDS
The play of the 21st century child is very different than the play of previous generations. As stated earlier in the chapter, play is a major part of a child’ s life; and it is the most complete of all the educational processes in terms of influencing the development of emotions, intellect, and physi- cal growth. There is an increase of competitive sports, television viewing, and computer games for children at an early age. (Frost, Wrotham, & Reifel, 2005). This increase of sedentary activi- ties added to the loss of outside play space, the concern of safety for children playing outside, and the elimination of recess for more “academic time”
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has made a huge impact on the social, physical and intellectual development of our young chil- dren today. There is also a widespread belief that play has no purpose, it is irrelevant and has no impact on the educational process of a child’s life (Frost, 2003). Today’s education system is driven by standardized assessments aimed at “account- ability”. No Child Left Behind with its high-stakes testing is affecting our children as soon as they enter school, as young as 2 years of age (Brandon, 2002). Frost, Wrotham and Reifel, (2005) noted that there is a number of professional organizations as well as research studies that conclude that the emphasis on testing is harmful, illogical, damages self-worth and fails to result in
better educated students. (Frost, 2003; Amrein & Berliner, 2002; Popham, 2002; National As- sociation for the Education of Young Children, 1988). Pholksinger Josh (at the time a high school senior) stated it succinctly in his song “Talkin Public Education Brain Washing Machine Blues” – “Come on ya’ll, we are leaving more children behind that ever before.” (Rosenstein, 2007) With all of this in mind, there is no wonder why the field of play therapy is growing.
CONCLUSION
We are diminishing the wonder of childhood and the sense of curiosity that belongs to a child. There is no time for children to just “be” children. Our children today are not the children of times past. In a technology expanding world we must challenge ourselves to promote play in the home and in the schools, not just in a therapy session. We owe it to future generations to continue to provide opportunities for active play as a vehicle for social, emotional, and cognitive growth and development.
“Play is not a luxury but rather a crucial dynamic of healthy physical, intellectual, and social-emo- tional development at all age levels.” David Elkind
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Dockar-Drystale, B. (1968). Therapy in child care. London, UK: Penguin.
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KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS
Approaches to Play Therapy: There are several approaches of play therapy which are based on directive and nondirective therapies. They are psychoanalytic play therapy, release play therapy, relationship play therapy, nondirec- tive play therapy and child-centered play therapy. The approach that the play therapist uses with a child is directly related to the specific training of the therapist.
Play: Play is the most powerful, the purest, and the most effective form of communication
language and self-expression available. It is criti- cal in a child’s physical, social and intellectual development.
Play Therapist: The play therapist is a profes- sional trained from the mental health fields, such as psychology and social work. Play therapists may also practice in the school or hospital settings as school counselors or child life specialists. The play therapist must be knowledgeable on how play or how the lack of play can impact a child’s development.
Play Therapy: The utilization of play with a variety of toys, games and creative art techniques to allow and encourage children’s self-expression associated with their feelings and experiences while establishing a therapeutic relationship with the therapist.
Play Therapy Techniques: Some of the most effective techniques used in play therapy are pup- pet play, sand play, “dress –up” or costume play, water play, block play, telephone play, dramatic play, storytelling and bibliotherapy.
Types of Play: There are many types of play which can be aligned with the child’s development. They are exploratory play, on looking play, solitary play, parallel play, associative play, cooperative play and competitive play.
Settings: Dependent upon the needs of the individual child there are a variety of settings where play therapy can be used- individual and group settings, school settings, hospital settings and residential care settings.
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Chapter 50
INTRODUCTION
In the globalized and knowledge-based economies of the digital age, there is little doubt that the need for sustainable adult education programs in higher learning institutions will become exponentially
important (Duderstadt, 1997-1998; Jarvis, 2000). Today’s adult education programs in higher learn- ing institutions are on trajectories of extraordinary change. The impending questions are not whether transformation will happen or not, but rather, how so; how quickly; and most importantly, how often (Bates, 1997; Daniel, 1996).
Karim A. Remtulla OISE/University of Toronto, Canada
Congruency in Higher Learning: Developing Sustainable Adult Education
Program Policies for the Digital Age
ABSTRACT
The core elements of people, processes, technology, and stakeholders remain similar for most higher learning institutions today. Yet, to culturally promote any one particular ‘form’ of adult education as ‘ideal’ for ‘all’ adult learners is increasingly exclusionary. The objective of this chapter is to enable future educational instructors, administrators, and leaders to respond to the changing needs of adult learners regarding congruence between core elements of higher learning institutions and sustainability of adult education program policies. Emanating from the seminal thinking of Carl R. Rogers, the open- ing sections of this chapter address personal and peripheral congruence. Then, the main section of this chapter puts forward a congruency-based framework for sustainable adult education program policies in higher learning institutions. Developing ‘congruent form(s)’ using core organizational elements will likely result in more socially just and culturally inclusive adult education and higher learning for diverse and global learner cohorts in the digital age.
DOI: 10.4018/978-1-61350-068-2.ch050
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‘Sustainability’ for this chapter refers to adult education programming policies that remain relevant and responsive to a global and diverse cohort of adult learners, whilst also remaining socially just and culturally inclusive. At the same time, to suggest any one particular ‘form’ as ‘ideal’ for adult learning is also increasingly problematic from these very adult education programs. In examining the ‘form’ of an organization in the broadest sense, for example, the argument could be forwarded that all organizations, whether they are engaged in higher learning or not, include similar core elements, like people, processes, technology, and stakeholders (Benjamin & Levinson, 1993). An organization comprises of people. People in turn work alone or together in a group through processes. Groups may be isolated or interact with other groups with the aid of technology. Finally, the organization itself, as an amalgam of individuals, groups, technology, and processes, also interacts with external stakeholders as well as society and the environment. The core elements of people, processes, technology, and stakeholders are com- mon across most organizations.
Although finding the one ‘best practices’ form for higher learning institutions of ‘the future’ commands considerable discussion today, it will likely be in the many, varying pedagogical and policy approaches and instructional technolo- gies that will eventually come to serve society’s educational and vocational demands, that social and cultural needs will be determined and adult learning accomplished (Remtulla, 2007). A uni- versal, meta-narrative approach encompassing all adult education program policies and higher learning institutions will likely not meet the needs of a global and diverse cohort of adult learners (Boone, Safrit, & Jones, 2002; Fenwick, Nesbit, & Spencer, 2006).
A more socially just and culturally inclusive solution (Popkewitz, 1996; Remtulla, 2010; Wil- liams, 2008), then, may be to enable higher learn- ing institutions to address their core elements in a culturally relevant and socially sensitive manner
so as to develop their ‘true form’ instead. Enabling adult education programs in higher learning insti- tutions to develop their ‘true form’ will provide more socio-culturally relevant programming for adult learners, and provide a sustainable, adult educational policy response to socially marginal- izing and culturally exclusionary programming that inadvertently erases learners’ voices, needs, and identities (Walters, 1997).
This chapter lays out the foundational prin- ciples upon which a congruency-based frame- work may be constructed for the development of sustainable adult education programs and policies towards congruency in higher learning institu- tions. An actual congruency-based framework is also constructed. Ideals, guiding principles, and strategic policy imperatives are put forward to en- able adult education program policies and higher learning institutions to: (a) develop core people, process, technology, and stakeholder elements in an institutionally effective and programmatically responsive manner so as to seek out ‘true form’; and, (b) evolve each of the ‘dimensions of true form congruence’, that is personal and peripheral congruence, between present and future, for sus- tainable and congruent adult learning over time. The objective of this chapter is also to impress upon future educational instructors, administra- tors, and leaders the importance to adult learners of personal and peripheral congruence between core elements of higher learning institutions and adult education programming. This ability to acknowledge, address, and transform ‘congruent form(s)’ will likely result in more sustainable and meaningful adult education and higher learning for a global and diverse cohort of adult learners.
The interaction of present and future ideal forms, ‘true form’ uniqueness, core elements, and the ‘dimensions of true form congruence’ are illustrated in Figure 1 in the congruency- based framework proposed by this chapter. The remainder of this chapter elaborates on Figure 1 and the relationships illustrated therein.
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BACKGROUND
Carl R. Rogers and Client- Centered Therapy
Personal Congruence
Carl R. Rogers (1902-1987) attended the clinical psychology program at Columbia University and received his doctorate there in 1931. He conducted his clinical work at the Rochester Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Children. Rogers was offered a full professorship at Ohio State in 1940 and was subsequently invited to set up a counsel- ing center at the University of Chicago around 1945. In 1951 he published his major work on ‘Client-Centered Therapy’ where he outlined his basic theory.
Rogers’ theory is a clinical one, based on de- cades of his experience in dealing with therapy clients. Rogers saw people as basically good and healthy beings. He saw mental health as
the normal progression of life. Mental illness, criminality, and other human problems, were all distortions of that natural state of congruence. To Rogers, individuals possessed the potentials for self-understanding; altering their self-concepts, basic attitudes, and self-directed behavior; and, that facilitative psychological attitude could be provided to assist individuals achieve such self- understanding (Bryant-Jefferies, 2000).
Rogers’ theory was built on a powerful life- force that he called ‘actualizing tendency’, that is, the internal motivation to develop to the fullest extent possible. Rogers believed that all living entities strived to make the very best of their existence; were compelled by their inherent ac- tualizing tendencies to do so; and, that all living organisms knew instinctively what was good for them. This he dubbed ‘organismic valuing’, that is, the necessary senses, tastes, and discrimina- tion provided by evolution for an organism to thrive. Rogers (as cited in Bryant-Jefferies, 2000) imagined it this way:
Figure 1. A congruency-based framework for developing sustainable adult education program policies towards congruency in higher learning institutions for a global and diverse cohort of adult learners in the digital age
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“I hypothesize that there is a formative directional tendency in the universe, which can be traced and observed in stellar space, in crystals, in micro- organisms, in more complex organic life, and in human beings. There is an evolutionary tendency towards greater order, greater complexity, and greater inter-relatedness. In humankind, this tendency exhibits itself as the individual moves from a single-celled origin to complex organic functioning; to knowing and sensing below the level of consciousness; to a conscious aware- ness of the organism and the external world; to a transcendent awareness of harmony and unity of the cosmic system, including mankind.” (para. 4)
Some of the major properties of Rogers’ actu- alizing tendency construct (Bozarth & Brodley, 1991) are summarized below:
1. Individual and universal: unique for each individual, but present as a motivating ten- dency for all organisms.
2. Holistic: functions as a motivational force throughout all systems of the person whilst maintaining its wholeness and organization.
3. Ubiquitous and constant: motivates all ac- tivity of the person, under all circumstances specific to the person.
4. Constructive: assimilates and differentiates activities whist at the same time maintaining wholeness.
5. Directional: drives the wholeness to perpetu- ally change itself towards the realization, fulfillment, and perfection of the inherent ca- pabilities and potentialities of the individual.
6. Tension rising: increases tension levels to expand, grow, and further realize inherent capabilities.
7. Agentive: Moves the individual towards self-regulation and autonomy, and away from being controlled.
8. Responsive to the environment: Remains as constructive as possible despite adverse and unfavorable conditions even though
as a result the organism becomes distorted somehow.
9. Sensitive to the social nature and social behavior: Enhances the capacity for empa- thy, affiliation, and language in construc- tive social behavior in direct proportion to the betterment of the environmental/social conditions of the individual.
Rogers further believed that people instinc- tively valued ‘positive regard’, Rogers’ term for things like love, affection, attention, nurturing, and so on, that people sought from other living things. Similarly, people also valued ‘positive self-regard’, that is, self-esteem, self-worth, and a positive self-image. People achieved this positive self-regard by experiencing the positive regard others show them over time. In the course of actual- izing their potentials, however, people also created social and cultural norms. These norms resulted in mental schema that grounded people’s basic assumptions and paradigms about themselves and their lives. Rather than remaining close to other aspects of human nature, unfortunately, these social and cultural norms became a force in their own right imposing ‘conditions of worth’ on each individual. Soon these conditions dictated what was needed by the individual to be considered ‘worthy’. These conditions may have appealed to the individual’s organismic valuing, but they certainly harmed the actualization tendency, and possibly even resulted in the psychological implo- sion of the individual over time.
Getting positive regard ‘on condition’ Rog- ers called ‘conditional positive regard’. Since individuals did indeed need positive regard, these conditions were socially, culturally, and psycho- logically very powerful. Individuals began to shape themselves, not by their organismic valuing or actualizing tendency, but by powerful social and hegemonic cultural conditioning that may or may not have had their best interests at heart. Eventually, this ‘conditioning’ led individuals to have ‘conditional positive self-regard’. Such
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individuals felt satisfaction only when they met the standards others have set for them, rather than by truly actualizing their potential. Since these standards were all too often transient and con- stantly refashioned without keeping the individual in mind, more often than not, such individuals were unable to meet them, and therefore unable to sustain any constant sense of self-esteem, or self-worth.
Understanding and Identifying Incongruence
That aspect of being that is found from the ac- tualizing tendency, follows organismic valuing, receives positive regard and positive self-regard, Rogers called the ‘real self’. It is the you that, if all goes well, all can find and will become. On the other hand, to the extent that individuals are forced to live with conditions of worth, conditional positive regard, and conditional positive self- regard, the result instead is what Rogers called the ‘ideal self’. By ideal, Rogers was suggesting something not real and not in the present, but some opaque future; a standard perpetually out of the reach of individuals. Rogers determined that the ‘fully-functioning’, healthy person was in complete congruence between their present, real self and their future, ideal self. Rather than striv- ing for redemption towards an unattainable and idealized self, the fully-functioning person lived now; in the moment; and, was fully present…in the present. The gap between the real self and the ideal self, the I am and the I ought to be, Rogers’ called incongruity.
According to Rogers then, the congruent, fully- functioning individual moves towards becoming a self-actualized individual by nurturing and practic- ing the following characteristics (Boeree, 2006):
1. Openness to experience: the accurate per- ception of one’s experiences in the world, including one’s feelings and distinguishing
real feelings from the anxieties brought on by conditions of worth.
2. Existential living: cherishing memories about the past, having dreams goals for the future, but living in the present.
3. Organismic trusting: listening to the actualiz- ing tendency and then trusting the organismic valuing processes to be the intuitive guide in life choices.
4. Experiential freedom: to feel free when choices are available, acknowledging that feeling of freedom, and taking responsibility for personal choices.
5. Creativity: to participate in the world, con- tributing to the actualization of other through creativity in the arts or sciences, through social concern and parental love, or simply by doing one’s best at one’s job.
There is a direct and strong correlation between the perceived degree of gap, or incongruity, and the intensity of suffering experienced by redemptive individuals. When redemptive individuals are in a situation where there is an incongruity between the image of their ideal self and their immediate expe- rience of their real self, they perceive themselves to be in a threatening situation; feel ‘anxiety’; and, cause their ‘defenses’ to takeover. Rogers’ idea of defenses against anxiety involves two primary reactions: ‘denial’ and ‘perceptual distortion’. Denial means blocking-out the threatening situ- ation altogether, whereas perceptual distortion is a matter of reinterpreting the situation so that it appears less threatening.
In fact, incongruity is essentially what Rogers means by ‘neurosis’, that is, individuals being out of synch with their own real self. Unfortunately for redemptive and neurotic individuals, every defensive reaction places only a greater distance between the real self and the ideal self. Such an individual becomes ever more incongruous; finds themselves in more and more threatening situations; develops greater and greater levels of anxiety; and, uses more and more defenses.
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Finally, the individual experiences psychosis. Psychosis occurs when a person’s defenses are so overwhelmed, and their sense of self becomes so shattered into little disconnected pieces, that their behavior has little consistency; becomes fraught with psychotic breaks; and, displays episodes of bizarre behavior. This individual may lose the ability to differentiate self and non-self, and become disorientated and depressive, or worse.
Figure 2 consolidates Rogers’ thoughts on congruence and incongruence (Boeree, 2006; Bozarth & Brodley, 1991).
Interpersonal and Organizational Congruence
Individual congruence and performance can and does impact program policy development and institutional effectiveness. There is a tangible, socio-cultural link between individual-group- organizational congruence, adult education pro- gram policy, and higher learning. Furthermore, as an extension of the idea of ‘actualization through congruence’, the social interaction that individu- als undergo is also a part of their actualization tendency on the job and their resultant perception of adult education program policies and higher
Figure 2. Congruence and incongruence according to Rogers
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learning institutions with respect to their personal congruence.
Current research into the interconnectedness between individual congruence and interpersonal congruence has widely established two under- standings about the relationship between individu- als and organizations (Adkins, Ravlin, & Meglino, 1996; Ostroff, 1993): (a) people are attracted to organizations that are similar to them; and, (b) organizational behavior and personal behavior are interdependent. The link between personal performance and organizational effectiveness cannot be considered outside of the confluences of social interactions within cultural settings. As part of their actualizing tendency at work, indi- viduals will socialize and obtain their workplace enculturation from others in a group setting. Therefore, groups comprising ‘fully-functioning and congruent’ individuals, where the actualizing tendency dominates group behavior, would likely have a greater positive impact on institutional effectiveness than those comprised of a majority of individuals where the actualizing tendency is recessive or hampered from full expression by neurosis, defensive behaviors, or psychosis. ‘Congruence’ between the individual and the organization, based on the respective perceptions of each, is vital for sustainable adult education program policy and congruency in higher learning for institutional effectiveness.
Ostroff (1993) talks about the congruence between a person and their environment as being related to institutional effectiveness. Individuals and organizations will be more effective when the attributes of the person and situational environ- ment are congruent. As Ostroff (1993) postulates:
“Thus the kinds of people attracted to, selected by, and retained in organizations ultimately determine the structures, processes, and general climate of the organization. Organizations are viable when they attract, select, and retain the kinds of people who are able to comprehend what the organiza- tion’s context and goals should be and behave
accordingly to promote the effective operation of the organization. Thus it follows that organizations composed of people who fit the organizational environment will be more effective that those organizations in which persons and environment do not match.” (p. 104)
Ostroff (1993) reveals that when the external environment changes, organizations may have trouble adapting to this change. When consider- ing sustainable adult education and congruency in higher learning, such institutions may not comprise of people willing or able to change with their new environments. Ironically, the implication of this is that higher learning institutions must actively seek out individuals who do not completely ‘fit’ the current organizational context; and, that di- versity, social justice, and cultural inclusion are all necessary for the continuity of adult education program policy and higher learning institutional effectiveness.
Adkins et al. (1996) discuss values and value congruence. For them, value congruence with co- workers will be positively associated with satisfac- tion with social and job-related dimensions of the work environment, such that, these relationships will be stronger for individuals with lower tenure in the organization than for individuals with higher tenure; positively related to supervisory-rated per- formance on interpersonal dimensions, such that, this relationship will be stronger for individuals who must work closely with one another than for those who work independently; and, negatively associated with absenteeism and lateness, such that, these relationships will be stronger for in- dividuals with lower tenure in the organization than for individuals with higher tenure.
Adkins et al. (1996) expound:
“interest in the fit or congruence of employees’ values with those of their organizations… supervi- sors…and jobs…has risen dramatically. Because of the influx of non-traditional workers into the labor pool, and the need to depend on these em-
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ployees to exercise some degree of independent judgment in the interests of the organization, the notion of a core set of values that employees rely on is obviously an attractive one.” (p. 439)
High tenure employees are less likely to be absent when their values are congruent with those of their co-workers. As such, groups play a critical role in a new employee’s socialization on the job. Low tenure employees will increas- ingly rely on high tenure employees to learn about organizational values and their job. Teamwork in the workplace must account for the effects that co-workers have on one another. In this way, value congruence with co-workers positively enhances interpersonal interaction between co-workers, thereby enhancing efficiency and productivity in task execution and manifests itself in the fol- lowing ways:
1. Increased behavior predictability between co-workers.
2. Reinforcing a common system of commu- nication between co-workers.
3. Greater agreement between co-workers about appropriate behavior in work situations.
4. Deeper understanding between co-workers of the interpretation and perception of events in the workplace environment.
5. More satisfaction between co-workers on the completion of tasks thereby also enhancing task performance.
6. Reduced need for negative reinforcement between co-workers in the process of task completion.
7. Reduced tension and ambiguity between co-workers about working together for task completion.
Depending of the level of job interdependence though, value congruence may have positive or negative results. High job interdependence results in higher performance ratings for co-workers when their values are congruent.
Harris and Mossholder (1996) consider congruency and cultural norms. They suggest that in a stable cultural context, current research supports the notions that: (a) congruence with organizational culture is positively related to the individual’s job satisfaction, involvement, com- mitment, optimism, cohesion, intent to remain on the job, and actual turnover; and, (b) per- ceived discrepancies by the individual between the individual’s social and work values and the company’s rules regarding those identical social and work values are negatively related to work satisfaction and the individual’s perceptions of the company’s quality and likelihood of survival. This research considers the applicability of the individual-culture congruence for organizations in a state of cultural transformation.
Harris and Mossholder (1996) elucidate:
“Increasingly, organizations are undertaking cul- tural transformation efforts. Given that individuals self-select into organizations based, in part, on their perceptions of the organization’s culture, concerns regarding culture congruence are likely to be particularly salient during periods when that congruence is threatened by efforts to transform the culture. We would expect those concerns to be reflected in individual’s affective outcomes. However, to date, no individual-culture congru- ence studies have been conducted in the context of a major cultural transformation effort”. (p. 529)
Cultural congruence effects are manifested during periods of cultural transformation. Orga- nizational members are sensitive to the current state of culture, even as it is in the process of changing. Perceived improvements in culture congruency encourage more positive reactions, whereas increases in ideal-current discrepancy trend towards increased negative reactions. Harris and Mossholder (1996) also underscore the appro- priateness of conceptualizing individual-culture congruence in terms of dimensions and attributes. Assessing individual-culture congruencies (across
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a range of cultural dimensions during transforma- tion) results in clear diagnostic advantages over global cultural assessments of congruence during times of stability.
Peripheral Congruence
Congruency also exists between higher learning institutions as well as society and the environ- ment. This section discusses ‘congruence’ from the perspective of the organization regarding the need for organizations to reconcile their percep- tions about present realities and future ideals with not only their people, through personal and interpersonal congruence, but also their processes, technology, and stakeholders. The sustainability of adult education programs, to accomplish relevant adult learning in the digital age, rests on the abili- ties of policies to link and negotiate institutional spaces for adult education with societal and environmental needs of adult learning.
The notion of ‘periphery’ in this chapter stems from the premise that it is the organization’s processes, technology, and stakeholders that interconnect to comprise the ‘interface’ between the organization as well as society and the envi- ronment. As such, congruence in this section is analyzed in terms of congruence of the value chain ‘interface’ that these organizational elements form at the ‘periphery’, to enhance the organization’s value proposition to society, the environment, and adult learners. The key message here is that ‘congruence’ between the processes, technology, and stakeholders elements that comprise the value chain ‘interface’ at the periphery, between the organization and society and the environment, is a vital critical success factor for sustainable adult learning and congruency in higher learning.
Societal Values, Adult Learning Needs, and Congruence
No discussion on the issue of an organization’s ‘true form’ uniqueness or sustaining adult learn-
ing is complete without factoring in the impact of the ‘value chain’. According to Craig (2000), a “value chain is the set of materials, informa- tion, processes, and procedures used to manage a product’s lifecycle. This includes the design, development, implementation, distribution, and delivery of goods and services to the consumer” (p. 26). What Craig (2000) specifies about the organizational value chain can be equally true about adult education program policies in higher learning institutions--what Porter calls ‘value system’. As Porter notes: “Adult learning is in- creasingly a function of how well a company can manage the entire system (as cited in Benjamin & Wigand, 1995, p. 63).”
Two trends are apparent in higher education institutions today regarding processes, technology, stakeholders, and value chain management: (a) rapid technologizing of processes by all partners on a value chain; and, (b) rapid outsourcing of non-core processes to stakeholders enabled by advanced technologies. The end result is a gradual blurring of the line between process, technology, and stakeholders. In the past, the argument could be made that processes and technology were still differentiable, separable, and distinct in their function within the organization. Processes were closely linked with ‘work done’ whereas technol- ogy was more concerned with ‘flow of work.’ Nowadays processes and technology are inter- connected where the need for speed, efficiency, flexibility, and closeness, all make it increasingly difficult and less important to differentiate them. In Porter’s (as cited in Pastore, 1995, October) view, organizations with sustainable adult learning integrate their activities so that people, processes, and technologies are consistent, interconnected, and mutually reinforcing.
The forging and managing of ‘congruence’ throughout the organization’s core elements is multidirectional. Any transformation towards a ‘true form’ organization that impacts an organi- zation’s people element must necessarily impact processes, technology, and stakeholders in order
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to maintain that organization’s ‘true form congru- ence’ and ‘true form’ effectiveness. Benjamin and Levinson (1993) best express this sentiment of ‘organizational equilibrium’ when they write:
“Change moves an organization from an old state of relative equilibrium to a new one. Thus, from the very beginning, change managers need to understand how all the organizational elements must change and what actions and resources will bring them back into equilibrium….The change effort must focus on what must change, specifically in the areas of technology, business process, and organization.” (p. 27)
What must also be true, then, are that all shocks which impact processes, technology and/or stakeholders via societal values and environmental needs must necessarily impact an organization’s people element. A congruency-based framework now becomes necessary in the digital age to ne- gotiate the dynamics of such situations for adult education program policies in higher learning institutions.
A Congruency-Based Framework
Objectives of the Framework
This section integrates and crystallizes the founda- tional principles upon which a congruency-based framework may be constructed. The Congruency- based Framework proposed in this chapter allows an organization to view this ‘gradual blurring’ instead as a ‘gradual merging’ of three of the four, core organizational elements: processes; technology; and, stakeholders. Preserving ‘con- gruence’ in the merging of these three elements at the periphery to achieve an organization’s ‘true form’, that is ‘periphery congruence’ must therefore also add value to society and environ- mental needs. Adding value to society’s needs of adults is how the ‘true form’ of the organization sustains adult learning through adult education
program policies and higher learning institutions. An actual congruency-based framework itself is also constructed, comprising of its own ideals, guiding principles, and strategic policy impera- tives to enable adult education program policies in higher learning institutions to:
1. Address core people, process, technology, and stakeholders elements in a socially just and culturally inclusive manner so as to develop their own, ‘true form’.
2. Manage each of the ‘dimensions of true for congruence’, that is personal and peripheral congruence, to preserve the organization’s ‘true form’ uniqueness for sustained adult learning over time based on society needs and values.
Constructing a Framework
Foundational Principles A Congruency-based Framework may be con- structed from the following foundational prin- ciples:
1. The framework must present ideals that will point the higher learning institutions into the future given society’s expectations of higher learning. These ideals must: ◦ Represent society’s anticipated needs
and requirements of higher learning; ▪ Characterize the essence of
the effective and ‘ideal’ higher learning enterprise given so- ciety’s expectations of higher learning; and,
▪ Evolve as necessary to repre- sent society’s anticipated needs and requirements as they evolve over time.
2. The framework must present guiding prin- ciples that will lead the higher learning in- stitutions into the future given the future of
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the higher learning industry. These guiding principles must: ◦ Represent the higher learning in-
dustry’s future, anticipated ‘best practices’;
◦ Characterize future needs of society for the higher learning industry in terms of adult learning, value chain, core competencies, and critical suc- cess factors; and,
◦ Evolve as necessary to represent the higher learning industry’s ‘best prac- tices’ as they evolve over time.
3. The framework must present strategic policy imperatives that will focus the higher learn- ing institutions into the future given their future ‘true form’. These strategic policy imperatives must: ◦ Direct the higher learning institutions
on how to transform their core peo- ple element in a unique and effective manner towards their ‘true form’, as well as manage personal congruence between present realities and future ideals for sustained adult learning, by: ▪ Enabling the people element to
express and develop their actu- alizing tendency;
▪ Reinforcing actualizing be- havior and positive self-regard in the people element through frequent and sincere positive regard;
▪ Not imposing non-actualizing conditions of worth on the peo- ple element;
▪ Attracting and retaining ‘fully- functional, congruent’ people element within the organization;
▪ Ensuring personal congruence between organizational envi- ronment, values, culture, and the people element are actively
promoted by organizational in- volvement and optimal social interaction at the workplace;
▪ Maintaining concurrent per- sonal and periphery congru- ence through actively pursuing organizational transformation initiatives;
▪ Allowing for personal or periph- ery incongruence where advan- tageous for organizational ef- fectiveness but not hindering the actualizing tendency; and,
◦ Direct the higher learning institu- tions on how to transform their core process, technology, and stakeholder elements, that is their value chain ‘interface’, in a unique and effective manner towards their ‘true form’, as well as manage peripheral congru- ence between present realities and fu- ture for sustained adult learning, by: ▪ Reflecting the current industry
value chain and any future value chain reconfigurations into the ‘interface’ configuration, for op- timal value chain management;
▪ Affirming that all ‘interface’ re- configurations must add value to the entire value chain, as well as to the organization’s value proposition to society and the environment;
▪ Maintaining concurrent per- sonal and periphery congru- ence through actively pursuing organizational transformation initiatives;
▪ Allowing for personal or pe- riphery incongruence where advantageous for organizational effectiveness, but not hindering the actualizing tendency; and,
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◦ Evolve as necessary to represent the organization’s ‘true form’ as it evolves over time; and,
◦ Require that ‘congruence’ permeate throughout the entire organization throughout all its existence and in all activity.
Figure 3 illustrates a ‘true form’ organization for adult education and higher learning. This figure conceptualizes personal congruence and the core people element as central to sustainable adult education program policies. ‘Congruency’ in higher learning in the globalized, knowledge- based, digital age is conceptualized as relying on peripheral congruence through socially just and culturally inclusive policies. For socially just policy, peripheral congruence with the core elements of processes, technology, and stakehold- ers is necessary. For culturally inclusive policy, peripheral congruence with societal values and environmental needs is mandated.
Strategic Policy Imperatives
The visioning prevalent for the higher learning institutions, according to this proposed Congru- ency-based Framework, then is the starting place for successful and sustainable adult education program change and congruency in higher learn- ing. The continuous improvement and vitality of any center of knowledge must therefore be driven by a common, accessible, and appropriate vision.
Next, Figure 4 as well as the tables that fol- low Figure 4, come together to illustrate this dynamic visioning process that is required for sustainable adult education programming policies and congruency in higher learning. To maintain personal congruency, visioning (Table 1) must promote policies that advocate socially just student-centering (Table 2). To maintain peripheral congruency, visioning must promote policies that advocate culturally inclusive adaptability (Table 3), technology (Table 4), and seamless learning (Table 5). Figure 4, shaped in the universal symbol of the atom or crystalline form, takes its inspiration from the above quotation of Rogers’ hypothesis
Figure 3. A true form organization in higher learning, based around sustainable adult education program policies in dynamic and perpetual state of congruence between core elements, society, and the environment
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(as cited in Bryant-Jefferies, 2000) of a transcen- dent interconnectedness from the molecular, that comprises cellular matter, through to the tangible institutions where people come together to grow, learn, and actualize their hopes and dreams.
Recapping Congruence and Sustainability
Developing ‘sustainable’ adult education program policies is a necessary imperative to achieve congruency in higher learning institutions in the digital age. All this becomes especially meaning- ful when considering the complexity of the ideal self, and its burgeoning gap to the real self, that may emerge as the consequence of the globalized, knowledge-based economic demands facing adult learners in the digital age. The adult education pro- gram policies and higher learning institutions that best develop personal and peripheral congruence between their core elements into a ‘true form’ will gain and sustain a more socially just and culturally inclusive adult learning over time. Although each ‘dimension of true form congruence’ as described in this chapter may be addressed independently,
what grants the congruency-based framework its inclusiveness is that each dimension must also be congruent with all others by definition; the dimensions build on each other and strive to fit together. The visioning exercise as well as congru- ence assessments points in this congruency-based framework (see Figure 1) allow for such crucial integrating to take place.
‘Congruency’ permeates the entire organiza- tion and the preservation of that congruency, based on this congruency-based framework is critical for long-term and sustainable adult education programming and adult learning. The human element directly impacts the ‘dimensions of true form congruence’ proposed by this framework, emphasizing the importance of adult learners to this entire effort. Each of the tables above is built around one of the Ideals together with its respective Guiding Principle and Strategic Policy Imperatives as they were discussed earlier, that is: Visioning; Student-centering; Adaptability; Technology; and, Seamless Learning. The institution is required to:
1. Fill in appropriate ideas and creative stra- tegic imperatives for each of it’s four, core
Figure 4. Ideals, foundational principles, strategic policy imperatives of a visioning exercise from this congruency-based framework towards ‘true form’ congruency
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Table 1. Strategic policy imperatives for congruency in vision
Congruence in vision
Guiding principle:
To construct a concrete, living description of the future of the institution
Strategic policy imperatives:
Challenging all members of the institution to embrace the vision and embark collectively on a great adventure of creativity and inspiration
Describing the goals and purpose of the institution with respect to research, learning, teaching and investment
Targeting the extent of operations on a local, regional, national, or international basis, and the accompanying implications
Table 2. Strategic policy imperatives for congruency in student centering
Congruence in student-centering
Guiding principle:
To enable and emanate a learner-centered culture throughout every aspect and facet of the institution
Strategic policy imperatives:
Encouraging and retaining the best and brightest faculty and students
Becoming affordable, within the resources of all citizens
Building a culture and environment with an appreciation for lifelong learning for everyone, every place, all the time
Removing restrictive admission policies as well as arbitrary prereq- uisites, residency or attendance requirements, and barriers to credit transfer from other learning institutions
Ubiquitous access to computer technology for students, on and off-campus
Table 3. Strategic policy imperatives for congruency in adaptability
Congruence in adaptability
Guiding principle:
To transform the institution to meet evolving societal and environ- mental needs
Strategic policy imperatives:
Questioning existing premises and arrangements
Removing the constraints, financial or otherwise, which prevent institutions from responding to needs of rapidly changing societies
Removing unnecessary processes and administrative structures
Developing structures that encourage teaching units to be flexible, innovative and able to respond quickly to changes in subject matter, student needs and technology, while at the same time avoiding duplica- tion, redundancy and conflicting standards and policies
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elements, by ideal and guiding principle, to enable the organization to transform its core elements into its ‘true form’; and,
2. Fill in their assessments of each of the ‘di- mensions of true form congruence’, based on the organization’s ‘true form’ on how to maintain its ‘true form’ uniqueness over time.
FUTURE TRENDS
Adapting Uses of the Framework over Time
No one ‘true form’ can continue so indefinitely if adult education programming is to remain rel- evant and sustainable. The notion of ‘true form’, as developed in this chapter, is not intended to be absolute nor pan-ultimate. The process and goals are intended to evolve over time. A constantly
Table 4. Strategic policy imperatives for congruence in technology
Congruence in technology
Guiding principle:
To enable asynchronous, interactive and collaborative learning break- ing the constraints of time and space.
Strategic policy imperatives:
Ensuring that all faculty are encouraged and supported in their use of technology for research and teaching
Defining the balance between face-to-face and technology-based teaching
Replacing conventional teaching methods by building technology into mainstream teaching
Researching learners’ response to using technology and in particular what learners and teachers believe may be lost or gained in using such approaches to learning
Setting training, infrastructure and systems support priorities for both the level of investment and the areas of investment Exploring the potential of new technologies
Table 5. Strategic policy imperatives for congruency in seamless learning
Congruence in seamless learning
Guiding principle:
To become an unobstructed network in which all levels, people and centers in the institution not only become interconnected, but interrelated
Strategic policy imperatives:
Establishing sufficient diversity of faculty, staff, students, partners and curricula to serve an increasingly diverse population with diverse needs and goals
Enabling collaborative and integrative learning between faculty, students, other learning institutions and the private sector
Developing strategic alliances and consortia between learning insti- tutions, and between learning institutions and the public, voluntary, civic, and social sector
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changing adult learner, that frequently interfaces with technology, signifies evolving learner needs, and who is accustomed to migratory lifestyles from globalization (Barber, 2008), will make it necessary for adult education programs in higher learning institutions to revisit their ‘true form’ periodically. Therefore, a ‘true form’ is the result of: that higher learning institution that undergoes periodic transformation in form to answer to changing adult education program policy, whilst remaining socially and culturally faithful to their adult learners. ‘True form’ adult education and higher learning, therefore, will be required to meet adult learner needs by actively: (a) developing their ‘true form’ through the just and inclusive deployment of core elements during periodic transformation initiatives; and, (b) sustaining their ‘true form’ by seeking out ‘true form congruence’ between their core elements over time.
The next step is to develop a tool that integrates Ideals, Guiding Principles, and Strategic Impera- tives with ‘True Form Congruence’. Recall once again, that the higher learning institution that best develops personal and peripheral congruence be- tween its core elements into its ‘true form’, both in the present and future, will be the institution that will gain and sustain adult learning over time. As such, the objectives of this congruency-based framework are to enable the higher learning in- stitution to:
1. Address its core people, process, technology and stakeholder elements in a unique and effective manner so as to develop its own, ‘true form’.
2. Manage each of the ‘dimensions of true for congruence’, that is personal, perceptional and peripheral congruence, between pres- ent and future ideal forms to preserve the organization’s ‘true form’ uniqueness for sustained adult learning over time.
The visioning exercise and tables above are examples of tools to assist higher learning insti-
tutions achieve their ‘true form’ and maintain their ‘true form’ uniqueness through ‘true form congruence’. They are based on the foundational principles discussed earlier. Over time, each of the ideals, guiding principles, and strategic policy imperatives are all expected and encouraged to change. The initial ideals, guiding principles and strategic imperatives which are provided are intended as a start only, and as examples, and are not intended to be universally applicable across all insitutions.
CONCLUSION
This chapter presents the theory of ‘congruence’ from the perspective of individuals as part of organizations, and addresses individual needs to reconcile internal reality about the present with externally imposed ideals about the future to be- come a ‘fully-functional and congruent’ person. The writings of noted psychotherapist Carl R. Rogers and his views on achieving optimal self- actualization are central to this chapter. Each facet of the congruence between individual/group and an organizational perception is necessary for op- timal learning outcomes from optimal individual/ group interactions: person-environment congru- ence, value congruence amongst co-workers, and individual-cultural congruence during times of social and cultural transformation. The key message in this chapter is that people are self- actualizing beings and, as such, they act to become fully-functional and congruent by nature.
This chapter also discusses ‘congruence’ from the perspective of the higher learning institution regarding the need for organizations to reconcile their perceptions about present realities and future ideals with not only their people, through personal congruence, but also through processes, technol- ogy, and stakeholders. The notion of ‘periphery’ stems from the premise that organizational pro- cesses, technology, and stakeholders interconnect to comprise the ‘interface’ between the organiza-
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tion and society and the environment. As such, congruence in this chapter is analyzed in terms of congruence of the value chain ‘interface’ that the organizational elements form at the ‘periphery’ with society. Another key message in this chapter is that ‘congruence’ between the processes, technol- ogy, and stakeholder elements that comprise the value chain ‘interface’ at the periphery, between the organization and society, are another critical element of socially just and culturally inclusive adult learning from sustainable adult education programming policies towards congruency in higher learning.
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Benjamin, R., & Wigand, R. (1995). Electronic markets and virtual value chains on the informa- tion superhighway. Sloan Management Review, 36(2), 62–72.
Benjamin, R. I., & Levinson, E. (1993). A frame- work for managing IT-enabled change. Sloan Management Review, 34(4), 23–33.
Boeree, D. C. G. (2006). Personality theories: Carl Rogers 1902-1987. Retrieved from http:// webspace.ship.edu/cgboer/rogers.html
Boone, E. J., Safrit, R. D., & Jones, J. (2002). Developing programs in adult education: A con- ceptual programming model (2 ed.). Prospect Heights, IL: Waveland Press.
Bozarth, J. D., & Brodley, B. T. (1991). Actu- alisation: A functional concept in client-centered therapy. Retrieved from http:// www.allanturner. co.uk/ papers/ actualization.html
Bryant-Jefferies, R. (2000). Carl Rogers’ client-centered therapy: A spiritual perspective. Retrieved from http:// www.bryant-jefferies. freeserve.co.uk/ ccspirit.htm
Craig, R. (2000). Value chain management. Ent, 5(1), 26, 28.
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Fenwick, T., Nesbit, T., & Spencer, B. (Eds.). (2006). Contexts of adult education: Canadian perspectives. Toronto, CAD: Thompson Educa- tional Publishing.
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Pastore, R. (1995, October). Competing interests: An interview with Michael E. Porter. CIO, 9(1), 63–66.
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KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS
The Competing Values Model: There are four distinct dimensions of organizational culture – group, hierarchical, developmental and rational. Each dimension may be described and understood
based on six cultural attributes that indicate orga- nizational culture: management style, leadership, climate, unity, definition of success, and general dominant characteristics uniquely attributable to the organization.
Developmental Dimension: An orientation permeated by assumptions of change, creativity, innovation, growth, and risk-taking.
Group Dimension: Values reflecting concern for and affiliation with people, teamwork, morale and participatory decision-making.
Hierarchical Dimension: Values reflecting respect for and affiliation with stability, central- ization, compliance and bureaucracy.
Organizational Culture: Shared, socially maintained patterns of beliefs and values used to interpret organizational experiences.
Person-Environment Congruence: The degree to which the members of an organization exhibit the same overall characteristics of their organization.
Personal Factors: Sets of preferences, val- ues, and beliefs about oneself in relation to the environment.
Rational Dimension: An orientation based on assumptions of competitiveness, performance, decisiveness, and goal achievement.
Similarity-Attraction Paradigm: Individu- als are more attracted to, and have more positive attitudes about, similar others.
Values: A core set of beliefs about how a person ought to behave and what should be done in certain situations and are related to peoples’ perceptions, views, and attitudes.
Value Congruence: Based on common achievement, fairness, honesty, and helping and concern for others.
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Copyright © 2012, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
Chapter 51
Pamela M. Golubski Carnegie Mellon University, USA
Virtual Compared to Traditional Academic Advising
Satisfaction Rates of First- Year College Students:
A Pair Study
ABSTRACT
This study compared virtual/online to traditional/in person academic advising in terms of student sat- isfaction ratings. Students were exposed to two advising methods at different times during their first year in college. Upon experiencing an advising method, students completed an online survey that rated their satisfaction in the areas of scheduling/registration, communication, support services/majors, and overall satisfaction. The findings offered some insight into how effective virtual academic advising might be as an alternative to traditional, face-to-face methods. The results of this study indicated that students were slightly more satisfied with traditional advising across 16 questions encompassing four categories. When the survey responses were aggregated and mean responses compared in each category, t-tests results found that scheduling/registration, communication, and overall satisfaction resulted in significant differences between the mean satisfaction ratings between academic advising methods, with traditional being preferred. While the support services and majors category, resulted in no differences existing between virtual and traditional advising methods.
DOI: 10.4018/978-1-61350-068-2.ch051
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Virtual Compared to Traditional Academic Advising Satisfaction Rates of First-Year College Students
INTRODUCTION
Today many of us are consumed by a virtual world, from posting our baby’s first steps on YouTube for the extended family to share in the milestone joys to a college student being able to take a Mathematic placement test online in the summer from the comforts of his home some 1,200 miles from the campus he will attend in September. Technology powers our SmartPhones, iPads, and the naviga- tion system that directs our vehicle however, is technology always the most effective option? To investigate the question as it relates to Web 2.0 and virtual technologies, a study was conducted to evaluate and compare virtual/online to tradi- tional/in person academic advising in terms of undergraduate student satisfaction. The problem of interest was to determine how first-year students answered survey questions and statements rating different aspects of their academic advising experi- ence upon being advised by the method (virtual/ online or traditional/ in person) exclusively for a three month period. Virtual advising occurred from May to August, while traditional advising took place from September to December. After each advising method was completed, an online survey was administered to the student.
BACKGROUND
Research Questions
The research questions addressed in this study were:
1. Were there any significant difference as- sociated with first-year student satisfaction ratings on virtual compared to traditional methods of academic advising?
2. How did first-year students rate the effec- tiveness of virtual compared to traditional academic advising in the categories of sched-
uling/registration, communication, support services/majors, and overall satisfaction?
3. Did students prefer virtual or traditional academic advising?
4. What did students like and dislike about each advising method?
Since students experienced both methods of advising independently for three month and each participant provided a unique college user id on their completed survey, the responses could be paired for statistical analysis. This pairing allowed the researcher to determine if there were any significant differences associated with students’ overall satisfaction ratings between the two types of advising methods across categories.
Purpose of Study
The learning outcomes associated with this research study were to determine if there were statistically significant differences in satisfaction rating of freshmen students, in association with two types of academic advising methods used in an institution of higher education. Much of the past research has been exclusive to face-to-face academic advising methods. Therefore, there is limited research available about whether technol- ogy can be used to fully replace and/or enhance traditional methods. With more students going to college each year and an advisor’s caseload of advisees constantly increasing, the need to alleviate and better serve students in the advis- ing capacity is a top concern amongst education administrators. This research served as a starting point to determine if one type of advising expe- rienced better satisfaction ratings while being used to advise first-year college students, who are often the most difficult population to retain from a retention standpoint.
In addition to more students enrolling in col- lege each year, there has been an increase in the students who are fulfilling degree requirements
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strictly through distance learning, thus never step- ping foot on their degree granting campus. These distance learners need academic advising, much like the students that are fulfilling educational requirements through brick and mortar classrooms.
Significance of Results
Therefore, in an effort to successfully serve millennial students and distance learners alike, there is an increasing need to shift the paradigm from traditional/in person academic advising to one that infuses technology and virtual interac- tions. The term “millennial” defines individuals who were born during the years of 1982 to 2000 (Howe & Strauss, 2004). This generation is the first to grow up in a world immersed by modern technology conveniences and active participants in the digital revolution (Howe & Strauss, 2007). A solution to serving this population of students might be to utilize and incorporate technology to enhance and/or replace traditional, face-to-face methods of the college advisement process. With advisor student caseloads getting larger, while the college budget continues to shrink, there is little hope for hiring additional staff members to rectify this issue. The best advice may be to incorporate virtual and digital tools into advising students. It is unknown whether virtual advising will ever fully replace in person academic advising, nonetheless if student satisfaction ratings remain consistent across methods of advising, a solution might be to strategically implement virtual advising as a stand alone service or supplemental service in higher education.
OVERVIEW OF TECHNOLOGY USAGE IN COUNSELING AND ADVISING
After large mainframe computers were replaced with personal computers, the cost to use technol- ogy was greatly reduced, and the idea of utilizing
virtual tools for the enhancement of counseling and advising emerged on college campuses (Granello, 2000). The first virtual counselor, ELIZA, came to fruition in 1966 (www-ai.ijs.si/eliza/eliza.html). It still functions today, though it is basic in compari- son to the extensive technology-based counseling systems that institutions now employ (Kostin, 2003). The use of virtual counseling continued to grow into the 1980’s, as computer systems were developed that could assist counselors in the area of cognitive psychology. For example, two that changed the realm of cognitive therapy include MORTON and PlatoDCS. MORTON was utilized in the treatment of mental illnesses such as depression and PlatoDCS was utilized to assist clients with solving dilemmas and decision- making (Selmi, Klein, Griest, & Harris, 1982; Wagman & Keber, 1984).
The Web 2.0 explosion continued to enhance and change the way counseling and advising was conducted. One might predict that technology will continue to impact traditional ways in which higher education institutions teach, counsel, sup- port, and advise students (Garcia & Ruiz, 2005). It is also important to note that even if a student prefers to meet individually, face-to-face with an advisor, technology can be used to enhance the experience (Granello, 2000). From a follow-up reminder of an upcoming meeting being placed on the student’s Facebook wall to a student sharing his/her proposed four-year academic plan through a shared GoogleDoc.
When counseling and advising is infused by utilizing technology it is referred to as virtual, distance, web-based, cyber, or online advising/ counseling (NBCC, 2007). The best description is simply the delivery of information, instruction, and/or advice that occurs when a student/client and advisor/counselor are in remote locations. This virtual communication can be asynchronous, occurring at different times (e.g., email, Facebook, blogs, or threaded discussions), or synchronous, occurring simultaneously (e.g., Skype, chatrooms, IM, or HD video conferencing).
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The millennial generation has changed the genre of student services on college campuses in three relevant ways. First, millennial students contact and make more visits to support services, such as academic advising, tutoring, mental health counseling, and the career center (Howe & Strauss, 2004, 2007). This can lead to understaffed college offices and over-worked staff members. Second, this generation is technologically savvy, relying and expecting to use technology in their everyday lives. According to Howe and Strauss (2007), millennials have never experienced a television that didn’t have a remote control, an automobile without a compact disc player, or a store that did not have a scanner at the checkout. Millennials enter college with the premise that secondary education will also encompass technology that will make their lives more convenient, while expecting that their advisors will also know how to use and employ virtual options in interacting and communication with them.
Finally, millennials possess a consumer-like mentality and expect immediate responses and information regarding their concerns 24 hours a day (Howe & Strauss, 2004, 2007). This can put the traditional academic advisor in a predicament. In the past, it was adequate for a student to par- ticipate in traditional academic advising where an advisor and student met one-on-one, in person at a scheduled time to discuss course registration, academic, personal, professional, or career issues. Most advising offices were open during the hours of 8:30 a.m. to 5 p.m. However, these hours are no longer feasible hours because millennials are enrolling in more courses per semester than past generations and are often overly engaged in activities (sports, greek life, service-learning, professional, religious, social and personal in- terest organizations) that comprise the college- experience. Students are now requesting that an academic advisor be available during untraditional hours, such as in the evenings and weekends. This demand has led to the implementation and accep- tance of utilizing Web 2.0 and virtual technolo-
gies to assist in the advising process on college campuses. Most institutions of higher education consider retention of students as a forefront and crucial goal. The need to offer competitive and supportive services is of the utmost importance and it becomes necessary for administration to look for new approaches to ensure all students have adequate access to services.
Methodology
Research Sample
The sample used for this study was an intact group of first-year students enrolled at a top 10 (ranked by U.S. News and World report) school of engineering located within a top 25 (ranked by U.S. News and World report) research insti- tution of higher education in the United States. The academic advising survey was e-mailed to the entire class, which consisted of 390 students, 102 females and 288 males. The return rate was approximately 54%. The total usable data collected for each advising method and rates of return is outlined in Table 1.
All first-year students used in this study were traditional aged students, which in this study was defined as a student that was 18 to 19 years old and entered college immediately after graduating from high school. A total of 137 males and 67 females returned both surveys. All participants in the study were enrolled in college full-time, which required taking a minimum of 36 units to a maximum of 49 units. This equates to approxi- mately four to six courses a semester. Addition- ally, all students in this study were members of the millennial generation.
The students were advised by the same staff advisor and one peer advisor for the virtual method and by two staff advisors for the traditional method. In addition, all students were undeclared, until they officially declared their engineering major(s) in late March (second semester of the first academic year). This undeclared approach encouraged a
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Virtual Compared to Traditional Academic Advising Satisfaction Rates of First-Year College Students
student to explore all seven of the engineering majors, before making a decision. During the first year, a student enrolled in foundation courses consisting of calculus, general education, science, and computer science.
Description of Academic Advising Methods
The advising model used at this institution was that all first-year students were advised by full-time staff advisors. Faculty did not advise freshmen. All advising was performed by staff members who worked in the engineering Dean’s office. The two methods of advising are discussed below.
Virtual Advising Method
For this research study, advising was designed that during the summer (May to August) students were advised strictly by one advisor and one peer advisor using a virtual only format. Students were located all over the world, and it was not possible to establish face-to-face interactions between advisor and advisee during this time. Everything used to educate, acclimate, prepare, advise, and register students for the fall semester was done through the use of Web 2.0 and virtual technolo- gies. The forms of technology that were used dur- ing the virtual advising method included, a 75+ page first-year website on the Internet, Instant Message (IM) individual sessions, closed group chat sessions, an advisor blog, Facebook group account, weekly E-lerts/E-Blasts, podcasting/MP3 Audio through iTunesU, Google document shar-
ing, e-mail, telephone, and an online registration (OLR) and student information systems (SIO). In addition, all Calculus, English, Computer Science, and Modern Language placement tests were completed virtually (online placement tests), through the use of Blackboard.
Traditional Advising Method
During the fall semester (September to December) all academic advising was done through in person interactions and communication. Two full-time staff advisors performed all advising during this time, one advisor supported 298 students and the other 92 students. This method utilized scheduled individual meeting, advising workshops, walk-in advising hours, small group advising sessions, major and minor exploration dinners, and various first-year events and programs with upper-class students, alumni, faculty and staff members. All students were minimally required to attend a group advising session and schedule an individual meet- ing with their advisor. If a student failed to meet the minimum requirements his/her registration account had a hold placed on it until the require- ments were fulfilled.
Instrumentation
A survey was used to assist in answering the research questions. The independent variable of interest was the method of academic advising, which contained two levels, (1) virtual/online and (2) traditional/in person. The survey was designed by the researcher (with assistance from her PhD
Table 1. Sample size and return rates for advising surveys
Survey Description of Method Sent No.
Return No.
Rate of Return %
I Virtual/Online Advising 390 211 54
II Traditional/In-Person Advising 211 204 97
Paired Paired Virtual and Traditional n/a 204 n/a
Note: Only the 211 participants that completed the initial survey (I) were invited to complete survey II, so that surveys results could be paired.
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Virtual Compared to Traditional Academic Advising Satisfaction Rates of First-Year College Students
advisor), was approved by the University’s In- stitutional Review Board (IRB), and field tested with a group of 20 sophomore students prior to administration of the final version to the study population.
The two self-constructed surveys that as- sessed student’s satisfaction levels with virtual and traditional academic advising contained six demographic questions, eighteen quantitative questions, and three open-ended qualitative ques- tions. A likert scale was used to allow students to rate responses, where strongly agree = 5.0, agree = 4.0, neutral = 3.0, disagree = 2.0, and strongly disagree = 1.0. Questions and statements were written to address the following four areas: (1) scheduling/registration, (2) communication, (3) support services/majors, and (4) overall satisfac- tion. In addition, the open-ended questions were used to gather further information about students’ opinions and suggestions regarding the advising methods. The surveys categories and the number of items in each section can be viewed in Table 2.
The first survey appraised virtual advising and the second survey traditional advising. The first advising satisfaction survey was administered in early September. At this time students were fa- miliar with virtual advising as having gone through the process during the summer. The second survey determined overall satisfaction with traditional academic advising and was administered in late December. It was estimated that the survey took
students approximately 10 minutes to complete. The information was designed, distributed, ad- ministered, and collected through an online format using the software WebSurveyor and Vovici Con- tinuum EFM. The data was then exported and analyzed in SPSS 15.0.
Findings
Quantitative Results
The study investigated whether one method of advising, virtual or traditional, was more satisfac- tory to students in relation to the key areas of (1) scheduling/registration, (2) communication, (3) support services/majors, and (4) overall satisfac- tion. Table 3 highlights descriptive statistics of means and standard deviations for both advising methods across each individual question and cat- egory. The data demonstrate that there were small differences discovered between means in all four categories, whereas students determined that the traditional method was slightly more satisfactory than the virtual method.
In the communication category (Table 3), the question assessing how students preferred to ask questions, a mean of M = 3.81 described the comfort level associated with students asking questions in person as opposed to asking ques- tions virtually, M=2.85. This was an interesting finding since millennials are believed to have grown up in a digital world (Howe & Strauss, 2007), and it might have been assumed that these students prefer virtual communication. However, in relation to the topic of academic advising stu- dents in this study preferred in person methods of asking questions compared to virtual methods. This individual question experienced the greatest difference between the means at.96.
Additionally, in the overall satisfaction cat- egory (Table 3), there were two questions in which greater mean differences were realized. These included: my advisor expressed an interest in me as an individual, virtual M = 3.24 and traditional
Table 2. Sections of the academic advising surveys
Section Title No. of Items
I. Demographics 6
II. Scheduling and Registration 5
III. Communication 4
IV. Support Services and Majors 3
V. Overall Satisfaction 4
VI. Student Opinions 5
TOTAL 27
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Virtual Compared to Traditional Academic Advising Satisfaction Rates of First-Year College Students
M = 3.98. It was evident that students thought their advisor was more interested in them when there was in person interactions. The second question that experienced a mean difference was in asking what method of advising should be employed
(survey I) virtually only and (survey II) in person only, survey I: M = 1.74 and survey II: M = 2.46. Therefore, students were most likely opposed to being required to use one method of advising exclusively. Overall the spread in the virtual data
Table 3. Virtual and traditional advising survey results
Question Virtual M
Virtual SD
Traditional M
Traditional SD
Difference between
method M
Scheduling and Registration
The advising method informed me of the necessary course requirements for scheduling classes.
3.95 .927 4.15 .810 .20
I received accurate information about academic policies and registration procedures.
3.95 .906 4.17 .853 .22
I was encouraged to assume an active role in choosing academic options.
3.94 1.003 4.15 .843 .21
Advising provided an easy and effective way to prepare my schedule.
3.68 1.134 4.01 .892 .33
Advising met my academic needs. 3.75 .993 4.13 .850 .38
Communication
My advisor was able to accurately answer my questions. 3.87 1.041 4.28 .812 .41
My advisor was able to refer me to the correct person or service when he/she did not know the answer.
3.79 .877 4.12 .857 .33
My advisor encouraged me to ask questions and to discuss my concerns.
3.73 .991 4.02 .842 .29
I feel more comfortable asking questions (survey I) virtually than in person or (survey II) in person than virtually.
2.85 1.186 3.81 1.053 .96
Support Services and Majors
I was able to learn more about the majors available. 3.37 .989 3.42 .956 .05
The advising process provided me with adequate information about student services available on campus?
3.50 .917 3.66 .872 .16
I felt that there was academic support available to me when I needed it.
3.73 1.040 4.07 .767 .34
Overall Satisfaction
My advisor expressed an interest in me as an individual. 3.24 1.097 3.98 .945 .74
My advisor was available, (Survey I) virtually, (Survey II) in person, when I needed assistance.
3.93 .918 4.04 .812 .11
(survey I) Virtual/online advising or (survey II) Traditional/in person advising should be the only option for first-year students.
1.74 .917 2.46 1.152 .72
Overall how would you rate your satisfaction with academic advising?
3.65 .856 4.06 .770 .41
Note. Scale is denoted as strongly agree = 5.0, agree = 4.0, neutral = 3.0, disagree = 2.0, and strongly disagree = 1.0
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Table 4. Virtual and traditional combined strongly agree/agree and strongly disagree/disagree survey results
Responses on Survey Strongly Agree & Agree %
Strongly Disagree & Disagree %
Questions Virtual Traditional Virtual Traditional
Scheduling and Registration
The advising method informed me of the necessary course requirements for scheduling classes.
80.6 86.0 9.5 3.8
I received accurate information about academic policies and registration procedures.
79.2 85.0 8.5 4.8
I was encouraged to assume an active role in choosing academic options.
74.4 78.7 9.4 2.4
Advising provided an easy and effective way to prepare my schedule.
61.6 73.4 14.3 4.9
Advising met my academic needs. 66.8 80.2 11.3 3.9
Communication
My advisor was able to accurately answer my questions. 67.7 87.9 9.5 3.9
My advisor was able to refer me to the correct person or service when he/she did not know the answer.
61.6 73.9 4.2 1.9
My advisor encouraged me to ask questions and to discuss my concerns.
63.0 74.4 11.9 25.6
I feel more comfortable asking questions: (survey I) virtually than in person; (survey II) in person than virtually.
26.0 57.5 39.3 9.1
Responses on Survey Strongly Agree & Agree %
Strongly Disagree & Disagree %
Support Services and Majors
I was able to learn more about the majors. 47.8 44.0 19.4 14.0
The advising process provided me with adequate information about student services available on campus?
55.0 58.4 14.2 8.2
I felt that there was academic support available when I needed it. 67.3 79.3 14.6 1.9
Overall Satisfaction
My advisor expressed an interest in me as an individual. 45.0 74.4 27.9 6.3
My advisor was available, (survey I) virtually, (survey II) in person, when I needed assistance.
73.0 78.8 7.1 3.4
(survey I) Virtual/online advising; (survey II) Traditional/in person advising should be the only option for first-year students.
4.7 18.3 81.5 59.0
Overall how would you rate your satisfaction with academic advising?
71.1 86.5 11.9 4.3
Note. Scale is denoted as strongly agree = 5.0, agree = 4.0, neutral = 3.0, disagree = 2.0, and strongly disagree = 1.0
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set was greater than that of the traditional method of advising.
Combined Response Ratings
In reviewing combined positive responses of strongly agree (5.0) and agree (4.0) in Table 4, overall students were satisfied regardless of the method of advising that they received, virtual 71.1% and traditional 86.5%. Overall student responses for traditional advising were slightly higher across all categories, with the exception of the question that relates to a student’s ability to learn more about available majors. The three questions that generated the greatest difference in positive ratings were in an advisor being able to accurately answer questions (virtual 67.7%, traditional 87.9%), the method in which a student felt more comfortable asking questions (survey I) virtually than in person or (survey II) in person than virtually (virtual 26.0%, traditional 57.5%), and that their advisor expressed an interest in a student as individual (virtual 45.0%, traditional 74.4%).
In examining the percentages of students who answered strongly disagree (2.0) or disagree (1.0) highlighted in Table 4, it was determined that negative responses were similar across both methods. There were however, a few exceptions. The first exception was in the comfort level of how a student preferred to ask questions to his/ her advisor. When asked on the virtual survey how advisees felt most comfortable asking questions,
39.3% reported that they strongly disagreed or disagreed with asking questions virtually. When the phrasing of the question was reversed for the in-person survey, 9.1% of students responded that they felt more comfortable asking questions in-person than virtual. Lastly, in the overall sat- isfaction category, the question that generated the largest discrepancy, was in addressing a student’s feeling about whether his/her advisor expressed an interest in him/her as an individual (virtual 27.9%, traditional 6.3%).
Reliability
Cronbach’s coefficient alpha was used to assess internal consistency associated with each category across advising methods. Table 5 illustrates reli- ability measures regarding the four categories. For the five items assessing scheduling and registration satisfaction, Cronbach’s alpha was.868 for virtual and.881 for traditional advising. Communication satisfaction was measured through four items, and the reliability coefficients were.603 for virtual and.704 for traditional methods. Support services and majors contained three questions with coef- ficient alpha values of.737 and.767, respectively, for online and in person. The last category con- sisted of four questions that related to students’ overall satisfaction. Reliability coefficients for this set of questions resulted in.729 for virtual and.679 for traditional. Across all categories, overall consistency was determined to be.909 for on-line and.919 for in-person. Thus, the results indicated that the self-constructed instrument used for evaluating the advising methods generated high internal consistency reliability.
Paired T-test
Paired t-tests were compiled to determine if there were any significant differences associated with virtual compared to traditional academic advising. The null hypothesis was that there are no differences between the mean satisfaction
Table 5. Reliability of survey categories
Category Virtual Traditional
Scheduling and Registration .868 .881
Communication .603 .704
Support Services and Majors .737 .767
Overall Satisfaction .729 .679
ALL CATEGORIES .909 .919
Note. Testing method: Cronbach’s alpha
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ratings between virtual and traditional academic advising amongst first-year college students. The alternative hypothesis stated there were signifi- cant differences between the mean satisfaction ratings between virtual and traditional academic advising amongst first-year students. The alpha level was set at.01. Significant tests demonstrated significant differences between mean responses of virtual versus in-person advising for the sets of items related to scheduling and registration t(203) = -3.84, p<.001, communication t(203) = -7.50, p<.001, and overall satisfaction t(203) = -7.75, p<.001. The support services and majors category t(203) = -2.51, p>.001, resulted in no significant difference existing between the mean satisfaction ratings of the virtual and traditional advising. Table 6 summaries the category paired t-test results.
Qualitative Results
Section six of the advising survey was designed to gain students’ personal opinions regarding the two methods of academic advising. The questions addressed students’ likes, and dislikes regarding each of the two methods. Table 7 summarizes the top three likes and dislikes associated with virtual academic advising. A characteristic that is associated with the millennial generation is that these students seek immediate responses in their daily lives (Howe & Strauss, 2007) and this was evident as 53% of students rated convenience and 24 hour accessibility as a top advantage linked to
the virtual advising. It was also noted that 25% of students believed that through online advising they were able to establish a personal connection to an individual on campus, prior to their arrival.
As with any technology, a personal connec- tion is often difficult to establish. In this study, personal connection was cited by 34% of students as a feature that they most disliked about the use of technology in advising. Also, 17% of students believed it was difficult to express one’s self or thoroughly ask questions through a virtual venue.
Table 8 emphasizes that 29% of students indicated that the feature they liked best about face-to-face advising was the individualization and personal connection that was established with their advisors. Nevertheless, 34% of first-year students reported that in-person advising was inconvenient and lacked accessibility. Millenials have been reported to desire 24/7 accessibility (Howe & Strauss, 2007) and didn’t want to have to wait to meet with an advisor through a scheduled appointment. Further, 15% of freshmen thought it was difficult to locate a mutual time when a meeting could be scheduled between advisee and advisor. This difficulty in scheduling a mutual time could be in part due to the high student to
Student Opinions N %
Top Three Likes
1 - Convenience and 24 Hour Accessibility
108 53
2 – Ease of Communication and Getting Information
53 26
3 – Personal Connection with Individuals, Campus, and Curriculum Before Arrival
50 25
Top Three Dislikes
1 – Difficulty to Form Individual Relationship
69 34
2 - Difficultly of Self-Expression, Explanation of Questions, and Discussion
35 17
3 - Information Not Detailed Enough, Too General
20 10
Table 7. Top three student stated virtual advising likes and dislikes
Table 6. Paired T-test for survey categories: virtual versus traditional advising method
Category M t Sig.
Scheduling and Registration -.271 -3.84 .000*
Communication -.491 -7.50 .000*
Support Services and Majors -.168 -2.51 .013
Overall Satisfaction -.487 -7.75 .000*
Note.* Difference is statistically significant when alpha value was set at.01
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advisor ratio in which 7% of students thought was a disadvantage of traditional advising.
Limitation of the Study
Since the data was collected from only one higher education institution, the generalizability of the study’s finding are limited to one specific popula- tion, first-year students majoring in engineering. However, since academic advising occurs at the majority of institutions, this study would not be difficult to replicate at another campus that has the ability to employ virtual and traditional advising at different times in an academic year.
Additionally, the study was conducted utilizing the first-year student population and academic advising was a new concept to most of them. All students in this study were starting college for the first time without previously attending another university. Thus, it might have been easier for students to understand the process of advising during the second advising method, traditional, which could have lead to a within-subject design carryover effect. This might mean that students were better prepared for traditional advising (the second method imposed), due to experiencing the
virtual advising previously from May to August. Nonetheless, the advising process regardless of the method could have been easier the second time around, as students were more familiar with the concept of advising, the advisor, the curriculum, and the campus resources.
Since students might have not been familiar with terms such “virtual advising” and “traditional advising”, in order to avoid confusion, the defini- tions of each of these methods of advising appeared on top of the survey to increase a students’ under- standing of the activities and experiences associ- ated with each method that they were to evaluate. Conversely, it is the belief of the researcher that using first-year students was advantageous, as these students were not bored or jaded with the advising process. It was the first new and exciting relationship that they were establishing with an adult that was not a parent.
Finally, technology in any form has some limitations that must be taken into consideration. For example Internet access is unreliable in certain parts of the world. Also computer ownership and Internet access can be divided amongst factors such as socio-economic status, age, and ethnic- ity. Overall, technology can suffer from one’s inability to have access to technology, lack of individual technological savvy or comfort with its use, and the cost of implemented technology into any process or service in higher education, such as academic advising.
FUTURE RESEARCH TRENDS
The results of this study can be used to assist higher education professionals who have an interest in implementing technology into the academic advis- ing process. The study demonstrated that while technology may possess the ability to enhance our daily lives it does not necessarily mean it is the end all answer to establishing interactions and communication in relation to college advis- ing functions. Further investigations comparing
Table 8. Top three student stated traditional advis- ing likes and dislikes
Student Opinions N %
Top Three Likes
1 - Individualized and Personal Interaction
59 29
2 – Quick Answers and Fast Response 55 27
3 - Clarity and Explanation of Self 27 13
Top Three Dislikes
1 - Inconvenience and Lack of Accessibility
72 35
2 – Lack of Ease in Scheduling a Meeting: Limited Advising Hours and Ability to Find Mutual Meeting Time
55 15
3 – High Student to Advisor Ratio that Limits Length of Meeting Time and Ability to Form a Relationship
14 7
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virtual and traditional methods would need to be developed to set forth the validity of using virtual methods to completely replace in person methods of advising, as the results of this study did not recommend the exclusive use of virtual advising.
This study can be used to build the framework or create the necessary dialogue for college ad- ministrators to begin to think about the possibili- ties of perhaps utilizing a hybrid (combination of applying both methods) advising model at their institutions. This study has brought about more questions necessary to explore to determine if Web 2.0 and virtual technologies are a viable option for academic advising. Some questions that need to be addressed in future research include:
1. What level of technology experienced is required for an advisor, faculty member, and/ or students to utilize and engage in virtual advising?
2. What are the technology requirements (e.g., iPad, Internet, laptop, iPod, SmartPhone, etc.) needed for a student, staff or faculty member to be able to successful utilize virtual advising?
3. How would virtual advising impact an in- stitution’s budget?
4. How would virtual advising impact an in- stitution’s training plan?
5. Does implementing virtual advising es- pecially in the case of first-year students have a positive affect on other areas such as retention, college acclimation, development of peer relationships, academic success, and/ or reduction of academic actions/probation cases?
6. Is it feasible or necessary to utilize or in- fuse technology into an academic advising program at an institution where the use of technology is not the norm?
While implementing a virtual advising model at a college might seem like an easy process, before this can occur an institution must conduct a needs
assessment. This needs assessment should survey students, staff and faculty members regarding such items as communication preferences, advising expectations, technology comfort levels, knowl- edge, ownership, and usage. This would allow for an institution to better develop an appropriate model of virtual advising that will support the vast majority of student attending and those employed at the college.
CONCLUSION
The findings of this research study offer some insight into the effectiveness of virtual academic advising when compared to traditional methods of advising. It may impossible to locate a brick and mortar institution that implements or would endorse an exclusive virtual approach to academic advising, however with more students entering college each year and advisor student caseloads getting larger, advisors will have to become “creative” in how to successfully offer services, support, and advise students. According to statis- tics compiled by the National Academic Advising Association (NACADA), the mean number of advisees assigned to a college advisor was 375 in two-year public colleges, 121 in two-year private colleges, 285 in four-year public colleges, and 153 in four-year private colleges (Habley, 2004). This study demonstrated that perhaps a blended or hybrid approach of using a combination of in person and virtual methods might be the most effective way to advise students.
Overall, the results of this study indicated that the first-year students were slightly more satisfied with traditional advising in the four categories of scheduling and registration, communication, support services and majors, and overall satisfac- tion. However, in comparing how the students rated their overall satisfaction with the method of academic advising that they received, 71.1% of students strongly agreed or agreed that virtual advising method met their overall needs, and
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86.5% of students stated the same regarding the traditional method. When the survey responses were aggregated and mean responses in each category compared, t-tests showed that schedul- ing and registration, communication, and overall satisfaction resulted in significant difference in that students evaluated the traditional method of academic advising as more satisfactory. The sup- port services and majors category confirmed no differences existed between virtual and traditional advising methods.
While, virtual advising may always be viewed as an unconventional form of advising and may never entirely replace traditional face-to face methods. The best use of technology might be to utilize Web 2.0 and virtual tools to enhance and enrich traditional methods of advising and not to use virtual methods as the primary way for advi- sors and advisees to interact and communicate. Hybrid and blended courses, whereas components of the course are completed in a traditional brick and mortar classroom and other components are done online usually through the use of a Learn- ing Management System (LMS), are gaining ac- ceptance, academic advising might be best to be intergraded using such a model as well.
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Habley, W. R. (2004). The status of academic advising: Findings from then ACT sixth national survey. NACADA, Monograph Series #10.
Howe, N., & Strauss, W. (2004). Millennial ris- ing: The next generation. New York, NY: Random House.
Howe, N., & Strauss, W. (2004). Millennial go to college. New York, NY: Vintage Books.
Howe, N., & Strauss, W. (2007). Millennials go to college: Strategies for a new generation on campus (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Vintage Book.
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KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS
Advisor Blog: An online/web communica- tion tool, written in the first person, that allows the advisor to make entries as thoughts, advice, and or motivation as though he/she is writing in a journal or diary. Information can incorporate text, images, or links and is displayed in reverse chronological order.
Closed Chat Session: This technology allows for the sending and sharing of text, audio, video, and images sent simultaneously in real-time to all users logged into that chat session. Members are required to join a group and be accepted by an administrator (group creator) before being
added to the group list and allowed to enter the chat session.
E-lert or E-Blast: An electronic email-based distribution list that allows a user to send messages, information, and/or updates in an effective and timely manner. These electronic lists are usually set up by topics.
Facebook: A popular site that socially links user to each through an online network. It allows users to create personal profiles, join and organize groups, send messages, post photos, advertise events, and interact-digitally with linked users (http://www.facebook.com/).
Podcasting/MP3 Audio: A media file that is recorded and can be played back on computers, SmartPhones, or portable media players. This method of syndication offers direct, automatic downloading and streaming of video and audio.
Traditional Academic Advising: A process in which a faculty or staff member is paired with a college student to assist, support, empower, and mentor a student through in person (face-to-face) communication and interactions in an effort to help an advisee develop and achieve professional, personal, interpersonal, career, and academic suc- cess through a guided relationship.
Traditional Aged Student: A student who is age 18 to 19 years old and who has enrolled in a higher education institution immediately follow- ing graduating from high school.
Threaded Discussions: The utilization of a moderated-based course management system like Blackboard or Moddle or a social networking site like Facebook whereas users can pose, get answers, and engage in a shared discussion on a specific topic, where one post builds off another.
Online Placement Test: A test proctored to students via an online format through the use of various technologies in an effort to assess a student’s skill level in a certain area to ensure that he/she is placed into the correct level of a college course.
Virtual Academic Advising: A process in which a faculty or staff member is paired with a
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college student to assist, support, empower, and mentor a student where the communication and interactions occur from remote locations utilizing Web 2.0 and virtual technologies (e.g. Skype, IM, Facebook, email, SmartPhones, video confer- ences, etc.) in an effort to help an advisee develop and achieve professional, personal, interpersonal, career, and academic success through a guided relationship.
Virtual Peer Advisor: An upper-class student who acts as a secondary advising source to new or first-year students by assisting an assigned advisor to offer additional support and advising to advisees through virtual means such as Skype, IM, and/ or Facebook. Virtual peer advisors usually work untraditional hours such as evening and weekends when the primary advisor is unavailable.
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Copyright © 2012, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
Chapter 52
DOI: 10.4018/978-1-61350-068-2.ch052
INTRODUCTION
Second Life is a social virtual world, constructed mostly by its users, emphasizing immersive environments that support a variety of human
activities and interactions, presenting a plethora of new opportunities and challenges for enrich- ing how we learn, work, and play (Boulos, et al., 2007; Prasolova-Førland et al., 2006). Although Second Life was not initially intended for educa- tional purposes when it was released in 2003, it has quickly become a valuable tool for instructors
Maureen Ellis East Carolina University, USA
Patricia Anderson East Carolina University, USA
A New Vision for Distance Learning:
Learning to Teach in Second Life
ABSTRACT
This chapter centers on Second Life as a delivery option for distance learning in higher education. Social interaction is crucial for students enrolled in online courses, and instructors who teach distance educa- tion courses have long strived to promote strong and positive opportunities for interaction between and among learners. Second Life is a social virtual world which emphasizes the general use of immersive worlds for supporting an array of human activities and interactions, presenting innovative opportunities and challenges for enriching how users learn, work, and play (Boulos, Hetherington, & Wheeler, 2007; Prasolova-Førland, Sourin, & Sourina, 2006). A fundamental element of Second Life is the opportunity for real time collaboration in an immersive, 3D rich environment regardless of a user’s geographical distance, allowing the user to more readily engage with the experiences as disclosed in real time. An avatar, the heart of the immersive Second Life experience, facilitates movement, choice, and interaction within the virtual environment (Gazzard, 2009).
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from over 250 academic institutions and at least 15 countries (Foster, 2007; Bowers, Ragas, & Neely, 2009). Second Life has presented new opportu- nities for real time collaboration in immersive, three-dimensional (3D) rich environments without regard to geographical distance or traditional limits of location and space, allowing the user to engage in activities within real time (Gazzard, 2009). In Second Life the user is represented as an avatar, a virtual representation and embodiment of the user, facilitating movement, choice, emotion, and interaction within the virtual environment. An in- dividual’s personification with his/her avatar is the key to an immersive experience (Gazzard, 2009). Although avatars can take on human, animal, robotic and futuristic appearances, for classroom meetings and activities, they should appear in hu- man form and wear classroom-appropriate clothes to minimize distractions. A key tenet of Second Life is the creation of a collaborative environment which supports team work.
Although allowing for ‘anytime, anywhere’ instruction, faculty and students who were en- gaged in traditional online teaching and learning frequently complained of feelings of isolation and loneliness (McInnery & Roberts, 2004). For many students and faculty, studying in an online environment can lead to frustration when sound interaction is poorly devised (McInnery & Rob- erts, 2004). If this frustration is to be minimized, faculty should put a great deal of consideration into communication methods to meet the needs of the students. Asynchronous communication generally does not give the immediacy that is required for successful social interaction because of the lapsed time between questions and answers. Virtual technologies provide opportunities for increased interactions and reduced isolation by encouraging communication and collaboration (Tu, 2005). Recent studies of online learning environments indicate that social presence, which offers a feeling of community and connection among learners, improves learning outcomes and learner satisfaction in online courses (Pic-
ciano, 2002; Tu & Corry, 2002). The Second Life Initiative at a regional, research-intensive university in the southeast portion of the United States encourages faculty and students to col- laborate while immersing themselves in a virtual environment offering a greater social presence with the goal of a successful learning experience. Looking beyond learner satisfaction is the idea that collaboration improves learning outcomes and reduces the potential for isolation in tradi- tional online courses. Within collaborative virtual learning environments, faculty and students have the chance to broaden and intensify their learning experiences, test out new ideas by sharing them with a supportive group, and receive critical and constructive feedback (Paloff & Pratt, 2005). Wang and Hsu (2009) posited, “Second Life instructors can design authentic tasks whereby learners can explore the world, solve problems, construct and negotiate meaning, and collaborate with other learners” (p. 80).
This chapter describes information related to the background of Second Life with a focus on the development of Second Life as a classroom for teaching, especially as used in higher educa- tion settings. Present perspectives on the current use of Second Life will be presented, along with a trajectory of future trends in this exciting ad- venture called Second Life. The chapter provides examples of authentic situations experienced within the Second Life environment.
BACKGROUND
Over the last few years, the emergence of 3D vir- tual environments to facilitate educational experi- ences stems largely from a set of socio-technical transitions such as wider access to broadband, the development of powerful Web 2.0 technologies, platforms and computer graphics capabilities, the emphasis upon social and experiential interac- tions, and advances in the uses and applications of the Internet. Together, these tools allow for a
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range of options in the context of education for enhancing teaching and learning (De Freitas, et al., 2010). These forces have led to greater challenges and opportunities for the learning and teaching communities that may broadly be categorized in terms of social, pedagogic, institutional and tech- nological. Second Life, the social virtual world, emphasizes the use of immersive worlds for sup- porting human activities and interactions while presenting new opportunities and challenges for enriching how we learn, work and play (Boulos, et al., 2007; Prasolova-Førland, et al., 2006). New opportunities for real time collaboration in this immersive environment has resulted, regardless of the user’s geographical distance, allowing users to engage with the virtual experiences as they are divulged in real time (Gazzard, 2009).
In Second Life, the user is represented as an avatar, an online manifestation of self in a virtual world, and is designed to enhance interaction in a virtual space, facilitating movement, choice, and interaction within the virtual environment, allowing the user to take on a visible persona (Peterson, 2005). An individual’s personification with their avatar, ranging from human form to animal to robot form, is the key to an immersive experience and affords the user the opportunity to engage in surreal and imaginary experiences that transcend the actual world in which they live (Deuchar & Nodder, 2003). A key tenet of Second Life is a collaborative environment supporting cooperative team work.
As higher education faculty members explore opportunities to design meaningful methods of instruction to improve the teaching and learning process and meet the needs of traditional and non-traditional learners, they are faced with many challenges to increase retention and decrease costs. Second Life offers options for faculty who are considering adopting an innovative, approach to instruction supported by the Constructivist theory where students are active creators of knowl- edge. Embarking on the journey into a virtual environment, faculty face a sharp learning curve
maximizing the utilization of the technology to deliver the content, goals, and objectives of the courses they teach (Inman, Wright, & Hartman, 2010; Sanchez, 2009). According to Wang and Hsu (2009), teaching a course in Second Life does not guarantee improved learning outcomes; however, it does open new possibilities and op- portunities for increased learning and teaching experiences. Additionally, Macdeo and Morgado (2009) purported that traditional teacher expertise does not necessarily guarantee positive teaching experiences in the Second Life environment.
Second Life offers prospects for new types of collaborative and participative learning. Accord- ing to Antonacci and Modaress (2005), Second Life is the ideal setting for collaboration, social construction of understanding, making meaning, and reflection on processes required for learning. The very nature of Second Life is collaborative (Dalgarno & Lee, 2010); the virtual world can pro- mote many types of supportive peer collaboration and collaborative assignments (De Frietas, et al., 2010; Eschenbrenner, Nah, & Siau, 2008). There is an increased opportunity for communication and expressions in ways that students may have been incapable of previously in different settings (Falloon, 2010). Integrating Second Life into the post-secondary classroom opens doors to attract the 21st Century, digital natives who bring inno- vative and diverse learning styles. Emphasizing the Constructivist theory where leaners create their own meaning, Second Life supports real world tasks. Utilizing authentic tasks, learners can explore, solve problems, construct new mean- ings, and collaborate in a myriad of ways (Wang & Hsu, 2009). As explained by Zhao, Sun, Hu, and Zhu (2009), since emotion forms through social activities, the real learning situation helps students to develop emotion which promotes the act of Constructivist learning. Alternative forms of education become more feasible in Second Life where learners become engaged in student- centered activities such as problem-based learn- ing (Inman, Wright, & Hartman, 2010). These
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opportunities have the potential to translate into innovative approaches to learning and teaching.
Higher education is a training ground with a critical responsibility to train and prepare students for the workforce of today—and of the future. Because of this responsibility, higher education faculty members must explore new methods for engaging students to prepare them for experiences they will face once they join the workforce. Fac- ulty members face many challenges in designing instruction and creating meaningful opportunities while at the same time searching for innovative methods to meet the needs of both traditional and non-traditional learners. Capturing the “best of both worlds” of technology opportunities for teaching and learning, higher education faculty may consider using a collaborative, innovative ap- proach to instruction by teaching through Second Life via an in-world environment. Second Life is one medium for instructors and students to com- municate, socialize, and interact in a globalized, networked world (Inman, Wright, & Hartman, 2010). Many students function as digital natives in Second Life; they are adept at many aspects of technology which are inundating to digital immigrants, often called “digital dinosaurs” (Prensky, 2005). Instructors who use Second Life are “piggy-backing” off the technology, immers- ing the students in new and unique applications.
Requiring a clear understanding of this emerg- ing technology, faculty may face a steep learning curve to maximize the use of the technology in delivering their content, goals, and objectives within their courses. While teaching a course in Second Life does not guarantee improved learn- ing outcomes (Wang & Hsu, 2009), it can create new possibilities and opportunities for improved learning and teaching experiences through experi- ential and collaborative activities. Students come absorbed in the learning experience in a unique and innovative way.
Wong (2006) reported that many learners perceive an online learning environment as being
void of any expectation for participation or genu- ine engagement with course material. In Second Life, there is real-time interaction, which means learners need to engage in the discussion or other activity—much as if they were sitting in a brick and mortar classroom. John Lester, Community in Education Manager at Linden Lab and the Creator of Second Life, emphasized that there is a real human being behind every avatar and the people are very real. It is critically important that Second Life users remember that while the people are the same, the medium is different (Wong, 2006). Real students are participating in Second Life classroom activities; thus it is important to make connections between pedagogical constructs and Second Life activities. The two must be closely tied together or students will not understand the connection(s) between the medium and the mes- sage. Second Life is more than a new or simple classroom; it is a learning environment.
Supporting the constructivist theory, Second Life offers prospects for new types of participa- tive and collaborative learning. According to Antonacci and Modaress (2005), Second Life is the ideal setting for collaboration, social con- struction of understanding, making meaning, and reflection on processes required for learning. As an educational theory, constructivism is based on the idea that experience provides the best mode of learning, In a constructivist learning environ- ment, ideas are presented through authentic learn- ing activities. These activities aim to provide an experience that closely reflects learning outside the classroom (Brown, Collins, & Duguid, 1989). This idea differs from most traditional forms of teaching and learning, which have provided reduced connections to the world students have come to know outside of school (Duffy & Jonas- sen, 1992). Instruction in the constructivist sense relies not on simple transmission of knowledge, but rather in the development of skills that will allow the students to construct their own method of response to the situation presented. The very
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nature of Second Life is collaborative (Dalgarno & Lee, 2010); the virtual world can promote many types of supportive peer collaboration and collaborative assignments (De Frietas, et al., 2010; Eschenbrenner, Nah, & Siau, 2008). The interactive synchronous component of Second Life affords opportunities for communication and expressions in ways that students may have been incapable of participating in (Falloon, 2010). Second Life resembles the real world and allows authentic tasks where learners can explore, solve problems, construct new meaning, and collaborate (Wang & Hsu, 2009).
Focusing on the unique communications within the learning environment, Tu (2005) defined instructional communication technology previ- ously involved in telecommunications and online computing. He labeled computer-mediated com- munication as a type of effective technology that supports communication “in different times and at different places and represent powerful tools for human communication to unit people” (p. 193). Tu (2005) focused on active communication pat- terns with two layers: content and relations. He stressed that both layers were critical and occur simultaneously, especially in technological envi- ronments such as Second Life.
PRESENT PERSPECTIVES
Second Life users have promoted an innovative and unique environment for work, learning, and play. When considering use of Second Life within the higher education setting, several perspectives deserve special mention. The following areas are summarized below: experiencing “being there,” dealing with budget cuts, acknowledging the prevalence of Second Life, comparing Second Life to other systems, realizing that technology happens, dealing with special challenges of Second Life technology, and facing unique challenges of an unknown learning environment.
The Experience of Being There
When a user places his/her avatar in a Second Life environment with other avatars, the realm of possible interactive experiences is multiplied exponentially. Mimicking similar emotions as they would experience in real life situations, users engage in social, physical and mental interactions that take this virtual world to a new level. Cher- toff, Goldiez, and LaViola (2010) proposed that virtual environments can provide the individual with a sense of “being there” within the Second Life world. Doyle (2009) described a tension of “push and pull, as we negotiate and attempt to understand our newly embodied experience” (p. 1).
Differing from all other types of communi- cation on the Internet, Second Life offers op- portunities and threats often experienced in the real world resulting in users experiencing similar emotions as real life situations. As the vehicle for participation, the avatar allows the user to gain a perspective about the experience in which his/ her avatar is placed. Doyle (2009) described the “sense of our presence in virtual space” (p. 1). Without doubt, the emotional experience of the user via the avatar has become a focus of increas- ing attention and amazement.
Dealing with Budget Cuts
Economic pressures from budget cuts and the rising cost of education continue to mount with students being expected to pay higher tuition rates and fees, share resources, and even take on debt or drop classes. Educators are obligated to creatively “do more with less” by designing courses which accommodate economic constraints imposed by state legislators and university “higher-ups.” As universities are challenged to increase enrollment numbers while maintaining or exceeding retention numbers, forward-thinking learning institutions committed to the cost-effectiveness of integrating emerging technologies for communication, col- laboration and learning, have found that Second
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Life supports and strengthens the continuous task of delivering a world class education. With increased broad-band technology available on college campuses and the exploration and growth of viable Web 2.0 technologies, the free software required for Second Life has become a viable option for teaching and learning.
Acknowledging the Prevalence of Second Life
Virtual Worlds enable real life learning while helping to solve many of the financial issues and constraints faced by higher education institutions. Today, hundreds of higher education institutions and leading learning corporations from around the world have developed private collaboration spaces in Second Life because they see tremendous potential for connecting a distributed workforce (Collins, 2008). These forward-thinking institu- tions and organizations are preparing for a future when a typical physical workspace will be fully augmented by a digital counterpart. Second Life’s constant virtual environment enables students to work together synchronously and then return, individually or as a team. The learning space is always available, not just for geographically dispersed groups but even for those who meet regularly in the physical world. This is particu- larly useful when students require more flexible schedules or need to work asynchronously on the same project.
Comparing Second Life to Other Systems
Because of its immersive and collaborative design, Second Life augments learning beyond the mere capabilities experienced through teleconference calls (i.e. Skype) and web presentation tools (i.e. Centra, Wimba, Blackboard, WebCT), by creat- ing opportunities for virtual field trips, role play, re-creations, presentations, small and large group
discussions, and training simulations, transcend- ing the boundaries of the traditional online class- room environment. These teaching tools, offering flexible options, can be powerful because they can go beyond the constraints imposed by the physical world and simulate complex processes experienced through the avatar’s experience (i.e., flying, falling). Rich multimedia integration with audio and video (i.e., Sloodle docs, Google docs, PowerPoint, YouTube, TeacherTube, MTV) al- lows the users to immerse themselves into the avatar experience. The immersive Second Life environment elicitsthe emotional connection with the environment and allows the user through the avatar, to feel a sense of “presence” (Collins, 2008). Students respond to collaborative interac- tion more favorably than they respond to static content, often the traditional online model. Online students want to go beyond an independent study course where materials are provided for reading comprehension and discussion board response (Collins, 2008). Second Life offers an interactive, immersive experiential learning experience that taps into higher order thinking skills and encour- ages real-time discussions amongst students, peers and instructors.
Realizing that Technology Happens
With all its benefits and opportunities for learning, it is important to remember that Second Life opens new challenges for teaching because of the total immersion into an online and technical environ- ment (Eschenbrenner, Nah, & Siau, 2008). The computerized Second Life system has experienced “bugs” and technical difficulties where the entire system has been offline for short periods of time. Users may experience connectivity issues or be unable to fully “rez” (to bring in an object into 3D space within Second Life) their avatar, which can appear as a blob. Many new users experience audio difficulties and find the speaking function intimidating. For success, a faculty member has
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to avoid frustration (Inman, Wright, & Hartman, 2010) and develop a technical assistance mentality to assist students with their technical difficulties so they can fully participate in class.
Dealing with Special Challenges of Second Life Technology
It is important to note that when teaching in a wholly synchronous environment, an instruc- tional leader must be prepared for the unexpected technical difficulties. It is critical that the teacher develop patience and a ‘go with the flow’ attitude. Many challenges are possible; most commonly experienced are technical requirements (i.e., headset problems or problems with the hardware of a user’s computer), internet connections (a slow connection makes it difficult to “rez”), and a wide range of computer skill levels of students for whom the simplest tasks of sitting or walking in Second Life can be overwhelming.
Facing Unique Challenges of an Unknown Learning Environment
Faculty members face many challenges as they work to design instruction that creates meaning- ful opportunities for the students. Second Life is changing the way that faculty members and students experience instruction, communicate with each other and explore opportunities for the teaching and learning process in an immersive, collaborative environment. With the changing landscape of the traditional university because of fiscal constraints and an outcry for retention results, a virtual world technology presence will likely play a greater role and become a priority for university officials exploring alternatives to tra- ditional on-campus and online learning. Through implementation and research, higher education will play a key role in the development of Second Life for educational purposes.
FUTURE TRENDS
Currently in its pioneer state, Second Life is explor- ing how instructors can integrate this immersive collaborative environment into instructional struc- tures. Some of the current and future trends for Second Life include increasing use of role plays and simulations, facilitating group experiences, creating meaning, promoting virtual communities, increasing global opportunities, considering un- limited assignments and requirements, increasing opportunities for communication and partnership, building things, training opportunities, changing development of communication skills, retrieving information, growing culturally, developing new evaluation methods for learning, and increasing research on and in Second Life.
• Increasing use of role-plays and simula- tions. Inman, Wright, and Hartman con- ducted a review of 27 research studies and concluded that role-play activities within Second Life are equally effective as role- play activities in the real world (Gao, Noh, & Koehler, 2008). Role play interactions in Second Life are governed by the same so- cial norms in the real world (Messinger, Ge, Stroulia, Lyons, Smirnov, & Bone, 2008). According to Messinger et al. (2008), an avatar’s behavior within the Second Life virtual world was more outgoing and in- corporated more risk-taking behavior when compared to real world behavior. Role-play opportunities are likely to in- crease exponentially once this phenom- enon becomes more widely understood by various professions where role-play and simulations are desirable. Vasileiou and Paraskeva (2010) promoted role-playing within Second life as a significant appren- ticeship method with a positive impact on learning engagement in teacher education settings. Other uses of simulations, espe- cially within medical, robotics, or other
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highly technical environments, offer many possibilities for training with unique skills in classroom management, technological demonstration, or assessments.
• Facilitating group experiences. Group work and group projects are easily man- aged and facilitated via a Second Life envi- ronment. Group assignments, group meet- ings, group tasks, and group discussions are simplified in a Second Life environ- ment, once all users and avatars become skilled in movement, discussion, and shar- ing tools. The power of synchronous and asynchronous communications within the Second Life environment offer a degree of flexibility currently unavailable in a tradi- tional online learning environment. Baker, Wentz, and Woods (2009) reported that the informal environment of Second Life promoted comfort among students com- municating with instructors. This increas- ing communication can promote increased engagement in learning environments.
• Creating meaning. Student-centered teach- ing and learning strategies can be enhanced via Second Life teaching environments. Based on constructivist principles such as problem-based learning (Inman, Wright, & Hartman, 2010), Second Life teaching ac- tivities can promote individual experimen- tation, exploration, and meaning-making opportunities for learners/avatars. Doyle (2010) stressed that consideration of the experience designed for the student/avatar is crucial to integrating Second Life ex- periences in the digital media curriculum. Students can be exposed to situations and environments previously unavailable ex- cept as an observer as opposed to the im- mersion experiences available (in a safe way) via Second Life. Delwiche (2006) and Mayrath, Sanchez, Traphagan, Heikes, and Trivedi (2007) emphasize the impor- tance of connecting objectives and course
activities in Second Life so that the tech- nology being used is both useful and holds their attention.
• Promoting virtual communities. Second Life offers opportunities for faculty and students to build/create a virtual communi- ty. This community setting can be a “phys- ical” place such as a class meeting space but can also be an emotional “construct” created via the Second Life technology and overall experience (Inman, Wright, & Hartman, 2010). The virtual commu- nity can thrive, feel stress, promote sup- port for individuals, and function much as they would within a non-technology based “brick and mortar” environment. An ef- fective Second Life facilitator will help to maximize the concept of community with many opportunities for development of this important aspect of learning and building.
• Increasing global opportunities. Second Life provides global opportunities, without ever leaving one’s own computer. Avatars can freely experience introductions to new locations, new cultures, and new un- derstandings within a relatively risk-free environment. Wang and Braman (2009) explained that Second Life provides fa- vorable conditions for interacting between users and various people from around the world to discuss important class topics.
• Considering unlimited assignments/ requirements. According to Wang and Braman (2009), Second Life provides an advantageous setting for some class as- signments such as 3D modeling, online social interaction, or role playing, through the inclusion of both visual and immersive aspects. The unlimited nature of some as- signments can prove beneficial since the Second Life environment is not as vulner- able to safety aspects or limited by time or space.
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• Increasing opportunities for communica- tion and for partnerships. Collaborative opportunities not afforded by traditional online communication tools, encour- age global interaction and cross-cultural partnerships across the world (Wang & Braman, 2009). Second Life works to foster and encourage student communi- cation, collaboration, and social interac- tion (Inman, Wright, & Hartman, 2010). Students have opportunities to work to- gether in unique ways on unique experi- ences; these will increase as more users take advantage of the Second Life environ- ment and create even more innovations for collaborative experiences.
• Building things. Learners can accomplish unique building designs and creations for unique and real situations. For example, students within an architecture program can create a Second Life building that has features of the future. Students who are focusing on education can build their own classrooms, schools, or even communities that contain schools, facing the many di- lemmas in an unusual way. In fact, Inman, Wright, and Hartman (2010) predicted that the creation of specific spaces for individ- ual students (avatars) to enhance learning experiences will likely be an increasing occurrence. Doyle (2009b) explained that the creative practice of art forms and oth- er space construction with opportunities for avatar interaction (triggering sounds, events, or changes in space or place) has already pushed artists and creators for a new realm of creative practice within the Second Life platform. These forward- thinking and future-looking opportunities can enhance today’s problem-based learn- ing by removing the reality of present-day brick and mortar constraints.
• Training opportunities. Second Life train- ing/learning opportunities will increase as
business and industry leaders realize that they can replace bricks and mortar by con- verging a group into a Second Life envi- ronment for special training or problem- solving settings. These actions will assist in lowering energy costs while at the same time decreasing dependency on fossil fuels for transportation. Support for scaffolding and technology training within the Second Life environment will remain critical so that users and their avatars can build skills and acclimate to the virtual environment (Delwiche, 2006; Mayrath, et al., 2007; Sanchez, 2009).
• Changing communication skill develop- ment. Without doubt, communication skills are essential within the Second Life setting where there are unique challenges to speaking, listening, reading, and writ- ing. Education systems will have to adjust to present and promote the most effective communication skills in these settings, fo- cusing on the readjustment and refinement of teaching and using these core skills within the Second Life environment. The focus on sharing and interaction about knowledge is the critical next step facing technology advances such as Second Life, according to Tu (2005).
• Retrieving information. Information re- trieval/knowledge management can be markedly changed from today’s strategies by use of Second Life. Information seeking will become simpler, especially within syn- chronous learning settings (Inman, Wright, & Hartman, 2010). Curious learners will be able to actually visit Second Life sites where they can ask questions of avatars with unique knowledge sets. Rather than depending on Internet search engines for answering questions, users will be able to have “live” conversations with others at unique sites, thereby gathering more re-
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alistic information about topics of impor- tance at the time of their own questions.
• Growing culturally. Avatars can experi- ence cultural growth and learning via the Second Life environment. They can expe- rience cultural investigation and explora- tion within Second Life, acquiring unique understandings and information about cultures and settings with which they are currently unfamiliar. Warburton (2009) warned of potential isolation within the Second Life experience since there is a lack of in-world persistence and a unique set of norms and etiquette. These experiences outside one’s “safety zone” (Warburton, 2009, p. 422) can deter casual use of the Second Life experience.
• Developing new evaluation methods for learning. According to DeFreitas, et al (2010), Second Life is likely to encour- age the development of methods to evalu- ate specific learning activities in virtual worlds. These evaluative activities and tools will be based on inductive methods and support the unique aspects of Second Life learning activities.
• Increasing research on and in Second Life. Research in various aspects of Second Life has been predominantly the domain of higher education, according to Inman, Wright, and Hartman (2010). The same researchers predict that researchers will focus on the development of a more safe and secure environment for K-12 students within the second Life setting. Conducting research within the Second Life environ- ment will be an expanding practice and reality.
CONCLUSION
Second Life will serve as an increasingly popular and effective distance education delivery system.
Once learners and faculty members become more adept at the manipulation of the Second Life environment, they can maximize use of the learn- ing setting in Second Life, providing additional opportunities for increased learning, interactions, and success in gaining knowledge and skills. Eschenbrenner, Nah, and Siau (2008) projected that increasing use of Second Life standards and development of best standards are a likely next step for this learning and interactive environment.
It has been estimated that 80% of active Internet users and Fortune 500 companies will have an avatar by the end of 2011 (Science Daily). With a strong presence in the online community, com- bined with budgetary constraints and overhead costs of a higher education degree continually rising, higher education faculty and administration are searching for alternative instruction methods. Second Life offers a clear opportunity for faculty to create an immersive, collaborative learning experience which promotes social interaction and improves learning outcomes.
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KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS
3-Dimensional: A graphic display including depth and height and width.
Avatar: Term for computer-generated “per- son” whose movements, interactions, and activi- ties are controlled by the Second Life user.
Inventory: The collection of items “owned” by the avatar.
In-World: Term describing the Second Life environment.
Second Life: A computer-based 3D environ- ment where users control avatars as they experi- ence work, life, and play.
Teleport: A method of movement where the avatar is moved from one location to another.
Virtual Reality: Computer-simulated envi- ronment creating an existence outside of normal life events.
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Copyright © 2012, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
INTRODUCTION
This chapter interweaves activities, research, re- sults and final commentary to realistically present the ambiguities confronted in a disjointed consult- ing engagement. For example, we interviewed headquarters employees only to discover that the NGO had already scheduled workshops on three continents regardless of interview results that
could alter the research and training agenda. The challenges facing the NGO due to its culture and tremendous growth are detailed in the following sections, along with an analysis of the outcomes of the project.
This chapter is organized as follows:
• Discussion of evolution of non-profit orga- nizations and NGOs in the 21st century;
• Background of the NGO and the consult- ing project;
Chapter 53
Kit Kacirek University of Arkansas, USA
Jules K. Beck University of Arkansas, USA
Challenges in International Consulting:
A Leadership Case Study
ABSTRACT
This case study examines how an international nongovernmental organization (NGO) sought leadership development in response to organizational challenges of accelerated growth and increased employee turnover aggravated by physical separation, political and legal issues associated with operating in fifty- one countries on five continents. This case study is based on the partnership between a team of academic consultants and key stakeholders in the NGO. We explore the dynamic role and changing requirements that evolved over the course of a three-year relationship with the organization as it tried to address is- sues of precipitous growth and program sustainability.
DOI: 10.4018/978-1-61350-068-2.ch053
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• Interview methodology used for headquar- ters and workshop-site groups;
• Headquarters interviews & results fol- lowed by workshop-site interviews & results;
• Global survey and results; • Criteria used to understand the organization; • Addressing the leadership challenges; • Implications for professional practice fol-
lowed by further research; and, • Conclusion.
The immediate discussion that follows de- scribes the evolution of nonprofit and NGO agen- cies during the 21st Century to provide a context germane to this case study.
NONPROFITS AND NGOS IN THE 21ST CENTURY
Historically, non-profits have “supplemented government activities, contributed ideas for new programs and other innovations, and functioned as vehicles for private citizens to pursue their own visions of the good society independent of gov- ernment policy” (Dees, 1998, p. 56). In research that describes an erosion of this separateness, Heimovics, Herman, and Coughlin (1993, p. 480) discuss “the new federalism of the 1980’s” that fundamentally altered the relationship be- tween non-profit and government and influenced government’s shifting priorities and subsequent decreased financial support of public programs. Prior to that time, Salamon (1987) found that tax revenues and governmental grants had accounted for over 40% of the budgets of agencies that pro- vided social services.
In the wake of the accelerated, unrelenting change that was the hallmark of the late 20th and early 21st centuries, organizations in both the private and public sectors now grapple with managing financial, environmental, social and political shifts. The sheer scale of social need
has resulted in the emergence of a global third sector, “a massive array of self-governing private organizations, not dedicated to distribution of profits to shareholders or directors, pursuing public purposes outside the formal apparatus of the state” (Salamon, 2004, p. 109). Given the enormity and complexity of societal needs that extend across interconnected national, global, cultural and po- litical boundaries, Trist (1983) and Vangen and Huxham (2003) suggest that no single agency is capable of assuming responsibility or providing resources to meet these challenges. Meanwhile, Salamon (2004) posits that the increased number of social service providers reflects “a distinct set of social and technological changes, as well as a long-simmering crisis of confidence in the capability of the state” (p. 110).
In addition to the overwhelming need for delivery of social programs across economically and culturally divergent landscapes, nonprofits often find themselves competing with for-profit providers. Ryan (1998) suggests that not only has the emergence of for-profit entities into the social service arena increased competition among non-profits, it has reframed a broader dialogue about their future in an era where social services are treated as business propositions. Traditionally separated by mission, purpose, and stakeholder orientation, the boundaries between non-profit and for-profit enterprises have blurred and are often connected where non-profit enterprises engage in for-profit activities, such as selling promotional products or souvenirs to support program objectives.
In discussing the commercialization of non- profit activities, Dees (1998) suggests that given the “rising costs, more competition for fewer dona- tions and grants, and the emergence of for-profit companies as social sector providers, nonprofits are turning to the for-profit world to leverage or replace their traditional sources of funding” (pp. 55-56). Dees adds that nonprofit leaders believe that market-based revenues provide better growth and reliability than philanthropy (1998). Financial
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sustainability has driven some nonprofit agencies to accept governmental contracts or fee-based work from corporations to augment donor contri- butions and other organizations such as hospitals and health maintenance organizations “are con- verting to for-profit status or are being acquired by for-–profit companies” (Dees, 1998, p. 56).
Increased Accountability
In addition to diversifying their funding sources to offset declining donations, nonprofits and NGOs must demonstrate value to donors and stakehold- ers alike and now assess “their reason for existing in light of a market that rewards discipline and performance” (Ryan, 1999, p. 128). Ryan further claimed that
“government agencies are outsourcing a greater proportion of work and they are awarding con- tracts to providers not because of what they are, but because of what they can do….Nonprofits are no longer considered automatically entitled–or even best qualified–to provide social services in the United States.” (p. 129)
As nonprofits increasingly compete for con- tracts and funding, they must also develop a culture of accountability. Social service contracts are increasingly performance-based and as Ryan (1999) notes, “unlike more traditional cost- reimbursement contracts, which protect providers of services by covering their cost regardless of outcomes, performance contracts shift the risk to providers, which only get paid for successfully completed assignments” (p. 130). In discussing the delicate balance of performance and mission associated with nonprofit agencies, Smith (2003) warns that “government officials must put in place a meaningful and appropriate performance-based accountability system and balancing the need for accountability with the legitimate desire of non- profits for programmatic autonomy and discretion is a very difficult and complicated task” (p. 45).
The increased need for nonprofits and NGOs to demonstrate return on investment (ROI) to stakeholders has grown because their government- nonprofit relationship has changed due to the emergence of for-profit agencies in the social services arena. Furthermore, some badly-run non- profits contributed to this movement “due in part to a series of highly publicized scandals that have eroded public confidence in nonprofit organiza- tions” (Ebrahim, 2003, p. 813). While responsible to multiple stakeholders, Ebrahim identifies five accountability mechanisms that NGOs employ to demonstrate assessment of accomplishments that include: a) disclosure statements and reports, b) performance assessment and evaluation, c) par- ticipation, d) self-regulation and e) social auditing.
A lengthy discussion of accountability tools and processes is beyond the scope of this chap- ter, but it is important to note that both Avina (1993) and Najam (1996) distinguish between functional and strategic accountability. Najam claims that NGOs are more adept at reporting short-term results than long-term impact. The debate continues about nonprofit use of business and industry performance instruments to measure accountability and impact regarding social issues. For all organizations, however, leadership has the principal role in to determine the strategies that will satisfy multiple stakeholders and competing commitments.
Leadership Challenges
Executive leadership is pivotal to NGO success, but there is no clear consensus regarding the role that CEOs play in sustaining viable organizations. Given the dynamic environment in which NGOs must operate, Hailey and James (2004) suggest that “NGOs are intermediary organizations bridg- ing donors and beneficiaries’ and therefore have to constantly respond to multiple constituencies or clients” (p. 344). Hailey and Jones further suggest that effective NGO leaders can balance competing pressures from stakeholders without
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compromising their identities or while working “with very limited resources in uncertain and volatile political and economic circumstances to help the most marginalized and disadvantaged members of their communities” (p. 344).
Scholars may agree regarding the need to un- derstand how individual leaders of international NGOs marshal resources and respond to the com- plex issues associated with economic, political, cultural, and geographic diversity, but “there is little understanding of the different roles and responsibilities of such NGO leaders, or analysis of the skills and competencies needed” (Hailey & James, 2004, p. 345).
This study examines the role that consultants played in enabling an international NGO that specializes in community sustainability and empowerment to meet the challenges associated with organizational growth, leadership, and cul- tural complexity. Using mixed methods, a team of university consultants assessed the organiza- tion’s leadership capacity and discovered that its program effectiveness was severely hampered by gaps and inconsistencies in leadership perception and practices, employee expectations, training opportunities, technology infrastructure, and ser- vicing of country program needs. The consulting team also found that the organization’s leader- ship, oblivious to these gaps, was hobbled by an inability to anticipate and manage the change inherent in the organization’s ongoing expansion and cultural diversity.
BACKGROUND: THE ORGANIZATION
The international NGO specialized in community sustainability and empowerment activities through rural economic enhancement projects and sought assistance to better manage tremendous growth throughout the organization. Over a ten-year period, the organization had evolved from what NGO employees considered a “family commu-
nity” where individuals had unlimited access to the CEO into an enterprise that had adopted many traditional business practices. NGO leadership retained, however, attitudes that Fowler (1997, as cited in Hailey & James, 2004) describes as paternalistic in its ability to maintain high levels of employee commitment and shared values. Organizational growth forced the charismatic and once approachable CEO to be less visible in daily operations and eroded the sense of family for those employees who had experienced the or- ganization’s pre-growth familial culture. Turnover had increased and tensions developed between long-time employees and newer hires. At the same time, the relationship between headquarters (HQ) and “the field” became more complex. Given cul- tural differences and geographic separateness, the NGO country directors advocated for increased autonomy regarding decisions that affected their programs. In contrast, HQ managers added poli- cies, reporting duties, and training requirements to which field staff had to abide. Those burdensome charges, coupled with a distant HQ staff––many having no first-hand field experience––ampli- fied the divide between the two organizational segments. Although those growing pains were of concern to the NGO leadership, the organization was nonetheless very successful in fundraising. Ironically, the organization’s financial success created a greater strain on the leadership’s ability to manage growth.
Following a series of incidents that illumi- nated questionable practices among managers in international locations, the Director of Interna- tional Operations (DIO) unilaterally determined that leadership development was needed to ameliorate the “ethical and moral lapses” within international leadership. Subsequently, the DIO directed the training manager to develop a leader- ship curriculum that could address the issues of growth and program sustainability by identifying leadership development competencies that could be converted into specific activities suitable for application in the fifty-one countries where the
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organization maintained programs of differing maturities and individual challenges.
The training director had been with the or- ganization less than a year and was primarily responsible for coordinating skills training for internal staff. Upon receiving the mandate to provide leadership training for international managers, the training director established dates for three workshops to pilot a leadership develop- ment curriculum over a one-year period in three international locations. With extensive experience in instructional design, the training director was comfortable with the technical aspects of cur- riculum development, but had limited expertise in assessing and evaluating structures, processes and cultural norms that influence training outcomes and organization development interventions. Given this lack of tenure with the organization and the scope of the project, the training director chose to collaborate with a team of college pro- fessors to help develop and implement the NGO leadership curriculum project.
The NGO initiated a series of needs assessment activities to help determine the challenges it faced in creating a stable community betterment vehicle across different cultural practices, communica- tion systems, and supervisory relationships. The hoped-for outcome would be a curriculum that could address the issues of growth and program sustainability by identifying leadership devel- opment competencies that could be converted into specific activities suitable for application throughout the organization. The organization would sponsor three pilot workshops on three different continents to explore leadership devel- opment strategies. The content of the workshops would be based upon an extensive initial needs assessment (NA) consisting of three elements: a web-based organization-wide survey elaborating on one previously developed by the NGO, qualita- tive interviews with headquarters staff arranged by the training department, and formative evaluation results from the three workshops acquired through
researcher observation, individual workshop-day evaluations, and focus group interviews.
Organization Values
While the NGO was guided by a board of directors and a senior leadership team, the organization’s founding values influenced all programmatic and institutional decisions. Those values honor indi- vidual wisdom and collective decision-making, and look to build sustainable community capac- ity. Organizational values were reinforced by messages that were prominently displayed on the organization’s physical structure, in its internal documents, and in its marketing material. The founding values have been institutionalized and used as benchmarks against which all plans, deci- sions, and activities are measured.
Under the CEO’s leadership, the NGO was transformed from a cash-strapped enterprise into a financially sound organization that expanded its community empowerment projects and initiated new global programs. Aside from expanding the organization’s international presence, the CEO was highly regarded throughout the NGO for developing innovative strategies that increased donations and added funding streams. Ironically, the organization’s success in attracting the corpo- rate and private donations that expanded its help to developing communities also created a strain on the NGO leadership’s ability to manage its own internal growth.
As its employee base surged, the organiza- tion outgrew its physical location. As a result, headquarters employees were spread among three separate locations within a three-mile radius. That physical separation, combined with additional bureaucratic protocols to constrict spontaneous, informal meetings, inhibited cross-segment collaboration within the organization. Many new hires, including managers and supervisors, never met the CEO––a cultural rite of passage for employees during the organization’s formative years. The dichotomous split between new and
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long-term employees created opposing camps in the organization, polarizing the workplace. By 2001, employee turnover, once a rarity within the NGO, overwhelmed the training department. The symptoms of growth concerned some members of the NGO senior leadership team; however, since the NGO was notably successful in fundraising, top management appeared unconcerned.
The Project
The mission of the NGO relied on a strict code of ethics based on founding values established in its early days some sixty years earlier. As its vision and mission evolved over the decades, the NGO espoused the same commitment to employee development as it had to beneficiaries of its world-wide programs: every employee was considered a leader in the organization, though the NGO had never explicitly defined the behaviors nor the expectations associated with leadership. According to Hailey and James (2004), this phe- nomenon might reflect
“the perception that the concept of leadership is antithetical to the participatory culture espoused by many NGOs. In a sector that believes itself to be more value-driven, participatory, and less managerialist than the for-profit sector business sector, there is an unwillingness to concede the important influence of any one individual leader.” (p. 346)
Believing that enhanced employee leadership would stem turnover and create a more cohesive workforce, a senior executive within the NGO mandated that leadership training be developed for all employees. By 2005, the training department was assigned responsibility for the leadership ini- tiative. Trainers initiated a series of needs assess- ment activities to help determine the challenges the organization would face in creating a stable community betterment vehicle across different cultural practices, communication systems, and
supervisory relationships. Results of the assess- ments were to be used to generate a training curriculum that would inculcate the cooperative spirit and shared values that had characterized the organization throughout its formative history.
The tripartite needs assessment outlined earlier included a web-based, organization-wide survey ; personal interviews with HQ staff; and formative evaluation results from three workshops that would pilot the curriculum framework. The results of the needs assessment would subsequently inform a curriculum by identifying leadership develop- ment competencies that could be converted into leadership learning modules. Those modules could be administered through a variety of technology- assisted delivery systems for use in the countries where the organization maintained programs of differing maturity and locality-specific cul- tural challenges. The consulting team assigned members to facilitate delivery of the three pilot workshops to test the organizational and cultural fit of leadership competencies that might anchor the curriculum.
THE NGO CONTRACT
This section describes how the leadership de- velopment curriculum project evolved through a partnership with the team from a land-grant university.
The Consulting Team
Faced with the responsibility of developing and implementing a leadership development program without adequate internal expertise, the NGO training director engaged professors from a state university to assist with the project in a consulting capacity. It selected the land-grant university team to carry out the needs assessment since its members had extensive international NGO experience and also because the training director believed that the team’s perspective would be more objective
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than that of the NGO internal stakeholders. The research team included one member from the business school and four from the college of education. Team members had extensive experi- ence with adult education and life-long learning, curriculum development, leadership development, international work, and nonprofit organization consulting.
After conferring with the NGO training direc- tor, the consulting team proposed a three-year plan that would allow leadership training to be integrated into the organization’s developing struc- tural and managerial systems. The plan outlined roles and responsibilities for the consulting team and key NGO individuals, established a timeline for developing and implementing each phase of the proposal, identified desired outcomes for each project phase, and articulated a comprehensive evaluation system for each phase.
The First Year Plan
The first year of the proposed three-year project focused on conducting a comprehensive needs assessment that included feedback from senior leadership, from employees in stratified segments of the organization, and from pilot workshop participants. A one-year timetable was created to conduct assessment and evaluation activities, leading to a technical report that would recom- mend NGO-specific competencies foundational to a leadership development curriculum. The follow- ing describes the team’s theoretical approach and processes used to complete the needs assessment.
Needs Assessment Methodology
This study is based on the theoretical assumptions of needs assessment as an organization develop- ment intervention. While the processes associated with this type of intervention may differ in public and private enterprises, the literature suggested that needs assessment is a process of gathering information to elucidate the degree of alignment
among the organization’s mission and goals and its actual output or impact. Rothwell and Sredl (1992) suggest that needs assessment can be defi- ciency- or opportunity-oriented. While deficiency orientation focuses on the present, opportunity orientation identifies performance gaps that will likely occur in the future due to increasing change in both public and private sectors. To help identify the types of change that can impact an enterprise, Revans (1994) developed a matrix to illustrate four types of change and two dimensions by which they vary. According to Revans, the types of change that impact organizations include: cor- rective change, developmental change, adaptive change, and strategic change. Those four catego- ries range between two dimensions―the known and the unknown. Sleezer (1992) suggested that a needs assessment could generate three results: information, priorities, and management support. Holton (1995) expanded Sleezer’s approach to recommend solutions and interventions that would assist organizational development.
The needs assessment described in this study was conducted to identify “the common leader- ship language” for an NGO that would articulate the leadership competencies needed to navigate the organization through rapid growth while rein- forcing its founding principles and mission. The needs assessment results were to be used to inform NGO leadership development initiatives and to provide individuals throughout the enterprise an opportunity to be included in the change process.
A mixed methodology was used to gather pertinent information from stakeholders. Those methods included an anonymous, web-based global survey, structured individual interviews, formative and summative feedback from work- shop participants, casual interviews, document review, research team observation, and organiza- tion meetings. The following sections review the needs assessment component in which quantita- tive methodology in data collection was used to determine desirable leadership development, with additional information from the qualitative
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interviews and overseas meetings that explored the deeper meanings of the NGO values and commitment to its principles of grass-roots in- volvement. Team members utilized an emotional intelligence model useful for analyzing leadership competencies during the overseas workshops since that model would best align with the value orientation of the NGO. The below provide the data collection process, analysis, and results for both quantitative and qualitative components of the needs assessment, as well as some background information from the global, web-based survey useful for understanding the NGO international context.
QUALITATIVE STUDY RESEARCH DESIGN
The research team used qualitative methods to understand the global leadership expectations of NGO headquarters staff. There is no specified set of procedural steps used in this kind of inquiry; as Hultgren (1989) noted, “the self engagement in the project allows one to be led by the questions and the natural unfolding of the inquiry as it is lived, rather than prestructured in advance” (p. 52). The research team incorporated Van Manen’s (1990) six research activities to guide the study, looking for the “dynamic interplay” among the activities that he asserted defines phenomenological study (p. 30). These activities are discussed below.
Turn to a Phenomenon that Seriously Interests Us and Commits Us to the World
The team’s background in cross-cultural and inter- national issues provided motivation to collaborate with the mission-driven NGO and its programs in fifty-one countries. Team members were es- pecially anxious to learn how others constructed meaning about the NGO and how that meaning might resonate with their own.
Investigate Experience as We Live it Rather than as We Conceptualize It
To record NGO experiences as lived, the research- ers conducted in-depth interviews with twenty-six participants. During the interviews, the researchers probed for meaning behind participant stories that reflected their attitudes and experience regarding organization leadership, without prior reflection. Gadamer (1975) described such questioning as an art, “not in the sense of learned craft, but as in the structure of experience and thinking of a hermeneutic consciousness... the art of questioning is that of being able to go on asking questions” (p. 330).
Globalization and leadership have been subject to much research, but little has been written about the leadership challenges of an NGO directing programs on five continents. This study presented life experiences from the immediacy of the par- ticipants’ own perceptions.
Reflect on the Essential Themes that Characterize the Phenomenon
Van Manen (1990) described reflection as a thoughtful grasping of what gives an experience its special significance. As Gadamer (1975) pro- claimed, “understanding is not so much an action of subjectivity as it is entering into an event of transmission, wherein past and present are con- stantly mediated through language” (pp. 43-44). The team read and reread each text, searching for statements that defined for the participant a particularly meaningful moment, feeling, or revelation about self or the world as immediately experienced.
Describe the Phenomenon through the Art of Writing and Rewriting
While Hultgren (1989) noted the lack of a single method in phenomenological research, the re- searchers used van Manen’s guide to phenom-
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enological writing—“the speaking of language, varying examples, writing and rewriting” as an investigation that used personal experience to trace the derivation of words and idiomatic phrases (p. 51).
Maintain a Strong Orientation on the Fundamental Question
Throughout the interview process the research team kept the central question at hand: what do the participants want to see in a global leader- ship development initiative? Remaining mindful of the fundamental research question facilitated the team’s ability to conversationally probe for understanding of nuances behind a participant’s statement, while maintaining the integrity of the research design.
Balance the Research Context by Considering Parts and Whole
During the continued rewriting of the emer- gent themes, the researchers reflected on how the themes contributed to understanding of the leadership that the organization would like to develop across its fifty-one country programs on five continents.
THE NGO HEADQUARTERS INTERVIEWS
The following describe the interviews with head- quarters employees: the methods used to conduct the interviews, evaluation of the results, and themes that emerged from the inquiry.
Structured Interviews
The purpose of interviewing a cross-section of individuals from the NGO headquarters (HQ) staff was to understand their leadership expectations for the NGO both in the US and abroad. The research
team used the hermeneutic phenomenological approach described above to examine how NGO HQ staff perceived leadership work and life in an international context, or as Bredo and Feinberg (1982) suggested, to understand how HQ staff perceived the “rules and conventions that one must know to make sense of things, to understanding what is going on, rather than merely... the rules that one must know to behave with propriety” (p. 122). Using this methodology, the team hoped to uncover the hidden reasons or motives Bredo and Feinberg described, to
“explain actions in the everyday sense of making others’ reasons or motives comprehensible... in terms of their reasons or motives, and in terms of the system of rules or conventions constituting these reasons or motives.... Sometimes people act in a motivated way but are systematically unaware of their motives, and in fact think they are acting from other motives.” (p. 127)
Hultgren (1989) summarized the purpose of interpretive inquiry as seeking to clarify, authen- ticate, uncover, or bring to full human awareness the meaning structures expressed by people in their everyday experiences. The purpose of interpretive inquiry was to understand human cultural activity and experience from the perspective of those liv- ing through the experience. Each of this study’s qualitative components focused on illuminating the cultural milieu of the NGO’s leadership experi- ences and expectations. Other researchers (Miles and Huberman (1994), Parry and Sinha (2005), Patton (1990), Strauss and Corbin (1990)) have found that participants may have deeper mean- ings behind their statements that can be revealed by asking further, probing questions that identify themes common to the participants.
Study Participants
Seventeen headquarters participants were selected by the NGO training department after consulting
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with senior management and a project review committee organized for the leadership develop- ment initiative. Participants included senior HQ management, regional global management, and representative personnel across all levels in the organization.
The Interview Protocol
Headquarters participants were asked questions about their background, work experience, mean- ing of leadership, and their understanding of how leadership is distributed within the NGO.
The HQ interviews were conducted in a conversational setting in person or by telephone. Initial interviews required 60 to 90 minutes, with follow-up interviews conducted several weeks later. During the follow up interviews, the research team confirmed the accuracy of the themes that had been identified from the initial interview, clarified various questions, and provided participants an opportunity to reflect on how their experiences resonated with the themes that evolved during the study. Based on the follow-up interviews and upon further reflection and observations, the research team revised the themes to correspond better to the intersubjective meanings of what the orga- nization would like to focus on in its leadership development program.
The research team was aware of the internation- al context of the text generated by the participants and remained sensitive to the existential themes described by van Manen (1990) as the lifeworld essentials, where lived presence was influenced by space, time, corporeality, and communality.
THEMES FROM THE HEADQUARTERS INTERVIEWS
Following coding and analyzing transcriptions of individual interviews and field notes, completing member checks and peer debriefing, the following five themes emerged from interviews held with
managers and other employees made available by NGO senior leadership: Coaching/Mentor- ing, Career Development, Rapid Growth of the Organization, Participatory Decision-Making, and Innovative Leadership. Each theme is presented below with an illustrative citation from participants describing the theme.
Coaching/Mentoring
A senior leader involved in international program- ming commented that “we hired a lot of people without management training who were never groomed to lead a country program.... There’s no training for increased responsibility. Most VPs have had no executive leadership training.” Coaching and mentoring were seen by senior management as important skills needed at both headquarters and in the field. They felt that greater effectiveness in both areas would contribute to retention of employees who joined the organiza- tion with great expectations.
Career Development
Many NGO staff believed that a career develop- ment program was needed in the home office. As a member of the accounting staff stated:
“there’s a lack of clear career paths... a lot of folks just get their foot in the door anyway they can because it’s a great organization. But then, once you get here, I don’t think there’s a lot of time spent to determine someone’s strengths, and maybe if they’re in the right position.
Others questioned compensation and promo- tion policies: “there’s been a compensation study; it’s been ongoing for two or three years.” A senior member of the leadership team tried to visualize a career development path or formalized promo- tional track, and concluded: “I don’t believe we have one.” Another leader looked ahead: “as far as career development, I think informally it is
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the responsibility... of the supervisor and the em- ployee, but as far as [our] getting more formal and consistent, and having some tools and processes... we need to make it a priority to move forward.”
Rapid Growth of the Organization
A continual theme running through the conversa- tions was the explosive, ten-fold growth of the NGO during recent years, from a budget of $7 million to over $75 million. As an organization visionary reported,
“when you [add] almost 20 people a month... that happened [for] almost two years... how can you absorb people and train them and properly orient [them]... we were just lucky to get them in and get their desk figured out, and give them their key and their security clearance or whatever it might have been.”
A staff person noted that “the organization grew so fast, they’re used to running themselves like a mom-and-pop [store] because that’s how they had done it for so long. We’ve got to start running ourselves like CARE.... That means you do lose some of the personal aspects, and I think that’s a real struggle going on right now, and leadership included.” A program person cited another problem with rapid growth came “from hiring people before we know what to do with them...I think that has compounded the problem of not knowing how we lead, or how we manage, or how we make decisions today.”
The dichotomy between an organization driven by values and one driven by successful corporate practices of the day was a common viewpoint touched upon by participants. As one executive explained, “there’s just a tension [here] that I think you would hear more than one person say. We need to make sure that we encompass... the more corporate or bottom-line thinking, or more deadline-oriented thinking... with what we have been. Our history has us as a more grassroots
kind of open-ended, more people-oriented, more shake-your-head, rather than a signature-on-a- legal-document-type organization.” The manager added that they could improve the atmosphere by striving to be an organization that could “cross all the t’s and dot all the i’s,” but could still honor its roots, “making sure we remain participatory as long as feasible.”
One program person talked about her per- ception that leadership was polarized across the organization: “you have programs in kind of the original spirit from 60 years ago on one side, and then you have operations, and accountability pro- tecting the organization’s name and brand, and new blood or corporate mentality in the organization on the other side... those two poles are working against at times and together at times.”
A senior leader described having a strategic plan, an emphasis on accountability, legal struc- tures, and policies, and “all that’s really impor- tant... but if we focus on those and forget what we’re about, that’s the balance that we’re trying to keep, between the old and the new.” A manager summed up the dilemma, “so as you bring in people from the outside, who come from corporate backgrounds, not NGO backgrounds, [but] from more complex organizations, that introduces a kind of stress to the old school.”
Participatory Decision-Making
The organization prides itself on a commitment to universal participation in decision-making. That principle, however, has sometimes paralyzed the process rather than create the intended harmony, as one participant said,
“we’re a very participatory organization, so I think they encourage folks to be leaders to a certain extent…there’s a disconnect between manage- ment’s definition of leadership and staff, being one of those who are not part of management, sometimes I feel like we get bogged down in the participatory process.”
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A manager described the participatory process as “okay for us and it’s good for us to a fault. Because sometimes decisions can be lost or not acted upon, or linger a little bit too long because you want to make sure you get a lot of voices in.” A staff person agreed, noting that “sometimes we might miss out on some things because we’re so busy trying to make sure everybody’s weighed in. And another manager suggested “there’s a fine line between participatory decision-making and consensus.”
A staff person hoped that all would feel empow- ered and consider themselves leaders, however, “I think there’s a perception right now that if you’re not in a position of authority, nobody is going to listen to what you’re saying... I think there are some people that are afraid to speak their mind, because they’re afraid they’ll lose their job.”
Innovative Leadership
Many participant comments were future oriented and focused on directions needed to sustain the organization. A senior leader suggested that “ad- vocacy is going to be one of our biggest steps, and it will be one of the biggest risk-taking steps we’ve taken.” A danger would be offending some donors, where some issues might challenge “religious circles and religious beliefs, as well as cross-cultural [sensitivities].” When there are questions about the mission, or about a particu- lar issue, the organization has typically avoided responding “because we’ve not formalized a [policy] statement.”
A senior vice-president suggested there was a need to hire people to stretch the ideas and practices in the organization. “How do we see ourselves and how do we see others? We are a diverse organiza- tion, but we assume that we act with diversity.” Another leader discussed the need for leadership “to occur at all levels of the organization,” as well as a need “to establish some sort of baseline, in terms of what are our leadership competencies? What is our definition of leadership? What is our
developmental plan?” Leadership appeared to be not just situational, but evolving along with the organization: “we could have individuals in the organization who were highly effective leaders five years ago, and perhaps the organization has outgrown their [ideas]. It’s not just leadership capacities, but all kinds of skills that [were] ad- equate to the job five years ago that have really been challenged by [organizational] growth. A significant part of that growth has happened not in our field programs, but in developing our cen- tralized capacity.”
One leader saw widespread change challeng- ing the NGO, “the world and global climate is changing, from terrorism to State Department lists, places where we work you can’t travel… your insurance doesn’t cover you, do you send people there or do you not?”
Finally, a program leader commented, “I think there have been interesting experiences in leadership development by people stepping into a void, you know, because of a lack of structure or lack of a system. But that’s spotty, and that’s not something that has been intentional.”
POST-WORKSHOP FOCUS GROUP INTERVIEWS
The research team used a different set of interview questions for the on-site focus group meetings. Two focus groups of 16 participants were con- ducted in Latin America and three focus groups totaling 24 participants were conducted in Africa. For the Eastern European workshops, the team used a survey of the 29 participants developed on site with NGO representatives. Participants’ initial responses were followed up with probing questions to ascertain the deeper meaning behind participant text. Focus group participants were asked these questions at the conclusion of the first two workshops.
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• What was it like participating in this workshop?
• What three words would you pick to de- scribe this week?
• What can you take back from this work- shop that will help you do your job?
• What changes would you make to this workshop to make it more effective?
• Was there anything else? (repeated several times)
In asking probing, follow-up questions, the research team clarified or expanded on concepts raised in the group. For example, the impact of local authorities related to work or personal situations were touched upon; the researchers sought greater understanding about an individual’s perception of events or ideas in those areas.
This method required a non-directive approach to interviewing where researchers did not lead participants in any particular direction. While it was understood that the qualitative research might yield commonalities, similar themes, or patterns within the data, the research team remained open to the possibility that results might suggest no commonalities in any area.
Themes from the Post-Workshop Focus Group Interviews
After coding the transcriptions of each post- workshop focus group, data analysis, member checks, and peer debriefing, the following themes emerged. The five previous themes were repeated in the focus group interviews, and two new ones were added: Concern about the Proposed Lead- ership Development Curriculum Process and the Inadequacy of Leadership Development by itself to help the organization. The primary themes mir- rored those from the interview questions, but two themes were unique to the focus group responses, and are elaborated on below.
Concern about Proposed Leadership Development Curriculum Process
A function of the pilot workshops was to gather information from participants regarding their own perceived leadership needs as well as those of the NGO. Another function was to expose NGO personnel to leadership development activities that could be incorporated in the final curriculum to be used throughout the organization. Because of this exposure, the participants were very vocal about the exercises and activities they found to be useful and those that they did not consider as valuable.
In two of the three workshops, supervisors and subordinates were grouped together. Focus group respondents indicated that while this for- mat provided exposure to alternate perspectives regarding NGO functions, it was a barrier to candid discussion. Workshop participants said that their responses during certain activities were guarded or veiled. Some participants indicated that even though the workshop ground rules included total participation and candor, they were not comfort- able doing so.
Some participants were concerned that the facilitators of the pilot workshops did not “know the NGO culture” well enough. The NGO training culture uses a structured process for delivering information and other educational initiatives. That process includes setting ground rules before each session to dictate expectations for group behavior, opening each day with a “reflection” from a des- ignated participant, and including “energizers” to relax participants during the work day. Deviation from that structure was uncomfortable for many participants. Focus group participants indicated a strong desire to integrate the NGO training culture into subsequent leadership workshops.
The curriculum for the pilot workshops was adapted from an existing leadership program delivered to individuals from both public and private sectors in the U.S. Many focus group participants indicated that they were unconvinced that a leadership development program for private
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sector organizations was appropriate for the NGO. Many did not recognize the similarities in leader- ship development for both groups.
Inadequacy of Leadership Development Alone
During the three pilot workshops, participants discussed and identified what they viewed as criti- cal competencies for leadership within the NGO. Those competencies were alluded to during the focus group interviews. Each workshop location had settled on desired core leadership competen- cies near the end of the workshop period through a small-group voting process. After determining first and second choices in four broad leadership categories, the group results were reconciled by the entire participant population after further, large-group discussion. The leadership competen- cies included accurate self-assessment, transpar- ency, empathy, and teamwork and collaboration. Participants emphasized the importance for those competencies to be included in any organiza- tional leadership development program. They also wanted the senior leadership of the NGO to participate in leadership development activities.
More profound changes may be needed, as an NGO serving 51 countries might have to prepare for a new kind of global leader (GL). Al Arkoubi and Dirini (2007) describe such leadership where “GLs are builders and architects who…craft in- novative global/local strategies…[and who] are also responsible for developing successful leaders, promoting capabilities, creating and enhancing the organization’s social capital, building cross- cultural teams, and contributing effectively to the …requirements of global and local needs” (p. 3).
THE NGO GLOBAL LEADERSHIP SURVEY
A web-based global survey cooperatively-devel- oped by the consulting team and the NGO was
electronically distributed through the NGO web- based network. The survey yielded quantitative data that were analyzed and later compared to the qualitative data. A 25-item Likert-scale survey with six open-ended questions was developed by the university consultants with input from the NGO training director. The survey was made avail- able online to all employees of the NGO for six weeks. A total of 178 employees responded from the 829 employees in the organization, a 21.5% rate of return that represented five divisions within the organization and offices in various countries, including programs in the United States.
The results of the global survey demonstrated that while employees overwhelmingly viewed themselves as leaders in the organization, they did not believe, generally, that the organization recognized their achievements. This and other results from the survey influenced the consulting team recommendations to the NGO regarding the findings’ potential impact on the leadership development plan. Survey questions were divided into four issue categories:
• accountability—personal demonstration on the part of the employee, as well as rec- ognition of leadership by the NGO;
• perceptions toward their own leadership and understanding of NGO expectations;
• opportunities for leadership development and professional growth; and,
• organization values—how respondents viewed the importance of the NGO founding values compared to their own self-interest.
A discussion of results are presented in Global Survey findings, below. The respondent commu- nity had a two-to-one ratio of females to males while work division showed an equal split between international and home country respondents.
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Global Survey Findings
This discussion summarizes results of the NGO global survey that raised questions about misalign- ment of NGO values and practice. The responses follow the segmentation noted above.
Accountability
Respondents generally believed that they were responsible for demonstrating leadership. How- ever, more than two-thirds felt that they were only sometimes rewarded for displaying leadership ability. More than half of the respondents indicated that they were never, rarely, or only sometimes given opportunities to use leadership skills.
Perceptions Toward Leadership
Respondents saw themselves as modeling in- tegrity, ethical behavior, and problem-solving skills, but often did not understand the leadership qualities expected of them, Sixty percent saw senior management as generally weak in leader- ship ability.
Opportunities for Leadership Development and Professional Growth
Respondents clearly indicated a willingness to take on responsibility and improve their leader- ship skills, while a majority of them felt that the NGO did not actively develop leadership skills in its employees.
Values of the Organization
While respondents felt they were committed to the NGO mission, fully half believed that the organization did not sufficiently develop in them the leadership characteristics enabling them to represent the organization to the wider community.
Global Survey Discussion
The Global Survey raised significant questions about the NGO commitment to leadership devel- opment. NGO value pronouncements consider all employees to be leaders in the organization—a value held from the inception of the NGO in the 1940’s—but employees believed that their leadership was largely unappreciated. Associates received no benefits or recognition from taking on leadership tasks, nor were they provided with activities that would develop leadership skills. Employees responded to needs that required decision-making, collaboration, and constructive feedback to associates. While the global online survey provided statistically significant data re- garding employee perceptions across four major themes, it does not provide data that show how employees and NGO leadership could effectively communicate, let alone reconcile, their differing perceptions across the time, space, and culture barriers that separate senior management from its HQ staff and field offices.
CRITERIA USED TO UNDERSTAND THE ORGANIZATION
The research team’s final report consisted of its own observations and included results of the web-based global survey, including the survey’s open-ended, qualitative component; comments from focus groups conducted at the conclusion of workshops at two of the overseas sites; team member field notes written at the third workshop site; and a survey developed with the NGO training officer and administered at the third site.
Addressing the Leadership Challenges
The central assignment in this research project was to identify leadership competencies desired by members of the NGO to further the organiza-
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tion’s ability to confront the challenges associated with tremendous growth in the organization while maintaining its founding values. The research team was charged with creating a leadership develop- ment curriculum to help the NGO develop leaders who are able to manage the near and long-term changes taking place throughout the NGO. The results of the needs assessment suggested that leadership development, while unquestionably important, was alone insufficient to balance the organization’s competing needs. Leadership de- velopment alone could not ameliorate the NGO need to establish and link human resource man- agement and technostructural systems. Leadership development for non-managers would not alter their perception that senior leadership was “out of touch” with the rest of the organization; while senior leaders espoused cherished organizational values, the results were not evident in their behav- ior or decisions. Leadership development alone would not narrow the divide between HQ and the field, where many believed that HQ and field worked on parallel tracks with little meaningful collaboration.
A significant finding from the global survey indicated that NGO staff believed the NGO did not develop leadership in its employees, contra- dicting its basic values. When the leadership team shared results of the survey with senior manage- ment, the management seemed incredulous and debated the legitimacy of the findings. As Bol- man and Deal (2003) suggested, organizations “puzzle over contradictory evidence, but usually succeed in pushing it aside—until they come across...evidence too fascinating to ignore, too clear to misperceive, too painful to deny, which makes vivid still other signals they do not want to see” (p. 7). An unanticipated outcome of the leadership development project was the NGO leadership having to confront a reality that did not correspond to their vision of the organization or themselves as leaders.
Human Process Interventions
Effective social processes of communication, leadership, decision-making, and group dynamics are central to creating and maintaining a success- ful participatory organizational culture that the NGO established as part of its ethical foundation. Hence, beyond any recommended human resource management and technostructural interventions would be activities to add greater substance to the NGO commitment to a more democratically-run organization. Development of a career develop- ment program and a leadership succession system across the organization would provide ample evidence of NGO intentions of systematic and ordered growth. The uncertainties that attend fund- raising as a continual and unrelenting effort can be offset by the investment in capacity-building among the NGO constituent country programs and client communities. Leadership development and cooperative mechanisms, enhanced through the development of technostructural systems, will keep NGO values alive.
IMPLICATIONS FOR PROFESSIONAL PRACTICE
The needs assessment provides a platform for understanding and responding to the challenges for developing a leadership that can sustain the NGO through its crises of growth as well as de- velopment of technological infrastructure that can confront communication problems that plague the NGO. The Global Survey scratched the surface of discontent that has severely divided management and line staff as well as HQ and field programs. The survey suggested system-wide initiatives that could move the organization forward, cementing the noble commitment of large segments of its employee population.
The leadership skills and behaviors identified in individual interviews, researcher observations, and the web-based survey were instrumental in
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developing the content and process of the pilot workshops. The workshops, in turn, provided valuable information from the field that enabled the research team to further define the leadership competencies and technology desired by NGO global community programs. It is clear that sys- temic changes are necessary for the organization to overcome the challenges that rapid growth has uncovered in leadership development and technology infrastructure. The implications of the needs determination so far suggest a need for human resource management, human process, and technostructural interventions, beyond the initial leadership development program curriculum en- visioned by NGO senior leadership.
FURTHER RESEARCH
The pervasive reach of globalization has raised questions about how transnationals can nurture leaders who, according to Al Arkoubi and Dirani (2007), must act “across borders...cultures, and languages, [and who] appear to have the most complex tasks to accomplish and the hardest roles to play” (p. 1). The research team that collabo- rated with the NGO encountered organizational issues beyond leadership development that sug- gest more analysis to examine systems related to personnel policies, communication mechanisms, decision-making processes, and distributive, regional authority.
A closer look at the construction of the global survey was beyond the scope of this chapter. Such an examination, though, might provide useful information about responses among different sub-populations of the NGO. While the survey provided a critical baseline to interpret organiza- tional functioning, including a qualitative research dimension added in-depth, might shed light on some of the underlying issues plaguing the NGO. A follow-up study with more detailed analysis of responses might point the way to other initiatives that could help the NGO.
Finally, the curriculum to be developed from this needs assessment program might prove to be an invaluable asset to NGOs developing their own leadership responses to the unrelenting demands of globalization.
CONCLUSION
This case study presented the needs assessment used to help design a leadership development curriculum that would address issues of growth and program sustainability for an international NGO. The research team hoped to identify lead- ership development competencies and protocols that could be converted into specific activities suitable for application in the countries where the NGO maintains programs. The availability of such a curriculum could be adopted by other transnational NGOs Underlying the challenges to leadership affecting the NGO was the critical need for technology infrastructure that would support the NGO mission. With the growth in complexity of its overseas country programs, the NGO had not developed the capacity to respond in a timely way with either policy development or logistical support.
The challenges illustrated above frame the complex issues that defy superficial intervention. Senior leadership acceptance and readiness for change is perhaps the most difficult challenge fac- ing the organization. While the NGO has had an organization development unit that is staffed with forward-thinking and ethics-focused individuals, the unit has often run a course parallel to that of senior management, rather than in harmony with that leadership. The training department has had employees highly qualified as curriculum develop- ers and adult educators. However, that department was not part of the organizational development team and had its own activity-based focus. The degree to which the functional units can identify and leverage their points of intersection will determine the future success of the organization
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more so than an isolated leadership development program in which senior leaders have little stake or presence. Lack of an internal senior management person as a leadership and technology develop- ment champion removes an important, potential advocacy for institutional change.
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Revans, R. (1994). Keynote presentation, the Academy of Human Resource Development an- nual meeting.
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KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS
Case Study: An in-depth description and analysis of an organization or event to examine the interplay of important elements that represent the forces at work in the object studied.
Emotional Intelligence (EI) Model: An ap- proach to defining ability, capacity, or skill to identify, assess, manage and control emotions personally, in others, or of groups.
Field: The largely self-sufficient country pro- grams outside of the NGO headquarters.
Global Survey: A quantitative 25 question investigation conducted to determine attitudes about leadership in the NGO.
Interpretive Inquiry: The study of the im- mediate and local meanings of social action for the people involved.
Needs Assessment: The gathering and analysis of information to identify the strengths and weak- nesses of an organization.
NGO: Non Governmental Organization—used in this case study to identify a legally-recognized international nonprofit.
Organization Change: How an organiza- tion’s culture evolves to preserve and maintain the integrity of the corporate system.
Organization Values: The ideals and stan- dards that define honesty, integrity, promotion, concern for the customer, and so on in an orga- nization.
Organization Culture: Shared basic assump- tions that define behavior and how employees should think and feel about how business is conducted in an organization.
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Pilot Study: Testing of a concept or approach on a limited basis to determine whether the study format or method needs to be revised before using on a wider basis.
Quantitative Research: Sometimes referred to as positivistic, this type of inquiry uses a numeri- cal approach to understand property, goods, and services in society through the use of statistics, such as student test performance.
Technology Infrastructure: The intercon- nection among organization elements, divisions, departments, research laboratories, universities, and industries through fast and reliable commu- nication networks.
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Copyright © 2012, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
INTRODUCTION
Within the past century, Kazakhstan has seen the suppression of its long history of nomadic clans by the Russians, then emerged as an independent nation after the fall of the U.S.S.R. Globalization has created a conflict between the infiltrating west- ern thought and traditional mentalities. Within the past twenty years of independence, this nation of
rich and complex histories has begun to develop models within its universities to educate leaders for all areas of government and industry in a world of rapid change and technology integration. This is consistent with the transitions of countries around the world as they have gained independence and emerged with their own identities. They follow a pattern of building infrastructures, capacity and skills with leadership development the most important for sustainable growth. But the psy- chological foundation demanded of leaders in a
Chapter 54
Judith Parker Columbia University, USA
Gainiya Tazhina University of International Business, Kazakhstan
Leadership Development in Kazakhstan
ABSTRACT
Kazakhstan’s recent history has transitioned from that of nomadic clans to domination by Russia to today’s independent nation. During these 20 years of independence, universities often educate leaders by translating and adapting traditionally Western models and research instruments. This article will report the findings of three such instruments on leadership, career management, and stress tolerance that were administered to graduate students at the University of International Business in Kazakhstan within the past year and consider their importance for the future of leadership development that is rich with technology.
DOI: 10.4018/978-1-61350-068-2.ch054
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USSR dominated country is very different than that required of leaders in an independent nation. As a transitional activity, they have translated and adapted the traditionally Western models for human resource development and leadership. Today, technology has facilitated access to these models. These models and the research instru- ments associated with them are used to educate emerging leaders
The article is co-authored by Dr. Parker and Dr. Tazhina. Dr. Tazhina has been a visiting scholar at Teachers College/Columbia University during the Spring semesters of 2009 and 2010. During this time, she participated in Dr. Parker’s classes and began discussions about research collaboration in areas of common interest. This was the beginning of the work which is the foundation of this article.
BACKGROUND
The Culture of Kazakhstan
In order to understand the issues facing leadership development in Kazakhstan, it is important to un- derstand the political changes within the country and the corresponding psychological issues for its people. The development of Kazakhstan will be discussed in terms of its growth as a nation and its emergence in global importance. The develop- ment of its people will be discussed in terms of the changes in the field of applied psychology as a foundation for leadership development.
Tazhina (2010) presents the historical context for this research. Traditional Kazakh society has historically been divided into three “zhuz” which are further divided into tribal groups and each tribe into smaller clans. This structure developed from the nomadic lifestyle and harsh living conditions of this vast territory and became a regulatory mecha- nism for daily life. Clan membership, a clear age hierarchy and inter-familial relationships were a priority. Elders were at the top of the hierarchy and the family was in charge of resolving social and
psychological conflicts. This traditional culture secretly thrived during the Soviet era.
As evidence of Kazakhstan’s emergence into importance within globalization, Socor (2010) reports that in 2010, “on July 16-17, in Almaty, an informal meeting of 56 Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE) countries’ for- eign affairs ministers decided to hold a summit of the organization this year in Kazakhstan’s capital Astana. This will be the OSCE’s first meeting at the level of heads of state since Istanbul in 1999” (http://www.jamestown.org).
Socor (2010) continues to explain that “Ka- zakhstan is the first non-European, Muslim- majority, post-Soviet state to chair the OSCE. It is also a state recently created and built from scratch. Nineteen years ago, the Kazakh leadership had taken charge of a mere territory that lacked all the attributes or experience of statehood; a zone of Soviet economic and ecological disaster, in which the Kazakh element had been reduced to a minority, and where no political nation or civil society had existed. The selection of Kazakhstan to chair the OSCE rewards the country’s performance since 1991 in terms of state development, civil consensus building, economic modernization, and effective management of its natural resources. Meanwhile, Kazakhstan is generally regarded in the West as an authoritarian state. Its features include a single- party parliament, a presidential vertical power system, and its President, Nursultan Nazarbayev, has been in office since 1991 with a potentially lifetime tenure” (http://www.jamestown.org).
During the country’s history, the field of psychology has developed as well. Illeris (2004) notes that within this geographical region, the cultural historical tradition in psychology was developed in Russia by Lev Vygotsky and tested by Aleksander Luria in Uzbekistan between the two world wars. Cultural historical refers to the idea that “psychological factors can only be understood in a historical perspective and based on interaction with the cultural environment” (p. 48). These interactions are characterized by the
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concept of activity which is defined as “goal- directed endeavours”. These are “play, learning and labour” (p. 49). Illeris (2004) suggests that the “cultural historical tradition has first and fore- most used the historic-generic approach to build up an important basis for the understanding of the biological, historical and societal anchoring of psychological processes. But perhaps because the tradition was developed within the ideal of a contradiction-free communist society, it lacks an understanding of societal conflicts and their fun- damental structural importance – and in extension of this there is an idea that transfer of cultural and societal matters to a particular individual can take place as a more or less frictionless process. This implies a simplification of the understanding of the learning conception and may, in practice, cause a number of problems with respect to authority” (p. 51). This cultural historical tradition will be applied to Kazakhstan.
Tazhina (2010) explains that Kazakhstan’s independence in 1991 and resulting globalization has created a conflict between infiltrating west- ern thought and traditional mentalities resulting in discomfort on both personal and the familial level. This has increased the need for applied psychology. She notes that “market competition, the collapse of Soviet values, individualization, uncertainty of the future, and aggravated social stress resulted in heightened alcoholism, drug addiction and suicide” (p.1). In response to these needs “the Psychological Association for the Re- public of Kazakhstan was founded in 1999 and has around 300 members.
The Ethical Code of Applied Psychology Ka- zakhstan was adopted in 2003 and determines the moral and professional principals for practicing psychologists. Centers for applied psychology tend to be private structures within small businesses, offering consulting, psychological testing and training seminars. Several NGOs also provide psychological counseling for families, children, in- valids and persons tackling addiction. In response to growing interest in applied psychology over ten
public and private universities offer psychological training programs for tuition. Even though there are over 300 specialists who graduate in the field every year, they generally end up working in posi- tions akin to HR managers in private businesses. Psychology courses are also offered in various departments regardless of specialization for both Masters and Bachelors students and in the form of mini-courses and trainings” (p. 2).
Tazhina (2010) continues to explain that in 2007, an organization of trainers for Kazakh business psychologists was opened in Almaty, Kazakhstan. However, while there are currently about 5,000 specialists holding diplomas in the field, only 300 are members of the Association of Applied Psychology. The profession is not licensed in any way and lacks regulatory mecha- nisms, teaching standards and certification. It is considered an urgent issue to develop accredita- tion standards, licensing, and professional ethics. The importance lies in the fact that psychology is the foundation of the understanding of leader- ship issues.
While individual leadership is important, the context of the organization can enhance or inhibit the leadership of its members. Dorfman and House (2004) report that at the first GLOBE research conference in 1994, there was a consen- sus of the 54 researchers from 38 countries (of which Kazakhstan was one) about a definition of organizational leadership. “the ability of an indi- vidual to influence, motivate, and enable others to contribute toward the effectiveness and success of the organizations of which they are members” (p. 56). Within this context, the need to focus on the development of leaders in every segment of society is obvious.
Leadership
In an effort to analyze leadership itself, numerous authors and researchers have delineated types of leadership. Lojeski and Reilly (2008) begin with noting that the most “traditional view of leadership
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is that of a manager: one who monitors, controls, and, more importantly, rewards desired behavior and punishes undesired behavior. This kind of leadership views the relationship with followers as a series of transactions. I will reward you with something you want (e.g., money) if you do what I ask you to do. Sometimes called transactional leadership” (p. 123).
In addition, Logeski and Reilly (2008) label several other types of leaders. They note that “Charismatic leaders are people who can make the emotional connection” (p. 124). “Transforma- tional leadership includes four kinds of behavior: 1. Idealized influence refers to actions that dem- onstrate vision, values, and beliefs and creates a sense of identification with the leader among fol- lowers. 2. Individualized consideration involves coaching and encouraging and also promoting each individual’s belief that they can be success- ful. 3. Inspirational motivation involves creating a clear and appealing vision and serving as a model for desired behavior. 4. Intellectual stimulation involves making the team aware of problems and bringing new ideas so that followers become engaged in finding solutions. Transformational leaders also create an emotional connection with their followers so that their behaviors contribute to followers’ sense of ownership and commitment to the team’s goals and tasks” (p. 124-125).
However, putting these types of leaders into the context of a technology rich society, Lojeski, and Reilly (2008) note that transactional, charismatic, and transformational views of leadership were developed before the Digital Age, when organi- zations and teams were likely to be collocated and more culturally homogeneous. They suggest that today’s organizations need the ambassadorial leader. “The ambassadorial leader is a boundary spanner. Like an ambassador, the leader must span geographic, cultural, and organizational boundaries and foster trusting relationships among disparate groups of people” (p. 130).
Wiseman and McKeown (2010) categorize leaders as multipliers and diminishers. They
explain that “Some leaders make us better and smarter. They bring out our intelligence. This book is about these leaders, who access and revitalize the intelligence in the people around them. We call them Multipliers” (p. 4). They continue to explain that “Some leaders seemed to drain intel- ligence and capability out of the people around them. Their focus on their own intelligence and their resolve to be the smartest person in the room had a diminishing effect on everyone else. For them to look smart, other people had to end up looking dumb. We’ve all worked with these black holes. They create a vortex that sucks energy out of everyone and everything around them” (p. 5). However, they emphasize that “although the Multiplier/Diminisher framework might ap- pear binary, I wish to emphasize that there is a continuum between Multipliers and Diminishers, with just a small number of people at either polar extreme. Our research showed that most of us fall along this spectrum and have the ability to move toward the side of Multiplier” (p. 29).
Whether it is the emotional connection characteristic of the transformational leader or the multiplier effect of a successful leader, the image emerges from the psychological basis of the individual. Yet these leadership styles are the influenced by the culture that he or she is submerged in. All of these factors come to play in leadership development.
Culture and Leadership
Leadership is inextricably intertwined with both national and organizational culture. Hofstede’s (2001) extensive research on culture delineated several national cultural dimensions: power distance, uncertainty avoidance, individualism/ collectivism, masculinity/femininity, long versus short term orientation.
Dorfman and House also note that “although some convergence is likely taking place with respect to management practices, there is also a great deal of stability with respect to the fun-
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damental aspects of both cultural practices and psychological commonalities within cultural entities. Studies in many geographic regions show consistent results between earlier and subsequent studies even though as many as 20 years may have elapsed between the time the two studies were conducted” (p. 54). They cite Hofstede’s studies from the early 1970’s and their replication over the decades as evidence that change in these fun- damental cultural values appear to be very slow and quite resistant to convergence forces.
Emphasizing the importance of local culture, Tazhina (2010) reports that at the second annual meeting of the Kazakh business psychologists in 2008, Gul’zara Adilova, the general director of the group said, “The festival gave us the opportunity to examine the work of Kazakh psychologists instead of foreign trainers, as is often fashionable. Only local trainers can understand the culture and mentality of the people living in their country and provide the most effective training” (p. 2).
While attention to cultural differences is impor- tant, Dorfman & House (2004) also suggest that “there is a substantial amount of cross-national convergence of management practices, values, and beliefs. This occurs as a result of interactions among organizations engaged in cross-border trad- ing, and wide-spread proliferation of management education programs that reflect Western assump- tions, values, and practices” (p. 53).
Issues of national culture are complicated by the superposition of the culture of the organiza- tion itself. Schein (2004) explains that “leaders externalize their own assumptions and embed them gradually and consistently in the mission, goals, structures, and working procedures of the group. Whether we call these basic assumptions the guiding beliefs, the theories-in-use, the mental models, the basic principles, or the guiding visions on which founders operate, there is little question that they become major elements of the emerging culture of the organization” (pp. 406-407).
Parker (1997) adds an example of global edu- cational practices in the technical community at
3M. She notes that the growth of business in the Asia region in the 1990’s demanded educational programs in leadership skills. Parker (1997) re- ports on a number of learning activities that were developed by her in partnership with consultants in Europe and Asia to meet these needs. The objective of their partnership was to maintain a sensitivity to and balance between the Western culture of the Minnesota based company and the cultures of the Asian countries.
Dorfman and House (2004) cite numerous studies that “document the astonishing diversity of organizational practices worldwide, of which many are acceptable and considered effective in one country and ineffective in a neighboring country” (p. 52). However, they also provide examples of non-western conceptualizations of leadership. One example from Japan is Misumi’s performance-maintenance theory. The perfor- mance function reflects a leader’s “planning, guiding, and developing work procedures and pressure on subordinates to work hard and get the work done” (p. 62). The maintenance function reflects the leader’s “promoting of group stability and social processes” (p. 62). They continue by suggesting that this is similar to “task-oriented” and “support-oriented” leadership functions in Western leadership theories. Another example is Sinha’s research from India which also showed links to western theories however research in- dicated that that “democratic, participative, and considerate leaders were most effective, whereas managers and workers often voiced a preference for paternalistic and nurturing leaders who are also authoritarian and assertive” … “The model suggests that an ideal leader in India is both nur- turant and task oriented” (p. 63).
Hofstede (2001) explains the relationship between national culture and leadership by sug- gesting that “ideas about leadership reflect the dominant culture of a country. Asking people to describe the qualities of a good leader is in fact another way of asking them to describe their
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culture. The leader is a culture hero, in the sense of a model for behavior” (p. 388).
Schein (1985) notes that “leadership is the fun- damental process by which organizational cultures are formed and changed” (p. ix). However, House & Javidan (2004) emphasize that “we are just beginning to understand how culture influences leadership and organizational processes” (p. 9). They note that “given the increasing globaliza- tion of industrial organizations and the growing interdependencies among nations, the need for a better understanding of cultural influences on leadership and organizational practices has never been greater” (p. 10).
Of particular relevance to this chapter are Dor- fman and House’s (2004) analysis of leadership styles in the “Arabic world of the Middle East. The pervasive influence of the Islamic religion is a key to understanding the Arab world and presumable leadership in the Arab world. In Arabic, the word for leadership is ‘al kiyada’, which refers to of- ficers in the military or high-ranking members of government. Historically a leader is a great hero who heads warriors into battle, and therefore not unexpectedly, the concept of leadership is rooted in traditional military concepts of leadership. Modern Arab management practices have been influenced by Islamic religion, tribal and family traditions, the legacy of colonial bureaucracies, and contact with Western nations. Tribal traditions influence all aspects of life and as a consequence, managers are expected to act as fathers-viewing their role in a highly personalized manner charac- terized by providing and caring for employees and favoring individuals within the family and tribe over outsiders. The legacy of a highly structured bureaucracy left by the ruling Ottoman Empire and European nations is superimposed on these Islamic family-tribal traditions” (p. 63).
However, one additional influencer over this time has been the introduction of technology at varying rates in different cultures. Schein (1985) notes that “The introduction of any new technology into an occupation, organization, or society can
be seen as a culture change problem. Occupations typically build their practices, values, and basic self-image around their underlying technology” (p. 36). As new technology is introduced into learning and leadership additional adaptations will need to be made. Schein (1985) also notes that “We should of course recognize that many people resist new technologies because they cor- rectly sense that their cultural assumptions are being challenged and threatened. Technological changes not only disrupt behavioral patterns but force one to look at and possibly change underlying assumptions” (p. 288). This will be an essential skill for the development of leadership in any country or organization.
Leadership Development
The American historian David McCullough (2008) emphasizes that “We need leaders and not just political leaders. We need leaders in every field, in every institution, in all kinds of situations. We need to be educating our young people to be lead- ers” (p. 45). He asserts that “the great leadership lessons don’t change” (p. 45) and cites numerous historical figures that he considers demonstrate these fundamental qualities. He delineates those qualities as:
• Being able to spot talent • Having the expertise and experience in or-
der to know what one is talking about • Having the “attributes of courage-back-
bone-resilience, and strength of character” (p. 47),
• Possessing the power of persuasion • Having listening skills which he defines as
“asking good questions and taking in what people have to say” (p. 48).
• Have a sense that the work being done mat- ters so that efforts contribute to something bigger than the individuals and their salary.
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Previous sections have suggested other evi- dence to support McCullough’s strong appeal for the need for leaders and therefore leadership de- velopment. Leadership development is a universal issue and occurs both formally and informally in educational institutions and organizations.
Dorfman and House (2004) and Tazhina (2010) noted earlier in this chapter the unique cultural characteristics of Kazakhstan. These would war- rant investigating leadership development in this context. As a beginning to that investigation, Tazhina and Parker began to profile the students’ characteristics in a graduate business program in a Kazakhstan university. These students represent a convenience sample of graduate students in Kazakhstan’s universities who further represent the emerging leaders within the country. Their formal leadership training is woven into their coursework. A profile of them will represent a profile of emerging leaders and should inform leadership development and how to best integrate technology into that development.
Three instruments, the careers anchors inven- tory, the leadership questionnaire and a stress inventory, were selected on the basis of their availability in the Russian language. The indi- vidual results of each instrument and correlations between career anchors and leadership styles were analyzed to begin profiling the emerging leaders within Kazakhstan.
PRESENT PERSPECTIVES
Within this context of a Kazakh national culture and Western leadership models, research for this project was conducted during the 2009-2010 academic year with a convenience sample of 60 graduate students in finance courses at the University of International Business in Almaty, Kazakhstan. The sample consisted of 37 females and 23 males between 21 and 27 years of age. While the largest number (30) were Kazakhs,
the sample included 14 Russians, 6 Koreans, 7 Uigures and 3 Turks.
Career Anchors Inventory
The career anchors inventory that was used in this research was based on the career anchors developed by Edgar Schein. Schein (1985) ex- plains that the anchor was not only an indication of “the different things people area looking for in their career” (p. 248) but referred more strongly to “those things that the person would not give up if forced to make a choice” (p. 250). The 40 question inventory is based on work and life experience and provides individuals with information about their primary areas of competence, motives, and career values. Schein (1996) originally identi- fied 5 anchors in his mid-1970’s research. As a result of further studies in the 1980’she added 3 anchors: service or dedication to a career, pure challenge, and life style. The 8 career anchors are described below:
• Technical/functional competence: like be- ing challenged, using personal skill to meet the challenge, and becoming the expert.
• General Managerial competence: like problem-solving, dealing with other peo- ple and responsibility.
• Autonomy/independence: need to work alone, under their own rules and at their own pace
• Security/stability: seek stability and conti- nuity in their lives avoiding risks.
• Entrepreneurial creativity: like to be cre- ative, inventive and run their own busi- nesses. They will share the workload but need ownership and are easily bored. They consider wealth a sign of success.
• Service/dedication to a cause: driven by how they can help others.
• Pure challenge: need constant difficult problems that they can solve. They will
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change jobs if current one gets boring so their career can be varied.
• Lifestyle: integrate live and work with fo- cus on personal passions.
Each of the students took the inventory. The individual student scores for each of the 8 career anchors was calculated for the 43 students that were the sample for this inventory. The highest career anchor score indicated the preferred anchor from the 8 identified by Schien. The scores were compiled to develop a frequency distribution for each anchor (Table 1). For some students, more than one anchor received the highest score so the total in the frequency distribution is greater than the total number of students.
Of particular interest are the extreme high and low numbers. The two highest anchors, entrepre- neurial creativity and general managerial compe- tence might be attributed to the fact that the sample consisted of students in a management course. It might be interesting to consider if the lowest score, technical/functional competence, security/stability, and pure challenge might be characteristics consistent with the national culture. Considering that even the youngest of these graduate students had lived through the shift from the dominance by the Soviet Union to an inde- pendent Kazakhstan, being their personal best, needing stability and personal problems to solve
might be low on their list of priorities for a career. Interestingly enough, the one person who se- lected technical/functional competence was a female Uygur student. These findings are in sharp contrast to Schein’s (1996) findings in the 1970’s and 1980’s in which “roughly 25 percent of our populations anchored in ‘general management,’ another 25 percent in ‘technical/functional com- petence,’ 10 percent each in ‘autonomy’ and ‘security’ and the rest spread across the remaining anchors” (p. 81).
Leadership Questionnaire
The leadership questionnaire is based on the Blake and Mouton Leadership inventory which rates people on their concern with the task and their concern with people. Blake and Mouton devel- oped a matrix on which the scores are plotted in order to identify one of 5 leadership styles based on leadership behaviors.
• Impoverished (low task and low people score): exerts and expects minimal effort or concern for either staff satisfaction or work targets.
• Country Club (low task and high people score): attentive to staff’s relationships and the work culture but at the expense of pro- duction results.
Table 1. Career anchors inventory
CAREER ANCHOR NUMBER OF TIMES THIS WAS THE DOMINANT ANCHOR FOR A STUDENT
Technical/Functional competence 1
General Managerial competence 16
Autonomy/Independence 9
Security/Stability 3
Entrepreneurial Creativity 23
Service/Dedication to a cause 12
Pure Challenge 4
Lifestyle 10
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• Middle of the Road (politician): a com- promiser who wants to maintain the status quo.
• Authoritarian (high task and low people score): focus on achievement. People are only a commodity used to achieve results.
• Team leader (high task and high people score): achieves high work performance by inspiring involvement and leading people to become dedicated to the organizations goals.
The people preference and task preference scores were calculated for the 61 students that completed this inventory. Each student’s scores were charted on the matrix of people orientation vs task orientation to determine that student’s preferred leadership style. In several cases, a student did not have a true “middle of the road” profile but did have a score that fell between two of the 4 styles. A frequency distribution of these styles is shown in Table 2 below.
The preferred leadership style was authoritar- ian. However, combining categories indicate that only 7 participants scored in the “high people” range compared to 24 who scored in the “high- task” range. Hofstede (2001) refers to the Blake and Mouton managerial grid as advocating “par- ticipative management” (p. 389) which relates to
the power-distance scores on his own instrument of cultural dimensions.
While the sample is not sufficiently large to draw conclusions, details indicated some interest- ing facts. Further analysis of the lowest frequencies indicates that the one student with the Country Club preference was a male Kazakh student. The 2 students with the Country Club/Team preference were both female but were also Kazakh students. The 4 students with the team preference were all female, one from each of 4 nationality categories.
Stress Inventory
The Stress inventory was developed by the Uni- versity of Texas Learning Center. The 12 ques- tion inventory was used to assess student stress levels in order to provide suggestions for coping with that stress within the student population. The stress test was a self report instrument that contained questions about student attitudes and behaviors that would be an indication of stress. It was developed for a university student popula- tion which mades it particularly applicable to the university student sample in this study. A score of 4 or more suggested significant stress. Of the 61 students who completed this inventory, only one had a score below 4. That was a male of Kazakh student. This would indicate an especially high stress level in the sample.
Table 2. Leadership questionnaire frequency distribution
LEADERSHIP STYLE INDICATOR FREQUENCY
Country Club High People/Low Task 1
Country Club/Team High People 2
Country Club/Impoverished Low Task 7
Impoverished Low Task/Low People 11
Impoverished/Authoritarian Low People 12
Authoritarian Low People/High Task 17
Team/Authoritarian High Task 3
Team High Task/High People 4
Middle of the Road 4
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Correlations
SPSS statistical software was used to calculate the Spearman’s rho correlations between each of the 8 career anchors and then between each career anchor and each of the 2 leadership styles of task oriented and people oriented (Table 3).
There is a notable significant positive correla- tion between task oriented (MT) participants and those with entrepreneurial creative (EC) career anchors. There are also notable significant positive correlations between people oriented (MP) par- ticipants and those with technical/functional and lifestyle career anchors.
There were also four significant positive correlations between career anchor categories: between technical/functional competence and autonomy/independence career anchors; between general managerial and autonomy/independence career anchors; between general managerial and service/dedication to a cause career anchors and
pure challenge and autonomy/independence career anchors.
FUTURE TRENDS
As additional data is collected, the implications of these findings for tomorrow’s leaders will become clearer. Schein (2004) advises that “the leader of the future must be a perpetual learner, which will require (1) new levels of perception and insight into the realities of the world and into him or herself; (2) extraordinary levels of motivation to go through the inevitable pain of learning and change, especially in a world with looser boundaries in which one’s own loyalties become more and more difficult to define; (3) the emotional strength to manage one’s own and others’ anxiety as learning and change become more and more a way of life; (4) new skills in analyzing and changing cultural assumptions; and
Table 3. Correlations
TF GM AU SE EC SV PC LS MP MT
TF .355* .447** .403** .330*
GM .357* .407** .341* .638**
AU
SE
EC .437** -.304* .332*
SV
PC .360* .486** .470** -.334*
LS .418** .302*
TF: Technical/Functional competence GM: General Managerial competence AU: Autonomy/Independence SE: Security/Stability EC: Entrepreneurial Creativity SV: Service/Dedication to a cause PC: Pure Challenge LS: Lifestyle MP: People oriented management style MT: Task oriented management style *Correlation is significant at the.05 level **Correlation is significant at the.01 level
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(5) the willingness and ability to involve others and elicit their participation” (p. 418).
Tazhina (2010) provides specific recommen- dations for the future within the area of applied psychology and leadership. She notes that “While Kazakhstan has the necessary resources, it needs fundamental development in psychological re- search. Additional recommendations follow:
• Psychological practices (ie: medical insur- ance coverage of psychological support and lower prices for counseling) from de- veloped countries should be applied while taking into account the cultural peculiari- ties of Kazakhstan.
• An Employee Assistance Program, which has helped western countries in handling psychological problems of employees and their families, would be beneficial to Kazakhs as psychological support in the work place increases productivity and low- ers conflicts within companies.
• Applied psychology needs to become part of the president’s anti-crisis strategy. Psychological knowledge will increase the efficacy of professional training and retraining.
• Development of competent psychological services within schools in order to ensure the psychological development of new generations” (p. 3).
Technology will certainly be a part of this future impacting leadership practice and possibilities. Cerf (2010) presents a view of today’s technol- ogy. “At Google we see 23 hours of video being uploaded to YouTube per minute and I’m sure that will increase over time. So trying to project what tools will be available over the next 40 years is really daunting” (p. 120). Kelly (2010) adds “Today some 4.5 billion digital screens illuminate our lives. Words have migrated from wood pulp to pixels on computers, phones, laptops, game consoles, televisions, billboards and tablets. ….We
are now people of the screen. And of course, these newly ubiquitous screens have changed how we read and write” (p. 123). Kelly (2010) adds that “right now ordinary citizens compose 1.5 million blog posts per day” (p. 123). A comparison of book and screen reading suggests an influence of this transition on leadership. Kelly (2010) notes that “book reading strengthened our analytical skills, encouraging us to pursue an observation all the way down to the footnote. Screen reading encourages rapid pattern making, associating this idea with another, equipping us to deal with the thousands of new thoughts expressed every day. The screen rewards and nurtures thinking in real time” (p. 125).
Cerf (2010) suggests a note of optimism: “One thing we know for sure is that the Web is a collaborative medium unlike any we’ve ever had before. We see people working together, playing together, interacting in social settings using these media. We hope that will emerge as the new tool for education.” (p. 120).
CONCLUSION
This research was intended to begin a series of investigations into different characteristics and preferences of graduate students in Kazakhstan. It did just that and opened the door to many more areas of investigation. While both gender and nationality of the participants was documented, there was no significant correlation in the data except for those observations noted.
As more decentralization occurs within orga- nizations, it will likely mean more opportunities for emerging leaders in emerging economies. Hofstede (2001) warns against the consequences of teaching foreign theories abroad. “What in fact happens when foreign theories are taught abroad – and this I have personally witnessed – is that the theories are preached but not practiced. Wise local managers silently adapt the foreign ideas to fit the values of their subordinates” (p. 389).
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This suggest a cautious use of foreign inventories abroad; however until a country develops its own research data and instruments, the practice will likely continue. Local leadership development is clearly preferred but until that knowledge and research base becomes more substantial, a compromise must be met with the utilization of inventories and models developed elsewhere.
As noted earlier, Lojeski & Reilly (2008) sug- gest that collocation of workers and leaders is a characteristic of the workforce before the Digital Age. If the new Digital Age will disperse leaders throughout the geography of the organization, new leadership opportunities will become available across the globe in countries where new models of leadership are evolving. The result should be a rich diverse workforce that is truly international in nature.
REFERENCES
Cerf, V. (2010). Google’s view. Smithsonian, 41(4), 120.
Dorfman, P., & House, R. (2004). Cultural influ- ences on organizational leadership: Literature review, theoretical rationale, and GLOBE project goals. In House, R., Hanges, P., Javidan, M., Dorfman, P., & Gupta, V. (Eds.), Culture, leader- ship, and organizations: The GLOBE study of 62 societies (pp. 51–73). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific, United Nations. (2003). Managing globalization in selected countries with economies in transition. New York, NY: United Nations.
Gupta, V., & Hanges, P. (2004). Regional and climate clustering of societal cultures. In House, R., Hanges, P., Javidan, M., Dorfman, P., & Gupta, V. (Eds.), Culture leadership, and organizations: The GLOBE study of 62 societies (pp. 178–218). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
Hofstede, G. (2001). Culture’s consequences: comparing values, behaviors, institutions, and organizations across nations. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
House, R., & Javidan, M. (2004). Overview of GLOBE. In House, R., Hanges, P., Javidan, M., Dorfman, P., & Gupta, V. (Eds.), Culture leader- ship, and organizations: The GLOBE study of 62 societies (pp. 9–28). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
Illeris, K. (2004). The three dimensions of learn- ing. Malabar, FL: Krieger Publishing.
Jaridan, M., House, R., Dorfman, P., Gupta, V., Hanges, P., & Sully de Luque, M. (2004). Conclusions and future directions. In House, R., Hanges, P., Javidan, M., Dorfman, P., & Gupta, V. (Eds.), Culture leadership, and organizations: The GLOBE study of 62 societies (pp. 721–732). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
Javidan, M., & Hauser, M. (2004). The linkage between GLOBE findings and other crosscultural information. In House, R., Hanges, P., Javidan, M., Dorfman, P., & Gupta, V. (Eds.), Culture leadership, and organizations: The GLOBE study of 62 societies (pp. 102–121). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
Kelly, K. (2010). From print to pixel. Smithson- ian, 41(4), 122–128.
Leadership and Motivation Training. (2006). Blake and Mouton leadership. Retrieved from http:// www.leadership-and-motivation-training. com/ blake-and-mouton.html
Lojeski, K., & Reilly, R. (2008). Transforming leadership and innovation in the globally inte- grated enterprise. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons.
Masanov, N. (1998). The role of clans in Ka- zakhstan today. Retrieved from http://www. jamestown.org
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McCullough, D. (2008). Timeless leadership. Harvard Business Review, 86(5), 45–49.
Parker, J. (1997, Sept.). Open learning without frontiers – open learning across international boundaries. Paper presented at the Open Learning for Business Conference, Birmingham, England.
Richardson, R. (2010). Stress test. Sanger Learning and Career Center. Retrieved from www.utexas. edu/ student/ utlc
Schein, E. (1985). Organizational culture and leadership. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass Publishers.
Schein, E. (1996). Career anchors revisited: Implications for career development in the 21st century. The Academy of Management Executive, 10(4), 80–88. doi:10.5465/AME.1996.3145321
Schein, E. (2004). Organizational culture and leadership. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass Publishers.
Schein, E. (2006). Edgar H. Schein career anchors online. Retrieved from http:// www.careeranchor- sonline.com/ SCA/ about.do?open=prod
Socor, V. (July 27, 2010). OSCE to hold summit in Kazakhstan after eleven year hiatus. Retrieved from http:// www.jamestown.org
Tazhina, G. (2010). Applied psychology in Ka- zakhstan. Paper presented at the Kazakhstan in Globe: Socio-Economic and Cultural Aspects, Scientific congress, Almaty, Kazakhstan.
Wiseman, L., & McKeown, G. (2010). Multipli- ers: How the best leaders make everyone smarter. New York, NY: HarperCollins Publishers.
KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS
Career Anchor: “a person’s career anchor is his or her self-concept consisting of 1) self- perceived talents and abilities, 2) basic values, and most important, 3) the evolved sense of motives and needs as they pertain to the career”. (Schein, 1996, p. 80).
Cultural Dimensions: the characteristics of a national culture usually associated with those dimensions defined in Hofstede’s work.
Culture: the shared attitudes, beliefs, practices and values that characterize a group.
Leadership: The ability of an individual or group to promote the ideas and to guide the vision of a group or organization.
National Culture: The culture associated with a geographical/political region and its inhabitants.
Organizational Culture: The culture attrib- uted to an organization and usually associated with the values of the founders and leaders.
Technology: the application of scientific advances usually involving electronic advances.
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Copyright © 2012, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
Chapter 55
DOI: 10.4018/978-1-61350-068-2.ch055
Claretha Hughes University of Arkansas, USA
Matthew W. Gosney University of Arkansas, USA
People, Technology and Human Resource Development
(HRD) Philosophy
ABSTRACT
Technology and people are present in all organizations. How they are managed and developed is es- sential to the competitive advantage of organizations. Understanding the dynamics of this relationship is an area that needs to be better understood within the Human Resource Development (HRD) field. This chapter will explore the extent that HRD philosophy addresses the relationship of people and technology. Comparing people and technology has been a debate since the industrial revolution occurred in America (Swanson, 1982; Swanson, & Torraco, 1994). Man and machine are as essential to organizational prosperity as air and water is to living; yet, it is not often researched and published in HRD literature (Githens, Dirani, Gitonga, and Teng, 2008). Could this be why HRD professionals do not have a seat at the proverbial table in corporate America? Are HRD professionals and researchers denying that there is a relationship between people and technology in organizations? Are HRD professionals and researchers limited by their beliefs concerning the comparison of people to technology?
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INTRODUCTION
According to Zakaria (2010) “technology and globalization are shattering the middle class” in America (p. 31). American workers are being dis- placed by the productivity gains of technology and the competition for cheap laborers in a globalized economy. Until these issues are acknowledged and addressed within the field of HRD, middle class workers will remain at a disadvantage within the global job market.
The field of HRD covers training and devel- opment, career development, and organization development (Mankin, 2001; Swanson & Holton, 2001). All of these areas are vital to employee de- velopment within organizations. Employees want to be trained and developed so that they can build successful careers and work within viable organi- zations. The current global recession with its high number of unemployed workers has shined a light on the need for HRD. Aguinis and Kraiger (2009) suggest that there is “[a]n important challenge for the practice of training… to integrate the training function with employee selection, performance, management, rewards, and other human resource practices (Aguinis, 2009; Aguinis & Pierce, 2008; Cascio & Aguinis, 2005)” (p. 467).
Since the industrial revolution, when Henry Ford introduced the production line into the manu- facturing of cars, technology has a huge presence within organizations. With the introduction of robots, computer technology, simulations, and avatars, employees are being realigned and dis- placed by the use of technology in the workplace. Yet, the impact of technology on the develop- ment of people has rarely been discussed within the HRD literature (Githens, Dirani, Gitonga, & Teng, 2008).
Organizations and theories that define or explain human behavior within organizations has been the focus of research studies in fields including sociology and business. HRD is a relatively new field of study and its theories and philosophy are dynamic and continuously under
debate. Organizations are mutable and have goals of success through the people and technology that are present within all organizations. The management and development of both people and technology is essential to the competitive advantage of organizations. Understanding the dynamics of the relationships and influences upon the relationship of people and technology within organizations is an area of study that should be explored within the HRD field.
This chapter will explore the extent that HRD philosophy addresses the relationship between people and technology. We will examine if HRD professionals and researchers deny that there is a relationship between people and technology, and if HRD professionals and researchers are limited by their beliefs concerning the comparison of people to technology.
BACKGROUND
The field of HRD has made its way from sociology, to business, to education and is still looking for a place of its own (McLean et al., 2008). HRD has rich history that is not well known or explained in the HRD research literature. Without an explana- tion and chronicling of its history, HRD’s search for a clear philosophy of HRD is ongoing, and remains under debate amongst HRD researchers and professionals.
HRD Theory Building
Swanson (2001) identifies three foundational theories of HRD: psychological theory, economic theory, and systems theory that make up the legs of his three-legged stool model. These three theories are important to HRD and many theories have been derived from these three to support the develop- ment of HRD as a discipline; however, they are not the only theories that can support the field. The following theories are some that have been used to contribute to defining HRD:
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1. C o m m o n l y h e l d t h e o r i e s o f H R D (Weinberger, 1998);
2. Operational definitions of expertise and competence (Herling, 2000);
3. Organization development: An analysis of the definitions and dependent variables (Egan, 2000);
4. An investigation into core beliefs underlying the profession of HRD (Ruona, 1999); and
5. Philosophical foundations of HRD practice (Ruona & Roth, 2000).
There are also examples of HRD theory build- ing efforts which include:
1. Systems theory applied to human resource development (Jacobs, 1989);
2. Foundations of performance improvement and implications for practice (Swanson, 1999);
3. A theory of intellectual capital (Harris, 2000); 4. A theory of knowledge management
(Torraco, 2000); and 5. The development and validation of a model
of responsible leadership and performance (Lynham, 2000).
All of these theory building efforts have con- tributed to the emerging field of HRD; however, McLean etal. (2008) suggests that HRD has much to learn from “EVERY field and discipline that touches on human behavior” (p. 249). Remaining open to new concepts and formulations provides opportunity for continuous debate and develop- ment within HRD. Following is a brief discussion on two theories and their potential correlation with HRD theory and practice, as well as a discussion of some of the roots of HRD in the behavioral and business sciences.
Organization Theory
Organization theory is important to HRD because of its focus upon organization development.
Organization development has been defined by many and involves the principles, processes, and performance within organizations (McLagan, 1989; McLean & McLean, 2001; Egan, 2002; Cummings & Worley, 2005; McLean, 2006). McLean (2006) broadly describes organization development as:
… any process or activity, based on the behavioral sciences, that, either initially or over a long term, has the potential to develop in an organization set- ting enhanced knowledge, expertise, productivity, satisfaction, income, interpersonal relationships, and other desired outcomes, whether for interper- sonal or group/team gain or for the benefit of an organization, community, region, or, ultimately, the whole of humanity. (p. 9)
Hinings and Greenwood (2002) trace the his- tory of organization theory from its roots (Weber, 1964) as a discipline in sociology to its migration in business. HRD as a field finds itself in a quan- dary of identification. It is housed in colleges of Education, Business, and Human Services among others, with each college potentially exploring the philosophy and practice of HRD in slightly differ- ent ways. It does have as one of its aims, however, an understanding of organization development.
Institutional Theory and HRD
Bush (1987) defines an institution as a “set of socially prescribed patterns of correlated behav- ior” (p. 1076). He then states that the concept of correlated behavior consists of two key tenants; behavior within an institution is not random but purposeful and correlated, and values are the “cor- relators.” In Bush’s definition one can detect the role of HRD in an organization and a plausible explanation for the genesis of HRD as a discipline within corporate institutions.
Bush then later identifies two types of values; ceremonial and instrumental. He states that cer- emonial values “provide the standard of judgment
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for invidious distinctions, which prescribe status, differential privileges, and master-servant relation- ships, and warrant the exercise of power by one social class over another (p. 1080).” Could this, in a corporate institution, be defined as “culture?” And, could one of the responsibilities of HRD be the dissemination and legitimization of an institution’s culture? Buchholz (1977) suggests that HRD’s purpose is to support “a set of beliefs regarding the nature of work …” (p. 585); in es- sence a corporate culture.
Bush defines instrumental values as “the stan- dard of judgment by which tools and skills are employed in the application of evidently warranted knowledge to the problem-solving process of the community (p. 1080).” He notes that these values are not unchangeable, that they can evolve with time as the needs of the organization change. Could instrumental values be operationally defined as competencies? Regardless of if the competency is job-specific or a universal competency to the organization, it seems consistent with this con- cept of instrumental values. Once again, HRD is the keeper of this type of organizational meme (Clardy, 2008).
Davis and North (1970) attempted to develop an institutional theory model that roots the moti- vation for innovation in financial concepts. The authors identify three exogenous change agents that potentially put at risk institutional innova- tion. They are:
1. Potential income from arrangemental in- novation might increase because some exogenous change could lead to the emer- gence of an externality where none existed before, to a restructuring of risks, to a shift in transaction costs, or to the application of a new technology subject to increasing returns.
2. The costs of organizing and/or operating a new institution might change because of the invention of a new arrangemental technology, of institutional change in the
non-economic sector, or because the price of the factors used in the new or in competing existing institutions may change.
3. Some legal or political change might alter the economic environment and make it possible for some group to effect a redistribution or take advantage of an existing external profit opportunity. (Davis & North, 1970, p. 139)
Items two and three indicate the need for HRD (particularly 3). As cost and organizational leverage factors change or come at risk due to in- novation (or potential innovation) HRD becomes a risk-mitigating factor. HRD as a function man- ages human capital risk (Bhattacharya & Wright, 2005) and thus allows organizations to maximize profit (which, per Davis and North, is the goal of any organization). How does HRD accomplish this? A myriad of ways; HRD in an organization may be tasked with managing through change, thus assisting in ensuring its acceptance within the organization. It may assist the organization as a whole in learning new technology or ways of behaving that the overall organization has identified as critical for innovative change. It may aid in mitigating external risks such as political or legal pressure by assisting the organization in complying with legal or political mandate.
Scott (1987) describes institutionalization as
the social process by which individuals come to accept a shared definition of reality – a concep- tion whose validity is seen as independent of the actor’s own views or actions but is taken for granted as defining the ‘way things are’ and/or the ‘way things are to be done.’(p. 496)
Perhaps this definition of institutionaliza- tion best illustrates the link between HRD and Institutional Theory. HRD, through the lens of Institutional Theory, becomes the operational arm by which the “shared definition of reality” is propagated throughout the organization.
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Kuchinke (2000) argues that HRD is spending too much time debating what HRD “should be” and not enough time figuring out “what it is.” He proposes that institutional theory be the theoreti- cal framework from which empirical research be hung, and that HRD scholars begin to focus on empirical research that explores this framework. Institutional theory is, in essence, a systems theory coming out of sociology.
HRD Philosophy
Philosophy has been defined by the Greek as the love of wisdom (Jasper, 1951). HRD professionals and researchers consider it an accomplishment when they inspire the love of learning in individu- als. Wisdom is derived from what one knows and experience, thus everyone has a personal philoso- phy. Jaspers (1951) stated “There is no escape from philosophy. The question is only whether a philosophy is conscious or not, whether it is good or bad, muddled or clear. Anyone who rejects philosophy is himself unconsciously practicing a philosophy (p.12).” If we are to take Jaspers at his word, HRD does have a philosophy of theory and practice. Uncovering that philosophy, however, has proven troublesome. Jaspers also notes
“This meaning of the word still endures: the es- sence of philosophy is not the possession of truth but the search for truth, regardless of how many philosophers may believe it with their dogmatism, that is, with a body of didactic principles purport- ing to be definitive and complete. Philosophy means to be on the way. Its questions are more essential than its answers, and every answer becomes a new question.” (p. 12)
HRD, and the accompanying philosophy that defines and informs it, is very much “on the way.” Over the course of its existence a host of HRD philosophic principles have, as Jaspers suggests, purported to be definitive and complete. As the
discipline has grown and matured, so have the underlying philosophies changed and expanded.
Slichter (1920) in his early 20th century article explored the relationship between business phi- losophy, in this case capitalism, as the potential genesis of low worker morale. Morale is now known as “engagement,” an area generally as- sociated today with HRD. In the formation of a philosophy of HRD, it is impossible to ignore the economic philosophy of capitalism from which it sprang.
As McLean et al. (2008) previously noted, HRD can learn from and is informed by all of the behavioral sciences. Slife and Williams (1995) investigated the major theories of behavior sci- ence: psychoanalysis, behaviorism, humanism, cognitivism, eclecticism, structuralism, and post- modernism. Of these major theories, Vince (2003) suggests that “HRD policies and practices have traditionally been informed by a tired humanism that imagines [employee] development separately from the social, political, and emotional dynamics of organizing as well as the economic pressures on business (p. 559).” Consistent with Jaspers’ “philosophy of philosophy,” however, such an approach to HRD appears to be diminishing and a more holistic philosophy is taking its place. In- stitutional theory, as a branch of systems theory, demonstrates this shift.
Ruona and Lynham (2004) provide an in-depth, three-pronged approach to the philosophy of HRD: Ontology, Epistemology, and Axiology. Ontology is how we see the world. Epistemology is how we come to know and think about the world. Axiology is how we should act in theorizing, researching about and practicing in our world. The authors suggested that these three components make up a philosophical framework by which all of HRD can be examined. The authors also suggested such a framework to benefit the individual practice of HRD, the research and theory building associated with the profession of HRD, and the evolution of HRD.
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As HRD continues to evolve one of the major issues of concern is the ability of researchers and professionals to bridge the gap between research and practice. Short (2006) states that
despite increased research activity in the field, few advances in practice have been clearly grounded in research (Jacobs, 1999), and it would be opti- mistic to claim that HRD research is influencing practice in meaningful ways (Berger, Kehrhahn, & Summerville, 2004). In fact, it has been expressed that the gap has been around for as long as we can remember (Short, Sherlock & Sugrue, 2004), and it is not going away anytime soon (Yorks, 2005). (p. 344)
Kuchinke (2004) discusses three reasons the tension exists between theory and practice. They are:
1. Proximity of theory and practice. (Theory and practice aren’t a duality but a continuum, thus it becomes difficult in the middle to distinguish between the two.)
2. Theoreticians and practitioners as denizens of separate communities.
3. The limitation of social science research.
Recognizing the gap, many HRD scholars are searching for meaning and methods to close the research practice gap and implement research techniques and strategies developed in academia within the workplace (Hughes, Wang, Zheng, & McLean, 2010). Torraco (2004) and Storberg- Walker (2006) mention a general lack of actionable theory-building in the discipline.
People, Technology, and HRD
Much of the research regarding technology and HRD centers upon computer technology and how it relates to educating employees in the work- place. Learning Management Systems (LMS’s)
that manage employee training and development are important tools for HRD professionals in the workplace. However, HRD professionals and researchers must go beyond managing the sys- tems to helping employees operate technological equipment within the workplace. These are the systems that are displacing most of the middle class workers (Zakaria, 2010) because they are not equipped or educated to operate high tech- nology and cannot be trained quickly enough to meet the global needs of organizations. Instead companies are bringing in foreign workers to meet immediate workplace needs in the US. Githens, Dirani, Gitonga, and Teng (2008) conducted a meta-analysis of technology-related research in HRD publications from 2000 to 2006. Their findings that only 10% of 1675 articles in five journals were related to technology imply a lack of interest in technology by HRD researchers and professionals. This is discouraging because Swanson (2008) notes the following assumptions regarding the role of human expertise and skill they bring to organizations. They are follows:
1. Organizations are human-made entities that rely on human expertise in order to establish and achieve their goals.
2. Human expertise is developed and main- tained through HRD processes for the mutual long-term and short-term benefits of sponsoring organizations and individuals involved.
3. HRD professionals are advocates of indi- vidual, team, work-processes, and organi- zational integrity.(p.331)
If HRD is to advocate the success of work- processes, how can they do so without an un- derstanding of technology’s role in workplace success?
People and technology are essential to the functioning of an organization. Hughes’ (2010) People as Technology Conceptual Model is an
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integrative part of an organization’s value creation strategy. The PT conceptual model describes the potential value that technology development and people development can bring to and organiza- tion. Operationalization of this model has the potential to be a promising management practice (Espedal, 2005) that will provide a solution when organizations struggle to implement their best practices without the best people in the right jobs at the right time and the best technology (Brache, 2002; Espedal, 2005; Martelli, 1998; Pfeffer, 1994; Stewart, 1997). People and technology must blend to the extent that the process is a win-win for em- ployees and organization (London & Diamante, 2002). This concept is useful within all business strategies including JIT, Lean manufacturing, ISO, TQM, and Six Sigma because it enhances the foundation of the strategy, the people, and the process (Snell & Dean, 1992).
Much of the HRD technology related research “focused on educational technology in higher education settings, while non-profit organizations and government/military settings were underrep- resented. Overall, non-training topics were [also] underrepresented” (Githens, et al., 2008, p. 1). The opportunity for research in technology related research within HRD is extensive and needed. Re-training of the American workforce in high- tech skills is an area where HRD researchers and professionals’ skills are warranted.
Training and development and career develop- ment areas of HRD are being influenced by the technological advances that are being made in the global economy (Zakaria, 2010). Robots and other simulation systems have been introduced into workplaces and are displacing the need for employees. This is not a new phenomenon, but is much more recognizable during this economic downturn. How organizations adjust to these de- velopments impacts the future of its employees and its existence.
FUTURE TRENDS
The future of HRD is continuously evolving. Or- ganizations are continuously changing processes and procedures, developing employees, and try- ing to remain competitive in a global economy. HRD professionals and researchers must also be willing to continuously change and evolve to help organizations achieve their goals. Some of the key strategies are:
1. HRD professionals and researchers must end the debate (Kuchinke, 2000; Murphy & Garavan, 2009) and begin to, as noted by McLean et al. (2008) learn from every field that touches human behavior. In this case, a focus on the history or organization theory and its evolution from sociology to business to HRD would enhance the development and understanding of HRD philosophy.
2. HRD professionals and researchers must find a way to bridge the gap between research and practice. They must come to terms with the fact that while their focus is on the gap, organizations are struggling to reach their goals without effective and efficient strate- gies from the HRD field.
3. HRD professionals and researchers must understand the relationship between people and technology and not focus on one or the other in isolation. They must develop meth- ods of valuing both people and technology within the workplace.
4. Technological innovations in the workplace are on an explosive upward trend. HRD re- searchers and professionals must understand these innovations to ensure that as people are developed their roles are not diminished or further eliminated but enhanced by technology.
5. HRD professionals and researchers must work to meet the business needs of workers in all organizations and provide technologi- cal based solutions along with their people
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based solutions. The same way that engineers cannot accomplish their design goals without people implementing their designs, HRD professionals and researchers cannot plan people strategies without understanding technological implications (Betz, 1993).
6. Ultimately, HRD must consider public policy as a potential future area of research. Understanding the broader labor relations and economic implications of their deci- sions within the public policy arena can only strengthen HRD practice.
CONCLUSION
HRD professionals and researchers do not appear to deny that there is a relationship between people and technology there is very limited research that supports their effort to understand the relationship of people and technology within organizations. HRD professionals and researchers are limited by their beliefs concerning the comparison of people to technology because their ability to expand their research and practice is limited by their beliefs or focus upon issues that are not adding to the knowledge base in these topic areas. A mind shift needs to occur before progress can be made in this area of inquiry: people, technology and HRD.
Understanding the history, philosophy and theories of HRD provides an opportunity for HRD researchers and professionals to build a solid foundation upon which they can enhance human behavior within organizations. They can begin to blend research and practice in a way that allows individuals and organizations to thrive and achieve competitive goals. It will also allow them to value the relationship between people and technology so that organizations can maximize the efforts of both people and technology and not one or the other (Carrig & Wright, 2006). Without these changes HRD professionals will never win a seat at the ‘table’ in corporate America or any
other organization even though it is central to training and development, career development, and organization development.
The future is optimistic for HRD researchers and professionals. There are numerous ways that HRD can be developed to transform institutions to meet organizations’ needs for global competitive- ness. Without competent, well-trained employees, organizations will not be able to compete to win (Welch, 2005). Welch (2005), states “To manage people well, companies should [e]levate HR to a position of power and primacy in the organization, and make sure HR people have the special quali- ties to help managers build leaders and careers. In fact, the best HR types are pastors and parents in the same package” (p. 98). He suggests the pastors and parents type because they “know the business - its every detail” (p.102).
Knowing the business implies knowing, the people, the technology, and the organizational strategies for success in a competitive market- place. HRD with its emphasis upon training and development, career development, and organi- zation development has the capacity to know the business. However, their philosophical shift must lean towards institutional and organization theory while standing upon the three-legged stool of psychological theory, economic theory, and systems theory (Swanson, 2001).
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KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS
Axiology: The study of the nature, types, and governing criteria of values and value judgments.
Epistemology: The branch of philosophy that studies the nature of knowledge, in particular its foundations, scope, and validity.
Exogenous: Originating outside an organism or system.
Globalization: To become international or start operating at the international level, or cause something, especially a business or company, to become international.
Mutable: Tending or likely to change. Ontology: The most general branch of meta-
physics, concerned with the nature of being; the study of existence.
Operationalize: To put something to use or into operation.
Philosophy: A set of basic principles or con- cepts underlying a particular sphere of knowledge.
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Chapter 56
DOI: 10.4018/978-1-61350-068-2.ch056
Karen Weller Swanson Mercer University, USA
Geri Collins Mercer University, USA
Teacher Directed Instruction for Student Engagement
ABSTRACT
This article will define teacher directed instruction in light of a trend toward more learner-centered classroom experiences for 21st century students. The authors will identify the danger in creating an either/or paradigm but rather discuss what researchers have determined to be best practices in the teacher-centered context. Also, Hoyt and Perera (2000) surveyed faculty as to which type of instruction approach they incorporated into their practice. Forty-five percent identify some combination which used lecture as a primary approach. Thus the discussion of best practice will broaden the current conversation beyond what is good or bad but rather what supports student outcomes. Specific successful pedagogical strategies will be outlined including development of an engaging lecture, cooperative learning designed to enhance reading assignments, purposeful questioning, and using the Socratic Method.
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INTRODUCTION
Teaching incorporates more than the transmission of information but also the environment and cul- ture of learning. Teacher directed instruction also known as teacher-centered pedagogy is under fire as students demand less lecture and rote memoriza- tion and more hands-on activities. This chapter will make the argument that a well-constructed teacher directed course can be extremely engaging. The authors will also warn against viewing pedagogy as either teacher-centered or learner-centered.
Huba and Freed (2000) contrast teacher and learner-centered instruction as a model or para- digm. Their research shifts the focus from what to teach to how students learn. They acknowledge that a teacher-centered methodology is not ineffective, but a shift from solely lecturing to a teaching style that incorporates more student interaction and a demonstration of learning beyond rote memoriza- tion supports long-term retention. Huba and Freed (2000) characterize a teacher-centered paradigm in several ways:
1. Content is primarily delivered by the instruc- tor and students are solely learners.
2. Content is not contextualized but rather students passively receive the information.
3. Assessment is sole the responsibility of the instructor, requires only rote memorization and is summative in nature.
4. Learning is the responsibility of the indi- vidual and courses can be constructed in a competitive nature (p. 5).
These characteristics may be more evident in large, lecture style courses where individual interaction is more cumbersome. However, the challenge is for faculty to have a solid understand- ing of when teacher directed instruction is most appropriate and how to implement strategies to maximize learning. The next several sections pro- vide a background for how content delivery, course environment and how student self-authorship all
play a role into the instructional decisions faculty make each semester.
BACKGROUND
Models, Space and Independent Learners
As faculty we design courses with a myriad of assumptions about teaching and learning. Those assumptions influence the decisions we make about how course time is used, assignments are structured and assessments are designed. There- fore, a theoretical background may provide a framework to place assumptions into a context for examination. Some assumptions that may be present include the student’s lack of prior content knowledge; more content is equivalent to increased rigor and time constraints (it’s faster to lecture). It may be assumed that teacher directed instruction requires less planning over time and is the format most appropriate in high education. The objective of this section is to provide three general models that incorporate the best of teacher directed and yet provide a space for the consideration of the learner.
Wink (2000) identifies three perspective models on teaching: the transmission model, the generative model and the transformative model. The transmission model instructionally is an instruction filling students with information and the students passively receiving that information. The instructor controls the scope and sequence of information. Evaluation of this type of instruc- tion is typically an examination which requires students to repeat information in the form they were given it (p. 121). Researchers have come to know that students must construction knowledge from information which has lead to the generative model of teaching. This model provides a space for students to engaging in the learning in groups to build on their own learning. Learning is not longer passive. The role of the instructor is to structure
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the course activities to guide students toward learn- ing outcomes (p. 122). The transformative model is a learner-centered classroom where students actively engage in determining the curriculum, activities and assessment of their understanding. The focus is that application of knowledge to solv- ing real-life issues (pp. 122-123). The challenge for instructors is to know when the best time is to use each model.
A balanced classroom ebbs and flows between information delivery and the application or dem- onstration of understanding. Palmer (2007) writes that there is a need to “rebalance the scales” between an overemphasis on teaching technique and the value of the emotion of learning (p. 64). Palmer credits Neil Bohr as defining a paradox as,
“In certain circumstances, truth is found not by splitting the world into either-ors but by embracing it as both-and. In certain circumstances, truth is a paradoxical joining of apparent opposites, and if we want to know that truth we much learn to embrace those opposites as one” (p. 65).
It is the goal of this chapter to focus on best practices of teacher directed instruction. A sepa- rate chapter provides a broader perspective of learner-centered teaching. However, it behooves instructors to balance the rhetoric to hold too tightly to either possible polar position, but to use the best of each to enhance student learning. Palmer presents pedagogical attributes to creating an open learning environment.
1. The space should be bounded and open. Bounded refers to using a question, text or body of data to focus the class. The informa- tion should be very clear and compelling to attract student attention. Space is achieved through providing room for surprises, tan- gents and a possible to arrive at a destination not previously determined by the instructor.
2. The space should be hospitable and “charged”. Is this class a safe place to ex-
press my ideas? Is it hospitable? The charged element comes in the process of delving into compelling topics in meaningful ways where students can’t marginalize or avoid the depths of new understandings.
3. The space should invite the voice of the in- dividual and the voice of the group. Students should be expected to express their ideas regardless of how polished the presentation. True learning comes when students place their individual ideas in the company of others. It is then that they are molded and stretched by the voice of the group.
4. The space should honor the “little” stories of the students and the “big” stories of the disciplines and tradition. This refers to the internal and external discussion between the individual ideas and the tradition of the discipline. If the individual is too present the discipline is lost, if the discipline is too present the process of internalization is compromised.
5. The space should support solitude and sur- round it with the resources of community. As with Baxter Magolda and Kings (2004) work on self-authorship in supporting stu- dents to become independent learning. Class time must incorporate time for students to consider material individually and also grapple with content interpersonally with their peers to make meaning.
6. The space should welcome both silence and speech. Silence can make instructors nervous. But silence is also a sign of reflec- tion that is critical in the learning process. Instructors can specifically incorporate reflection points during or after class (p. 77- 79).
There is a false imagine that teacher directed instruction does not spur critical thinking. The picture is of passive students taking notes and regurgitating information on an exam. However, teacher directed instruction done well can create
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dynamic learning as well as promote the creation of independent learners.
This being said, the structure of a teacher directed course can purposefully address each of these domains to expand the independence of students. The prior knowledge students bring to a course can be incorporated into the presenta- tion of new information from a discipline. Done purposefully the instructor can facilitate the ac- quisition and situation of new knowledge. They can also minimize the resistance by students to consider new perspectives regarding the subject matter. Individual and group assignments can be made for both during and outside of class time to create opportunities for students to grapple with new content. One theoretical framework used help instructors visualize how students learn and develop is Baxter Magolda and King’s (2004) self-authorship model. They describe the process of cultivating sophisticated learners.
“Educators try to make learning to fly as safe as possible, yet a certain amount of crashing is to be expected. Balancing the degree of risk during college with the necessity of expertise for adult life is a contrast learning curve in which educators sometimes crash and sometimes soar”(p. xvii).
Keegan (1994) defines self-authorship “as internally coordinating beliefs, values and in- terpersonal loyalties rather than depending on external values beliefs and interpersonal loyal- ties” (as cited in Baxter Magolda & King, 2004, p. xviii). Briefly, they identify three domains in which students’ process information. The first is an epistemological foundation in which know- ing is contextual built on a belief system that continuously evaluates, interprets and judges new information based on their prior knowledge. The epistemological domain wrestles with new information and the delivery person. Does the information and delivery blend with their cur- rent moral and intellectual conceptions or does it create a conflict?
The second domain is the intrapersonal founda- tion is how people view themselves and create an identity based on what they value and experience. This is the domain that individual’s reflection on learning supports students making new connec- tions. Examples of supporting coursework would be journaling, creating graphic organizers of their understanding of connections, or reading the text using marginalia to create dialogue with the author.
The third is the interpersonal domain where students place their identity or knowledge in context of other students and instructors. (pp. 8-9). The interpersonal domain provides in a teacher directed instructional model is that once information or ideas are presented, students work with one another to make sense of that informa- tion. For example, study groups or group projects would require students to determine how their ideas fit with others and promote a creation of new understandings that would not have been possible individually.
Most university instruction retains a teacher centered focus. In a study by Nunn (1996) found that less than six percent of class time involves student participation. There was no evidence of any instance in which students spoke for more than 23 percent of the total class time. A teacher-centered instructional method has received significant re- buke in the last decade. The stereotypical image is one of instructors droning on to a captive audi- ence of undergraduates taking feverish notes for the sole purpose of reciting the information on a subsequent test. Hoyt and Perera (2000) surveyed faculty as to which type of instruction approach they incorporated into their practice. Forty-five percent identify some combination which used lecture as a primary approach. So the question then becomes what are the best practices for a teacher centered classroom that benefits both faculty and students?
The bridge between tradition and innovation may be found in learning outcomes. Fink (2007) has created a course design structure called sig- nificant learning experiences. Significant learning
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experiences are defined as teaching that results in “a learning experience resulting in something that is truly significant in terms of the students’ lives” (Fink, 2003, p. 6). The goal is to focus on process and outcomes that result in the following six characteristics:
• Process ◦ Engaged: students are engaged in
their learning. ◦ High energy: Class has a high energy
level. • Results, Impact, Outcomes
◦ Significant and lasting change: course results in significant changes in the students, changes that continue after the course is over and even after the students graduate.
◦ Value in life: What the students learn has a high potential for being of value in their lives after the course is over, by enhancing their individual lives, preparing them to participate in mul- tiple communities, or preparing them for the world of work (Fink, 2003, p. 7).
The transition from the characteristics of significant learning experiences is to evaluate or section a syllabus or course design into three types of learning. The first is the delivery of content to provide a foundation for subsequent higher order activities. Content can be obtained through readings, lecture, or online modules to name a few. These activities can incorporate both teacher-directed and learner-centered methods. The second section is to outline the process elements. These would include presentations, designing prototypes, community experiences, to name a few. The final section is for students to evaluate and reflect on their learning experience and for faculty to assess their work (Fink, 2003).
The scaffolding of student learning and course construction is vital to engaged student participa-
tion and readiness for class. The following section addresses direction instruction strategies such as lecturing, questioning, and assessment.
Teacher Directed Instruction
Good teachers possess a capacity for connected- ness. They are able to weave a complex web of connections among themselves, their subjects, and their students so that students can learn to weave a world for themselves. The methods used by these weavers vary widely: lectures, Socratic dialogues, laboratory experiments, collaborative problem solving, creative chaos. The connections made by good teachers are held not in their methods but in their hearts—meaning heart in the ancient sense, as the place where intellect and emotion and spirit and will converge in the human self (Palmer, 2007, p. 11).
Lecturing
Lecturing is a skill that can be used in all content areas as a way to efficiently convey information to students. A good lecture however can become an activity that involves everyone in the classroom. The beginning sets the stage and needs to focus the attention on the topic to be discussed. Establish- ing a sense of student participation can be done through a dialogue format. Inviting discussion with the students using questions that relate to the topic as the session is opened, lets them know that this lecture will involve their participation. Good thought-provoking questions that interest the students can provide exciting discussion and bring them into the lecture. Engaging content and delivery expand the learning experience as stated by Sullivan and McIntosh (1996)
“teaching and learning must be an intellectually challenging experience where by student through extensive interactive teaching are able to gain thorough conceptual understanding…interac- tive learning is enhanced through the effective
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use of key teaching skills including questioning, demonstrating, providing positive reinforcement and reviewing” (p. 1).
The idea of the faculty/student relationship is important to explore. It is important to connect with students in order to have them want to engage in the process of learning. The connection must be professional and intellectual. It is important to always relate the knowledge without being the end all on any given subject. Allow students to disagree with what is stated and then discuss the differences that are in question. This gives students the ability to connect in a positive way and learn how to view different perspectives. If students are invited to take the risk of speaking their mind, teachers must be able to guide the discussion without being intimidated by the stu- dent’s perspective. This two-way street gives the attitude of professionalism and intellectualism to the classroom environment. Students learn how to use their voice in a professional way and learn from the acceptance of the teacher. “Both artistry and technical skills are required as you develop presentation techniques that are well fitted to your unique instruction circumstances” (Savage, Savage, & Armstrong, 2006, p. 242).
Many times lectures are one way and do not engage students. Instructors that reach their stu- dents use topics that include examples relevant to students’ lives. Savage et al. (2006) summary direction teacher directed instruction as a process:
“Direct instruction features systematic and formal presentation of information to the whole class. You instruct in a logical, step-by-step fashion. Typically, you ask students to demonstrate their understanding of each step before they go on to the next. You control classroom interactions and the rate at which content is introduced. Under optimal conditions, your maintain as brisk a pace as possible…It is important to note that your control of the classroom does not mean an absence of active student participation…when
effectively implemented, there is a high degree of student involvement associated with …student understand[ing] the new material” (p. 234).
Once more, a level of rapport must be de- veloped between the teacher and the students. Classroom with this kind of instruction become active learning environments. Content can either be dry and boring or exciting and interesting. Humor is a good way to engage students and can lead to understanding if connections are made even if they are funny. “Enthusiasm is contagious. If you express a high level of interest and sense of importance about your topic, students often become spellbound, anxious to find out what so interesting” (Moore, 2009, p. 150). The whole environment of the classroom revolves around how well the teacher can ignite interest in the subject and help the students to become a part. Adding points of interest that capture the meaning of a concept gives student a way to remember what needs to be learned. The demeanor of the instructor during lecture is important as well. The speaker should smile, make eye contact with student when they ask questions and move around the room to better include all students (Sullivan & McIntosh, 1996, p. 7). Moving about the classroom also adds a physical connection that keeps students aware that something is actually happening in the classroom. All these things add to any direct instruction or lecture. It brings the words being spoken to life and relays the importance of what students need to know.
A well-prepared lecture must move beyond the reading that was required. The text or readings can be the foundation of the lecture but does not have to end there. The questions that are asked regarding the reading can be ways for students to give their perspective. Student reflection can move the lecture to more depth as analysis is used to present the information. As lectures evolve, students begin to understand the broader aspects of what they need to understand about any given subject. It is also important to acknowledge the
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students contribution to the lecture. Moore (2009) refers to this as reinforcement, “…rather than give reinforcement early in the questioning sequence, you should allow as many students as possible to respond to the question then reinforce them for their contribution” (p. 163).
Two methods to create accountability for students to come to class prepared to discuss readings include student created reading cards and reading panels. The reading cards are 3x5 cards which students prepare notes using the as- signed readings for week. The cards are turned in the first five minutes of class, usually left at the door in a basket. The instructor puts a special stamp on those turned in on time (late-comers loose out) and students can use stamped cards on the exams. Another strategy is to create a reading panel. Student names are put into a hat and five names are drawn each class. Those five students are responsible to be prepared to lead a discus- sion of the reading without the assistance of the instructor. Each week names are drawn, all the names are available each week, so that once a student participates they are not out of circulation hence stop reading.
As mentioned earlier, the classroom should be a two way street. This means that students also have a responsibility for their learning by coming to class prepared. Faculty “must focus on changing the role of the student from passive observe to ac- tive participant. In this approach, the responsibility for meeting learning objectives is shared by the instructor and each student” (Sullivan & McIntosh, 1996, p. 5). Student preparation includes reading information and also involves in-depth analysis of readings. This increases the student’s ability to express their perspective in class. Students should not hesitate to raise questions; the interruption forces the instructor to engage with the students. If students take the challenge to insert themselves into the lecture with questions or comments they encourage others to join the discussion. Teachers must be open to let students become involved, but
it is as important for students to be prepared as much as it is for the teacher.
Questioning
Questioning is one of the best ways to engage students. However, questions only engage the students if they lead to more discussion. Open- ended questions provide students the opportunity to think and give them ownership of the discussion. The use of focus questions can inform instructors what students know and create interest in the topic. Questions “may be factual, empirical, productive, or evaluative are used to direct student attention” (Moore, 2009, p. 158). Questioning is a skill that teachers need to acquire. Part of the technique is using wait time which is a purposeful delay to fill the quiet space created when students are forming a response. Instructor pacing generally allows for a one second wait time; however when wait time is increased to three to five seconds Moore (2009) found:
1. Student response time increased. 2. Failure to respond tends to decrease. 3. Student asked more questions. 4. Unsolicited responses increased. 5. Student confidence increased (p. 162).
Wait time allows student time to think and again, engages them in the lesson. If questions have one-word responses or have rote answers the depth of the lecture is lost. The question needs to invoke the thinking process and lead to more in depth discussion of the subject. One question- ing technique that is highly used is the Socratic Method which Paul and Elder (2007) describe as:
“disciplined questioning that can be use to purse thought in many directions and for many pur- poses…The key to distinguishing it from other types of questioning is that Socratic questioning is systematic, disciplined and deep and usually
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focuses on foundational concepts, principles, theories, issues, or problems”(p. 36).
The objective is for discovery on the part of the students to understand the concept being examined, the idea being explored, the process being described or the content being explained. The faculty and the students become involved in a dialogue which allows the students to see different perspectives as they begin to form their own ideas based on a broader understanding of the elements being presented.
Lecture recitation is another method that can be effective and also efficient. Moore (2009) points out the use of a lecture formed around questioning adds an additional dimension to the instruction. The time spent giving needed information should always be as engaging as any hands-on activity. Lecture recitation helps to invite students into a conversation. The faculty becomes the director of the concepts being discussed and leads the flow of information towards the desired content. Discov- ery is the purpose for students as they formulate their answers to open ended thought provoking questions. The whole class can participate as the instructor directs questions that pique the interest of each student. All answers must be accepted and used to continue the discussion which adds depth to the content being studied. Students are equally responsible to come to class prepared with read- ings and homework complete to best participate with their peers.
In today’s technological age, there are many tools that can be used to enhance a lecture. The key is to engage the learner. Technology infusion facilitates learning by providing relevant examples and demonstration, changing the orientation of the classroom, preparing students for employment, increasing flexibility of delivery, increasing ac- cess and satisfying public demands of efficiency (Miller, Martineau, & Clark 2000, p. 229). Any visual aid used can be helpful to students because is address learning styles of the students. However, the visual aid should not become the lecture.
The most popular is PowerPoint. Reading from a PowerPoint is not engaging and does not add to the depth of information being presented. However, if students can see an example of what is being presented verbally and be able to analyze the information, then the visual is helpful. Document readers can show charts, diagrams, and pictures of things that give a clear picture of what is said. These tools can open up a discussion or lecture that invites the outside world into the classroom. Another example of visual aids is the use of ma- nipulatives in math classes. Manipulatives can help student to understand what the teachers is explaining and enriches the meaning of abstract concepts. When the information is synthesized with different modalities the lecture can help stu- dent reach understanding that can lead to mastery of the methods or ideas being presented. Moore (2009) suggests “Use any media that can be used to help convey your message; they should stimu- late and maintain student interest. Indeed, make your lecture as multisensory as possible” (p. 150).
Assessment
If a positive classroom environment is the begin- ning of a successful teaching and learning expe- rience for students and faculty then assessment may well be considered the finale. Mid-term and final exams are the conventional summative assessment is the sole measurement the student learning. Huba and Freed (2000) define assess- ment in higher education as:
“…the process of gathering and discussing infor- mation from multiple and diverse sources in order to develop a deep understanding of what students know, understand, and can do with their knowl- edge as a result of their educational experiences; the process culminates when assessment results are used to improve subsequent learning.” (p. 8)
Assessment can be either summative (final) or formative (along the way). Summative assessment
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is defined as “those that are generally carried out at the end of an instructional unit or course of study for the purpose of giving grades or otherwise certi- fying student proficiency” (Shepard et al., 2005, p. 275). Many times these exams require little more than a good memory and a few hours a cramming beforehand. In a well-designed teacher directed course where the focus in on content acquisition, a shift toward formative assessment is essential to inform faculty’s subsequent instruction and create independent learners.
Formative assessment is defined as “assess- ment carried out during the instructional process for the purpose of improving teaching and learn- ing” (Shepard et al., 2005, p. 275). Formative assessment can take on many forms including instructor observations, a student developed portfolio, feedback on writing assignments or projects, conferencing with students and student self assessment. The purpose is to gain interim data about student progress and understanding by asking three questions: Where are you trying to go? Where are you now? How can you get there? The role of the instructor becomes one of a facilitator of assignments to help students be metacognitive of their understanding and applica- tion of content. As faculty begin to examine their assessments they may find that what is easy to test may not be the same as what is important to test. This dilemma ties back to Fink’s concept the creating of significant learning experiences and how to assess learning in a less formal manner.
The creation and use of rubrics aid in the evaluation and provides structured feedback for projects such as papers, presentations, the build- ing of models for example. A rubric is defined as
“…a scoring guide that enables judges to make re- liable judgments about student work and students to self-assess. A rubric is based on a continuum of performance quality, built upon a scale of different possible score points to be assigned; identifies the traits or dimensions to be examined and assessed; and provides key features of performance for each
level of scoring (descriptors) which signify the degree to which the criteria have been meet.” (McTighe & Wiggins, 2004, p. 292)
The purpose for using a rubric, both in a for- mative and summative manner, is that it conveys the quality and expectations of the assignment. A rubric is a communication tool for both faculty and students. Students can use a rubric to deter- mine if they have included all the elements of an assignment and to what level of proficiency. Rubrics provide faculty a way to be explicit about their expectations and a fair and systematic way to grade all students.
Assessments can provide the richness to a teacher directed course that exams cannot create or capture. Assignments that provide students with a problem-solving or real-life disciplinary application honor both the teacher and learner.
Technology
Students are opting for online courses which tend to be teacher directed. The limitations of course management tools such as Moodle or Blackboard lack of face to face interaction and are bound by text. Teacher directed instruction both face to face and online can incorporate new technologies to provide students opportunities for social or inter- personal construction of knowledge outside class time. Instructors may incorporate one or several of these technologies:
1. Blogs is a series of postings or data entries. A blog can have one author or be the col- laborative work of multiple authors. Blogs are both a learning and communication tool.
2. Wikis differ from blogs in that the content can be edited. Participants can use a wiki to create a working space and final document that addresses the breadth of a course. Wikis can be created by faculty for supplemental learning tool or by students to challenge them
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to bring new resources and their configured understanding of content to the conversation.
3. Podcasts are audio programs posted on the internet. Many prestigious universities such as Harvard and Stanford provide lectures through iTunes free to the public. Faculty can create podcasts of their lectures to al- low students to review material or makeup a missed class. Lectures could also take place primarily outside of class time and those minutes used for the processing of content.
4. Vodcasts are videos on demand programs posted on the internet. Similar in teacher directed application to the podcast video provides. YouTube is an example of vod- casts which can be used to enhance direct instruction.
Each technology provides a platform for stu- dent engagement with the content and their peers. Whether the technology enhances the course by providing additional resources or examples, when used effectively technology tools facilitate the gap between faculty and student classroom expectations.
CONCLUSION
When addressing the need for teacher directed instruction it is important to remember that there is no one set formula. Faculty must employ a variety of strategies in order to engage their students in the learning process. Teacher directed instruction can involve lecturing, lecture recitation, questioning and all that entails plus discussions with media/ visual aids. There are times when lecturing is only part of the lesson. An instructor can begin with a short lecture, incorporate an activity and then end class with finale summary thoughts.
Instructors can create a positive learning envi- ronment. This can incorporate differentiation for student learning styles, academic levels, ethnicity and gender. A teacher directed lesson does not
mean passive, unengaged students; lectures are an excellent way to deliver content information efficiently as well as be an effective learning experience for the students. Teacher directed and learner-centered need not be polar opposites but rather a continuum of pedagogical chooses to best achieve instructional outcomes.
As students demand more engaging instruction and faculty require high-order thinking skills, it is imperative that good teacher directed strategies be utilized in the higher education classroom. However good teaching is not solely situated in technique, Palmer (2007) reflects that
“…every class I teach, my ability to connect with my students, and to connect them with the subject, depends less on the methods I use than on the de- gree to which I know and trust my selfhood – and am willing to make it available and vulnerable in the service of learning” (p. 11).
REFERENCES
Baxter Magolda, M., & King, P. (2004). Self- authorship as the common goal of the 21st-century education. In Baxter Magolda, M., & King, P. (Eds.), Learning partnerships. Theory and models of practice to educate for self-authorship. Sterling, VA: Stylus.
Fink, D. (2007). The power of course design to increase student engagement and learning.(1), 13-17.
Huba, M., & Freed, J. (2000). Learner-centered assessment on college campus. Shifting the focus from teaching to learning. Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon.
McTighe, J., & Wiggins, G. (2004). Understand- ing by design. Alexandria, VA: ASCD.
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Miller, J., Martinque, L., & Clark, R. (2000). Tech- nology infusion and higher. Education changing teaching and learning. Innovative Higher Educa- tion, 24(3), 237–241.
Moore, K. (2009). Strategies from theory to prac- tice. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Palmer, P. (2007). The courage to teach. Explor- ing the inner landscape of a teacher’s life. San Francisco, CA: Wiley & Sons.
Paul, R., & Elder, L. (2007). Critical thinking: The art of Socratic questioning. Journal of De- velopmental Education, 31(1), 36–37.
Savage, T., Savage, M., & Armstrong, D. (2006). Teaching in the secondary school (6th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson/Merrill Prentice Hall.
Shepard, L., Hammerness, K., Darling-Hammond, L., & Rust, F. (2005). Assessment. In Darling- Hammond, L., & Bransford, J. (Eds.), Preparing teachers for a changing world. What teachers should learn and be able to do (pp. 275–326). San Francisco, CA: Jossey Bass.
Sullivan, R., & McIntosh, N. (1996, December). Delivering effective lectures. Paper #5, JHPIECO Corporation: Johns Hopkins University.
Wink, J. (2000). Critical pedagogy. Notes from the real world. New York, NY: Addison Wesley Longman.
KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS
Adult Development: The process of indi- vidualizing one’s own thoughts in opinions. Development is promoted in the context of others such as parents, teachers and friends. One moves from a state of internalizing the beliefs held by others to a more sophisticated state of creating individualized views which incorporate parts and pieces from others.
Open Learning Environments: Are class- rooms that honor the discipline content and the voices of the instructor and student.
Significant Learning Experiences: Are defined as teaching that results in “a learning experience resulting in something that is truly significant in terms of the students’ lives” (Fink, 2003, p. 6).
Summative Assessment: Defined as “those that are generally carried out at the end of an in- structional unit or course of study for the purpose of giving grades or otherwise certifying student proficiency” (Shephard et al., 2005, p. 276).
Teacher Directed Instruction: Class design in which faculty carry the responsibility for creation and execution of all instruction and assessment.
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Copyright © 2012, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
INTRODUCTION
Various innovations to reduce the distance in distance education are investigated and new ideas introduced in this chapter. Recommenda- tions emerge from analysis of literature in adult education, e-learning, social capital, and social
learning. This chapter inquires into the relation- ships between the e-learner and the e-facilitator, the content, the administration. This chapter is prompted, in part, by the need to update under- standings of distance and e-learning. In 1996 Moore and Kearsley wrote, “The transaction which we call distance education is the interplay between people who are teachers and learners” (p. 200). This chapter questions the concentration on the
Chapter 57
Kathleen M. Kevany Saint Francis Xavier University, Canada
Learning Together: Reducing Distance in Distance Education
ABSTRACT
Creatively fostering peer-to-peer (P2P) learning reduces the distance in distance education. E-learners become teachers and learners through animated, adult oriented, self-directed distance education. Ways to mitigate social distance are discussed as are ways to enhance social capital through P2P learning. Factors that increase success in P2P e-learning are unencumbered connectivity, adult oriented facili- tation, increased criticality, and learning collaboratively. The dynamic roles of learners, facilitators, and administrators are articulated along with plans for future environments conducive to learning and change. The concept onisagogy, meaning “together learning” is introduced as an approach to acceler- ate learning, increase satisfaction, and reduce social distance.
DOI: 10.4018/978-1-61350-068-2.ch057
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facilitator-learner relationship at the expense of greater learner-learner enrichment. This review builds on investigations of peer-to-peer (P2P) learning and suggests a new discourse may be helpful and timely in this era of digital technology and collaborative learning (Boud & Lee, 2005). Arising from changes in demographics, technol- ogy, and economics, institutes of higher learning are facing challenges to their traditions, systems, and beliefs. Campus maintenance costs are sky- rocketing, course delivery systems are evolving, and student bodies are changing, to name but a few of the contemporary catalysts for change.
This review is focused on upgrading peer-to- peer (P2P) learning and how higher education can adapt to increase its social capital by facilitating successful e-learning. Central to the arguments for shifting to greater peer learning are the trans- formations in networked communications and the benefits arising from social learning. To fail to integrate peer learning and e-learning at this juncture in human evolution is comparable to failing to acknowledge the advent of the printing press and continuing to gather everyone in the town square to hear the daily news.
A very brief historical context is provided, followed by factors that contribute to enhancing the e-learning environment as well as challenges associated with e-learning are discussed. Future directions and recommendations to enhance on- line peer learning are provided. Many interesting and important topics remain beyond the scope of this chapter like the development of learning materials, evaluation of e-learning, as well as the effectiveness of technologically mediated instruc- tion. Throughout this literature review, the author remains vigilant in avoiding a meta-narrative that suggests that technology will enable 21st Century higher education to alleviate what ails it. Educator and advocate of e-learning Ronnie Carr reminds those who are paying attention to history that “… television and video…didn’t transform education, but just became one of a number of components in distance programmes…” (Burge, 2007b, p.
83). While this is not the panacea, technology is proving to hold tremendous constructive potential.
BACKGROUND
E-learning and distance education have emerged through a respectable pedigree in extension and correspondence education as well as through community learning around kitchen tables and radio broadcasts. Extension education enabled the distribution of content across distances. “Even though distance education is as old as the correspondence course and the pony express, it still poses a problem…the student who was comfortable with self-directed freedom to learn. This constituted about a third of the students” (Batdorf, 1995, pp. 18-19). Early renditions of computer mediated learning meant that students were required to read extensively online yet they were insufficiently engaged with dynamic and satisfying approaches to learning (Hanna, 2003). The standard knowledge transfer approach, known as pedagogy was based on a view that learners were less informed than the facilitator and required an infusion of knowledge. This interpretation has been criticized for its inadequate appreciation of learner capabilities (Knowles, 1990; Burge, 2007a). The European notion of andragogy viewed adults as capable and knowledgeable, teachers and learners. Through devoting himself to expanding the understanding of how adults learn best, Knowles became the champion of andragogy in North America. Andragogy focused on utilizing the inherent capabilities, responsi- bilities, and independence of learners. E-learning that transferred the same content and approaches taken in the traditional in-person format seemed to contradict the best practices in adult education and undermine learner abilities.
According to the American based Instructional Technology Council, (2010) several institutions in 2010 celebrated their tenth anniversaries in offering e-learning and online degrees. This signi-
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fies that most institutes are at early stages on the continuum from technological neophyte to skilled e-learning providers. It may also be reasonable to assume that e-learners are at different points along this continuum. Some facilitators have set out to design distance learning materials and environ- ments conducive to shared and transformative learning (Conrad, 2005).
PRESENT PERSPECTIVES
Changes with contemporary society, particularly the ubiquity of digital technologies affect not only commerce, travel, and interfaces with govern- ment, but also ways of facilitating, learning, and research. Definitions of e-learning and distance learning are dynamic like the times in which they are situated. E-learning may be defined as the transfer, adaptation, and sharing of knowledge and skills developed through the use of comput- ers and distributed learning tools (Barab, Kling, & Gray, 2004). Distance education and training have been described as the process of designing and delivering education across geographic dis- tances using technological tools, like computers and internet connections (Tyler-Smith, 2006). Distance education by its very nature, may be characterized as distant, distributed, independent, and at times, isolating (Burge, 1998). Lea and Nicoll refer to distributed learning as “networks of learning in which learners take up opportunities in a variety of ways without necessary involvement from teachers or supervisors” (as cited in Boud & Lee, 2005, p. 503). The theory of transactional distance articulated by Moore (1980), proposed that the psychological and communicative distance or gaps that arise, between distant facilitator and learner needed to be minimized or shortened. For some, forming a social presence helps to reduce this distance. Social presence has been described (Aragon, 2003; Kear, 2004; Rourke et al., 2001) as the abilities of learners and facilitators to ap- propriately share social, emotional, spiritual, and
intellectual information in ways that build a strong online community of enquiry. Peers are people with whom another shares the same, less, or per- haps more, academic authority, work experience, learning interests, or social or political goals.
Traditional learners are learners who are 18-24 years old and who pursue post-secondary upon completing secondary studies. Non-traditional learners are older than 24 and often out of school for some time before they participate in post- secondary education and often on a part-time basis (Ryan & Dowling, 2005). The ITC report (2010) revealed that participation in e-learning was almost an equal blend of traditional students at 52 percent and non-traditional students at 47 percent. More females than males enroll in online courses, by a significant majority; in a 2008 report (ITC, 2010) the ratio was 2:1. Non-traditional learners significantly populate and then inform and influ- ence distance education and university outreach. Data gathered in 2009 from 226 degree granting colleges in the USA reported “…a 22 percent increase for distance education enrollments— substantially higher than overall national campus enrollments, which averaged less than two percent nationally” (ITC, 2010, p.2). Findings from more than 2,500 colleges and universities over a decade corroborated this finding that online enrollments, including a more mature learner, have continued to increase (17 per cent) while figures for on campus participation have declined (Sloan, 2010).
Administrators of higher education have been engaged in debates related to changes in demand, costs, funding, delivery mechanisms and education competitors. Various forces are influencing chang- es in educational systems, including the upsurge of for-profit education industry, due to a growing gap, whether real or perceived, “…in the ability of post-secondary education to deliver appropriately skilled workers to ‘knowledge’ industries” (Lewis, Massey, & Smith, 2001, p. 16). Additionally, em- ployers contend that graduates were ill-equipped for working and learning together (Anderson & Garrison, 1998). Comparatively, profit providers
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of e-learning are experiencing significant growth as measured by: total spending, industry revenues, level of investment, along with the market value of publicly traded education firms (Lewis, Massey, & Smith, 2001). Policy decisions seem to be in disarray. Institutions must seek to answer how the information revolution and the development and delivery of e-learning will foster more collabora- tion, consciousness, innovation, and criticality.
Factors that Mediate E-learning
The infusion of diverse digital technologies enables institutes to better compete in a global education market and tap into alternate sources of revenue, including attracting traditional and non-traditional learners. Where e-learning has been increasing, it also seems to be achieving self-supporting budgets (Burge 2007a; Anderson & Garrison, 1998). In addition to increasing rev- enue, institutes that offer online learning develop students’ exposure and skills to interact and thrive in a digital age. E-learning and distance educa- tion may be a path through which institutions can deliver high quality learner-centred, collaborative, and personalized education (Boud & Lee, 2005).
In addition to the economic rationale to expand offerings in e-learning what follows are additional benefits from ensuring a diversity of tools and paths for connectivity are present in e-learning. Institutes may be propelled by research find- ings to offer more distributed and collaborative learning opportunities. Moore and Kerlin suggest that learner “intellectual capacities for critical thinking and engagement of complex ideas are strengthened” (as cited in Trow, 1998, p. 307) through creative and collaborative learning. Ryan and Dowling (2005) point to other studies where learners achieved higher grades and had higher rates of completion when engaged in learning communities.
According to Harper and Martinez (2002), the completion rates of online learning did have a poor start. During the early years, retention and
completion could easily fall below 50 percent (ITC, 2010). However, there has been much progress in mitigating this challenge. “In 2009 administrators reported that the average reten- tion/completion rate for online classes was 72 percent, compared to 76 percent for traditional face-to-face courses. Based on six years of data, the trend in online retention has continued to improve” (ITC, 2010, p. 12). The literature on learning efficacy and student success are covered well elsewhere and consequently not expanded upon here (Kinzie, Kuh, Sculh, & Whitt, 2005; Sorrel & Shaffer, 2002). The point to underscore here is that learning and completion increased with levels of engagement and commitment.
Such logic has been validated for decades in psychology and education literature. Through exposure to others who possess more experience, and through active experimentation and practice even novices can become masters (Bandura, 1977; Vygotsky, 1978). Like learning to play a new instrument, musicians must understand their instrument and focus their attention. When new- comers to a field dedicate themselves to learn the score and advance their knowledge and abilities, they and their audiences are rewarded with stellar performances. Similarly, learners, facilitators, and administration all may profit when well-developed e-learning systems inspire creativity and compas- sion, liberate criticality, and imbed collaboration.
Learning Tools
Increasingly sophisticated and interactive digital technology may aid in fostering increased partici- pation and involvement through such mechanisms as instant messaging between members, discussion groups, and online postings, along with ensuring collaborative peer learning is conducted with ease (Johnson, Levine, & Smith, 2008). Some current technological aids adapted for sharing and learn- ing may include: podcasts, wikis, blogs, games, text, print documents, animated presentations, video, films, audio clips, simulators and com-
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puter programs typically iTunes, Flash Player and Acrobat Reader as well as satellite TV, and CD-ROM. E-learning provides technological links for learning in a place and at a pace that suits the lifestyles of learners. Learning tools however are unlimited. A tree, a stream, a building, and another person, along with books, and one’s own imagination remain quintessential tools integral to e-learning. Tools can help facilitate learning and connections. In striving to create magic in distance education, a study at Athabasca University (AU) was undertaken with some e-learning faculty. They found faculty receptive to new technologies and how these afforded innovative student con- nectivity and learning opportunities (Cavanaugh, Ellerman, Oddson, & Young, 2001). Supports to faculty also become imperative. The 2008 report of the Instructional Technology Council stated that “We need one central faculty development center for supporting faculty in effective instructional design, use of Blackboard and other educational technologies, assessment of the quality of their online courses, help with improving online course quality and help with rapidly changing technolo- gies. We also need more staff in the system distance education area” (ITC, p.4).
Similarly, learners can benefit from the stories, struggles, and successes of others who have har- nessed the transformative potential of technologies (Yoon, 2003). As Vygotsky (1978) confirmed, learners expand their learning through engagement with skilled others. To be actively in command of the learning process, learners and facilitators require an aptitude to manage the technology and to have access to a computer with the minimum technical specifications (Burge, 2007a). An ITC 2010 study assessed preparedness, learning, and performance in distance education classes. They found that learners needed to be acutely aware of and able to navigate the demands of online learn- ing. They also needed to appreciate and devote the time required for engaging in large group discussions and collaborative and individual work.
Various writers (Gibson, 1998; Palloff & Pratt, 1999; Yoon, 2003) have suggested that there were multiple gains found online that face-to-face learning did not afford. One optimistic perspec- tive came from Harasim and colleagues when they said, “Online education opens unprecedented opportunities for educational interactivity” (as cited in Yoon, 2003, p. 20). Gladwell (2010) con- curred with Granovetter’s preposition that through forming new acquaintances new insights can be gained and new connections formed. Arguments for the poignancy of peer learning through social connections are now presented.
Peer-to-Peer (P2P)
Offering learning at a distance may extend av- enues for expression, expand meaningful engage- ment, and remove some barriers to accessibility. E-learning replaces travel time, removes travel dangers, and increases affordability as well as diversity among learners (Gibson, 2001). In contrast to a physically smaller catchment area, gathering learners from geographically dispersed and culturally, religiously, linguistically diverse communities hold promise of the emergence of greater diversity in opinions and outcomes.
The conducive supports, environments, and attitudes (Burge, 1998, 2007a; Conrad, 2005) further enable successful e-learning. Multiple academies that offer e-learning, like the TRU-OL Library Website, Thompson Rivers University, and Open Learning seek learner input for content and format. “Advocates of a learner-centred model argue that e-learning should be, like on campus systems, focused towards the needs of the learner” (Lewis, Massey, & Smith, 2001, p. 23). With imagination sensory stimulations and simulations can be orchestrated at the location of the learner. The Association for Contemplation in Higher Education (http://www.acmhe.org/) is replete with examples of utilizing non-traditional locations and exercises to ignite reflection, empathy, and transformation. For some learners participating
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in e-learning, the existence of social distance and personal space has helped them to express more ideas than they might when feeling constrained in a face-to-face setting (Cavanaugh, Ellerman, Oddson, & Young, 2001). Through delayed com- munication formats e-learners can think about their thinking, reflect on their contribution, as well as tap into additional resources before they respond, and they can alter or edit themselves in the process of expressing their views. E-learning offers potential for unencumbered access to di- verse resources and to boundless or borderless learning communities. More recent research by Lea and Nicoll (2002) and Boud and Lee (2005) supports earlier contentions that including more peer learning and forming communities of prac- tice have proven beneficial. Peer-to-peer (P2P) learning also helps to diversify and to democratize learning (Boud & Lee, 2005). Learning that arises through meaningful relationships becomes “held in memory longer than information acquired in a virtual vacuum. This is called context driven learning. Context driving learning is the most ‘brain friendly’ kind of learning, as learning is quicker, more easily updated, and has unlimited capacity” (Hill, as cited in Lambert, 2007, p. 15).
Social Presence
Not all agree that e-learning builds a sense of connection or an in-depth engagement with con- tent. Some argue that face-to-face is essential for communities of practice to emerge (Barab, Kling, & Gray, 2004). However, this logic does not bear out as communities have been known to form without being together in person (Gibson, 1998). Conrad (2005) found that with regular online engagement a sense of community can and does emerge. While it may require innovation and ef- fort, forming communities online has proven not only possible but essential for more satisfying and effective learning (Kear, 2004; Palloff & Pratt, 1999). E-facilitators are charged with inspiring multiple ways to form communities that engender
credibility, reliability, and humanity (Knowlton, 2000; Sloan, 2010). One way to achieve more of this is through the fostering of social presence. Aragon (2003) found that learners who had a higher level of social presence were more satisfied with online learning. Encouraging members to provide an introduction, including from facilitators, that is also personal and possibly supplemented with photos or artifacts, can increase social presence and reduce transactional distance (Aragon, 2003; Conrad, 2005).
Palloff and Pratt (1999) in Building Learning Communities in Cyberspace propose that knowl- edge can be effectively transferred and integrated through P2P learning. P2P learning is not confined to formal course content. It may include inde- pendently reading materials and then discussing with peers online or learning from others on the job, or reflecting on, journaling about, and then comparing learning insights with others. Gibson (2001) found in her work that distance learners progress in their learning with support from a variety of sources. As indicated earlier, findings from the Berkley Experiment concur with the arguments for building of learning communities. As one student stated, “Everything goes from hav- ing opportunities to get down with people, talk to people, know people, wrestle with issues, in a safe environment, in a place where it’s set up for dialogue and set up for wrestling with the great issues. There’s no substitute for it” (Trow, 1998, p. 308). These experiments revealed the value in building community, taking risks, creating con- nections, and actively engaging in controversial issues to support intellectual evolution so long as exchanges are civil and not acrimonious. These and other experiments also revealed also whether or not students were close friends the more they discussed the issues, the greater their cognitive and affective development (Trow, 1998; Wenger, 2000). Gabelnick, et al. (1990) reported that what each participant of a learning community thinks, writes, and shares makes a difference to the intel- lectual life of the collective. Through participating
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in an engaged online community, learners gain a different perspective, challenge unsubstantiated notions, explore their own understandings, fre- quently share their personal resources, and build knowledge together (Kear, 2004). Members of a group may develop connections that are character- ized by mutual trust, reciprocity, confidentiality, and collaborative resolution of common problems (Wenger, 2000). Putnam, Feldstein, and Cohen (2003) described these outcomes as social capital and defined social capital as “features of social organizations, such as networks, norms and social trust that facilitate co-ordination and co-operation for mutual benefit” (p. 41). As well, learning networks may help decrease a sense of learner isolation and uncertainty when facing new material and challenging goals (Grootaert, Narayan, Jones, & Woolcock, 2003; Trow, 1998). Johnson-Lenz & Johnson-Lenz found that digital technologies helped in the development of therapeutic relation- ships among members and stretched their comfort zones (as cited in Anderson & Garrison, 1998). E-learners indicated the difficulty and sensitiv- ity involved in critiquing the work of others but shared they valued receiving feedback that was as in-depth and candid as possible (Kear, 2004). In a 2002 study conducted by UK’s Open University, 84 percent of e-learners indicated that to obtain feedback from peers was useful and 81 percent of e-learners reported they valued the learning experience of reviewing the work of peers.
Greater self-directedness, social learning, and collaboration also may be ingredients beneficial to orchestrating desired political change. In an Australian report entitled, “Linking Thinking - Self-directed Learning in the Digital Age,” Candy (2004) suggests society is “likely to witness an increasing demand for self-regulated online com- munities and access to what has been dubbed the ‘information commons’” (p. 11). This suggests shifts in administration’s authority over connectiv- ity, access, content, and capabilities (Candy, 2004).
Subtle power shifts also arise in the relation- ships and roles of online facilitators and learners.
In this new age, e-facilitating requires being more than a producer and distributer of knowledge. It entails encouraging the learner to interact with the facilitator, the technology, the content, and with fellow learners. The facilitator invests relevant experience, content knowledge as well as technical competence, along with sensitivity to fostering suitable relations online. Ideally, the e-learning facilitator also exemplifies strong relationship building skills, masterful communication, and critical thinking skills. Conceicao (2006) found that through filling these multiple roles, more in- depth sharing emerged in the online exchanges and the reflections that followed. Facilitators offer a model of conduct for learners. When the facilitator shares her own examples this increased the sharing by learners and helped learners also see themselves as teachers (Conceicao, 2006). Palloff and Pratt (1999) cautioned facilitators to remain present, but not dominating. The facilita- tor in e-learning becomes less prominent as more leadership and co-teaching emerges through participant exchanges.
Role and Identify Transformation
E-learning sparks new awareness of self in relation to others (Palloff & Pratt, 1999). Learning with peers, experts, co-workers, and family is often dispersed, sporadic, complex, and negotiated (Pearson & Brew, 2002). E-learning opens up a new world. Further growth is likely to emerge when learners experience their first contact with people from different regions, religions, economic backgrounds, or sexual or political orientations (Candy, 2004). E-learning prompts new abilities like inquiring, downloading, deleting, saving, and affirming, synthesizing, critiquing, guiding, cooperating, reflecting and discerning as well as integrating, reformulating and reapplying. This expansion of knowledge and skills infiltrate not only online but also the learner’s offline iden- tity and conduct (Boud & Lee, 2005). Learning together in this new mode with a more diverse,
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dynamic, and mature community of learners may ignite “big change…the transition from the importance of grades to the importance of ideas and away from external authority toward internal discipline” (Trow, 1998, p. 269). While some find- ings included in this chapter may be encouraging, it would be premature to conclude that e-networks have changed political and social outcomes (Ellul as cited in Lovekin, 1977; Siemens, 2010). Learn- ing comes at a cost. For example negotiating space for learning with family is “significantly affected by gender expectations, familial obligations, and financial entitlements” (Reitsma-Street, 2005, p. 11). Such family negotiations may impose changed roles for more than the learner. Further costs and impediments to e-learning are next examined.
Impediments to E-Learning
Some of the critiques of distance education in- clude arguments that the values and richness of education are being distorted as it becomes more commodified and for-profit (Anderson & Garri- son, 1998). Diverse impediments with e-learning, like technological barriers, user aptitudes, and economic burdens, have been identified, among others. Challenges arise for users with inconsistent connectivity, out-dated equipment, or the inability to afford connections or technological updates. Cognitive and emotional barriers also may arise like a lack of trust in one’s own technical acumen or fear of being inarticulate online. As well, the plethora of materials and websites along with avenues for constant connectivity could become overwhelming (Burge, 1998). Such impediments can obstruct desired intellectual, social, economic, and political participation and growth (Conrad, 2005). Some learners may be disadvantaged by the inability to observe reactions and nonverbal communications of co-learners and facilitators. Some fear that thinking could become technologi- cally driven and lose its creativity, spontaneity, and humanity. Burge (2007a) and colleagues caution educational institutions to realize the seri-
ous limitations and guard against over promising through technology. Forming an over-reliance on technology to get at what ails society would not be prudent. Burge warns that being seduced by the technology hyperbole and rising expectations of revenue may serve to widen the gaps between the technology-rich and the technology-poor. Siemens (2010) urged facilitators and administrators to harvest the “fruit of technology” and of learning networks but to remember that it is thinking that drives the technology and not the technology that drives the thinking. In an article entitled, “Small change: why the revolution will not be tweeted,” Gladwell (2010) warns would-be evangelists that social network learning and social change have not been proven to erupt from online activities. Based on the collection and interpretation of disparate data Gladwell (2010) concluded that although online participation had swelled it did not follow that motivation too had increased or ideas had coalesced into committing to social action. Online activities require investments of time, energy, and focus and may, in effect, usurp motivation needed to contribute to significant relationships or actions. An array of obstacles, including the complexity of e-learning, can become formidable challenges for learners, facilitators, and administrators alike.
Administrative Impediments
Striving to deliver learning that is unbound by time and place, challenged institutions to deliver continuous access and support, thus leading to requirements of greater operating and equipment budgets. The ITC report (2010) gathered and reported data on the greatest challenges for the administrators of distance education programs. The prominent issues that arose were the need for support staff to be technically trained and to be able to extend technical assistance to staff and learners. Administrators indicated that introduc- ing innovations and shifts like in e-learning may disrupt cultural and systemic entrenchment they need increased authority or influence to facilitate
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institution wide cultural and system changes. In some contexts, it may be the administrators who are putting forth the compelling case for faculty and students to embrace technological innovations. Yet Lewis, Massey, and Smith (2001) found that many institutions still default to student adaptation over institution metamorphosis. Other research on how administrators contend with learner expectations regarding experience in higher education (Bender, Miller, & Schuh, 2005) noted that colleges and universities are particularly good at defining ex- pectations of learners. These, taken as a collective, may form an oppressive regime of rules from: the code of conduct, fee payment deadlines, and many operational conditions in which learners must comply. They note however, that generally academic institutions are poor in discovering and responding to what learners expect (Bender, Miller, & Schuh, 2005). “The institution-centric model has been criticized for being anachro- nistic, outmoded, and inappropriate for today’s environment” (Lewis, Massey, & Smith, 2001, p. 23). In spite of the pressures to evolve and to increase income, most public institutions have not articulated their commitment to and policies and strategies to meet the emerging student and faculty demand (Knoess, 2005; ITC, 2010).
E-Facilitator Challenges
E-facilitators face the problem of designing and delivering animated e-learning content and spark- ing a community spirit. Anderson and Garrison (1998) analyze in their chapter, “Learning in a networked world,” that facilitators can be part of the problem when educational transactions are dominated by imposed views in one directional communication. The use of traditional pedagogy adapted to online inadequately attends to the complexity of learning and the opportunity for learners to critically assess and construct new knowledge. Another struggle identified in the literature was ‘a generational disconnect (Seale,
2003). Younger faculty also have been challenged to obtain understanding, acceptance, and support from campus leaders and administrators, who often lack direct experience with online teaching and learning (Harper & Martinez, 2002).
E-Learner Challenges
Siemens (2010) and MacKeracher (2009) argue that technology mediated learning can restrict who the learner is and how the learner interacts with the process and content. Learners need access to tools and opportunities to develop an array of skills like typing and website navigating along with technical acumen. Not all e-learners have equal access to or the ability to use digital technologies. E-learning requires reliable access to a computer for interact- ing online and affordable high speed connections. Some students may sense an anonymity that they like while others may feel lost in or overlooked as a result of an inadequate sense of connection to others. (Burge, 1998; Knowlton, 2000). The various obstacles thwarting e-learner, e-facilitator, as well as institutions from achieving their noble ideals will need vision and action to be mitigated.
FUTURE TRENDS
Rifkin (2010) prompts the question of what is the noble intent of the internet. The question also arises as to the noble intent of learning or counsel- ing or training. “The joy of academe is found in learning, through reading, arguing, writing, and discussing, and above all, in developing positive relationships and interesting ideas that nurture curiosity” (Reistma-Street, 2003, p. 13). Learn- ing and therapeutic interventions help to provoke people to “exercise, develop, and fulfill their po- tential to be both individuals and a community” (Battle, 1997, p. 40). Future e-learning will fail its noble cause if it does not ensure its systems, structures, artifacts, and norms are examined
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through the lenses of respecting diversity, engaging meaningfully, building community, and achieving excellence (Kinzie, Kuh, Sculh, & Whitt, 2005). Thus administrators, e-facilitators, and e-learners will become compelled to reflect on and recalibrate their mental fixtures and value systems, along with their criticality and communication styles.
Future Administration Opportunities
Sir John Daniel, a prominent voice in distance education and institutional leadership advises focusing on values of learning and innovative ways of working together rather than placing an inordinate emphasis on ever evolving technol- ogy. Facilities will need to be equipped for con- nectivity but foremost they need to be humane. He encourages the collaboration among leaders in the private and public sectors to garner valu- able lessons from each other and to commit to future investments in innovations that increase accessibility and accelerate e-learning (Daniel, 2007). Backed by commitment and clairvoyance the investments in technology are expected to rise along with revenues (Sloan, 2010). Harper and Martinez (2002) and Daniel (2007) concur that the strong relationships among education, training, and national policy objectives would obligate organizational and societal leaders to strive to ameliorate the effects of the digital divide to achieve goals such as global competitiveness, social inclusiveness, and informed democratic participation.
Visionary leaders will assume part of these goals as their own. In this age of networked and distance learning administrators would nurture a culture where technology specialists, including li- brarians, would be equipped to assist self-directed, adult learners with inquiries and technology needs (Seale, 2005). Administrators will create multiple channels to identify the needs, desires, and suc- cesses of e-learners.
Future E-Facilitator Opportunities
Engaging e-facilitators will affirm and accom- modate multiple ways of knowing and learning (Sorrel & Shaffer, 2002). Future e-facilitators and e-learners will be fluent in the language of reflective practice and fluid with the movement of experiential and embodied learning (Caf- farella, 2002; Hill, 2001) Methods may include learner-led facilitation, peer collaboration, and investigations into the emergence of social capital (Lambert, 2007; Sorrel & Shaffer, 2002; Wenger, McDermott, & Snyder, 2002). They will encourage learners to mentally evaluate their peer inspired learning.
Through greater preparedness by learners and facilitators to work together online, coupled with innovative and intellectually challenging facilita- tion (Hanna, 2003) online retention and comple- tion with are likely to increase. Facilitators will proactively form learner connections and aid in the “bridging” and “bonding” (Putnam, Feldstein, & Cohen, 2003) of peer learners. “Matching up students is a really great idea and helps us to ‘reach out’. I would really encourage you to see if there are alignments with other students - I know they would get as much out of this as I did” (per- sonal communication, K. Sammut, October, 23, 2010). To further increase probability of success, Gibson (2001) proposes that family members of the e-learners also be invited to distance learn- ing orientations. Respecting the role of family members and inviting their participation in the process will help families to be cognizant and supportive of the work ahead for the learner. Many e-facilitators too will require a re-orientation to adult and distance education. Initially, working in an e-learning context may challenge facilitators to know when and how to engage and when to resist intervening. E-facilitators and e-learners may benefit from co-creating and abiding by a code of conduct. Building on Hill’s notion of brain-friendly and retention-increasing context, facilitators and learners would strive to establish environments
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conducive to suitable levels of self-disclosure and a readiness to effectively support and challenge one another (Conceicao, 2006; Hill, 2001).
Future E-Learner Opportunities
Constructivist theory would suggest e-learners will be active in the development of various tools and technology or in the very least they will have more influence on methods and content. The balance of control will be “shifted in higher education, as learners and society in general demand that learning be meaningful and relevant to changing needs, and in distance education, as a result of learning networks” (Anderson & Garrison, 1998, p. 98). This “suggests an obligation for purposeful unconstrained participation of the individual in creating meaning…through the critical analysis and integration of new ideas/values” (Garrison, as cited in Anderson & Garrison, 1998, p. 100). Shared control will become more of a standard requirement.
Burge (2007a) and Lapointe and Reisetter (2008) predict that online forums and materials will enable learners to meaningful integrate gains obtained through stimulating connections with other learners. Through increased animation, e-learners will experiment with new capabilities and adopt new identities. Greater trust will be placed on learning together through visual, kin- esthetic, and auditory practices. Guiding learners to utilize diverse and unusual tools within their local environment will also form part of future e-learning. These increasing degrees of engaged and collaborative learning prompt the formation and introduction of the new concept onisagogy which means “together learning.” This notion of relational learning and together learning con- curs with earlier theorists like Vygotsky (1978) and Knowlton (2000) who argued that learning expands through interacting with others who are more knowledgeable or skilled.
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Various authors (Anderson & Garrison, 1998; Harasim, Hiltz, Teles, & Turoff, 1995) propose that digital learning communities may be char- acterized by active learning, frequent levels of interaction, and social presence, reflection before contributions, collaborative learning cultures, and commitment to supporting one another’s success. Evidence reveals that learning and transforming become more likely when the approaches uti- lized are respectful, engaging, and adult oriented (Hanna, 2003; Knowles, 1990; Lambert, 2007). A significant conclusion to draw is that it would be unwise to not fully harness the richness resident in peer-to-peer e-learning activities. This paper also concurs with the voices calling for reductions in traditional pedagogy and introduces the concept of onisagogy, where learning together increases social capital, bolsters individual confidence in multiple ways of knowing, and makes the learning more durable, and the process most satisfying.
With the growing diversity and ubiquity of digital technologies, it would be clairvoyant administrators who would articulate a vision for their e-learning culture where learners are respected, systems are inclusive and accessible, and the noble pursuits of inquiry, experimentation, and recalibration are unencumbered (Harper & Martinez, 2002). Facilitators would be rewarded by their institutions for their adaptations with digital technologies, their learner-centredness, and for their willingness to incorporate onisagogical approaches. New e-learning technologies neces- sitate orientation to and preparation by learners, facilitators, and administrators alike.
Further research is needed on the relationships between e-learner engagement and persistence. Further research may help guide institution as they plan for more digital technological forms of assessment, design, rigor, and quality (Knoess, 2005). The CMEC (2001) also note the lack of concrete research on online learning in Canada
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and recommend “increasing research in learn- ing, both traditional and online” (p. 85). (This may also pertain to other countries.) Addition- ally, more research is needed into the efficacy of P2P e-learning (Kear, 2004). To further expand understanding in the field additional empirical and action research of peer relations as learning sites could be instrumental along with ways to maximize P2P learning and foster greater social presence and connectedness.
Like the aid of a flash light on a dark night, peer learning brings into sight and into mind more than would be seen by the naked eye. By casting light on the values that are operating and probing together with e-learners innovative practices will arise and enable the internet and higher learning to achieve their noble intent. Digital technologies along with animated facilitation hold tremendous potential for enhanced P2P learning and develop- ment of skills, understanding, and relationships that build trust and foster co-operation and mutual satisfaction.
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KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS
Collaboration: Working with others to achieve individual and shared goals.
E-Learning: Using various types of digital technology to share knowledge and develop skills with people in disparate locations.
Distance Education: Education across dis- tances using computers and internet connections.
Distributed Learning: Learning through a variety of networks of people and tools without being instructed.
Non-traditional Learners: Participate, often part-time, in post-secondary education at an older age of 24.
Peers: are people who share similar work experience, learning interests, or social or politi- cal goals.
Social Capital: The collection of qualities and practices among relationships that build trust and foster co-operation and mutual satisfaction.
Social Presence: Involves the appropriate sharing of personal and professional qualities to build a strong sense of community.
Traditional Learners: Pursue post-secondary studies around 18-24 years old.
Transactional Distance: A theory about the psychological and communicative gaps arising in distance education.
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Copyright © 2012, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
Chapter 58
DOI: 10.4018/978-1-61350-068-2.ch058
INTRODUCTION
Today’s students, often called “digital natives,” grow up with technology. They integrate tech- nology into almost everything they do and are constantly connected to their friends, family and
various resources via technology. Most of them have never known life without the internet. They have spent their entire lives using computers, cell phones, and other digital tools. Technology is an integral part of their lives (Oblinger, 2008; Pren- sky, 2007). To transform teaching and learning in ways that better meet the needs of these digital natives, there has been increased emphasis on the
Yun-Jo An University of West Georgia, USA
Learner-Centered Technology Integration
ABSTRACT
To transform teaching and learning in ways that better meet the needs of digital natives, there has been increased emphasis on the integration of technology into teaching and learning. However, despite generally improved conditions for technology integration, high-level technology use, associated with constructivist or learner-centered practices, is still low. Many teachers and instructors are not using technologies to their potential, often integrating the new tools into their old practices. In an attempt to better support teachers and instructors in using emerging technologies to design and facilitate learner- centered instruction (LCI), this chapter provides an overview of learner-centered instruction (LCI) and the technological pedagogical content knowledge (TPCK) framework. Then, the potential of emerging technologies to foster learner-centered instruction (LCI) and future trends are discussed.
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integration of technology into teaching and learn- ing. Many educators and researchers in diverse contexts are exploring innovative ways to use emerging technologies in teaching and learning.
However, high-level technology use, associated with constructivist or learner-centered practices, is still low. Despite generally improved conditions for technology integration, including increased access to technology and increased training and resources, many teachers and instructors are not using technologies to their potential. Researchers report that teachers tend to use technology mostly for communication and low-level tasks, such as word processing, drill and practice activities, and exploring websites, rather than using technology to facilitate learner-centered instruction (Becker, 2000; Brush & Saye, 2009; Ertmer, 2005; Rus- sell, Bebell, O’Dwyer, & O’Connor, 2003; U.S. Department of Education, 2003). In an attempt to better support teachers and instructors in using emerging technologies to design and facilitate learner-centered instruction, this chapter provides an overview of learner-centered instruction (LCI) and the framework for teacher knowledge for technology integration, which is called technologi- cal pedagogical content knowledge (TPCK). The potential of emerging technologies, such as Web 2.0, virtual worlds, and wireless handheld devices (WHDs), to foster LCI, will then be discussed. Finally, future trends and directions for profes- sional development will be briefly discussed.
BACKGROUND
Learner-Centered Instruction (LCI)
Learner-centered instruction (LCI) focuses on both the learner and learning (APA, 1997; McCombs & Whisler, 1997). While LCI does not take only one form, learner-centered teachers tend to have the following general characteristics in common.
Personalized Learning Activities and Support
Learner-centered teachers have high expecta- tions for all students and pay close attention to the knowledge, skills, and attitudes that students bring into the classroom. Taking into account the unique needs of individual students, they provide learning activities or tasks that are personally meaningful and challenging to each student. They allow students to work at their own pace and pro- vide personalized support (Bransford, Brown, & Cocking, 2000; DiMartino, Clark, & Wolk, 2003; Reigeluth & Duffy, 2008).
Social and Emotional Support
Learner-centered teachers foster students’ social and emotional growth as well as intellectual growth by creating a supportive and positive en- vironment. They assume that all of their students want to learn and provide emotional support and encouragement to students (McCombs & Whisler, 1997; Reigeluth, 1999).
Self Regulation
Learner-centered teachers empower students by sharing power. They give students increasing re- sponsibility for the learning process and provide an optimal amount of structure without being overly directive. They also include students in decisions about what and how they learn and help them develop learning skills and strategies beyond content knowledge (McCombs & Whisler, 1997; Reigeluth, 1999; Weimer, 2002).
Collaborative and Authentic Learning Experiences
Learner-centered teachers provide students with authentic learning experiences in which students can develop real-world skills, such as communi- cation, collaboration, critical thinking, creative
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thinking, problem solving, and decision making skills. They encourage students to work collab- oratively with others, to solve problems, and to create new knowledge rather than just recall or restate knowledge. They often include learning activities that are global, interdisciplinary, and integrated (Bransford et al., 2000; McCombs & Whisler, 1997; Reigeluth, 1994).
Assessment for Learning
Learner-centered teachers conduct assessments not just to generate grades but to promote learn- ing. They monitor individual students’ progress continually in order to provide feedback on their progress. They promote students’ reflection on their growth as learners and help them develop self- and peer-assessment skills (Bransford et al., 2000; McCombs & Whisler, 1997; Weimer, 2002).
Unlike the traditional factory-model educa- tion, the learner-centered perspective addresses the “personal domain,” which is often ignored in conventional schools and classrooms. Thus, in learner-centered classrooms, students feel ac- cepted and supported, feel ownership over their learning, are more likely to be involved and willing to learn, and it leads to high levels of achievement (McCombs & Whisler, 1997). Further, the learner- centered model focuses on developing real-life skills, such as collaboration, higher-order thinking, problem solving, and decision making skills. Thus, it better prepares our students for the information age. Our information age society needs people who can effectively manage and use ever-increasing amounts of data to solve ill-structured problems, to make decisions in the face of uncertainty, and to collaborate with other people effectively. It is worth noting that different learner-centered teachers have different but overlapping beliefs and that any single learner-centered instruction will not necessarily include all of the attributes above (McCombs & Whisler, 1997).
Technology Integration
Technology integration requires much more than technical skills. Based on Shulman (1986)’s idea of pedagogical content knowledge (PCK), Koehler and Mishra (2008) developed a framework for teacher knowledge for technology integration, which is called technological pedagogical content knowledge (TPCK). They argue that the develop- ment of TPCK is critical for effective technology integration. As the name indicates, the TPCK framework includes three main components: con- tent, pedagogy, and technology. However, TPCK goes beyond these three components. Emphasizing the importance of dynamic relationships between these three components, Koehler and Mishra (2008) identified pedagogical content knowledge (PCK), technological content knowledge (TCK), technological pedagogical knowledge (TPK), and technological pedagogical content knowledge (TPCK) in addition to content knowledge (CP), pedagogical knowledge (PK), and technological knowledge (TK).
“Clearly, separating the three components (con- tent, pedagogy, and technology) in our model is an analytic act and one that is difficult to tease out in practice. … Viewing any of these compo- nents in isolation from the others represents a real disservice to good teaching. … a change in any one of the factors has to be ‘‘compensated’’ by changes in the other two.” (Mishra & Koehler, 2006, p. 1029-1030)
Recognizing the importance of the link between technology, pedagogy, and content, researchers have examined ways to help teachers effectively use technology to design and facilitate learner- centered learning experiences. Professional development efforts are moving their focus from building teachers’ isolated technical skills to build- ing technology skills in the context of designing learner-centered learning activities. For instance, Ertmer and her colleagues (2003) designed and
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implemented professional development activities to help teachers create problem-based learning environments that promote meaningful uses of technology within the learner-centered context. Brush and Saye (2009) provided pre-service so- cial studies teachers with opportunities to explore innovative, emerging technologies in authentic social studies learning and teaching situations. They attempted to strengthen the link between technology, pedagogy, and content and to promote preservice teachers’ TPCK.
However, much technology integration train- ing still appears to focus mainly on technology knowledge and skills, overlooking the dynamic relationships between technology, pedagogy, and content. As a result, teachers learn about many “cool” technology tools but they still have diffi- culty in applying them for their students’ learning. Technology integration training must help teach- ers develop technological pedagogical content knowledge (TPCK) by providing them with subject-specific technology integration ideas and opportunities to explore technologies in authentic teaching and learning contexts. Teachers should be able to build technology skills in the context of designing learner-centered learning activities in their subject areas (Brush & Saye, 2009; Hew & Brush, 2007).
The Potential of Web 2.0 Technologies
Web 2.0 technologies, which are read/write, have “blurred the line between producers and consumers of content and has shifted attention from access to information toward access to other people” (Brown & Adler, 2008, p. 18). Downes (2005) described the emergence of Web 2.0 as a shift “from being a medium, in which information was transmitted and consumed, into being a platform, in which content was created, shared, remixed, repurposed, and passed along.” He viewed it as a social revolution that enables and encourages participation through open applications and ser-
vices rather than a technical revolution. Blogs, wikis, podcasting, YouTube, social networking sites such as Facebook and LinkedIn, and social bookmarking are some examples of Web 2.0 applications. These new technologies have al- lowed users to easily publish content online and to network with people without regard to physical location. With Web 2.0, people have become active participants and content creators. They not only find information on the Internet, but also create and share content (Alexander, 2006; Brown & Adler, 2008; Downes, 2005; Richardson, 2009).
Web 2.0 has the potential to create more pow- erful learning environments in which students become knowledge creators, producers, editors, and evaluators (Richardson, 2009). The partici- patory culture of Web 2.0 encourages students to remix, reuse, and repurpose existing resources and to create new knowledge, rather than passively receive information from instructors. It helps students take an active role in learning. Further, Web 2.0 technologies provide numerous oppor- tunities for social interactions and collaboration among teachers, students, outside experts, as well as a host of others around the globe (Alexander, 2006; Brown & Adler, 2008; Bonk, 2009; Downes, 2005). Wikis, for example, “enable students to collaboratively generate, mix, edit and synthe- size subject-specific knowledge within a shared and openly accessible digital space” (Wheeler, Yeomans, & Wheeler, 2008, p. 989). Although collaborative writing is perhaps the most com- mon application of wikis (Ferris & Wilder, 2006; Lamb, 2004), they have the potential to support a wide variety of collaborative learning activi- ties, including brainstorming, project planning, knowledge construction and sharing, and problem solving. They can also be used as a tool to create e-portfolios, digital stories, or other multimedia presentations (EDUCAUSE Learning Initiative, 2005; Engstrom & Jewett, 2005).
In addition, Web 2.0 enables students to join communities of practice where they can “acquire both deep knowledge about a subject (“learning
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about”) and the ability to participate in the prac- tice of a field through productive inquiry and peer-based learning (“learning to be”)” (Brown & Adler, 2008, p. 28). Students can discuss real-world topics and collaborate with those who have similar interests globally. Web 2.0 tools also enable the creation of personal learning environments (PLEs) in which students can take control of and manage their own learning in diverse contexts, including learning from formal education, workplace learn- ing, and informal learning (Attwell, 2007; Bonk, 2009; Downes, 2005).
The Potential of Virtual Worlds
A virtual world is an online environment in which users act and interact with others as avatars. Users of virtual worlds can control their avatar’s actions and words as well as gender, clothing and hair- style. Today’s virtual worlds are immersive 3D environments that extend traditional education, allowing new types of interactions and activities. While virtual worlds have been used for many online games, efforts to use them for educational purposes are still at an early stage. Growing num- ber of educators and trainers are experimenting with virtual worlds such as Second Life to build virtual classrooms, to provide innovative learning experiences, to integrate virtual field trips into the classroom, to provide more cost-effective training to geographically dispersed employees, to hold a global conference, and so on (Brown & Adler, 2008; EDUCAUSE Learning Initiative, 2006; Kapp & O’Driscoll, 2010).
Virtual worlds hold significant potential to foster constructivist learning or learner-centered instruction (LCI). In virtual worlds, students take ownership of and control over their actions and interactions with the environment. They initiate and direct their own learning. Also, they can ex- perience or do things that are not otherwise pos- sible in the real world because of time and space constraints, potential risks, or cost. Some virtual environments mirror the real world and immerse
students in authentic situations. For example, in a virtual clinic, medical students interact with patients and conduct clinical examinations as a doctor (EDUCAUSE Learning Initiative, 2006). Some virtual learning experiences are unreal. For example, students can be shrunk to a size small enough to explore such places as the inside of the human body. They can also fly around or teleport themselves to other locations. It is also possible to experience a different gender or a different race (Kapp & O’Driscoll, 2010).
Like Web 2.0 tools, virtual worlds support and facilitate social interaction and collaboration. In virtual worlds, students, regardless of their location, can gather together, exchange ideas, work together to achieve specific learning goals, and learn from one another. Virtual worlds can be used for a variety of social and collaborative activities, including virtual conferences, collab- orative knowledge development, and collaborative problem solving.
The Potential of Wireless Handheld Devices (WHDs)
The use of mobile devices is increasing, especially among young people. Mobile communications are part of normal daily interaction. With the prolif- eration of wireless handhelds devices (WHDs), which include, but are not limited to, cell phones, smart phones, personal digital assistants (PDAs), GPS (global positioning system), tablet PCs, and iPods, educators are exploring how they could enhance learning and teaching. While mobile learning using WHDs is relatively immature in terms of both pedagogy and technology, but it is developing rapidly (Traxler, 2007).
The portability, mobility, and ubiquity of WHDs significantly reduce the dependence on fixed locations for learning and work. With WHDs, students don’t have to stay in a classroom or in other fixed places. They can take the device to different sites, explore outside resources, and “learn the right thing at the right time at the right
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place” (Peng, Su, Chou, & Tsai, 2009, p. 175). WHDs have the potential to provide learning experiences that are “just in time, just enough and just for me” (Peters, 2007) and situated (Lave & Wenger, 1991; Traxler, 2007). Also, with WHDs, learning experiences in different contexts (e.g., formal, informal, individual, and social learning) can be seamlessly connected (Looi, Seow, Zhang, So, Chen, & Wong, 2010).
WHDs can be connected to data collection devices, other handhelds, and to a common net- work (connectivity), and they can gather data unique to the current location and time (context sensibility). They also support data exchange and social interactivity as well as individuality (Klopfer, Squire, & Jenkins, 2002). When these features are properly used, students can engage in collaborative and authentic learning, which involves real-world problems and projects, in relevant and meaningful contexts. For example, learners can take rich databases into a specific field, explore the field collecting context-specific data needed to solve a given problem, retrieve information when needed, document personal experiences, and share ideas and resources with peers by sending and receiving text messages, images, videos, and sound using SMS (short message service) and MMS (multimedia messag- ing service). They can also create artifacts using the data collected from the field. In the problem solving and inquiry process, students can receive personalized scaffolding that is tailored to their path of learning and investigation. Learning is scaffolded by teachers, peers, and tools (Dieterle, Dede & Schrier, 2007; Klopfer, Squire, & Jenkins, 2002; Koole, McQuilkin, & Ally, 2010; Koszalka & Ntloedibe-Kuswani, 2010).
Further, WHDs can be used to provide effective mixed reality learning experiences. Mixed reality (MR) refers to the blending of real and virtual worlds. It “includes a broad range of applica- tions in which some elements of the real world (e.g., physical space, real objects, environmental condition) can be blended with digital objects
(Kirkley & Kirkley, 2005, p. 46). The mixed reality continuum developed by Milgram and Kishino (1994) displays that mixed reality (MR) encompasses both augmented reality (AR) and augmented virtuality (AV). Augmented reality (AR) refers to a situation in which a real world context is overlaid or augmented with virtual objects or information (Kirkley & Kirkley, 2005; Klopfer & Squire, 2008; Milgram & Kishino, 1994). Environmental Detectives, a multi-player, handheld AR game, shows how WHDs can be used in AR learning environments (Klopfer & Squire, 2008). The game was designed to support learning in late high school and early college environmental science. Students play the role of environmental engineers in the game. In order to find the source of the toxin in the water and to make appropriate action plans, students move about in a real space, access location-specific information, collect and analyze data that are spatial, and share them with others using wireless handhelds.
FUTURE TRENDS
It is clear that emerging technologies, including Web 2.0, virtual worlds, and wireless handheld devices (WHDs), have significant potential to foster learner-centered instruction (LCI). While different tools have different capabilities, most emerging technologies support learning that is personalized, situated, authentic, and collabora- tive. They encourage students to take an active role in learning and enable them to learn by doing. By bridging the gap between formal and infor- mal learning, they broaden the scope of learning activities and provide rich learning experiences. Furthermore, they better serve the needs of today’s students who are “accustomed to the twitch-speed, multitasking, random-access graphics-first, active, connected, fun, fantasy, and quick payoff world of their video games, MTV, and Internet” (Prensky, 2007, p. 64). In the near future, the use of Web 2.0, virtual worlds, and wireless handheld devices
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(WHDs) will be ubiquitous in education. Already, many educators are using them in many different contexts. As Web 2.0, virtual worlds, and wireless handheld devices (WHDs) become common tools in education, students will have to assume more responsibility for their learning, and the role of teachers will change, too.
An and Bonk (2009) developed a framework for the design and evaluation of digital game- based learning environments called “SPECIAL PLACE.” The framework is based on the following twelve principles:
1. Scaffolding 2. Problem-driven activities 3. Exploration 4. Context 5. Interaction 6. Agency 7. Learning through doing 8. Pause to reflect 9. Learning through failure 10. Adaptivity 11. Character 12. Engagement
Although the framework was developed to help instructional designers, trainers, and teachers design, select, or evaluate digital learning games, the use of the framework is not limited to digital game-based learning. The SPECIAL PLACE framework can also be useful for learner-centered technology integration as the use of emerging technologies becomes ubiquitous. Indeed, the twelve principles are all important components of effective learner-centered learning experiences. As An and Bonk (2009) noted, “there is no one principle that sticks out as essential or more critical than the rest” (p. 47). However, when combined, they can create “a place for exciting and engag- ing learning, a SPECIAL PLACE” (p. 47). SPE- CIAL PLACE is a simple and easy-to-remember acronym. Educators and trainers might use it as a mental checklist to design effective learner-
centered instruction (LCI) using Web 2.0, virtual worlds, wireless handheld devices (WHDs), and other emerging technologies.
CONCLUSION
Despite the possible benefits of emerging technol- ogies, many teachers and instructors are not using them to their potential. They often integrate the new tools into their old practices (An & Williams, 2010). For example, university instructors often use Web 2.0 tools merely to provide course infor- mation rather than using them to engage students in knowledge creation or collaborative learning. Educators should keep in mind that technology itself does not guarantee effective LCI. As Tagg (2003) noted, technology can be used just as ef- fectively to reinforce teaching-centered practices as it can be to create learning-centered environ- ments. The potential of emerging technologies can be realized only when they are used properly in accordance with the learner-centered perspective.
Today, many teachers appear to be learner- centered in philosophy. However, it is worthwhile to note that learner-centered philosophy does not necessarily lead to learner-centered practice. Becker (2000) pointed out that teachers are much more constructivist in philosophy than in actual practice. It is possible that teachers who are learner- centered in philosophy are teacher-centered in actual practice. The author recently conducted an online survey to explore K-12 teachers’ beliefs, perceptions, barriers, and support needs in the context of creating technology-enhanced, learner- centered classrooms. Most participants believed that they were learner-centered teachers. However, interestingly, a majority of them indicated that they wanted to learn more about learner-centered instruction (LCI). It was found that lack of knowl- edge on learner-centered pedagogy prevent teach- ers from creating learner-centered classrooms even though they are learner-centered in philosophy. In order to help teachers effectively use emerging
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technologies, professional development programs must help them fully understand learner-centered pedagogy first and then provide opportunities to explore new technologies in the context of design- ing learner-centered learning activities.
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KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS
Learner-centered instruction (LCI): An ap- proach to teaching that focuses on both the learner and learning. Major features of LCI includes per- sonalized learning, social and emotional support, self-regulation, authentic tasks, and collaboration.
Learner-centered Technology Integration: Using technology in support of learner-centered instruction.
Technological Pedagogical Content Knowl- edge (TPCK): A framework that illustrates the knowledge needed by teachers for effective tech- nology integration.
Web 2.0: The read/write web that facilitates user participation, knowledge sharing, social networking, and collaboration.
Virtual World: An online environment in which users act and interact with others as avatars.
Mixed Reality (MR): The blending of real and virtual worlds. Encompasses both augmented reality (AR) and augmented virtuality (AV).
Augmented Reality (AR): A situation in which a real world context is overlaid or augmented with virtual objects or information.
Augmented Virtuality (AV): A situation in which a virtual world is augmented with real- world objects or information.
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Copyright © 2012, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
Chapter 59
Dennis G. Fisher California State University-Long Beach, USA
Grace L. Reynolds California State University-Long Beach, USA
Time to Graduation of Three Different Master’s Degrees in Psychology at a Public University
ABSTRACT
There has been a considerable amount of interest in graduation rates of baccalaureate degree programs in the educational literature. There has also been some attention given to graduation from doctoral programs and from associate degree programs. However, there is almost no literature on the graduation rates for Master’s degree programs. This report uses a method of analysis known as survival analysis or event history analysis to examine the time to event for two different events leading to completion of a Master’s degree. One event is the time to preliminary examination, and the other event is the time to final thesis defense or final examination. The data compare three different Master’s programs in a psychology department of one of the largest campuses of one of the largest public university systems in the United States.
DOI: 10.4018/978-1-61350-068-2.ch059
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INTRODUCTION
There has been a considerable amount of inter- est in graduation rates for baccalaureate degrees in the educational literature, partially caused by an increasing emphasis on performance-based accountability (Alexander, 2000). One overt manifestation of this emphasis was the Federal Student Right-to-Know and Campus Security Act of 1991 that required disclosure of comple- tion or graduation rates (Astin, 1997). Formulas have been provided for cut-off points at four, six and nine years after freshman entry (Astin, 1997). This federal legislation was justified in that the perspective of the federal government has been that graduation rates represented a way for external reviewers to compare different institutions to each other (Underwood & Rieck, 1999). The gradua- tion rate they decided upon has been the six-year graduation rate (Astin, 2005-2006).
This six-year perspective in use for baccalaure- ate degree programs has been modified for com- munity colleges awarding associate degrees to a standard of 150% of normal time. In this method, normal time for an associate degree is considered to be two years, so 150% of this would be three years (Bailey, Calcagno, Jenkins, Leinbach, & Kienzl, 2006).
The six-year rate is also used for doctorate- granting universities, and there has been attention paid to predicting graduation rates for the doctoral degree (Goenner & Snaith, 2003-2004). Graduate faculty are often concerned with students who leave a department, and in some cases consider those students to be failures of the department (Pauley, Cunningham, & Toth, 1999). This means that the higher this failure rate, the greater is the perception that the university is failing to meet student needs (Pauley et al., 1999). A useful study examined the attrition and retention of students in a non-traditional Ed.D. program at a single univer- sity (Pauley et al., 1999). This study is useful for other universities who are also examining degree programs other than the standard baccalaureate and doctorate.
The current study was motivated to examine the retention and degree completion performance of three different types of masters degrees in one department of the largest campus of the California State University system which itself is the largest senior system of higher education in the United States (The California State University, 1999). We have been unable to locate any published literature on degree completion rates of masters programs. Our study is an attempt to aid others who may want to examine master’s degree programs and are also having a difficult experience in locating directly relevant literature.
Analysis Background
The general approach taken in the analysis is that the important measure is time to degree. This is because programs with high doctoral completion rates are those with shorter times to earn the degree (de Valero, 2001). The analytic problem with using time-to-event data with graduate school admis- sion/graduation data is that some of the students who were admitted may not have graduated by the time of cessation of data collection. These data points are termed “censored” data because the date of graduation is unknown (it may never occur). There is a method of analysis that is able to deal with data with this characteristic known as survival analysis (Fisher & Anglin, 1987; Singer & Willett, 1991). This method has been applied to examining drug abuse treatment program retention (Fisher, Lankford, & Galea, 1996) and to employment retention of healthcare providers, among others (Fisher, Pearce, Statz, & Wood, 2003). An early introduction of this method to studying student dropout advocated using survival analysis as a way to explore important unanswered questions in educational research (Willett & Singer, 1991). This method has been applied to study the retention of undergraduate students (DesJardins, Ahlburg, & McCall, 1999; Murtaugh, Burns, & Schuster, 1999). We are not aware of it ever being applied to graduate school education.
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METHOD
Basically a survival function is calculated that starts at 100% because all admissions were present at the time of admission. The “event” in survival analysis language would be those who graduated (or passed their preliminary or final examination, etc.). In our case “death” is a good thing. Those who were given letters of admission, but never actually enrolled, are deleted from the analysis. Every graduate student has two pieces of information (data) for the event. One datum is time, which is a quantity. The other datum is censored status. This is a dichotomy in which one value represents completing final oral examina- tion (or completing preliminary oral examination depending on what event we are examining) and the other value represents not having completed final oral examination by the time of cessation of data collection. The time values for those students who have not yet completed final examinations are termed “censored” values. A curve showing “survival” is presented (percent surviving or not graduating is the vertical axis) that is decreas- ing over time (time is the horizontal axis). We show a separate curve for each master’s degree program. Our programs are: Masters of Arts – Research (MA-R), Masters of Arts –Industrial- Organizational (MA-IO), and Masters of Science in Community-Clinical (MSCC).
The Master of Science in Community-Clinical was suspended in 1991 (M. Fiebert, Personal Communication). When it was active it covered a broad spectrum of theory and skills in the areas of community and clinical psychology and was specifically designed to meet California State requirements for Marriage, Family and Child Counseling licensure (California State Univer- sity Long Beach, 1997). The Master of Arts in Psychology option in General Research (MAR) program provides graduate psychology training for further study leading toward a doctorate and careers requiring masters level training (California State University Long Beach, 2003). The Master
of Arts in Psychology Option in Industrial and Organizational Psychology prepares students for business and industrial positions including per- sonnel selection and organizational development, employee training, and applicant and employee testing (California State University Long Beach, 2003).
The analysis was performed on the Psychol- ogy Department’s Microsoft Access database of graduate student information. The data were read and analyzed in SAS version 9.1.3 service pack 4 on a Windows 2003 Enterprise edition server. There are three curves in each figure, with one curve for each of our degree programs. Figure 1 is for time-to-preliminary examination and Figure 2 for time-to-final oral examination. The differ- ences among the survival functions comparing the three programs can be tested statistically using either the log-rank test or the Wilcoxon test (Al- lison, 1995). The formula for the log-rank statis-
tic is d ej j j
r
1 1 1
−( ) = ∑ where the summation is over
all unique event times. There are r times; d1j is the number of events in group 1 at time j. e1j is the expected number of events in group 1 at time j. The log-rank statistic is distributed as chi-square with 1 degree of freedom (Allison, 1995). The log-rank test can be extended to more than two groups in which case it is also distributed as chi- square but with g-1 degrees of freedom, where g is the number of groups (Walker, 1997). The
Wilcoxon test is n d ej ij ij j
r
−( ) − ∑ 1
where the only
difference between the log-rank test and the Wil- coxon test is the presence of nj which is the total number at risk of experiencing the event at each time point. This makes it a weighted sum. This is also distributed as chi-square. The Wilcoxon test gives more weight to early times in the survival curve than to late times as compared to the log- rank test (Allison, 1995).
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Time to Graduation of Three Different Master’s Degrees in Psychology at a Public University
RESULTS
Figure 1 shows the time to preliminary examina- tion in years. The bottom curve represents data from the MAIO program, the curve that is in the middle during the early part of the time scale represents data from the MAR program, and the curve that is on top in the early part of the time scale represents data from the MSCC program. Because the data for all three curves includes censored observations (those students who have not yet completed preliminary examinations), the estimate for the mean is biased and should not be used as a measure of central tendency. Instead we use the median, which in this case is the time at which 50% of the students have completed their preliminary examination. For the MAIO the median is 1.75 years (95% CI = 1.52, 2.28). For the MAR program the median is 4.49 years (95% CI = 3.33, 6.55), and for the MSCC program the median is 5.27 years (95% CI = 4.14, 9.46). The log-rank test is 20.37 with 2 degree of freedom,
p =.0001. This means that the overall model is significant.
For the pairwise comparisons, the MAIO-MAR comparison log-rank is 18.73 with 1 degree of freedom, p =.0001. For the MAIO-MSCC com- parison the log-rank statistic is 3.47 with 1 degree of freedom, p =.06. Because the results of the log-rank test are so close, we are also reporting the Wilcoxon test which is 7.02 with 1 degree of freedom, p =.0081. This means that the two curves are significantly different if the early points are weighted more than the late points, but not if all points are weighted equally. For the MAR-MSCC comparison the log-rank statistic is.002 with 1 degree of freedom, NS.
Figure 2 shows the time to final examination. The bottom curve again represents data from the MAIO program, the curve in the middle represents data from the MAR program, and the curve on top represents data from the MSCC program. The median time to final examination for the MAIO program is 3.29 years, for the MAR program it is
Figure 1. Survival functions of time to preliminary examination in years
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7.10 years, and for the MSCC program it is 13.54 years. The overall logrank statistic is 18.99 with 2 degrees of freedom, p =.0001. For the pairwise comparisons the MAIO-MAR comparison log- rank statistic is 14.54 with 1 degree of freedom, p =.0001. For the MAIO-MSCC comparison, the log-rank statistic is 7.75 with 1 degree of freedom, p =.0054. For the MAR-MSCC comparison the log- rank statistic is 1.48 with 1 degree of freedom NS.
Fifty-five percent of the MAIO students have completed their final examination (had the event), 35% of the MAR students, and 50% of the MSCC students. The difference between the percent completing the preliminary examination and the percent completing the final examination for the MAIO program is 63% - 55% = 8%, which means that the MAIO program has 8% of its students who have completed their preliminary examination, but have not yet taken their final examination. For the MAR program it is 43% - 35% = 8%. For the MSCC program, it is 75% - 50% = 25%. The MSCC percentage is significantly different than the other two percentages χ2 (2, N = 300) = 16.33, p =.0003.
DISCUSSION
This investigation is an attempt to document differences between two different milestones, or events in survival analysis language, leading to graduation of three different masters’ degree pro- grams offered by one Psychology department. One event is the preliminary examination in which the thesis proposal is defended and hopefully approved by the thesis committee. The other event is the final examination in which the graduate student presents the results of the thesis to the committee. The examination of these events is presented in several different ways. One way is survival curves in which the time to preliminary examination and time to final examination are presented. Another way is the presentation of median time to event. A third way is to look at the percent of students admitted who experienced the event. The survival curve analysis tested with the logrank test show that the MAIO program had a shorter time to both events. The MAIO program also had a shorter median time to both events. The median is the time in years that it took for 50% of the students to
Figure 2. Survival functions of time to final examination in years
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experience the event. The median is used because the data are censored so that the mean is a biased estimate of central tendency, whereas the median is not biased in this case. Interestingly the MAIO program did not have the largest percent of stu- dents experiencing the preliminary examination; rather it was the MSCC program at 75%. However, the time that it took the MSCC students to get to preliminary examination, a median of 5.229 years, was significantly longer than the MAIO students at a median of 1.747 years. Keep in mind that a masters program is typically thought of as being a 2 year program. The survival curve for the MAIO program goes almost straight down starting right after the 1-year point indicating a clustering of times to preliminary examination. The MAR program starts earlier, but then has a more gradual tapering of its times to preliminary examination, indicating more heterogeneity in the progress of the MAR students.
Another interesting observation to be made from the data is that for both the MAIO and the MAR programs, the difference between the percent experiencing the preliminary examination and the percent experiencing the final examination is ex- actly the same at 8%. This means that 8% of both the MAIO and the MAR students had taken their preliminary examinations, but had not yet taken their final examinations at the time of cessation of data collection. This seems like a reasonable percentage of students in the program who would be working on their thesis projects. The MSCC program, by comparison, had a difference of 25%, which seems like a large percentage to be working on, but not finishing, their thesis. It also indicates that there are different dynamics in the MAR as compared to the MSCC programs.
In the MAR program, if a student can pass their preliminary examination, then they have excellent chances (over 90%) of completing and passing their final examination. In this regard, the MAR program is having the same success as the MAIO program. However, the MSCC program is having a large percent of students who pass their
preliminary examination who then fail to get to and pass their final examination. In other words, the MSCC students are failing to complete their thesis once their thesis proposal has been suc- cessfully written and defended. All three of the programs are taking too long for the time to final examination if the two-year completion time is used as a benchmark. The median time to final is 3.29 years for the MAIO program, 7.10 for the MAR program, and 13.54 years for the MSCC program. This analysis will hopefully allow the graduate programs to set five-year plans for themselves as to what improvement should take place and this analytical approach will hopefully serve as a method for assessing the success of those five-year plans.
FUTURE TRENDS
Graduate education in psychology covers a wide range of topics and psychology departments are very diverse in terms of course and degree offer- ings. Large graduate psychology departments, like the one described above, may offer concentrations in behavioral neuroscience, cognitive, commu- nity, developmental, health, clinical, social and personality psychology. Master’s degrees that focus on industrial organizational psychology, clinical and community psychology and general research methods are common and draw increas- ing numbers of students each year because they prepare students for doctoral programs, either the Ph.D. or PsyD. Increasingly, psychologists must have a doctoral-level degree to conduct research or engage in clinical practice.
One trend in graduate psychology education is the introduction and/or expansion of programs in what has come to be called Human Factors. Programs in Human Factors come out of earlier disciplines such as engineering psychology, other- wise known as ergonomic engineering or human engineering, and focus on the interface between humans and machines, which are increasing likely
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to be computers rather than industrial machinery. These programs focus on examining human be- havior and capabilities in order to find the best ways to design products, equipment and systems for safe, effective and satisfying use by humans.
Human Factors programs are multidisci- plinary in nature, and will become increasing so in coming years. A few of the applications of coursework in Human Factors included basic human performance, such as auditory and visual perception; the realms of cognitive psychology, such as action-selection, memory, and decision- making; workload, skill acquisition and knowl- edge engineering; human-computer interactions including web page design and web interfaces. Human Factors programs also study multimodal interfaces, and usability testing; and explore areas that focus on industry-specific needs, such as avia- tion psychology that studies situation awareness and the interface and design of workstations for air traffic management; design of aircraft cockpits and new air vehicles, and operational concepts in the National Airspace System. They may also address social software systems that include all applications that support communication, interaction and collaboration between individu- als. National defense initiatives have included funding for Human Factors studies, especially those involving auditory and visual perception interfaces with technology such as night vision applications, whether used for border patrol or in overseas conflict areas. One challenge for graduate psychology education especially at the master’s degree level will be funding the kinds of laboratories necessary for the study of vision and audio perception—this will require the ability of faculty to write grants to secure funding and universities to commit to facilities to house the research efforts.
Industrial organizational psychology can also expect to undergo changes in the future. Like Human Factors, much of this change will be driven by increasing use of technology within organizations. Advanced communication systems,
including the Internet, and mobile and smart phones are changing the way organizations define themselves as well as the ways in which organi- zational boundaries are conceptualized. Means of communication and collaboration, such as open source communities, will challenge the field to learn more about how these knowledge-sharing and knowledge-creating communities take form, function, change over time and how they are able to sustain acceptable levels of performance over time (Gadman, 2005). Industrial organizational psychologists will need to analyze how work functions are carried out within highly interactive work teams, which will face increasing pressures from ever more sophisticated consumers.
Shifting of organizational cultures will need to be understood as organizations realize that old organizational cultures may be barriers to innovation. At the same time, managers within these highly technological organizations will also be challenged in their professional ability to manage and supervise workers. New concepts of performance and evaluation will need to be developed as new problems arise in day-to-day operations. For example, new definitions of orga- nizational behavior will need to take into account both positive and negative behaviors with respect to the highly technological work environment. Concepts such as “cyber citizenship” and “cyber loafing” express two extremes of behavior with respect to Internet usage during working hours (de Lara, 2007). One denotes a new way to waste time during working hours, the other a positive abil- ity to appropriately use new Internet technology within the framework of one’s assigned work tasks (de Lara, 2007). Graduate psychology education programs will need to supplement existing course content with case studies of these kinds of orga- nizational challenges. Educators will also need to implement research studies to gain a greater understanding of the organizational contexts and interpersonal relationships that mediate use and misuse of technology in the workplace.
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Health psychology will also be affected by technological innovations in patient informa- tion and health education. Internet-based health information and wireless technology-based interventions using devices such as comput- ers, smart phones, mobile phones and personal digital assistants (PDAs) are widespread. The devices are increasingly important in sustaining the health of individuals across widely dispersed geographic regions; they are used for accessing health information on a wide variety of topics, linking communities of peers and professionals and supporting the self-management of health and illness. These devices also facilitate peer-support groups and interactions with both medical and mental health professionals and patients, and within professional groups for mentoring and professional development and support.
The Internet can be used in many ways by health psychologists interested in studying its usage among various groups of patients. It can be a source of naturally occurring data as email communications can be analyzed for frequency and content (Rodman, McCabe & Blake, 2009). It can be used to provide personalized assessments of health risks for conditions such as heart disease and diabetes, and provide interventions for the reduc- tion of problem health behaviors, such as smoking and alcohol use (Crutzen, et al., 2009; Fridici, Lohaus, & Glass, 2009; van Koningsbruggen & Das, 2009). Increasingly, psychology faculty will need to develop research methods appropriate to the study of these electronic health assessments and interventions to achieve an understanding of which approaches work best for groups of patients and which outcomes are of most value.
CONCLUSION
This study reported on graduation rates from three master’s level programs of study in Psychology.
The time-to-event analysis indicated a wide range of mean years across programs from enrollment to completion of final exams, from a low of 3.29 years to a high of 13.54 years. Given that all three programs are structured and marketed as two-year degree programs, all programs face challenges in graduating students once they have been admit- ted. One requirement of all three programs is the completion of a master’s thesis. This requirement is a traditional endpoint for master’s education in psychology and prepares students for further doc- toral work. A completed master’s thesis provides students with a solid “deliverable” that they can use to distinguish themselves in applications to doctoral programs. One clear challenge for the programs that provided data for this study is fo- cusing on methods to move students more quickly to thesis completion and graduation.
The three programs studied here have distinct patterns of student recruitment and advising. For example, the master’s degree in industrial and organizational (MAIO) psychology draws a majority of students from the local workforce em- ployed in K-12 education. Classes are conducted all day on Fridays and sometimes on Saturday; students receive release time from their employer and financial assistance with tuition. The level of support shows in the positive student outcomes associated with this program of shorter time to graduation—in terms of student outcomes this was the program that performed the best.
Conversely, the Master of Arts in Research program serves traditional fulltime students who are not working (or who are employed for no more than 20 hours per week). Classes are structured as seminars meeting 1-2 days per week and the majority of classes take place on campus between the hours of 8 a.m. and 5 p.m. These students tend to be younger than the MAIO students. The mean time to graduation of over 7 years may indicate that these students need greater institutional-level support in order to complete their degrees timely.
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Many students accept fulltime employment during the time they are enrolled, which disrupts their ability to complete coursework that is scheduled to conflict with fulltime employment. Their younger age may mean a lack of maturity in making the time commitment needed to succeed in graduate study. All of these factors present challenges for the program.
Finally, the master’s in community and clinical psychology had the longest time from admittance to graduation, a mean time of over 13 years. Com- munity and clinical psychologists as a rule tend to be more focused on providing therapeutic and clinical services to individuals in need of mental health services. The excessively long time needed to complete the program could be a reflection of clinicians’ resistance to completion of a thesis, which may be viewed as “research” and therefore not relevant to clinical practice. It could also be an indication that trained clinicians find employment in a variety of settings, such as community mental health centers and other social service agencies. The availability of employment in clinical posi- tions may be one factor that causes these students to defer their completion of the master’s degree in order to do direct client services, which may be viewed as more rewarding than school.
Inevitably, all three programs also face com- petition from graduate programs that have moved from a traditional classroom format to on-line courses, or blended course formats which re- quire less time during which the student must be physically present in a classroom setting. These programs, while preferred by some students be- cause of the convenience of on-line education, are often viewed as being less academically rigorous.
Ultimately this study provided useful data on time-to-graduation at a publicly funded state University. The time-to-graduation approach us- ing the analytical technique of survival analysis illustrated by this study may prove useful to other master’s degree programs seeking to understand student outcomes.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
This research was funded in part by a grant from the College of Liberal Arts, California State University, Long Beach, Mark Wiley, Associate Dean. We thank Diane Roe, Ken Green, and Wil- liam Pedersen for assistance with the manuscript.
Correspondence concerning this research should be directed to: Dr. Dennis G. Fisher, Profes- sor and Director, Center for Behavioral Research and Services, 1090 Atlantic Avenue, Long Beach, CA 90813. Telephone: 562-495-2330. Fax: 562- 983-1421. E-mail: [email protected].
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KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS
Censored Data: In survival analysis, the out- come event of interest is dichotomized (0 = event did not occur or 1 = event did occur); censored
data refer to events where the event did occur (that is, those students coded as 1 for having achieved graduation during the period under study).
Clinician: An individual trained in an area of expertise, such as mental health or medicine, who delivers services directly to individuals.
Final Examination: An assessment of mastery of knowledge, concepts, theories, and practices in a specific area of study.
Master’s Degree: A post-baccalaureate degree in a field of study, generally conceived of as a two-year program of study.
Retention: The ability of a program or uni- versity to keep students from leaving a degree program to pursue some other activity.
Survival Analysis: An analytical approach originally developed for use in studies of cancer survivorship, it looks at the time to some event (traditionally, death in cancer studies; graduation in this study).
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Copyright © 2012, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
Chapter 60
DOI: 10.4018/978-1-61350-068-2.ch060
Diana Stanfill Lindenwood University, USA
Standards-Based Educational Technology
Professional Development
ABSTRACT
This study used the National Staff Development Council (NSDC) standards for staff development as a framework for measuring specific aspects of the enhancing Missouri’s Instructional Networked Teaching Strategies (eMINTS) educational technology professional development program. The Technology Integration Cycle supported the research design. The three-part cycle assumed a relationship existed between standards-based professional development, technology-rich classrooms, and students’ acquisi- tion of technology skills.
This study’s research questions were designed to examine the underlying premise of standards-based, high-quality professional development. These questions sought to examine eMINTS teacher perceptions as they related to the degree in which each of the 12 NSDC standards was embedded into the eMINTS practices. To answer these questions, quantitative data were generated from an online survey.
Because of the melding of the NSDC standards and the eMINTS program, this research may provide valu- able insight to stakeholders involved at all levels: adoption, design, and implementation of educational technology professional development. Further research into eMINTS’ strengths (use of train-the-trainer model), as well as weaknesses (inability to customize training), could provide the organization with the information needed to strengthen the program and thus increase the number of teachers trained to integrate technology in the classroom.
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INTRODUCTION
When teachers walk down the hallways of a school, they may hear students talk about updating tweets using Twiterific, contributing to a wiki, or being splogged. At the start of the 21st century, these are common technical terms, and it would be reasonable to assume that most young people know how to use the hardware and software as- sociated with them. However, having the ability to socialize online does not make a student tech- nologically literate or proficient. To be considered technologically literate, students must progress beyond the trivial, and instead acquire skills that will allow them to use information in analytic, evaluative, creative, and ethical ways (Cech, 2008; Culp, Honey, & Mandinach, 2003; Manzo, 2009). It is unlikely that students will reach these and other 21st century levels of proficiency until the teachers themselves employ and model these skills. In order to improve students’ technical abilities, schools must first educate the teachers through targeted, effective educational technol- ogy professional development (Garry & Graham, 2004). The challenge is that many teachers need assistance in reaching the level of technical skills Garry and Graham noted in their research. Edu- cational technology professional development is a key component in the growth and sustainability of technology education (Culp et al.).
Teachers, who for the most part, did not grow up with digital technology, need to learn to in- corporate technology into classrooms where the “chalk and talk” mode of instruction once domi- nated to the technology age of the Net Generation (Hasmemzadeh & Wilson, 2007), with podcasts and Web 2.0 tools. Educational technology professional development that is collaborative, ongoing, multi-faceted, and reflective is one way to develop teachers who can reach today’s digital learners (Gaglioll, 2008; Ornstein, Pajak, & Ornstein, 2007; Prensky, 2005-2006; Salpeter & Bray, 2003).
This study explored the relationship between the National Staff Development Council (NSDC) standards and the educational technology profes- sional development model known as enhancing Missouri’s Instructional Networked Teaching Strategies (eMINTS). When studying this relation- ship, I ascertained that the cycle of technology use in the classroom reaches far beyond the stan- dards-based professional development sessions. I assumed relationships exist between standards- based professional development, technology-rich classrooms, and students’ acquisition of specific skills. Figure 1 illustrates the cycle I proposed (Stanfill, 2010).
The Technology Integration Cycle
Through advances in the area of communication technologies such as instant messaging, blog- ging, and e-mail, the Earth is now considered to be a flat world, which “empower[s] people to compete, connect, and collaborate” (Hersh, 2009, p. 51) worldwide. Along with such easy access to anyone virtually anytime, a global economy has emerged. However, this new economy will require a user with an innovative and different skill set; abilities commonly referred to today as 21st-century skills (Gura & Percy, 2005). None- theless, there remains “a profound gap between the knowledge and skills most students learn in school and the knowledge and skills they need in typical twenty-first century communities and workplaces” (Gura & Percy, p. 32).
Technology entrepreneur and Microsoft Cor- poration Chairman, Bill Gates, discussed this gap in his 2008 speech before the House of Representa- tives Committee on Science and Technology. Gates reported that the United States is currently not able to produce the type of skilled worker required by high-tech companies such as Microsoft, Google, Intel, and Hewlett-Packard. Gates testified that this country is at an economic crossroads, and if the United States chooses to do nothing, other
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nations more committed to the pursuit of technical excellence will surpass us (Gross, 2008).
In order to help students reach the technological level of which Gates spoke, educators, stakehold- ers, and policymakers will need to recognize that the integration of technology into the classroom may be one possible way of closing the gap. How- ever, integration does not just happen; teachers are not “born” knowing how to integrate technology into the curriculum. The integration process will require schools to make an unwavering commit- ment to an educational technology professional development program.
BACKGROUND
In the past 40 years, education has experienced many changes; gone are the days when a teacher’s gut feeling about students’ learning was a satisfac- tory measurement tool (Mid-continent Research for Education and Learning, 2003). Without as- sistance from professional development in the
areas of curriculum and instructional strategies, the demand of teaching all students to identical standards often left teachers feeling inadequately prepared. Teaching teachers, or providing high quality, standards-based professional develop- ment, was a way to fill the gap and help raise student achievement (Mizell, 2004).
Technology-Rich Classrooms
Technology education began its journey into the education world in the early 1980s when A Nation at Risk, a federal report about the state of the U.S. education system, “added computer science as one of the Five New Basics” (Culp et al., 2003, p. 1). The general belief of the period was “having enough technology infused in schools would be the first step toward the widespread and effective use of educational technology” (Culp, et al., p. 11). However, this did not turn out to be the case, as evidenced in the 1999 National Cen- ter for Education Statistics report that only 33% of teachers felt they were adequately trained to
Figure 1. Technology Integration Cycle: The cycle created when integrating technology into classroom learning
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use technology in the classroom (United States Department of Education, 2000, para. 12). Since the 1999 report, legislation through NCLB and EETT attempted to ensure that all teachers have access to standards-based educational technology professional development.
Technology Outside and Inside the Classroom
Digital medias are creating a landscape that is very different than 20 years ago – both inside and outside the classroom. The digital ethnography department at Kansas State University reported that more than 100,000 videos are uploaded to YouTube every day, with 80% of the video clips being posted by users outside of school (Borth- wick, A., Charles, M., Pierson, M., Thompson, A., Park, J., Searson, M., & Bull, G., 2008, p. 23). The enthnography department further reported the average student surveyed will read only 8 books this year, but almost 2,300 Web pages and over 1,281 Facebook profiles (Wesch, 2007). Outside of the school, students are engaged and motivated when they are able to use technology to communicate, learn, and share, while inside the classroom, education spends over $9 billion on computer technologies that, for the most part, are under utilized (Picciano, 2006, p. 85). “If educators want to have relevancy in this century, it is crucial that we find ways to engage students in school” (Prensky, 2005-2006, para. 7).
Educational technology professional develop- ment can help ensure that engaged learning is oc- curing inside the classroom by helping educators recognize the digital divide and showing them how to use technology to engage and motivate students (Lemke & Coughlin, 2009). The suc- cess of the educational technology professional development lies in educators’ abilities to identify the goals of the professional development and then match a model to the goal (Harris, 2008). No longer is a one-size-fits-all educational technol- ogy professional development model acceptable.
It has been replaced with professional develop- ment opportunities customized to the individual learning experience. Integrating technology into the classroom is one way to teach students with different learning preferences because “one cannot help but meet a variety of learning styles, with experiential depth, if technology is purposefully and wisely integrated into the regular day-to-day curriculum” (Kuhn, 2008, p. 19).
Funding For Educational Technology
In 2001, the enactment of the No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB) brought many changes to education, professional development, and edu- cational technology. One such change was the merging of technology, classroom learning, and raising student achievement. The authors of the all-encompassing NCLB included provisions for educational technology through the reenactment and redesign of previous educational technology models. The Title II.D Enhancing Education Through Technology (EETT) Program was born from these changes. The EETT program had two primary goals. The first was “to help districts im- prove student achievement (including technology literacy) through the integration of technology in curriculum, instruction, assessment, and profes- sional development” (United States Department of Education, 2004, para. 2). The second goal was, “to make certain students and teachers in high poverty, high-need schools have access to educational technologies comparable with that of the students and teachers in other schools” (United States Department of Education, 2009, p. xiii).
To ensure teachers and students in high-needs areas of the United States received EETT grant funds, the government made sure these funds were made available only to districts that received Title I funding and had a long-term strategic educational technology plan filed with the state (Missouri Independent & Private Schools Education Tech- nology Center, n.d.). The EETT documentation further stated that individual states may disperse
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Title II.D EETT funds through a state-determined competitive grant process. The EETT grants helped to create and fund the eMINTS National Center in Missouri and professional development programs in 12 states in the United States. Ad- ditionally, in 2006, personnel from the Western New South Wales Department of Education in Australia viewed a presentation offered by the eMINTS director and became interested in of- fering similar technology training to teachers in Australia. Representatives of the Australian educa- tion system visited the United States in 2006 and 2007 to observe eMINTS classrooms. Following the visits, in February of 2008, eMINTS became international when two staff members traveled to New South Wales to train more than 20 Australian educators (University of Missouri, n.d.).
At the core of the eMINTS program is the educational technology professional development all teachers participate in and the support, both technical and instructional, the teachers receive. Whether participating in the 90-hour eMINT- S4ALL, the 250-hour eMINTS Comprehensive PD, or the 2 year train-the-trainer model, the class- room teachers receive extensive training through a variety of comprehensive educational technology professional development opportunties (eMINTS, 2009b). In addition, Comprehensive PD partici- pants may opt for certification. To be certified, a teacher voluntarily submits a portfolio of artifacts to the eMINTS National Center; the center’s per- sonnel grade the portfolio using a rubric, and the teacher becomes certified if the portfolio receives a passing score (eMINTS, 2009a).
Both technical and instructional support sys- tems are important components of the eMINTS program because “technology sits unused or un- derused in schools where there are no educators trained to use the technology and integrate it into their curriculum and instruction” (eMINTS, 2007, para. 6). Although I am not an eMINTS teacher, as a certified teacher and degreed educational technologist, my experiences have shown that both instructional and technical support must be
in place if successful technology integration is expected. In my experience, even the most knowl- edgeabe, enthusiastic and dedicated classroom teacher will stop using technology altogether if the equipment is not dependable. All too often, this causes a trickle-down effect, where non-users in the school see the frustrations of those trying to integrate technology, and to avoid the stress, avoid technology integration completely.
The Move to Standards-Based Professional Development
The need to evaluate the effectiveness and quality of professional development came with the realization that such development was one possible remedy for the unacceptable levels of student academic performance. The importance of standards-based professional development was illustrated in the following statement by the Annenberg Institute for School Reform (AISR):
Effective professional development to improve classroom teaching also concentrates on high learning standards and on evidence of students’ learning. It mirrors the kinds of teaching and learning expected in classrooms. It is driven fundamentally by the needs and interests of par- ticipants themselves, enabling adult learners to expand on content knowledge and practice that is directly connected with the work of their student in the classroom. (As cited in Zepeda, 2008, p. 63)
Even though 46 states had professional de- velopment standards to assist them in the imple- mentation and evaluation of their professional development programs (Hightower, 2009), the NSDC was cited as being “the standards-bearer for professional development” (Zepeda, 2008, p. 27). The NSDC, comprised of teachers, adminstra- tors, and policymakers, is driven by their mission of increasing student achievement through more effective professional development (National Staff Development Council, n.d.).
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It is worth noting that the NSDC professional development standards were not written to be sub- ject or topic specific; instead the intention was to provide a general direction that could be adapted to any subject area. However, one of the main goals of any professional development program should always be that “every child is taught by a certified and quality teacher” (Salpeter & Bray, 2003, para. 1). Table 1 depicts the 12 NSDC professional development standards.
These 12 standards formed the organizational framework for the evaluation of educational technology professional development studied in this research project.
Barriers to Technology Integration
A barrier to technology integration in the class- room was the cost. In 2003, Guthrie of Vanderbilt University, wrote a controversial article titled “Instruction Technology and Education Policy Paradox,” in which he outlined what he saw as the contradictions of educational technology’s budget and what was actually produced. In a section of the paper titled “The Already Fulsome Supply Side of Education Technology,” the au- thor wrote about the monies spent on hardware to lower the student-to-computer ratio, and the billions of dollars spent to provide services such as the Internet. The article continued by stating that “the purchase of hardware is only half the story. Most contend that even recently prepared teachers are insufficiently informed regarding use of the computers and the Internet for purposes of classroom instruction” (p. 60). Guthrie continued by stating that the teachers’ lack of abilities “is not for lack of funding for teachers” (p. 60).
Guthrie (2003) stated that the U.S. education system spends a minimum of approximately $5 billion annually on professional development, and although an exact figure is not known for how much of that is applied directly to educational technology, he contended that “if school districts
believed such professional preparation to be im- portant, then literally all of it could be focused on preparing teachers to better use their classroom computers and Internet” (p. 60).
In the article’s conclusion, Guthrie (2003) iden- tified four behaviors that may motivate educators to put technology resources to work for them:
• Effectuate higher student achievement. • Make a teacher’s work life more
comfortable. • Vastly reduce the cost of providing
instruction. • Preserve one’s employment when threat-
ened by intense competition. (p. 64)
By providing monies and legislation, the federal and state governments, policymakers, and education systems are working to create high-quality teachers. Providing standards-based educational technology professional development opportunities can help teachers reach their full potential. However, the cycle should not stop there. An additional benefit to teachers learning
Table 1. NSDC standards for staff development by category
Category Standard
Context Standards Learning Communities
Leadership
Resources
Process Standards Data-Driven
Evaluation
Research-Based
Design
Learning
Collaboration
Content Standards Equity
Quality Teaching
Family Involvement
Note. Adapted from NSDC’s Standards for Staff Development (r. 2001). Retrieved May 2, 2008, from http://www.nsdc.org
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and integrating technology into the classroom is the effect it has on their students. Technology- rich classrooms and teachers will help students reach the level of technology literacy demanded by NCLB.
PRESENT PERSPECTIVES
I designed the study’s research questions to provide stakeholders with information about the eMINTS program’s effectiveness as viewed through the perspective of the participants. Sharing my find- ings with stakeholders, such as the eMINTS National Center, was an important part of the research project as they could then incorporate my suggestions into future professional devel- opment opportunities. Futhermore, a main point of this research was found in the process itself; professional development relating to technology must to be evaluated using the same standards as other professional development. The research questions were (1) What NSDC standards do all participants of eMINTS professional development identify as being most frequently represented in the program? (2) What NSDC standards do all participants of eMINTS professional development identify as needing improvement? (3) What are eMINTS participants’ suggestions for improve- ment? These questions sought to examine eMINTS teacher perceptions as they related to the degree in which each of the standards were embedded into the eMINTS educational technology professional development practices.
Given the focus of this investigation, I adopted a quantitative approach that used cross-sectional survey research to investigate the research ques- tions. The target population for the research was eMINTS graduates who were members of the eMINTS General Discussion List. Using an online format, members of the eMINTS General Discussion List completed a self-assessment sur- vey hosted on the Web site SurveyMonkey.com. I choose this distribution method because the discus-
sion list members were familiar with the format, and I anticipated that the familiarity factor could possibly increase the number of respondents and completed surveys. Although eMINTS did not know an exact member count, the site adminis- trator estimated the General Discussion List to have approximately 1,000 members (M. Beglau, personal communication, January 21, 2009).
Online Post Design
In order to recruit respondents for the study, I cre- ated an online post. In the design of this research, the post served the same purpose as a cover letter in a traditional survey. However, because I was not an eMINTS teacher, I channeled all posts through the director, who posted the messages on my behalf. Although posting to the list requires membership, nonmembers may search and view archived eMINTS General Discussion List post- ings (eMINTS, n.d.).
Online Survey Design
The 27-question online survey instrument deter- mined the strength of each of the 12 standards within the eMINTS program, as perceived by eMINTS teachers. The survey included three sections:
• Section One: The questions in this section of the survey gathered demographic data from teachers.
• Section Two: I designed this section to ad- dress the eMINTS educational technology professional development and the NSDC standards. This portion of the self-assessment survey consisted of 24 multiple-choice items, grouped in pairs and organized according to the standards listed in Table 1. Survey respon- dents were asked to indicate their strength of agreement or disagreement by placing a checkmark in one of the five choices on a Likert scale: 0 = N/A, 1 = Strongly Disagree,
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2 = Disagree, 3 = Agree, and 4 = Strongly Agree. Respondents could choose to skip any of the questions they did not wish to answer. I used a Likert scale in this research because I believed that quantitative data collection and analysis techniques would increase validity.
• Section Three: The last section of the survey was comprised of opened-ended questions. However, keeping in mind that respondents prefer closed-ended questions (Fraenkel & Wallen, 2006), I kept the number of open- ended questions to a minimum by group- ing them into the three NSDC Standards categories of Context, Content, and Process (see Table 1 for category details). As with the multiple-choice questions, respondents could decline to answer any or all of the open-ended questions.
• Content Validity Testing: After the survey design and questions were complete, an edu- cational technology services coordinator and 15-year veteran in the field of educational technology and educational technology professional development, reviewed the questions. The reviewer also checked the alignment of each survey question, NSDC standard, and its application to the field of educational technology.
• Pretesting: 18 educators received an e-mail copy of the survey and instructions for pre- testing. The educators, who were advocates of educational technology and technology integration, assessed the online survey in- structions, questions, and navigation for clarity. In addition, members of the pretest group reported on the aesthetical formatting of the survey.
Data Collection and Analysis
On Tuesday, May 26, 2009, the director of the eMINTS National Center posted my request for respondents on the eMINTS General Discussion
List and thus distributed the request to all the members of the desired population. The survey remained open until October 15, 2009, when I closed the survey and downloaded the responses as a Microsoft Excel spreadsheet. Using Excel, the I sorted, filtered, and analyzed the responses to the 24 Likert-type and 4 open-ended questions to answer each of the study’s research questions.
I used descriptive analyses; mean scores and ordinal ranking determined which standards the survey respondents identified as being most frequently represented in the eMINTS program and which standards they identified as being represented the least. I also listed members’ sug- gestions for improvement.
The survey focused on using the NSDC standards for staff development as a framework for measuring specific aspects of the eMINTS educational technology professional develop- ment program. The data derived from the survey provided a clear picture of the current level of implementation of the NSDC staff development standards for high-quality professional develop- ment in the eMINTS program. According to an online tabulation tool provided by the SurveyMon- key Web site, 67 respondents started the survey, with 49 actually completing the survey (73%). Although the sample size was relatively small, results can still be useful for suggesting program modifications.
The demographic data reported by the respon- dents included the number of years of teaching since completion of the eMINTS program, the types of eMINTS educational technology profes- sional development received, whether the teacher was certified, and each respondent’s location.
Years of teaching since completion of eMINTS ranged from 1 to 2 years up to 7 or more years. The largest percentage of respondents indicated that they had finished the eMINTS program 1 to 2 years prior to completing the survey (45%); the smallest percentage had finished the program 7 or more years ago (12%). In addition, the survey requested demographic information about the
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respondents’ eMINTS Certification status. Of the 49 total respondents, the majority were non- certified (63%), with the minority being certified (37%). The final component in the collected demographic data was the respondent’s location (state or country). An overwhelming majority of the teachers were from the state of Missouri (92%). All respondents were from the United States (100%).
Data Analysis
I asked the survey respondents to respond to each question in a manner that most accurately reflected their personal experiences during their eMINTS educational technology professional development experience. In order to analyze the research ques- tions, first the scale score mean for each standard was calculated. Then to identify which standards the respondents perceived as being most frequently represented in the eMINTS educational technol- ogy professional development program, the scale score means were ordinal ranked from highest to lowest. When examining the top standards, the NSDC Leadership standard (3.7) was reported as being the most represented in the program. Respondents reported two standards, Design and Quality Teaching (3.5), as being the second most represented in the eMINTS program. The NSDC standards of Data-Driven, Evaluation, and Collaboration (3.0) were the standards reported as being the least represented, or in need of im- provement, within the program.
In addition, although survey respondents reported five standards as needing improvement (Data-Driven, Evaluation, Collaboration, Learn- ing Communities, and Family Involvement), in the open-ended remarks, only one respondent offered a suggestion for improvement. The respondent stated, “I am able to work with parents but I could use some more [training] on how to help parents support their students’ learning.”
The Resources standard open-ended ques- tion received these submissions from survey respondents:
• The support was adequate but we needed more time to practice the skills we learned rather than many of the classroom exercis- es in which we participated.
• Train[ing] should stress effective uses of process (word processing) rather than products (Microsoft Office).
The Research standard received one subject- specific suggestion:
• I would like to see or participate in specific research to determine whether skills prac- ticed on a computer have the same impact as students using manipulatives focusing [sic] on the same skill (i.e., – using algebra tiles, or does typing notes have the same impact as writing notes).
Although the survey data contained many comments, suggestions for change were limited.
FUTURE TRENDS
Educational technology is not new to the schools and classrooms of the 21st-century. However, today’s schools and teachers are still struggling with the effective use of technology and classroom integration. Throughout this study, as illustrated in the Integrating Technology Cycle (Figure 1), I assumed a relationship existed between standards- based educational technology professional devel- opment, technology-rich classrooms, and students reaching technology literacy. Although education seemed to remain idle in step one of the cycle, through the enactment of the No Child Left Be- hind Act (NCLB), the Improving Teacher Quality (ITQ) Act (Title II), and the Title II.D Enhancing Education Through Technology (EETT) Program,
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legislators have provided mandates, programs and funds to increase standards-based, high-quality educational technology professional develop- ment opportunities for teachers. The eMINTS educational technology professional development program, funded primarily by these programs, is teaching educators to integrate technology into the classrooms.
Discussion of Results
The purpose of this study was to determine if the eMINTS educational technology program provided high quality, standards-based profes- sional development as aligned with the NSDC standards (see Table 1). The study focused on using the NSDC standards for staff development as a framework for measuring specific aspects of the eMINTS educational technology professional development program.
As revealed through survey data, the respon- dents perceived the Data-Driven (3.0), Evaluation (3.0), and Collaboration (3.0) standards to be the least represented in the eMINTS program. eMINTS administrators should address these deficits if the eMINTS program is to continue to expand. One possible solution would be to incor- porate customizable elements into the eMINTS educational technology professional development program. One-size-fits-all educational technology professional development models are no longer acceptable. Rather, they should be replaced with opportunities customized to the individual learn- ing experience (Harris, 2008).
Adding customizable elements to the eMINTS program would allow schools, districts, and teacher cohorts to determine their own needs, and receive appropriate assistance from the eMINTS program facilitators. For example, if a group of eMINTS teachers in training identified the Data- Driven standard (3.0; ranked as one of the lowest standards according to the survey) as an important need, the training could be changed to incorporate more strategies to meet that need. Customization
could be accomplished in ways that tend to feed off one another. First, introduce the topic of using data to drive instruction in year 1 rather than in year 2, and then expand the data from student-level to include classroom-, school-, and/or district-level data. This customization would allow teachers more time to gather and analyze data specializied to their precise needs. Second, the data resulting from this change could lead to change in another area of need, Collaboration (3.0); timely data is a valuable resource that can lead to in-depth, shared discussion and brainstorming opportunities. The following message from a survey respondent echoes the customization view: “I do not believe eMINTS was aware nor did it meet my particular needs. I often found it frustrating that the classes that I attended did not match nor correlate to my classroom.”
The research questions examined the extent to which the teachers perceived the standards to be embedded into the eMINTS program. The scale score means varied from 3.7 (Leadership standard) to 3.0 (Data-Driven, Evaluation, and Collaboration standards). However, as shown in Table 2, when comparing the standards by category, there is little difference in their category scale score means.
The Context standards, the first NSDC cate- gory reviewed, received a collective scale score mean of 3.3. The Leadership standard (3.7) re- ceived the highest score both in the Context category, and over all 12 standards. Although eMINTS does not directly teach leadership skills, in my experience, extensive use of a train-the- trainer model, such as that used by eMINTS, empowers teachers to assume leadership roles.
The following survey responses attest to the Leadership standard’s role in the eMINTS program:
• eMINTS gave me a voice in my district to advocate for technology in education. I had research to back up my statements and re- quests to my administrative team.
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• I would not use the phrase “advocate for tech in education”. eMINTS is more about “advocating for students in education us- ing 21st century literacy and tools”.
The Learning Communities standard (3.1) received the lowest score in the Context cat- egory. However, in direct contrast, respondents recorded positive comments about the Learning Communities standard in the open-ended portion of the survey:
• Working with colleges in any platform helps to develop learning teams…
• [eMINTS] inspired me to work collabora- tively within my [d]epartment and to reach across the curriculum and grade levels to collaborate.
The second category of standards reviewed were the Process standards (category scale score mean of 3.2). The common theme that developed in the closed- and open-ended survey questions supported research by DiLeo (2008) in The Peer Mentor Model for Promoting Expertise with
Technology Among Teachers. DiLeo’s educational technology professional development model used classroom coaches as a bridge to help teachers use what was taught in the training sessions and apply it in the classroom. He further noted that classroom teachers would later become coaches or mentors themselves. The following survey respondent comment supports the overall survey findings:
I received a lot of support, both from eMINTS staff…[and] from establishing contacts with other schools during our eMINTS meetings. … I con- tinue to use my new skills to teach other people in my building how to use certain technology and software introduced to me by eMINTS.
In the past, best practice did not often call for systematic evaluation of professional develop- ment programs; however, this is no longer the case in most programs of today. Nor is it the case for eMINTS, which conducts extensive program evaluations, using both in-house and external evaluators. However, eMINTS teachers’ responses to survey questions ranked the Evaluation stan-
Table 2. Survey results: NSDC category scale score mean
Standard Category NSDC Standard
Standard Scale Score Mean
Likert scale 0 – 4* Category Scale Score Mean
Likert scale 0 – 4*
Context Standards Learning Communities 3.1
Leadership 3.7
Resources 3.2 3.3
Process Standards Data-Driven 3.0
Evaluation 3.0
Research-Based 3.2
Design 3.5
Learning 3.4
Collaboration 3.0 3.2
Content Standards Equity 3.2
Quality Teaching 3.5
Family Involvement 3.1 3.3
Note. 0 represents the lowest possible scale score, with 4 being the highest.
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dard as one of the three lowest standards (3.0). Comments varied in the open-ended portion of the Evaluation standard data. Differing opinions are evident in the following responses. While one survey respondent reported, “eMINTS does not consider other’s ideologies, abilities or talents”, another wrote, “ongoing teacher and peer evalu- ation is emphasized throughout the training pro- cess. eMINTS annual review of training materials and pacing schedules does a pretty good job of anticipating future needs.”
The remaining category, Content, includes the NSDC standards of Equity, Quality Teaching, and Family Involvement. Of the three standards in this category, the Equity standard, even though it ranked low (3.2), received many positive com- ments from the survey respondents. As backed by survey responses, the eMINTS program design promotes the selection and use of a diverse set of strategies to meet all learners. I believe this survey response was representative of all responses:
I was able to reach students with technology that I was not able to reach traditionally. The constructivist approach with inquiry questioning techniques helped both my student-teacher rela- tionship as well as my parent-teacher relationship. By asking probing or inquiry questions, I was better able to understand the needs or concerns of the student and/or parent when communicating.
CONCLUSION
The overall findings from this study contribute to the knowledge base in the areas of profes- sional development, educational technology and standards-based educational technology profes- sional development in two distinct ways. First, through the melding of the NSDC standards, and the eMINTS program; to my knowledge, this is
the first in-depth examination linking these items. Second, the findings from this study added insight into how eMINTS teachers perceive the effective- ness of their eMINTS training as aligned with the NSDC standards. Several NSDC standards were well represented within the eMINTS educational technology professional development program. On the other hand, the research also revealed three standards that survey respondents ranked low, suggesting that eMINTS should concentrate efforts to improve the design of elements within these areas.
In my opinion, the findings of this survey re- search support the adoption and implementation of the eMINTS educational technology profes- sional development. Although some schools and districts may find the expense and scheduling to be overwhelming, teacher perception of the eMINTS program, as reflected in this study, ranked high. Testifying to the program’s quality and effectiveness, the surveyed eMINTS teach- ers awarded a 24-question combined scale score mean of 3.2 (based on a maximum score of 4) to the program. For those districts that see cost as a deterrent, I would recommend investing in the train-the-trainer model. This model allows district personnel to be eMINTS trained, grants them ac- cess to eMINTS resources, and then allows the district to set up and implement their own schedule (both time-wise and financially).
In addition, based on the high overall scale score mean, I would also make a state-level recommendation in the 12 states where eMINTS training is available. I would request that the state boards of education in these states recognize and add eMINTS Certification as an Educational Technology endorsement on their states’ teaching licenses. In my experience, recognition at this level can provide the momentum needed to increase the number of teachers trained to integrate technology in the classroom.
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Recommendations for Future Research
Recommendations for future research include replicating the study with a larger, more diverse sample. Researchers could accomplish this by distributing the survey in a format other than on- line. One suggestion would be to take advantage of eMINTS face-to-face opportunities such as conferences, seminars, and training sessions to distribute and collect surveys. Attendance at these meetings would also allow future researchers to arrange opportunities to visit eMINTS teachers and classrooms to gather detailed feedback through observations, interviews, and focus groups.
Another recommendation for future research would be to gather additional detailed demo- graphic data from respondents. Having access to additional and more specific demographic data would allow researchers to desegregate the data to explore specific information. For example, a future researcher might use such data to investigate what differences, if any, exist between eMINTS teach- ers working in different grade-levels (elementary, middle school, and high school) in terms of their perception of the alignment of eMINTS profes- sional development with NSDC standards.
In my opinion, eMINTS teachers who had pre- service experience in technology would require less instruction in basic computer and software operations and could spend more time concen- trating on student needs and quality integration. Therefore, a third recommendation also focuses on gathering additional demographic data. The additional data could allow future researchers to desegregate the data to study the differences that exist between eMINTS teachers who received technology training during their pre-service experiences and those who did not. This type of information would allow researchers to uncover the ramifications of eMINTS participants having prior technology training. Data gathered could provide insight into the importance of incorpo-
rating technology training into the pre-service experience.
Critical Reflection
In the field of education, it is easy to become lost in the sea of standards available: national content area standards, state standards, accreditation stan- dards, etc. These standards represent the known research in each field, but educators often only align with only one set of standards. Professional development for technology integration is no dif- ferent; it must incorporate not only the knowledge base for technology usage but also for effective professional development. The development of any new professional development program should align with multiple sets of standards to ensure high quality.
In one fashion or another, I have been involved in educational technology and educational technol- ogy professional development for over 10 years. It is my desire that every student in the United States education system develop the skills necessary to be a technologically productive adult. Figure 1, the Technology Integration Cycle, exemplifies the three-part sequence of events that will lead students to be successful adults. My study of standards-based educational technology profes- sional development for teachers is only one sec- tion of the whole; it is my hope that this research will increase the stakeholders’ awareness in the role they play regarding the cycle of technology integration.
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Harris, J. (2008). One size doesn’t fit all: Cus- tomizing educational technology professional development (part 3). Learning & Leading with Technology, 35(7), 22-25.
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KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS
21st Century Skills: For the purpose of this paper, “a new set of skills necessary to prepare students for life and work in a technological and digital age” (CEO Forum on Education and Technology, 2001, p. 10); “…the exploration of how digital tools (cameras, presentation software, computing equipment) and online resources can support and enhance traditional subjects, skills and teaching practices” (Thinkfinity, n.d.. para. 3).
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Respondent: For the purpose of this paper, a respondent refers to an eMINTS teacher who participated in my online survey.
Standards-Based Educational Technology Professional Development: Providing profes- sional opportunities for teaching teachers to plan for, utilize, and integrate technology into their instruction” (Meltzer, 2006, p. 9), and evaluating the quality of the professional development by applying an accountability structure such as the National Staff Development Council’s standards.
Technology Integration or Instructional Technology: The seamless infusion of technology into the existing classroom curriculum (Gura & Percy, 2005). The basis for integration is “using technology in such a way that it becomes part of the fabric of teaching and learning and not a technology course end unto itself” (Gura & Percy, p. 60). The terms technology integration and instructional technology are used interchangably in this paper.
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Copyright © 2012, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
Chapter 61
DOI: 10.4018/978-1-61350-068-2.ch061
INTRODUCTION
“Maybe I’m a purist... but when I hear football announcers speak of RED filling the stadium [instead of scarlet] I feel the hair rise on the back of my neck.... Could the athletic department post a reminder in the press box of the REAL name of [our] colors?”—Ronald, graduate of a large Midwestern university
“Heck, I didn’t even know we had colors!”— Sharlene, faculty member at a virtual university
For Ronald, the retired alumnus, thinking about his school colors evoked memories of “walking the beautiful campus interacting with students” (R. White, personal communication, November 16, 2010). In contrast, at Sharlene’s virtual uni- versity, only one of 28 faculty surveyed identified the correct shade of the school’s red (H. Glazer, personal communication, November 18, 2010).
Hilda R. Glazer Capella University, USA
Constance E. Wanstreet The Ohio State University, USA
Building a Brand in Virtual Learning Spaces:
Why Student Connections Matter
ABSTRACT
This article employs a case study approach to explore the notion of connectedness between doctoral learners at a Midwestern distance learning university and other learners, faculty, their schools within the university, and the university itself in terms of brand identity and management. Although more than one-third of the learners felt no connection to their university and thus no brand association, this case study suggests that there is room for improvement at all levels of connectedness to the academic environ- ment. This includes developing management practices that reinforce uniqueness and foster consistent images of the institution as credible, reliable, and responsive.
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Yet another faculty member sensed that colors promote an affective connection to the university and acknowledged that “a little sense of school spirit wouldn’t hurt” (J. Smith, personal com- munication, November 19, 2010).
School colors are among the symbols that dif- ferentiate one institution from another and are one aspect of an institution’s brand. Other elements of a university’s brand include promises about the benefits of attending the university, distinctive features compared to other institutions, and how the university is represented through symbols and communication (Bennett & Ali-Choudhury, 2009). The perceived value of the degree; resources available to students, faculty, and alumni; and the attractiveness of the campus atmosphere add to strong brand images (Association for the Study of Higher Education, 2005).
Brand relationships can be construed as ex- pressions of consumers’ identities (Swaminathan, Page, & Gürhan-Canli, 2007). Consumers form strong relationships with brands that have values and personality associations with which they can identify (Swaminathan et al.). People want to be associated with strong brands, and brand associa- tions or connections can create positive attitudes and feelings about the organization (ASHE, 2005).
Connectedness to the institution and those within it is a core feature of academic communi- ties (Beattie, 2002; Rovai, 2002). Yet for many, university life is fragmented, disconnected, and isolated (McNay, 2005; Bibeau, 2001), which af- fects the attractiveness of the university’s brand to prospective students (Bennett & Ali-Choudhury, 2009). This chapter employs a case study ap- proach to explore the notion of connectedness between doctoral learners at a Midwestern distance learning university and other learners, faculty, and the university in terms of brand identity and management. We conclude the chapter with sug- gestions for fostering connectedness and building institutional brands.
BACKGROUND
One of the hallmarks of a graduate education appears to be how connected the individual feels to the academic community, or to elements of the community (Thurston, 2005; Beattie, 2002; Rovai, 2002). This is easy to observe at a landed university where colors are worn and sports are played. However, in the distance learning environ- ment, learners have little tangible connection with the physical university. School spirit, cohesion, and interdependence are aspects of connected- ness that must be conveyed through technology (Rovai, 2003).
A university’s visual identity helps convey the brand image, and a strong visual identity can suggest a more favorable reputation (Alessandri, Yang, & Kinsey, 2006). Aspects of visual identity include the university’s name, logo, tagline, color palette, and architecture as well as the university’s public behavior (Alessandri et al.). In an explora- tion of visual identity and university reputation among students, Alessandri et al. found that the distinctiveness of an institution’s visual identity can prime a positive image in the minds of the public. One faculty member at a virtual univer- sity noted that she did not realize that the school colors were on the website as the color template (H. Glazer, personal communication, November 18, 2010). If faculty are not aware of the colors, can we expect that students are?
Paradoxically, while technology can solve the problem of geographic isolation, it can create is- sues with social isolation (Bibeau, 2001). Creating an academic learning community is considered a fundamental strategy to combat isolation (Bi- beau, 2001; Haythornthwaite, Kazmer, Robins, & Shoemaker, 2000), help learners develop social presence and online identities (Cousin & Deepwell, 2005; Rourke, Anderson, Garrison, & Archer, 2001), and to support knowledge con- struction (Moisey, Neu, & Cleveland-Innes, 2008) and meaningful learning (Garrison, Anderson, & Archer, 2000). Connectedness is one of the
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characteristics of academic learning communi- ties (Rovai, 2002; Beattie, 2002). The school or university itself may or may not be the connector. In the online environment, the point of entry is a home page that typically contains the links to courses and services and to community forums in some instances. But it is the individual point of entry, not a group page. Thus interaction with others must be sought out rather than being pas- sive. This may not reduce the sense of isolation or increase connection with the school.
Connectedness
Connectedness is related to an individual’s opin- ion of him- or herself in relation to other people (Lee & Robbins, 1995). Sensitivity to others is an indicator of connectedness (Van Assen & Bekker, 2009; Aron, Aron, Tudor, & Nelson, 1991), as are cohesion, spirit, trust, interdependence (Rovai, 2002, 2003) and altruism (Cialdani, Brown, Lewis, Luce, & Neuberg, 1997). Interconnected activities are characteristic of close, communal relationships (Aron, Aron, & Smollan, 1992). Connectedness has also been associated with social presence (Rovai, 2002) and with well- being among international students (Rosenthal, Russell, & Thomson, 2007). In a study of nearly 1,000 international students enrolled in an Aus- tralian university, Rosenthal et al. reported that most students were well-connected to others, although some desired contact with people who knew them as individuals and who cared about them personally. Another aspect of connected- ness that has been researched is the impact of the school’s environment or climate on student outcomes (Waters, Cross, & Shaw, 2010) This includes the functional characteristics such as the policies and procedures that set the rules for interaction among students.
Connectedness facilitates higher achievement (Rovai, 2003), improves academic self-esteem (Karcher, 2009), increases learning transfer (Sontage, 2009), and increases course and program
satisfaction (Moisey et al., 2008). On the other hand, disconnectedness may lead to difficulty with the course, failing grades, noncompletion, or withdrawal (Waltonen-Moore, Stuart, Newton, Oswald, & Varonis, 2006). Disconnectedness rep- resents disassociation from the university’s brand, which leads to lack of support for the university, including complaining to third parties, negative word of mouth, and illegal actions such as threats (Johnson, Matear, & Thomson (2010).
Connectedness and Social Presence
Connectedness and social presence are both in- dicators of relationships. Social presence is the ability of learners to project their personal char- acteristics to their group members and classmates and includes affective, interactive, and cohesive aspects (Rourke et al., 2001). Indicators of social presence include expressing emotions, using repetitious punctuation or emoticons, teasing, expressing vulnerability, using humor, continuing a discussion thread, quoting from others’ mes- sages, asking questions, expressing appreciation, complimenting others or the contents of others’ messages, addressing or referring to participants by name, expressing agreement with others or content of others’ messages, and engaging in communication that serves a purely social func- tion (Rourke et al.). In a content analysis of chat transcripts from two discussion groups, Wanstreet and Stein (2011) found that dialogue that signals social presence accounted for nearly half of the online conversation in both chats.
Social presence involves people being per- ceived as real, three-dimensional beings despite not communicating face to face (Garrison et al., 2000; Short, Williams & Christie, 1976; Tu & McIsaac, 2002). Tu (2002) asserts that social pres- ence is a complicated construct and involves social relationships, communication styles, privacy, feedback, and immediacy. Social presence is a strong predictor of course satisfaction (Gunawar- dena & Zittle, 1997; Swan & Shih, 2005) and can
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facilitate deep learning (Garrison & Cleveland- Innes, 2005; Kreijns, Kirschner, Jochems, & Van Buuren, 2004; Richardson & Swan, 2003).
The greater the perception that social pres- ence exists, the better the ability to substitute technology-mediated communication for face- to-face encounters and still achieve the desired collaborative outcome. When the degree of social presence is high, interaction among learners will be high (Garramone, Harris, & Anderson, 1986), although there is a question about the optimal level of social presence. Too much social presence may be detrimental to learning (Garrison & Cleveland- Innes, 2005; Rourke et al., 2001).
Swan (2002) found changes in social presence indictors over a five-day period, which may relate to varying degrees of importance depending on the stage of community building. Cohesive indica- tors, such as greetings and social sharing, declined over time while interactive indicators, such as agreement or disagreement, increased. Affective indicators—emotion, humor, self-disclosure—re- mained relatively consistent over time.
Course design may affect the development of social presence. Swan and Shih (2005) report that online discussions based on course readings elicited fewer personal responses than discus- sions asking for opinions on issues or practical experiences. They found that group cohesion is significantly associated with social presence and perceived learning. Stein and Wanstreet (2006) found that group cohesion can work against com- munity in the classroom as a whole. In a blended learning environment, they report that a high level of perceived social presence among learners working in small groups may inhibit their ability to share with their classmates and learn from the whole class.
Connectedness Scales
Lee and Robbins (1995), Rovai (2002), and Rosenthal et al. (2007) developed text-based instruments that measure connectedness. The
Social Connectedness Scale assesses the emotional distance between an individual and other people, both friends and society (Lee & Robbins, 1995). The Classroom Community Scale focuses on in- teraction among community members; learners’ feelings of connectedness, cohesion, spirit, trust, and interdependence; and the degree to which learners believe their educational goals are be- ing met (Rovai, 2002). The social connectedness questionnaire developed by Rosenthal et al. (2007) assessed four domains, including connectedness to the local environment, social mixing, organi- zations and activities, and connection to home and family.
Aron et al. (1992) developed a pictorial mea- sure of connectedness that creates an interval-level scale to evoke an individual’s sense of being interconnected. The Inclusion of Other in the Self (IOS) Scale was originally used to measure closeness in romantic and friendship relation- ships (Aron et al., 1992). Respondents select the depiction of two circles with various degrees of overlap that best describes the connectedness of their relationship. In a close relationship, there may be a sense of general union of self and other (Aron et al., 1992). As in the example of school spirit in which colors are worn at a sporting event, fans display an interconnectedness with one another and with their team. The question is, when the physical aspects of interconnectedness related to time and place are not evident or not at a high level of awareness, what does the student connect to within the community?
A CASE STUDY OF CONNECTEDNESS
This case study explored the perceived relationship between learners and aspects of their academic learning community in terms of connectedness in a distance education university. Respondents chose a pictorial representation of perceived connectedness with other learners, the faculty
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in their classes, their school, and the university. Respondents selected the depiction of two circles with various degrees of overlap that best described the connectedness of their relationship. Following procedure for University approval, approvals from the University and from the Institutional Review Board were obtained. The sampling was done by the research office and all identifiers were removed in the data collection process. From a sample of 972 doctoral students in the schools of education and psychology at a Midwestern distance education university, 395 responses yielded a 41% response rate. Female respondents comprised 69% of the sample; males comprised 31%.
Connectedness to Other Learners
When asked to depict their perception of their relationship with other learners in terms of con- nectedness, most learners were at least minimally connected to other learners. The responses were clustered around the middle of the range, but there was wide variability in the scale (see Figure 1). The distribution of responses shows that 68% indicated some degree of connectedness, as shown by circles that overlap to some extent.
Compared to connectedness to faculty, their school, and the university, the results for con- nectedness to other learners represent the greatest extremes. Nine percent of the learners felt the greatest degree of connectedness to other learners, while 10% felt the greatest degree of distance.
The primary theme from participant comments was that no relationships with others developed outside of class. The following quotes exemplify what was said:
• “While in contact with other learners, there is no relationship beyond a professional as- sociation and academic discussion.”
• “I have never been close to any class mates. There is not time to develop any type of comradery [sic].”
Connectedness to Faculty
When asked to depict their perception of their relationship with the faculty in terms of con- nectedness, most learners were at least minimally connected, with 64% depicting some degree of connectedness. Although the scores clustered in the middle of the range, there is wide variability (see Figure 2).
Only 5% of the learners depicted the greatest possible degree of connectedness in their relation- ship with faculty. Yet, only 6% depicted the great- est possible degree of separation, meaning that relatively few relationships with faculty were extremely disconnected.
The theme from learners’ comments centered around the presence of the faculty in the classroom:
• “Slight interaction with faculty, basically good relations but definitely distant.”
Figure 1. Perceived connectedness of learners to one another
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• “There have been some faculty that have been very personalable, [sic] but not many. Not many offer feedback on your assign- ments or suggestions for improvement.”
Connectedness to the School
When asked to depict their perception of their relationship with their school within the univer- sity, 59% of the learners saw themselves as hav- ing at least a minimal connection. The degree of connectedness to one’s school was less than the perceived connectedness to other learners or to faculty (See Figure 3).
Comments related to the staff and their role with the students:
• “I don’t have any contact with faculty out- side of course room work. Once in a while I am in contact with my adviser only if there is a problem.”
• “Rely greatly on the Learner Support team, advisor, enrollment advisor, etc.”
Connectedness to the University
When asked to depict their perception of their re- lationship with the university, most of the learners saw themselves as at least minimally connected to the university. However, the percentage of respon- dents who indicated some degree of connectedness was only 58%, 10 percentage points less than their connection to other learners and eight percentage points less than their connection to faculty. The highest percentage of responses (23.23%) depicted the circles that indicate only a small degree of perceived connection (See Figure 4).
The comments related to connection to the university focused on self:
• “I pay for my classes and get a grade!” • “I really feel [the university] does care
about my successful completion of my program.”
• “Because of my advisor, it has been very good.”
• “Thanks only to my advisor.”
Figure 2. Perceived connectedness of learners to faculty in their classes
Figure 3. Perceived connectedness of learners to their school
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Building a Brand in Virtual Learning Spaces:
Connecting with People
Overall, the learners see themselves in at least a minimally connected relationship to other learn- ers, the faculty, their school, and the university itself. However, the sample of graduate students in a distance learning university saw themselves as more connected to people than to institutions. Learners and faculty scored higher on the con- nectedness scale than university. This supports Lee and Robbins’ (1995) definition of social connectedness as being related to one’s opinion of oneself in relation to other people. The results contradict Beattie’s (2002) finding that students who are in a connected relationship with instruc- tors are committed to the larger community. The results also run counter to Freiberg and Lamb (2009), who hold that personal connections with instructors can promote school connectedness.
At the distance education university under study, faculty standards require responding to each learner substantially at least once a week, among other expectations for faculty-learner interaction. What may be lacking is immediacy, one aspect of social presence that enhances perceptions of closeness to others (Pelowski, Frissell, Cabral, & Yu, 2005; Swan, 2002). In addition, although the course room appears to be the center of activity, limited time with faculty and other learners may be one of the barriers to developing a connection.
More than one-third of the learners felt no connection to their university and thus no brand
association. This has ramifications for retention of current learners, referrals of prospective students, and overall support for the university. Of interest was the focus on staff support as representing the university to the learner. For these learners the consistent presence of support people was important. This includes technical support as well as academic support services. Providing the nearly 24-7 support for online learners is a feature of the university that is noted as being critical to the success of the learners. Providing, as well as marketing, these types of services can be perceived as a retention tool and a brand differentiator.
FUTURE TRENDS
Distance education universities that want to dif- ferentiate themselves from their competitor institu- tions will nurture robust academic communities that increase connections to the university, thus improving brand association through enrollment and overall support of the university. This case study suggests that there is room for improvement at all levels of connectedness to the academic environment. To counter stiff competition, every aspect of the university will need to support ac- tivities that foster cohesion, spirit, trust, and con- nection (Rovai, 2003). This includes developing management practices that reinforce uniqueness and foster consistent images of the institution as credible, reliable, and responsive (ASHE, 2005).
Figure 4. Perceived connectedness of learners to their university
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Building a Brand in Virtual Learning Spaces:
Building Brand Equity at the Learner and Faculty Level
From a learner and faculty perspective, brand equity is the extent to which an institution can attract and retain students (ASHE, 2005). Cur- rent learners who feel connected to one another and the faculty are likely to be more satisfied with their programs (Moisey et al, 2008); thus, they are more likely to complete their degrees (Waltonen-Moore et al., 2006) and recommend the institution to others.
To foster connectedness to other learners and to increase social presence, Bibeau (2001) recommends encouraging them to work together. Dialogue that supports connectedness and social presence includes interactive dialogue that con- tinues a discussion thread or represents agreement or disagreement with another participant’s com- ments; affective dialogue, which signals emotions or vulnerability; and cohesive dialogue, which indicates that group members are moving from individuals to interdependent colleagues (Rourke et al., 2001). To foster connectedness to faculty, Swan (2002) recommends providing immediate feedback. Weiss (2000) recommends using ex- pressive language, having instructors share their biographies, and modeling appropriate interaction. Establishing a relationship mentor/advisor early in the graduate program may also be an area to investigate, as this relationship would establish a continuing connection to the school and university.
To attract learners to their institutions, Bennett and Ali-Choudhury (2009) recommend communi- cating messages that focus on the benefits of the institution as they relate to employment prospects, student support, and the social environment. Messages about the university’s mission, vision, or internal values did not help build brand equity among pre-university students in Bennett and Ali-Choudhury’s study. Instead, Bennett and Ali- Choudhury recommend recruitment campaigns that emphasize the benefits to the prospective
student and the ways in which the university dif- fers from others.
In developing a global brand, universities should use both Web and print media to convey details about the university and emotional appeals (Gray, Fam, & Llanes (2003). A survey of more than 1,000 potential international students found that Web and print media are perceived as the most important sources of university information; and messages about the university’s reputation for quality, size and influence of alumni, and range of courses and programs resonated with prospective students (Gray et al.)
Building Brand Equity at the Organization Level
From an organizational perspective, brand equity is a measure of strength in the marketplace in which institutions compete for students and sup- port from other constituents (ASHE, 2005). The most difficult aspect of building brand equity on the part of university administrators is identifying how their institution differs from the institutions against which they are competing for students and support (Chapleo, 2006). In the future, research into key constituents’ perceptions of their institu- tion will help administrators more clearly develop their brand image and begin to build brand equity (Chapleo, 2006).
Perhaps using the traditional brand recognition for universities should be explored. While it is impossible to have a football or basketball team, school colors being used in a way that is more evident is possible. Brand recognition within the larger community is important.Other strategies to build brand equity and foster connectedness to the school and university are programs that give learners more of a sense of identity, connection to the institution, and appreciation for the breadth of the university, such as alumni associations, honor societies, scholarships, and social action projects. In addition, the Association for the Study of Higher Education (2005) recommends a number
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of tactics to build brand equity and strengthen connectedness:
• Identify benchmarks relative to competing institutions.
• Seek claims of quality through rankings or other indices.
• Communicate through realistic messages. • Conduct special events that reflect your in-
stitution’s goals. • Conduct community outreach by attaching
your name to meaningful, distinctive, and valuable activities.
• Communicate the vision of your institution to key constituents.
CONCLUSION
With distance learning becoming a viable option for more and more students at all levels of post- secondary education, it has become important to consider other aspects of being in an academic community, such as brand associations, and how a university’s brand can influence retention and satisfaction. As the case study suggests, we connect to that with which we spend the most time, which in this case is the people most closely associated with the course. That leaves open for further study the question of the impact of learners’ not having a sense of identity as members of a larger academic community.
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Weiss, R. E. (2000). Humanizing the online class- room. New Directions for Teaching and Learning, 84, 47–51. doi:10.1002/tl.847
KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS
Academic Community: An academic com- munity is a structure that fosters creating, sharing, and applying knowledge. Academic communities include both co- and extra-curricular activities.
Brand: A brand is an image, a representation of features and promises about an organization’s benefits that distinguish it from another organi- zation.
Brand Associations: People feel a positive connection to strong brands, which translates to positive attitudes and feelings about an organiza- tion.
Brand Equity: For universities, brand equity is the extent to which an institution can attract and retain students and support from its constituents. Brand equity is a measure of strength in the marketplace.
Connectedness: In an academic environment, connectedness increases satisfaction. It is an in- dication of an individual’s perception of him- or herself in relation to others.
Institutional Culture: Culture is a manifesta- tion of what is noteworthy and meaningful about an institution for various constituents. Culture can become part of the brand.
Relationships: More than mere transactions, relationships imply sharing and reciprocity.
Social Presence: Social presence is the ability to project personal characteristics in an online environment.
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Copyright © 2012, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
Chapter 62
DOI: 10.4018/978-1-61350-068-2.ch062
INTRODUCTION
What is the relevance of a chapter about the impact of technology on school leadership in an era of increasing public accountability, where questions about the role of schools and standards of educa- tional attainment are more frequently heard? The author argues that it is critically relevant. Educa- tional technology of some kind can be found in
almost every school within the developed world and many of the latest technological developments have become more targeted towards the enormous worldwide educational market. Sound academic research (Robinson, Hohepa, & Lloyd, 2009) indicates that the school leader’s role is critical to the achievement of positive learning outcomes for students, with technology being increasingly seen, rightly or wrongly, as a contributing factor to those outcomes.
John Hope University of Auckland, New Zealand
The Impact of Technology on School Leadership
ABSTRACT
This article is intended primarily for school leaders and those with an interest in school leadership within the compulsory school sector. Although it has a focus on the use of digital technology in schools, particularly e-learning, the chapter will be of interest to all school leaders, as it has a strong focus on the justification for school leaders to include digital technology within their strategic vision planning.
Past, present, and future perspectives on the impact of technology on school leadership are included, viewed through the framework of published school leadership standards. The chapter concludes with comment about technology induced issues likely to be faced by school leaders in the near future, fol- lowed by advice about the personal qualities required for future school leaders to confront these issues.
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Who are the school leaders to whom this chap- ter is addressed? In the context of this chapter, school leaders comprise two distinct groups, those who have a formally constituted role and those who exercise leadership informally. Titles differ from country to country and jurisdiction to jurisdiction but, the former group includes titles such as school superintendents, principals, headmasters, deputy leaders, middle management leaders, curriculum leaders, and also groups such as school governors and trustees. The latter group comprises those who do not have a formal title but who have an influence on leadership issues. Those who have a particular talent not formally recognized in a title, such as the most technologically literate teacher in the school, the most experienced teacher in the school or, a person from a particular cultural or language group, also exert leadership in an indi- rect manner. These people are often consulted on leadership issues or offer germane comments in meetings and within reports on leadership issues, their opinions being particularly valued despite their personal lack of a formal leadership title on their job description.
Leadership is distinct from management and administration (Latchem & Jung, 2010). One distinction found within many definitions denotes leadership as a visionary process, usually collab- oratively developed, where change decisions are made, whereas management and administration imply an authority relationship between managers and subordinates whereby change is implemented and stabilized (Razik & Swanson, 2010). The term leadership in its broader sense has been selected to be the focus of this chapter because “Leadership is necessary to create, articulate, and implement a vision of what should be.” (Surgenor, 2009, p. 64).
School leadership theories abound but may be grouped into two categories, transformational and pedagogical. Transformational leadership includes qualities such as vision and generalized abilities to stimulate motivation and effort; it is equally applicable to schools and businesses. Pedagogical leadership has, by definition, a focus on teaching
and learning, so is thereby more applicable to the school context than to business (Robinson, Hohepa & Lloyd, 2009). Both theoretical frameworks will be considered in the discussion that follows, as both are applicable to varied forms of leadership within the education sector.
Technology is an inclusive term for applied sci- ence, often associated with machinery. The more commonly applied form of technology in schools is information and communication technology (ICT), technology such as computers in all their various forms, mobile phones and the like, that are used to manipulate information, communicate between people and access the internet. Use of ICT tools to assist learning is often termed e-learning. In this chapter the term technology will be primar- ily used in reference to ICT, both e-learning and administrative use of ICT tools, as both will be shown to be relevant to educational leadership.
The discussion that follows will briefly revue the historical impact of technology on school leadership to provide a baseline for the discus- sion, then examine the impact of technology on school leaders in the present and, finally, attempt to envisage the impact of technology on school leadership in the near future.
BACKGROUND
For most of the history of schooling up to the middle of the 20th century, technology utilization was print-based, being confined firstly to slates, then pencil and paper, followed by distribu- tion devices such as the unreliable, smelly and messy spirit duplicators (Banda) and gestetners that morphed into much more user friendly photocopiers, plus some use of the telephone for administration and communication (Bates, 1993). Apart from providing teachers with a tool that fa- cilitated more widespread use of worksheets, these technological innovations were focused more on the administrative component of schooling than student learning, were relatively simple for school
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leaders to introduce and had limited impact on student learning (Williams, 2008). Technological impacts on learning came more into focus when television appeared in schools from the 1950’s (Tyack & Cuban, 1995) but it was the invention and introduction of the computer into schools in the late 1980’s (Kodama, 2008), and more latterly the invention of the internet and widespread adoption by schools in the twenty first century that began a revolution in technology use that has changed the very nature of schooling, probably irrevers- ibly, in the short space of twenty years (Leiner et al., 2003). When the industrial age swept the developed world, there was little technological impact on schools. But when the world moved from the industrial age to the information age, there was an immediate and profound impact on schooling and school leadership, not only in the administration of education, but in the nature of the learning process (Harasim, 2006)
School leadership, once largely isolated from the technology that was revolutionizing the industrial world, cannot now be isolated from technological considerations pertinent to both administration and learning. Williams (2008) sug- gests that “a cultural gap is widening in English secondary schools: between a twentieth century ethos of institutional provision and the twenty- first century expectations and digital lifestyles of school students” (p. 213). As the rate of tech- nological change accelerates, school leaders face increasing pressure to keep up, adapt to the new technology, or become irrelevant in the eyes of many students, parents and community leaders. It is this massive and extremely rapid shift in focus for school leaders that forms the rationale for this chapter.
Current Issues and Solutions
There have been many attempts to define the role of school leaders, but the key issue for this chapter is that there have been fewer attempts to define the technology oriented role of school leaders, despite
the major role that technology plays in schooling systems today. Examples from two perspectives will illustrate this claim. The American Interstate School Leaders Licensure Consortium (ISLLC) has developed standards for school leaders that have been widely adopted by individual states and national groups, such as the National Policy Board for Educational Administration (NPBEA, 2007). Six standards and a total of thirty one functions address the role of school leadership. Many of standards could be taken to imply a technologi- cal component, for example, “assess, analyze and anticipate emerging trends and initiatives in order to adapt leadership strategies” (Standard 6c). But none of the standards, and only two of the func- tions, address technology directly. One function addresses technological use to support learning, stating: “Promote the use of the most effective and appropriate technologies to support teaching and learning” (Function 2h). Another addresses the physical aspect of technology, stating: “Obtain, allocate, align, and efficiently utilize human, fis- cal, and technological resources” (Function 3b). The overall impression conveyed is that technol- ogy is not a key component of these widely used leadership standards, this possibly being one of the contributing reasons why technological leadership of schools has become an issue.
In attempting to solve this problem, the In- ternational Society for Technology in Education (ISTE) created standards for school leaders more focused on technology. Five standards with twenty one sub clauses were created, all directly focused on technology (ISTE, 2009). The ISTE standards provide a comprehensive framework for school leaders to develop their technological leadership vision and implementation planning but have yet to be adopted as widely as have the ISLLC standards. The ISTE standards also suffer from an unfortunate use of terminology in that they are titled “The ISTE National Educational Tech- nology Standards (NETS-A) and Performance Indicators for Administrators”, thereby suggest- ing to some that use of technology in schools is
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an administrative function. Despite the focus of the title on administration rather than leadership, standard one is headed “Visionary Leadership” and there is further reference to the pedagogical role of school leaders within the standards. When the word administrators is replaced with a word denoting leadership, the ISTE standards provide an excellent framework around which school leaders can build their technological leadership strategy.
The recent development of the ISTE standards is indicative of the increasing need for school lead- ers to include technology oriented thinking into their school leadership strategy. It is to be hoped that the ISTE standards will, in time, become more widely accepted and integrated into other leader- ship oriented standards frameworks such as the ISLLC standards. Given their focus on technology and school leadership, the ISTE standards will be briefly outlined with examples of their relevance to current issues and their solutions.
ISTE standard one is titled visionary leader- ship. The vision is to be a shared vision towards use of digital resources to improve performance in both learning and administration, supported by advocacy for adequate funding at local, national and state levels. Development of a shared vision is also the first ISLLC standard, albeit not directly inclusive of technology. The capacity to develop a shared vision is also a major leadership component found in all leadership literature, both business and educational, and is known to be a key factor in the leadership of successful schools (Robinson et al., 2009).
Visionary leadership has led to some extraor- dinarily innovative uses of technology in schools, but it is unfortunate that the history of technology use in schools is littered with examples, at all levels, of visionary leaders developing a vision for integration of cutting edge technology into a school, or a school system, that fails at the imple- mentation stage. Failure can be attributed to an individual vision that is not successfully shared, so that buy-in at lower levels is limited, to inadequate financial, training or personnel resourcing, or to
inadequate understanding of the limitations of the technology, to name some of many possible reasons (Finn, 2010).
Notably expensive examples include the national level failure of educational television implementation in American schools in the 1950’s due to lack of understanding of the pedagogical implications (Tyack & Cuban, 1995), and the failure of the US$11.3 billion Turkish basic education programme that supplied computers to schools, but did not provide sufficient training in the use of the computers (Latchem & Jung, 2010). At the school level, examples include the many computers and their derivatives that can be found sitting unused for long periods, or being used for low level games in the back of classrooms and computer laboratories.
Promotion of a digital-age learning culture for all students is the objective of ISTE standard two. Digital-age learning can be defined as learning that is enhanced by the appropriate use of suitable technology tools. A current example of visionary technology use in a school could be equipping all students with mobile technology, such as laptop computers, or their derivatives such as i-Pads, with fast broadband internet access, supported by smartphones with high quality camera capabili- ties. Buying the technological tools is insufficient in itself. Provision of this technological equip- ment will do little to improve learning if it is not utilized correctly by classroom teachers and this implies extensive professional development for the teachers who must use the technology to promote learning on a daily basis (Glatter, 2009), a major issue for school leaders to consider.
Excellence in professional practice is the title for ISTE standard three. The school leadership function of promoting and participating in profes- sional learning and development for teachers has been found to be the single greatest leadership predictor of improved student outcomes, with an effect size of 0.84 (Robinson et al., 2009). There appears no reason to conclude that this finding for general professional development of teachers
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would not hold true for technologically-based learning strategies.
Digital-based learning has traditionally fo- cused on short introductions to the mechanical use of the new technology, such as how to operate the technology and how to access the software or applications, with less emphasis on the pedagogi- cal implications for learning. Fullan (2002, 2006) suggests that learning in context has the greatest benefit, facilitated through professional learning communities. Wikis, blogs, synchronous and asyn- chronous discussions, podcasts and more latterly, professional social networking communities, are virtual tools that can enhance digital technology oriented professional development. Utilizing the capabilities of the technology (learning by doing), utilizing the strengths of other educators working with similar issues anywhere in the world, and creating a community of practice that provides social support as well as professional support, has proved most effective in encouraging more effec- tive use of technology tools and thereby enhancing student learning (Roymieco & Villaverde, 2009).
The fourth ISTE standard is systemic improve- ment. Included under this heading are learning systems, collection and analysis of data, personnel recruitment, development of partnerships and tech- nology infrastructure. As school administration and learning systems become more digitized, edu- cational leaders must accept more responsibility to provide the vision and management strategies to ensure that systems are supporting and enhancing the work of teachers and students, not the reverse. The Educational Communications and Technology Agency (Becta), the United Kingdom’s techno- logical support agency for schools, considered this issue of sufficient importance that it provided a guide on the use of ICT specifically written for school governors, highlighting the importance of leadership attention to professional development and comprehensive digital management informa- tion systems to support learning (Becta, 2004). The history of the failed computer provision in Turkey documented by Latchem and Jung (2010)
earlier in this chapter illustrates the potential for failure of expensive technology initiatives because teachers were not given enough support from the technology experts who keep electronic systems working or, were unaware of the potential of electronic systems to support their pedagogy. In the United States, Stevens (2007) documents a one-to-one laptop initiative that failed for simi- lar reasons, resulting in the dismissal of the area superintendant.
Digital citizenship, the final ISTE standard, includes the social, ethical and legal issues asso- ciated with digital culture. Arising from negative publicity in the popular media about tragedies such as text bullying and social network bully- ing resulting in suicides (Kim, Jeong, Kim & So, 2010), organisations such as ISTE (ISTE, 2008) have postulated the need to include digital citizenship within the compulsory curriculum of schools. Most school systems have a code of ethics, or legal requirements, that ensure student safety, codes of conduct and equity of access to learn- ing. In the past, these codes have rarely included items relating to digital citizenship and only now is digital citizenship being incorporated into some school systems, despite the internet being readily accessible to many students since 2004.
Reasons for the sudden uptake of codes of conduct for digital citizenship can be found in the internet facilitated arrival of ready student access to pornographic and other subversive material, accelerated by the rapid student uptake of social networking programmes such as Facebook and Twitter by ever younger groups of students, with their resulting potential for harm in ways never before possible. Ready publicity resulting from the ubiquitous nature of modern ICT has promoted parental concerns and legal repercussions that have forced school leaders to rapidly develop appropri- ate measures to extend student care into the digital arena (Kim, Jeong, Kim, & So, 2010). Nor have school leaders been spared when they attempt to enter the virtual social network world. Issues such as a school principal listing students as his Face-
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book friends (Knight, 2010) have drawn attention to the problems school leaders may face when participating in social networking exchanges, be they for work or pleasure. Five years ago, neither the student safety and wellbeing issues outlined above, nor the risks to school leaders arising from new mediums of electronic communication, existed, yet now they are frequently seen in the sensationalist public media and can be an area of major concern for school leaders.
The examples related to the ISTE standards briefly summarized above provide glimpses of the impact technology has had on school leaders and school leadership, particularly since the 1980’s, and in totally new ways during the major internet take-up and the introduction of mobile phones in the last ten years. The rapid onset of these chal- lenges has caught many school leaders by surprise, particularly those who have not mastered digital literacy themselves. When the rapidly increasing rate of technological change in the last ten years is considered, and the extent of its impact on schools and school leaders, what can be expected in the next ten years? The following section will attempt to consider the future impact of technology on school leadership.
Future Trends in Technology and School Leadership
Predicting the future is fraught with risk. Drucker (n.d.) advises that the best way to predict the fu- ture is to create it. The section which follows will attempt to portray the influence of technology on school leadership in the near future by extrapolat- ing technological issues that are likely to engage and possibly frustrate future school leaders, when making educational leadership decisions. Sample technological contexts chosen to exemplify these issues include m-learning and social networking.
M-learning is a term denoting mobile learn- ing. Mobile learning is any learning process that involves the use of a wireless enabled mobile digital device (Cochran, 2010), including mobile
phones, smartphones such as Blackberrys and iPhones, iPod Touch, iPads, Kindles and the like. The essential distinction between m-learning and e-learning is that m-learning allows learning to take place anywhere, anytime, because it does not require physical connection to a terminal (Chin- nery, 2006), whereas e-learning also includes learning via computer at a fixed position in a fixed timeframe, such as in a school classroom or a principal’s office. One example of mobile technology that particularly relates to the future of educational leadership will be considered here, the potential impact of smartphones on schooling.
Smartphones and Educational Leadership
It is estimated that more than 70% of the world’s population are using mobile phones (MobiThink- ing, 2010). Also, by 2011, more than 85% of these users will have upgraded to a smartphone that incorporates mobile web access anywhere, anytime, at the touch of a finger (MobiThinking, 2010). Defined as “a large-screen, voice-centric handheld device designed to offer complete phone functions while simultaneously functioning as a personal digital assistant” (Elgan, 2007, p. 1), smartphones are the epitome of ubiquity.
Most educational leaders in developed coun- tries today are likely to own a smartphone with fea- tures including a camera, video recorder, internet access, voice-messaging and SMS text-messaging, most probably purchased originally for private use. It is the author’s personal experience that, despite the much publicised and often expensive attributes of smartphones, many older generation colleagues use only the basic features of voice and, possibly, text communication (SMS). Hence some educational leaders are only beginning to grasp the potential of smartphones to assist in their leadership role. An administrative example that illustrates this potential for higher level use is where, after a bus accident, a superintendent was able use his smartphone to post an item on the
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district blog that informed parents which hospital affected students were taken to, and was then able inform the school secretary to direct parents to the specific part of the hospital with updates he made on the run via his smartphone. Consequent to examples such this, many school districts have issued smartphones to public school administra- tors (Ash, 2010b).
While take up of smartphones for adminis- trative use is increasingly common, take up for learning applications has been slower (Hartnell- Young & Heym, 2008). Many schools now ban students bringing mobile phones to school be- cause of negative publicity about text bullying, accessing pornographic websites and wasting time downloading music (Hartnell-Young et al., 2008). Only a few innovative schools have seen the potential of m-learning via smartphones to take student learning beyond the school walls and outside school hours (Johnson, Levine, Smith, & Haywood, 2010).
Potential advantages for utilisation of smart- phones in the learning process include student use out of school hours and familiarisation with the mobile phone as a personal communication device, (Kuszpa, 2005), student control over their own learning (Johnson et al., 2010), and learning in different contexts to develop creative, critical thinking and collaborative skills using a familiar, recreational communication tool in new ways (Cochran, 2010). Because almost all students in secondary schools in developed countries now own a mobile phone, every student has instant access to a world wide communication, a calculator and a camera whenever needed, all without having to be in a classroom or sitting behind a computer terminal (Hartnell-Young et al., 2008).
Countering these advantages of mobile phone enhanced learning are disadvantages such as the lack of a pedagogy specific to the use of mobile phones (Ash, 2010a), the challenge of changing the role of teachers to include learning with mobile devices (Martinez, 2010), limited professional development opportunities (Ash, 2010a; Johnson,
et al., 2010), the distractions of social use on the same device, particularly text messaging, plus the technological limitations of small screen size and slow data input via ‘thumbing’ (Manzo, 2010). The fiscal sustainability of providing more expensive smartphones and paying for access time are further considerations that have caused some districts to reduce the number of smartphones issued to administrators (Ash, 2010b).
Introduction of innovative technology such as using smartphones to enhance learning poses risk for educational leaders. The disadvantages listed above, together with known issues such as text bullying, are compelling. Hartnell-Young et al. (2008) suggest that particularly positive and trusting relationships between parent, students, teachers and school leaders are necessary prereq- uisites for the successful introduction of mobile technology into secondary schools, conditions that may be difficult for school leaders to generate among all parties involved with a large school.
The conundrum for educational leaders at all levels is whether to become an early initiator in realising ISTE standard two, promotion of a digital age learning culture, or to wait and let others make the mistakes that are inevitable with any pioneering initiative, but then be seen to be behind the times. But what is a school leader to do when the research literature about educational use of smartphones is inconclusive? Of 44 studies on mobile learning, a literature search found only a handful that used experimental methodology (Manzo, 2010). Limitations such as exclusive use of self-report data and the absence of longi- tudinal studies leave school leaders with little real evidence about smartphone use in schools with which to make important educational decisions. As an interim solution, a digital learning culture could be achieved by trialling innovations such as m-learning with smartphones, particularly in districts where parents want up to date technol- ogy in schools.
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Social Networking
When the news headlines recently revealed that the bastion of conservatism in the Western world, the 85 year old Queen of England, opened a Facebook account, social networking had clearly become mainstream. Social networking is not confined to adults, 73% of American twelve to seventeen year olds use social networking (Davis, 2010b). Social networks usually state a minimum age, often fourteen years, yet Livingstone & Brake (2010) note a study finding that 27% of eight to twelve year olds had an ‘unlawful’ social networking profile, usually by mis-stating their age. Another study of Facebook revealed that 50% of students talked about school work when online (Roblyer, McDaniel, Webb, Herman, & Witty, 2010). Social networking is clearly a major part of most school student’s lives.
The most commonly used social networking site for teenagers is Facebook, described as “a social utility that helps people share information and communicate more efficiently with friends, family, and co-workers (Mazman & Usluel, 2010). While clearly designed for social purposes, many educators are exploring the high motivation af- fordances of social networking for educational purposes (Baran, 2010). Special networking sites for students, such as Twiducate.com and Class- room 2.0, allow teachers to construct an on-line classroom and sites such as Ipernity and Ning are specially designed to provide educators with safer, educationally oriented, social networking possibilities.
To date, there is limited research about the use of social networking in education (Mazman & Usluel, 2010). Within the published research base that does exist, opinion is mixed about the potential of social networking for educational use with students. One major study found that social networking educational outcomes were not meeting formal educational expectations (Selwyn, 2007). Sample advantages touted for social networking include allowing students to
engage more with their learning and feel less constrained to ask questions (Tynes, 2007), build shared knowledge communities and enhance communication (Mazman & Usluel, 2010), and the potential for students to exercise freedom of speech and engage in rich conversations (Roblyer et al., 2010).
Sample learning disadvantages include the distraction of socialisation opportunities when opening a social network site (Yu, Tian, Vogel, & Kwok, 2010), higher levels of discloser of personal information (Mitchell, Wolak & Finkel- hor, 2010), and encouraging the use of informal English leading to written language communica- tion problems in formal settings (Braun, 2007). The tension between the right to free speech and the need for educators to maintain higher ethical standards of behaviour is nowhere more evident than when educators enter social networks with their students (Manning, 2010). Overall, there is no consensus that a positive relationship exists between social networking use and academic performance (Kirschner & Karpinski, 2010) yet the ubiquity of personal social networking by teenagers demands further investigation of its potential for educational use to promote learning.
Administrative problems have also occurred when school leaders and teachers enter social networks. Exposure to libel actions, teachers be- ing suspended for improper communications and warnings to administrators for emotive statements are all incidents portrayed in the popular media. These disadvantages were such that the Chicago Public Schools placed a ban on any personal com- munication by teachers and administrators with students via social networking (Russo, 2009). Despite the difficulties, the recently released National Education Technology Plan (U.S. De- partment of Education, 2010), notes that social networking is a tool that can be used by educators to help solve the problems besetting the United States education system.
M-learning and social networking were chosen for discussion here because they are currently
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developing technologies that are already being trialled in a small number of schools and have potential for a major impact on the schooling of the future. It must be emphasised that the extent of that impact is yet to be determined. Both may go the way of many previous unsuccessful technologi- cal innovations, such as the original mechanical programmed learning teaching machines, or they may be supplanted by new and better innovations, much as the internet has supplanted many hard copy books.
Other Technological Challenges for School Leadership
Other examples of technological changes that have been identified as challenges for the educational leaders of the future already exist, including a trend towards including elements of virtual schooling within conventional school programmes, and the emergence of for-profit virtual services to schools. One of several virtual schools that have been established, The Georgia Virtual School, already instructs 30,000 students. The largest school in New Zealand is a virtual school. Calls for new training standards for teachers working in virtual schools have been made in several American states, while other educators reply that effective class- room teachers will be effective virtual teachers (Quillen & Davis, 2010). Should a school leader consider provision of virtual components in addi- tion to traditional within-four-walls tuition, in an attempt to promote a digital age learning culture?
K12 Inc, a for-profit e-learning company that delivers virtual courses to 70,000 school students, made a 40% increase in profits in one year, earning $385 million in revenues. That there is demand from consumers is clear; the more difficult ques- tion for school leaders is whether to use for-profit services from an industry that eminent educator Henry Levine from Teachers College, Columbia, considers to be making more claims about ef- fectiveness and cost efficiency than are justified (Gustke, 2010).
A recent American survey found that only 50% of respondents thought that their school district was meeting the online learning needs of all students (Education Week, 2010). Will the future educational leader want to promote ISTE standard two, promotion of a digital learning cul- ture by adding virtual classes within a traditional school setting and, if so, will that leader require specialised teacher education about on-line learn- ing strategies as a prerequisite qualification for employment in that school, given that it is unlikely that hard research on the differences between re- quirements for teachers in virtual and traditional settings exists as yet?
What other new technological challenges for school leaders will emerge in the future? Some challenges can result from external events unre- lated to technology or education. For example, the increased rate of development of mobile technol- ogy is seen by some to have been stimulated by the closure of schools during the swine flu epidemic that swept through America (Ash & Davis, 2009). The austerity drive resulting from the 2009 credit squeeze that is still developing in many Western countries is another. What will be next?
No matter what the context or the technological innovation, the implications for school leadership are similar. The visionary school leader is at the forefront of making the decision about what to do, often with limited information with which to make that decision. The final section of this chapter suggests some of the decisions that school leaders will have to make, strategies for making these decisions, and the qualities required for the future school leaders of the technological age.
FUTURE TRENDS
The examples from m-learning and social net- working cited above highlight the challenges resulting from technological developments that are beginning to confront school leaders today, and are likely to confront them further in the
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future. Educators can no longer afford to ignore technological developments as they did in the industrial revolution, because digital technology is in the pockets of most students at school, in the classrooms of most teachers, and in the offices of most school leaders. The increasing challenge for school leaders is how best to utilise it, rather than whether to ignore it.
School leaders increasingly have to make decisions about the use of technology that have financial, as well as ethical and pedagogical, im- plications. Robinson et al. (2009) contend that, in addition to ensuring fiscal sustainability, the effective school leader must resource strategically by using “clear criteria to identify and obtain resources that are aligned to pedagogical and philosophical purposes” (p. 41).
One of the challenges for school leaders is in finding clear, objective criteria for the efficacy of an innovation, complicated by the rapid pace at which the innovations are developing (Roblyer, 2003). There is often a paucity of recent academic research to aid decision-making that forces school leaders to turn to less reliable alternative sources of guidance, such as the experiences of their peers, compelling technology industry based advertising, or the success of an innovation in the context of a different industry. Whilst these may be bases for making some technological choices, such as technology for administrative purposes, they require the validity of rigorous research for pedagogical applications, research that may not yet be available, resulting in considerable fiscal and pedagogical risk associated with technology purchasing (Cuban, 2001). A recent example of this risk is the massive financial investment that many United Kingdom and American schools have committed to the purchase of very expensive electronic whiteboards (IWB’s) that are often little used, or only used for pedagogy that could eas- ily be delivered using traditional, cheaper means (Alach, 2010).
Consider further the rapid development of digital technology. Taking mobile learning as an
example, one of the frequently noted limitations of using smartphones offsite for assessment purposes, is the difficulty in identifying the person operat- ing the device. In response to this issue, newer generations of smartphones are being developed that incorporate a camera lens on the front of the phone as well as on the back. This development is likely to assist in overcoming the identification issue when combined with new object-recognition technology that can instantly identify and name via an internet link, any objects, such as faces, at which the phone is pointed (University of Texas, 2010). Similarly, flexible, roll-out plastic screens and the ability of a smartphone to project an im- age onto a surface, may obviate some of the small screen objections to smartphone use.
After sifting the research for hard evidence and deciding to adopt the new technology, the school leader is then confronted with the decision of whether to adopt now, or wait for reduced prices or further technological improvements. In the face of these issues, it is therefore advisable for school leaders who wish to be early adopters of new educational technology to consider trialling any new innovation on a small scale, ensuring that there are exit strategies in place, before com- mitting significant resources to its adoption on a larger scale. This strategy assists in minimising pedagogical and fiscal risk associated with early adoption, yet allows innovative technological developments to be trialled objectively in real- life classrooms, rather than industrial laboratories owned by suppliers.
Obtaining valid research about the educational efficacy of rapidly changing technological devel- opments has been posited as a problem educators face in predicting future trends and compiling an evidential base for their opinions. In the rapidly changing world of technology innovation, the popular communication systems, such as Face- book and Twitter, often transmit information far more quickly than do the traditional scientific channels. This raises another conundrum imposed by technological developments on school leaders;
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that of evaluating the educational worth of these newer, but more generic and sometimes less reli- able, information sources. For example, there is debate about whether secondary school students be allowed to source information from Wikipedia.
But despite the sometime lack of hard evidence, there is enough anecdotal evidence to suggest that recent technological developments are encroach- ing further into the lives of school age students, and this raises issues for school leaders. There is also increasing evidence that decisions about the educational use of recent technological develop- ments, such as m-learning and social networking, must be made, despite the difficulties in compiling objective evidence. School leaders cannot dismiss digital technology as a major area of investiga- tion for ways to improve their administrative and pedagogical leadership.
A key implication arising from the discussion above, is consideration of the attributes school leaders of the future must possess in order to be able to deal with technological issues not dreamed about by their predecessors. A 2009 Australian study cited by Stuart, Mills and Remus found that only 59% of school principals saw themselves as technological leaders yet less than 50% were prepared to hand over technological leadership decisions to other teachers. Little research about the role of technological leader exists (Stuart, Mills, & Remus, 2009), but some of what is known will be noted here.
Ideally, the school leader of the future will need to be knowledgeable about, and preferably experienced in, the ICT innovation they have decided to champion, with the key intention of improving student learning (Stuart et al., 2009). In the absence of hard evidence, school leaders will need to be able to personally or, through distributive leadership strategies, delegate to edu- cational leaders with more appropriate expertise the important role of monitoring the effects of the technological innovation on student learning outcomes. Further, feedback to the teacher about
the effects of the evaluation must be seen as part of the monitoring process, be it technologically oriented or not (Hattie, 2009).
The teachers’ role in the application of tech- nology in schools is to be ignored at the school leader’s peril. A United States review of educa- tional technology use and policy (Culp, Honey, & Mandinach, 2005), found that although the research suggested that student centred technol- ogy use required collaboration or reconfigured relationships between students and teachers, most teachers did not use the technology as expected. As with other earlier innovations, such as the early introduction of computers into classrooms, improvements in learning have not matched ex- pectations (Cuban, 2001). One identified reason is the finding that many teachers tend to use new ideas and technology to support their established practices, both pedagogical and administrative, rather than developing different practices more appropriate to utilising the strengths of the newer technology (Culp et al., 2005). The educational leader of the future, faced with increasing levels of technological innovation to improve admin- istration and/or pedagogy, will find the task of teacher attitude change management an evolving challenge.
CONCLUSION
This chapter has moved readers from the past, through the present, and provided an insight into the future of the influence of technology on school leadership. It has suggested the ISTE technologi- cal leadership standards be a reference for future school leaders and provided examples of the real life issues raised by innovations such as m-learning and social networking. The issues have been seen to be particularly challenging and, the solutions often involve working with the little known. The question must be asked, will anyone want to be a future school leader when their actions can be
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instantly communicated to the world via online access to their virtual networks?
A lesson can be taken from consideration of Philadelphia’s School of the Future, an innovative, technology based partnership between Microsoft and the Philadelphia School District (Cullinane & Hess, 2010). The authors point out that technol- ogy alone is not the answer to school woes. The departure of key leaders within the first year of its existence crippled the Philadelphia schools’ development and new instructional leadership was required that could “manage up” and not merely “manage down” (p. 310). But new leaders did step up, despite the obvious challenges.
These future leaders tend to be members of what Hudak (2009) calls, the “electropolis” (p. 165). This term refers to professional learning communities linked electronically via digital tech- nology, in other words the ‘Facebook’ advocates of the educational community. These educational leaders see the challenges of the technological future to be challenges to be solved by the group rather than by an individual leader in a school, and the ubiquitous nature of electronic links means that these professional learning communities are not limited by geography or time zone. An older but still relevant book about the use of ICT in schools (Kennewell, Parkinson & Tanner, 2000), emphatically states that the key issue in the es- tablishment of a strong ICT culture in a school is the collaborative role of school leadership. More recently, The National Education Technology Plan (U.S. Department of Education, 2010) highlights the importance of collaboration between educa- tors to solve the issues facing education in United States schools. Technology enhanced collabora- tion internally within the school, and externally via professional learning communities, is the educational leader’s future. It is also likely to be the saving grace for educational leadership in a technologically challenged world.
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KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS
E-Learning: Learning that includes the use of ICT.
ICT: Information and communication tech- nology.
M-Learning: Mobile learning is any learn- ing process that involves the use of a wireless enabled mobile digital device.
Smartphones: Defined as a large-screen, voice-centric handheld device designed to offer complete phone functions while simultaneously functioning as a personal digital assistant. Smart- phones incorporate mobile web access anywhere, anytime, at the touch of a finger.
Social Networking: An internet enabled social communication network that helps people share personal information and communicate more efficiently with friends, family, and co- workers.
Virtual Education: Courses taught entirely online, where physical distance between teacher and student is immaterial.
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About the Contributors
Victor C. X. Wang, Ed.D., is an Associate Professor of Educational Leadership and Research Meth- odology at Florida Atlantic University, USA. Wang’s research and writing activities have focused on workforce education, the foundations of adult education, adult teaching and learning, training, transfor- mative learning, cultural issues in vocational and adult education, distance education, human performance technology, instructional/administrative leadership, and curriculum development. He has published over 130 journal articles, book chapters, and books during the past nine years and has been a reviewer for five national and international journals. Currently he serves as the editor in chief of the International Journal of Adult Vocational Education and Technology. He has won many academic achievement awards from universities in China and in the United States, including the Distinguished Faculty Scholarly & Creative Achievement Award in 2009. Wang taught extensively as a professor in Chinese universities prior to coming to study and work in the United States in 1997. He has taught adult learners English as a second language, Chinese, computer technology, vocational (career and technical education) and adult education courses, research methods, administrative leadership, human resource management and cur- riculum development for the past 21 years in university settings. He has had extensive experience chair- ing and mentoring Doctoral dissertations. Three of the books he has written and edited have been ad- opted as required textbooks by major universities in the United States and in China. In addition, numerous universities worldwide, including some Ivy League universities, have cataloged his books and journal articles.
* * *
Jeff Allen, PhD., is Professor, Department of Learning Technologies, University of North Texas. Jeff consults and teaches in the areas of performance improvement, career and technical education, learning technologies, and research methods. At the national level, he provides leadership in numerous profes- sional organizations. He has made a special effort to mentor developing scholars.
Yun-Jo An is an Assistant Professor of Instructional Technology at Texas A&M University-Texarkana. She received her Ph.D. in Instructional Systems Technology (IST) from Indiana University Bloomington (IUB). Her current research focuses on the use of virtual worlds, wireless handheld devices, and Web 2.0 to design technology-enhanced, learner-centered learning environments.
Patricia Anderson, EdD, has her BSE and ME in Elementary Education from Delta State University, and her EdD in Elementary Education from the University of Georgia. Dr. Anderson is a Professor and
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About the Contributors
past Chair of the Department of Curriculum and Instruction in the College of Education at East Carolina University, Greenville, NC. She has served as Chair of the Faculty of East Carolina University for two years as well as the Parliamentarian for the Faculty for more than ten years. Dr. Anderson teaches face- to-face and online undergraduate and graduate courses in Elementary Education with a focus on action research, classroom management, and curriculum. Her research explores the use of action research within public school settings, evaluation and assessment of experiential learning in online learning environments, and listening skills of elementary children in schools. Dr. Anderson is currently teaching a course using Second Life as a part of a course in Classroom Management for Elementary Teachers.
Betsy Aumiller, Ed.D., is an Assistant Professor at the Penn State Hershey College of Medicine. She currently manages the south central region of the Pennsylvania Cancer Education Network (PCEN), an educational research project funded by the PA Department of Health and the CDC investigating how awareness-raising and community education impacts attitude and behavioral intent regarding cancer pre- vention and screening rates. Working in the field of worksite health education for 20 years, her research interests are within the areas of online learning and health behavior change, as well as current work in community based participatory research and educational intervention design.
Tonya Balch, PhD., is an Assistant Professor in the Bayh College of Education at Indiana State University and is currently the Coordinator for the School Counseling MEd program and Director of the Counselor Educator, PhD Program. She obtained her PhD in Educational Administration (School Administration focus) from Indiana State University and is a licensed school counselor in the state of Indiana. Dr. Balch’s teaching responsibilities include multi-cultural education, supervised field work, research and program evaluation, organization and administration of guidance programs, practicum, internship, career development, and professional seminars. Her professional interests include drop-out prevention, leadership relative to counseling, cultural competency, and action research in PK-12 schools. Dr. Balch is strongly committed to providing and supporting professional development for practicing school counselors. She has been integral in developing and growing Counselor Day on Campus at In- diana State University. Dr. Balch serves regularly on site visitation teams for Advanced Ed, accrediting schools throughout Indiana. She is a member of many professional organizations including the American School Counseling Association, American Counseling Association, Indiana School Counseling Asso- ciation, Indiana Counseling Association, Pi Lambda Theta, Chi Sigma Iota, and Delta Kappa Gamma Society International.
Tammi M. Basile is a Ph.D. student in the College of Education at the University of Tennessee-Knox- ville (UTK). She received her Master’s in Management from Austin Peay State University, Clarksville, Tennessee. She is a computer programmer/systems analyst for UTK’s Federal TRIO Programs in the areas of data management, Web design, and needs assessment. Her research interests include Informa- tion Systems, knowledge building, and advancements in education using technology.
Jules K. Beck, PhD, LCSW, is an Assistant Professor at the University of Arkansas. A native of Minneapolis, Minnesota, Beck attended the University of Chicago and graduated from the University of Minnesota with an MSW and PhD with concentration in Human Resource Development (HRD). Beck is a Licensed Certified Social Worker (LCSW) in Arkansas and holds Social Worker Emeritus status in
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About the Contributors
Minnesota. Beck has over three years experience in international community and leadership develop- ment in South and Central America, West Africa, and Eastern Europe. He was a two-year volunteer in community development on White Earth Reservation in Minnesota. Beck taught grades 4-6 in Potosí, Bolivia and high school classes in South Dakota. He was a community organizer for 10 years on the North side of Minneapolis. Beck chaired the St. Louis Park, MN Human Rights Commission and was elected to three terms as president of the ACLU of Minnesota. Beck co-developed a disaster recovery planning system in Spanish as an Information Technology consultant for a U.S. accounting firm. Beck is in his eleventh year teaching university classes in adult education, human resource development, and business and industry education at both undergraduate and graduate levels. His research interests include international HRD, leadership development, and distance education. Beck advises graduate students pursuing studies in adult education and human resource development.
Elisabeth E. Bennett, PhD., is the Director of Education Research and Development at Baystate Medical Center and an Assistant Professor of Medicine with Tufts University School of Medicine. She received her PhD in Adult Education with an emphasis in Human Resource and Organizational Develop- ment from the University of Georgia. Dr. Bennett is member of the Board of Directors of the Academy of Human Resource Development and she reviews for Human Resource Development Quarterly, Adult Education Quarterly, and various education conferences. Current research includes ethics in medical education, the career development of women academic physicians, and theories for virtual human re- source development and adult informal learning.
Rebecca Blanchard, PhD, is an Assistant Professor of Research at Baystate Medical Center. She received her PhD in Education Research and Statistics from the University of Virginia where her dis- sertation explored undergraduate degree production across institutions of higher education with latent growth modeling. Current research interests include quantitative and mixed methods approaches towards understanding the student and resident recruitment practices and support efforts of academic medical centers and the development of residents as role models and teachers to junior learners.
Géraldine Blattner, PhD, is an Assistant Professor of French and Linguistics at Florida Atlantic University. Her research focuses on technology-enhanced foreign language teaching and learning as well as sociolinguistic and pragmatic variation in French language in computer-mediated discourse.
James A. Bernauer, EdD, is an Assistant Professor of Education in the School of Education and Social Sciences, Robert Morris University. He earned his BS in Secondary Education (Social Studies) from the University of Dayton, Master’s degrees in Special Education and Business from the University of Pittsburgh, and Doctorate in Education from the University of Pittsburgh. He specializes in educational psychology and quantitative and qualitative research methodology. Publications and paper presentations relate to assessment and educational policy with recent work in data mining and the analysis of right and wrong answers on multiple choice exams. He is currently writing a book for Sage related to quantitative research for qualitative researchers and will deliver a paper on researcher identity in January at Nova Southeastern University.
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Pamela Bracey is a Doctoral student of Applied Technology and Performance Improvement at the Department of Learning Technologies, University of North Texas. Pam serves as a curriculum special- ist for an Education Excellence grant which is funded by the Texas Education Agency and housed at the University of North Texas to develop professional development materials for career and technical education teachers in the Information Technology Cluster. She holds a BS in Business Technology Education from the University of Southern Mississippi and an MS in Higher Education Administration from Mississippi College. Her research interests include: career and technical education, gifted educa- tion, and professional development.
Ernest W. Brewer, EdD, is Professor and Principal Investigator/Director in Educational Leadership and Policy Studies (ELPS) at The University of Tennessee-Knoxville (UTK). Prior to his current ap- pointment, Dr. Brewer was a Professor in the Department of Human Resource Development (HRD) and served as Department Head of Child and Family Studies (CFS). He is currently serving as the Principal Investigator/Director of five federally funded grants. Prior to joining the university, he served as the Executive Director of the Institute of Human Resources.Over the years Dr. Brewer has acquired external funds for a variety of research, service, and development activities. He has served as both editor and editorial board member of professional journals, and he has authored many grant proposals, professional articles, books, book chapters, monographs, and annual performance reports. More recently, he has published book chapters in the (1) Encyclopedia of Measurement Statistics, (2) Handbook of Research on E-Learning Applications for Career and Technical Education: Technologies for Vocational Train- ing, (3) Definitive Readings in the History, Philosophy, Practice and Theories of Career and Technical Education, (4) Building Workforce Competencies in Career and Technical Education, (5) Assessing and Evaluating Adult Learning in Career and Technical Education, and (6) Encyclopedia of Research Design. He also recently completed his 5th edition of a text entitled Finding Funding: Grantwriting from Start to Finish, Including Internet Use. He also had a copy of recent book chapters entitled Evaluation Models for evaluating Educational Programs and The History of Career and Technical Education published in two different books.
Quinn Burke is a Doctoral candidate at the University of Pennsylvania’s Graduate School of Education. His research focuses on ways to better integrate instructional technology in K-12 schools, particularly by aligning pre-existing state education standards with children’s use of digital media ap- plications in the classroom. He is currently involved in two research grants funded by the National Science Foundation. The first addresses the need to introduce computer science concepts to students at earlier ages, particularly those kids at struggling and underfunded city schools. The second explores the potential of online networks to facilitate children’s learning of new media applications through peer collaboration. Prior to his Doctoral studies at Penn, Quinn completed a MA in Comparative Literature at Columbia University and taught high school English for a number of years both in Philadelphia and Charleston, South Carolina.
Howard V. Coleman, EdD, is an experienced school leader, spending over 20 years in various posi- tions including School Principal, Assistant Superintendent, Associate Superintendent, Superintendent, Director of Research, Professor, and Educational Consultant. Drawing from his leadership background, Howard teaches, publishes, and presents in the areas of school administration, accountability, technology,
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personnel, school policy, and curriculum. Howard holds an EdD from UNC-Chapel Hill and currently is an Associate Professor of educational leadership at UNC-Wilmington.
Geri Collins, EdD, Assistant Professor, Mercer University, has been an educator for the past 20 years: first in public education as a middle school teacher and currently as an Assistant Professor of education in the graduate program of Tift College of Education, Mercer University. She received her Doctorate in Social Studies Education at the University of Georgia with a focus on historical empathy as it relates to the learning process. Her research interests involve middle grades education and teaching with technol- ogy and social studies, which have all been topics of recent presentations, locally and nationally.
Christopher T. Davis is the Director of the Educational Technology Center at Robert Morris Uni- versity where he oversees the implementation of educational technology into the traditional and online classrooms as well as serving as the administrator of the university’s Blackboard learning management system. His background includes public school teaching, Information Technology, educational technol- ogy in both K-12 and higher education, and university level teaching on the undergraduate and graduate levels. He also presents at several conferences every year and provides consultative services in the area of distance education. He currently holds Bachelor’s degrees in secondary education and psychology, a Master’s degree in instructional technology, and is completing a Doctoral program in instructional management and leadership.
Jeremy Dickerson holds EdD in technology education from North Carolina State University and is an Associate Professor at Coastal Carolina University in Conway, South Carolina where he teaches courses on instructional design and technology integration, planning, and management in the Spadoni College of Education. Jeremy has worked at several universities and has experience as a technology manager and as an educational consultant in business and industry. Additionally, Jeremy has published numerous journal articles and book chapters, and has presented at professional conferences in the United States, Canada, South America and Europe.
Maureen Ellis, PhD, has her B.S. in Secondary Business Education/Business Administration from St. Mary-of-the-Woods College. She earned her MS in Adult Continuing Education and PhD in Instructional Systems Technology from Indiana University, Bloomington, Indiana. Dr. Ellis is an Associate Professor and Graduate Program Director in the Business and Information Technologies Education Department in the College of Education at East Carolina University, Greenville, NC. Dr. Ellis teaches face-to-face and online undergraduate and graduate courses in Information Technology and Business Education. Her research explores the use of online courses in traditional, undergraduate education, implementation of instructional design theories in online learning, fostering online collaboration, evaluation and assess- ment of experiential learning in online learning environments, and assessing the needs of adult learners in non-traditional classrooms. Dr. Ellis is currently teaching a course in and exploring application for Second Life as a teaching platform in her Web 2.0 Technologies & Virtual Teams course.
Lesley Farmer, EdD, Professor at California State University Long Beach, coordinates the Librari- anship program. She earned her MS in Library Science at the University of North Carolina Chapel Hill, and received her Doctorate in Adult Education from Temple University. Dr. Farmer has worked as a
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About the Contributors
librarian in K-12 school settings as well as in public, special, and academic libraries. She chaired the Education Section of the Special Libraries Association, and is the International Association of School Librarianship Vice-President of Association Relations. Dr. Farmer is a Fulbright Scholar, and has re- ceived a University Distinguished Scholarly Activity Award, several professional association awards, and national/international grants. Dr. Farmer’s research interests include information literacy, assess- ment, collaboration, and educational technology. A frequent presenter and writer for the profession, Dr. Farmer has published two dozen professional books, and over a hundred professional book chapters and articles. Her most recent books are Your School Library: Check It Out!, published by Libraries Unlimited in 2009, and Neal-Schuman Technology Management Handbook for School Library Media Centers, co-authored with Marc McPhee in 2010.
Mark S. Farris, PhD, is currently the Human Performance Improvement Coordinator for a federal contractor working in the United States Department of Energy complex. He has 18 years of experience designing, delivering, and evaluating safety-related training programs.
Gladys L. Fernandez, MD, is Manager of the Simulation Center at Baystate Medical Center, As- sistant Program Director for the Baystate Surgery Residency Program, and an Assistant Professor of Surgery with Tufts University School of Medicine. Dr. Fernandez has co-authored several papers on simulation education and serves on various committees developing curriculum and simulation experi- ences for undergraduate and graduate medical education. Dr. Fernandez was also a recent recipient of the Zucker Clinical Teaching Award for Outstanding Innovation at Tufts University School of Medicine and the Tufts University Excellence in Teaching Award.
Dennis G. Fisher, PhD, completed his degree from the University of Illinois, Urbana, and completed post-Doctoral work at the University of California, Los Angeles. Dr. Fisher is currently Professor of Psychology and Director of the Center for Behavioral Research and Services at California State Uni- versity, Long Beach. Since 1990, he has authored or coauthored approximately 200 publications and presentations, primarily in the areas of drug abuse and HIV prevention.
Brenda Freshman, PhD, is an Assistant Professor at California State University-Long Beach, in the Health Administration Program, where she has been a full time faculty member since Fall 2007. Additionally Dr. Freshman is founder and president of Social Logistics, a management consulting firm specializing in leadership development for healthcare professionals. Dr. Freshman holds a Doctorate in Organizational Psychology (California School of Professional Psychology). Dr. Freshman’s research and practice interests concentrate on how thoughts and emotions influence behavior, productivity and quality of life. She is a sought after speaker and has been facilitating workshops on self-development and leadership since 1993.
Mariya Gavrilova, PHR, Doctoral student in Applied Technology and Performance improvement, Department of Learning Technologies, University of North Texas. Mariya serves as a program coordi- nator for an Education Excellence grant which is funded by the Texas Education Agency and housed at the University of North Texas to develop professional development materials for career and technical education teachers. She holds an MS in Training and Development from UNT, BSBA in Marketing and
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Management, and BA in Spanish. Her research interests include organizational diversity, leadership development in career and technical education, and distance learning evaluation methods.
Hilda R. Glazer, EdD, received her degree in Educational Psychology from Rutgers University. She currently serves as Chair of Educational Psychology in the Harold Abel School of Social and Behavioral Sciences at Capella University. Dr. Glazer specializes in distance learning and teaching. She has con- ducted workshops on distance learning and mentoring and has researched the area of online teaching and mentoring. Dr. Glazer also works with grieving children and families and is a Registered Play Therapy Supervisor. She has presented at international, national, and regional meetings on distance learning and play therapy and grief and is widely published.
Ashwini Joshua Gojer is a Doctoral student of Applied Technology and Performance Improvement, at Department of Learning Technologies, University of North Texas. Ash serves as a Research Assistant for an Education Excellence grant which is funded by the Texas Education Agency and housed at the University of North Texas to develop professional development materials for career and technical edu- cation teachers. She holds a BA in Psychology from St. Xavier’s College, Mumbai, MA in Industrial Psychology from the University of Mumbai and a MPhil from Madurai Kamaraj University. Her research interests include: cross-cultural issues, training evaluation, and performance improvement.
Pamela M. Golubski, PhD, is the Director of Training and Development at iCarnegie (powered by Carnegie Mellon University). She earned a PhD in Instructional Management, a MS in Educational Counseling, a BS in Management, and a certificate in Adult Learning. Pam came to iCarnegie after four years as the Associate Director of Undergraduate Studies and Assessment in the College of Engineering at Carnegie Mellon University. Her 15 years of higher education experience extends into the areas of academic administration, curriculum development, academic and career advising, mentoring, specialized programming such as the student and faculty experience, accreditation, and assessment. She has been teaching since 1997, and her true passion is in teaching management (change, project, strategic manage- ment, and organizational behavior) and soft skills courses (human relations, professional communica- tions, public speaking, research, and writing). In addition, Pamela has experience in working in corporate training and human resources. Pamela’s research and publication efforts have been and continue to be in the areas of traditional and e-mentoring, learner-centered training, service-learning, virtual academic advising, probation counseling methods, and the use of virtual and Web 2.0 technologies in acclimating, communicating, engaging, onboarding, and retaining college students, staff, and faculty members. She presents her research findings through over 30 publications and 16 concurrent proceedings at national and international conferences (NACADA, NACE, NASPA, and The National Resource Center for The First-Year Experience and Students in Transition). Dr. Golubski is on the Board of Directors for Dress for Success Pittsburgh and the planning board for J. H. Heinz History Center Uncorked. She is on the Editorial Board for the Journal of Student Affairs Research and Practice (JSARP) and the International Journal of Adult Vocational Education and Technology (IJAVET). Lastly, she is the Faculty Chapter Advisor for Alpha Kappa Psi Professional Business Fraternity at Carnegie Mellon University’s Tepper School of Business.
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Matthew W. Gosney is the Senior Manager for Compliance Development for Walmart Stores, Inc. He has worked in the arena of corporate training and development for over a decade. He has led the development of significant training initiatives supporting technical and systems education, customer service and sales, leadership development, operational management, and regulatory training. In his current role he supports compliance training initiatives impacting millions of employees of the world’s largest retailer. His research is in the area of human resource development emerging philosophy and practice. Mr. Gosney is a Doctoral candidate and the 2010 Doctoral Student of the Year award recipi- ent in the Workforce Development Education program at the University of Arkansas. He has an MA in Psychology from the University of Central Oklahoma and a BS in Psychology from Brigham Young University, Provo.
John A. Henschke, EdD, is professionally educated and has practiced in both fields of counseling and andragogy – the art and science of helping adults learn. His Master of Theology (ThM) Degree is in Pastoral Counseling. He engaged in his Clinical Counseling Education Internship at Cook County Hospital in Chicago, and used counseling as part of his ministry in a local church during four decades. He studied and completed his Doctor of Education (EdD) Degree with Malcolm S. Knowles at Boston University (BU). He wrote his Doctoral dissertation at BU on Malcolm’s contribution to the theory and practice of adult education up through 1972. John recently retired after 39 years with University of Missouri – Associate Professor of Adult Education in the College of Education at the University of Missouri-St. Louis and Continuing Education Specialist in the East Central Region of the University of Missouri Extension. John is now the Chair of the Andragogy Doctoral Emphasis Specialty at Lindenwood University, School of Education, St. Charles, MO. He has used his andragogical competencies coupled with his counseling competencies in his full time university faculty career. Hence, he has merged the two fields of counseling and andragogy in his professional practice and personal life, and they are both part of the “warp-and-woof” of who he is as a person.
Kit Kacirek, EdD, SPHR, is an Associate Professor at the University of Arkansas who teaches Adult Education and Human Resource Development (HRD) in the College of Education and Health Professions. Her experience as an organization development consultant influence a research agenda that focuses on bridging the gap between theory and practice in HRD. In addition to teaching, she provides professional development services for clients of the Center for Management and Executive Education in the Sam M. Walton College of Business. Her consulting and research has led to several international assignments working with emerging business owners in Poland, strategic planning and needs assess- ment for a women’s health clinic in Morocco, and leadership development workshops in Tunisia, Ghana, Honduras, and the Ukraine. Dr. Kacirek has published practitioner-relevant cases in the Training and Development in Action series, as well as in various scholarly journals.
Kathleen Kevany, EdD, is a faculty member in the Department of Adult Education at Saint Fran- cis Xavier University and previously was leading the Decentralized Intelligence Agency, a consulting firm. She has enjoyed being a Lecturer with Brock University, The University of Western Ontario, and Hiroshima School of Graduate Studies and International Cooperation along with a post-Doctoral fellow at the United Nations University, Institute of Advanced Studies. Her research focuses the factors that mediate the formation of caring, conscious, and capable organizations, communities, and members of civil society.
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Beth Kania-Gosche holds a PhD in Curriculum and Instruction from Saint Louis University. She is currently the Supervisor of Graduate Research for the Department of Educational Leadership at Lin- denwood University.
Daniel Henry, PhD, first became interested in the ideas of Carl Rogers as a student in counseling classes at Indiana University. Additionally, his dissertation examined the built online environment of online learning communities using Behavior Setting Theory. Dr. Henry was a high school English teacher for 13 years, spent four years as a fulltime program evaluator, and after receiving his PhD in educational psychology, has been an Assistant Professor first at Central Michigan University and now at Auburn University, where he currently teaches classes in educational psychology, program evaluation, and research methodology in qualitative research.
Kristine Holloway is the Library Distance Services Coordinator for California State University, Bakersfield (CSUB). In that position, Ms. Holloway works with faculty, students, and administration to facilitate access to materials while at the same time honoring and explaining copyright restrictions. Ms. Holloway has previously written and presented on working with ILLiad, an interlibrary loan and document delivery program that allows for better service to online students and faculty while making nearly automatic observance of copyright restrictions and fair use guidelines. Ms. Holloway is currently working with a committee of faculty, administrators, and technical support staff at CSUB to modify e- learning policy in light of the tremendous growth in e-learning and with an understanding of concerns regarding fair use, intellectual property, copyright, and academic integrity that have developed inevitably from that growth. Ms. Holloway has a Master’s Degree in Library and Information Science obtained through San Jose State University’s Distance Program and currently serves on the Distance Learning Committee of the American Library Association. Ms. Holloway has previously written on instructor perceptions of working with instructional television and has collaborated on a survey of librarians in higher education working with distance students.
John Hope, PhD, has a professional background in teaching in New Zealand primary, intermedi- ate, and secondary schools. He left school teaching after some years as the principal of New Zealand’s largest primary school, a school featuring nationally recognised programmes for gifted students and an international reputation for use of ICT. Later in his career John became a school inspector and curricu- lum writer and was seconded to the University of Auckland as Director Primary Teacher Education to establish initial teacher education programmes. Following successful establishment of teacher education programmes, other University of Auckland appointments followed, including Director of the University of Auckland Principals Centre, and Associate Dean (International) positions in two faculties. He currently directs several overseas twinning degree programmes, coordinates all international activity within the Faculty of Education, and has university-wide international responsibilities. Teaching and supervision interests include pedagogical applications of ICT in learning, educational leadership, gifted education, and international education. Research publications at national and international level include journal articles and book chapters in the fields of initial teacher education, Internet safety, use of educational technology in teacher education, use of educational technology in adult education and measurement of internationalisation within higher education.
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Marcus Howell has served as a media specialist/technologist for the past twenty years in public schools in Alabama. He is currently pursuing a Doctoral degree from Auburn University in educational leadership, curriculum, and technology because of his role as an emerging leader in technology.
Claretha Hughes, PhD, Assistant Professor, teaches Human Resource Development in the Department of Rehabilitation, Human Resources and Communication Disorders, University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, Arkansas. She has extensive professional experience in business and industry and continues to serve as a consultant to international, national, and state organizations. Her research focuses on value creation through the use of human resource development and technology development. She is interested in the impact of values (1) on teaching and learning processes and motivation; (2) on organizational culture, change strategies, and leadership; and (3) on technology in the workplace environment and employee behavior. She is the 2009 University Council of Workforce and Human Resource Education Outstanding Assistant Professor. Dr. Hughes has a PhD in Career & Technical Education from Virginia Tech, a MT degree from NC State University, a BA in Chemistry from Clemson University, and an MBA from the Sam M. Walton College of Business at the University of Arkansas.
Debrah D. Joyner, PhD, is currently the Director of Cohort Programs at East Tennessee State Uni- versity. She has served in several administrative positions for ETSU.
Sharon G. Juozapavicius graduated from The University of Iowa in 1972 with a Bachelor’s Degree - triple major in Advertising, Public Relations, and Journalism. She graduated from DePaul University, 2007 with a Master’s Degree specializing in Leadership Development. She also received Certificate in Nonprofit Management, Virginia Commonwealth University, 2009. She has over 35 years in busi- ness management with over 24 performance awards in: sales, training, innovation, retail operations, environmental marketing, alliance management, team consulting, and e-business. Sharon is a trained Professional Consultant in business and strategic planning, team building, customer focus, measure- ment and assessment, change and transition management, sales, process and project management. She was retired in 2003 from British Petroleum/Amoco. Sharon currently holds position as Chief Executive Officer for CCHASM, a Nonprofit Organization based in Virginia, USA.
Kerry Lee is a senior lecturer in technology education at the Faculty of Education, University of Auckland, New Zealand. Kerry has a Bachelor of Science degree and a Master’s in Education specialising in technology education. Her Doctoral thesis, currently underway, investigates the effects of omega-3 fatty acids on the academic achievement of primary school children. Kerry is a regular presenter at national and international education conferences. She has been published in International Journal of Technology & Design Education, International Journal of Diversity in Organisations Communities & Nations, International Journal of the Humanities, Journal of the World Universities Forum, International Journal of Environmental, Cultural, Economic & Social Sustainability, Journal of Technology Studies, and International Journal of Teaching, Learning & High Education. She has authored chapters in the Handbook of Research on E-Learning Applications for Career & Technical Education: Technologies for Vocational Training, and Assessing & Evaluating Adult Learning in Career and Technical Education.
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Wenzhen Li is a PhD student in the Department of Educational Psychology, Counseling and Human Development at the University of Nevada, Reno. She teaches courses on the application of technology in education. Her research interests focus on design of online teaching and learning, online learning assessment, and multimedia application in education. She is the managing editor of the International Journal of Technology in Teaching and Learning.
Leping Liu, PhD, is Professor and Chair in the Department of Educational Psychology, Counseling and Human Development at the University of Nevada, Reno. She teaches courses on the application of technology in education, applied educational psychology, and statistics. Her research interests focus on integration of technology in classroom teaching and learning, technology and mathematical thinking, multimedia learning environment and cognitive development, technology in counseling skill training, design of online teaching, assessment and evaluation, and research modeling. She has authored many professional articles and authored/co-authored twelve books. She is also the editor-in-chief of the In- ternational Journal of Technology in Teaching and Learning.
Julie Lynch was born in England where she received her primary, secondary, and university education. Julie migrated to New Zealand in 2003 and began her teacher training in 2005 at Auckland University where she completed a Diploma of Teaching in primary education. Julie also has a Bachelor of Arts degree and a Post Graduate degree in Educational Leadership. Julie is an experienced classroom teacher and is currently the Primary Years Programme Coordinator in a New Zealand intermediate school. She has presented at various national conference workshops about inquiry learning, using learning management systems to support classroom practice, and how to integrate technology when learning a second language.
Julia M. Matuga, PhD, received a Bachelor and Master of Science degree in Curriculum Studies from Indiana University, Bloomington and worked as a K-12 art teacher for five years before returning to graduate school. Julia earned her Doctorate in Educational Psychology with an emphasis in Learning, Cognition, and Instruction from Indiana University (IU), Bloomington. While a graduate student at IU, Julia taught her first online course and became interested in how students learn online. Julia is currently the Associate Dean of Graduate Studies and External Programs and Associate Professor of Educational Psychology at Bowling Green State University (BGSU). She oversees the development of online courses and programs within the College of Education and Human Development at BGSU. She has published book chapters and research articles on self-regulation and assessment within online learning environments.
Catherine McLoughlin, PhD joined ACU in 2002 and is currently Coordinator of SIMERR ACT, the Research Centre for Science, Information Technology and Mathematics Education for Rural and Regional Australia (SiMERR) at the School of Education, Canberra. Dr McLoughlin teaches at under- graduate and postgraduate levels in the areas of educational psychology, teaching methodologies, and research methods. Catherine is the author and co-author of over 200 refereed publications, including journal articles, book chapters and conference papers on a wide range of topics related to e-learning, design of culturally relevant learning environments, the evaluation of learning technologies, cognitive psychology, and learner engagement. Dr. McLoughlin is editor of the Australian Journal of Educational Technology, and she is on the editorial boards of a number of leading international journals in the field of educational technology.
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John Moran, PhD, Founder & President, Globla Gateways, Inc., blending more than 35 years experience in industry as an executive, product developer, and project manager and in academia as a course developer/instructor, has achieved recognition as a bridge between the academic communities and industry. John’s courses at the Notre Dame de Namur University, UC Berkeley Extension, and San Jose State Professional Development program reflect the real life business situations derived from his work in developing Information Technology Communities of Practice with Silicon Valley companies. Addition- ally, his academic experience contributes to his ability to create unique collaborative environments that facilitate learning, sustainable growth, and increased productivity for his industry and academic clients. In all his work, John advocates the importance of learning and systems thinking.
Judith Parker, EdD, is an adjunct Assistant Professor in Organization and Leadership at Teachers College/Columbia University in New York teaching graduate courses that are totally online, totally classroom, and blended delivery formats. She has earned a Doctorate, EdD degree, and an MS degree in Adult and Continuing Education from Teachers College/Columbia University, an MS degree in phys- ics from Purdue University in Indiana, and a BS degree in physics and mathematics from Notre Dame College in Ohio. She has presented numerous papers at conferences globally including the Academy of Management, American Association of Physics Teachers, American Society of Training and Development, College Industry Education Conference, Quality and Productivity Management Association, Business and Multimedia Conference in Ireland, Lisbon 2000 European Conference on ODL Networking for Quality Learning, and World Open Learning for Business Conferences in the UK. Judith has been published in the Compendium on Uses of Distance Learning Technologies in Engineering Education, the Journal of the International Association for Continuing Engineering Education, and the International Journal of Adult Vocational Education and Technology. She has authored chapters in Workplace Training and Learning: A Cross-Cultural Perspective; Definitive Readings in the History, Philosophy, Practice and Theories of Career and Technical Education; Integrating Adult Learning and Technology for Effec- tive Education: Strategic Approaches; Handbook of Research on E-Learning Applications for Career and Technical Education: Technologies for Vocational Training; and the Encyclopedia of Information Communication Technologies and Adult Education Integration. Judith has over 20 years experience in leadership positions within global business organizations. She has worked extensively with technical managers and technical employees in Asia and Europe in leadership education and training and techni- cal employee skill development by using an action-learning model and integrating distance learning technologies with classroom sessions. She has been elected a Fellow of the American Association for the Advancement of Science, and has received the American Association of Physics Teachers Innovative Teaching Award and the Park College Educational Partnership Award.
Laura Pasquini is a Doctoral student of Applied Technology and Performance Improvement at the Department of Learning Technologies, University of North Texas. Laura is currently an Academic Advisor for Undergraduate Programs in the College of Business, University of North Texas. She holds an MSEd in Elementary Teacher Education from Niagara University, NY, and an honors BA in History. Her research interests include the effects of emerging technology, collaborative learning environments, and open source courseware for education and training.
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Gregory C. Petty, PhD, currently teaches Biostatistics and is a Professor of Public Health for The University of Tennessee. He has published numerous articles on teaching and learning and workforce development.
Denise Philpot is a Doctoral student of the Applied Technology and Performance Improvement pro- gram in the Department of Learning Technologies at the University of North Texas. After a successful career at Xerox, Denise entered the education field as a high school business/technology teacher and earned her teaching certification in secondary business. She holds an MBA in Organization Behavior and Human Resources from UNT and a BS in Business Administration from the University of La Verne. In addition to her studies, she is currently the President of the Graduate Student Council at UNT and works closely with the Toulouse Graduate School in promoting graduate education. Her research interests include adult learning, effective uses of learning technology to promote performance improvement, and teacher effectiveness in relationship to student learning outcomes.
Sandra Poirier, EdD, has a broad background in education with more than 15 years experience in public sectors located in culturally diverse international environments. She has worked as a secondary teacher, cooperative extension agent, and a university teacher educator in the United States, Canada, Caribbean, and the Middle East. Her strengths include creating innovative educational programs within a cultural context and identifying appropriate outreach efforts to solve problems with positive results. She has been recognized for her ability to work effectively building community partnerships towards a common goal, creating hybrid and online courses to meet the changing needs of students, and creatively evaluating the learning outcomes of the students. She has been employed at Middle Tennessee State University as an Associate Professor in the Department of Human Sciences since 2005. In 2008, she was awarded the MTSU Distinguished Distance Learning Educator, and in 2009, the Outstanding Career and Technical Post-Secondary Instructor Award in Tennessee.
Jacob Prisk lives in New Zealand, where he received his primary, secondary, and university educa- tion. Jacob attended Auckland University, where he completed his Bachelor of Education in 1999, his postgraduate degree in Educational Leadership in 2010 and is the process of undertaking his Master’s in Education. Jacob has taught for 10 years in New Zealand, the United Kingdom, and Australia with vast experience in middle school teaching. Jacob is a senior teacher at a New Zealand intermediate/ middle school.
Stephanie M. Reio is a senior justice administration major at the University of Louisville. Her interests include interpersonal and workplace violence, prisoner rehabilitation, and resiliency. She is currently interning at the Probation and Parole Office in District 16, Louisville, KY.
Ellen Reames, EdD, is an Assistant Professor in the Educational Foundations, Leadership and Tech- nology Department at Auburn University. Dr. Reames was a public school teacher and administrator for thirty years. Her research interests include school culture, learning communities, e-leadership and online communities of practice, alternative schools, military children, bullying, and redesigning educational leadership programs.
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Joanne Sanders-Reio, PhD, is an Instructor in the Department of Leadership and Professional Stud- ies at Florida International University. She earned her PhD in Human Development from the University of Maryland and her MSEd in Adult and Continuing Education from Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University. She was previously a free-lance writer and editor, as well as a corporate trainer who primarily taught business writing in training centers, government organizations, and businesses. She is conducting basic research on the beliefs, mindsets, and practices of expert writers and editors. More specifically, she is investigating how certain beliefs about writing are adaptive and predictive of strong writing, while other beliefs about writing are maladaptive and associated with anxiety and weak writing.
Thomas G. Reio, Jr., PhD, is Associate Professor of Adult Education and Human Resource Devel- opment in the Department of Leadership and Professional Studies at Florida International University in Miami, Florida. Tom earned his PhD in Adult and Continuing Education from Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University. He was first runner-up for the Malcolm S. Knowles Dissertation-of-the- Year with his dissertation that investigated the connections among adult curiosity, workplace learning, and job performance. He is presently editor of Human Resource Development Review and co-editor of New Horizons in Adult Education and Human Resource Development. He is the immediate past Quantitative Methods Editor for Human Resource Development Quarterly. He has been involved for a number of years in conducting research on educational and psychological principles such as motiva- tion and emotions, and how they impact learning and performance in formal and informal contexts. His research concerns curiosity and risk-taking motivation, workplace incivility and violence, workplace socialization processes, workplace incivility, entrepreneurship, and workplace learning. He is currently actively engaged in research investigating curiosity and risk taking throughout the lifespan. He has been involved extensively in evaluation projects concerning children and adults in both the public and private sector. His work has been published in leading journals in education, business, and psychology. These journals include Journal of School Psychology, Personality and Individual Differences, The Journal of Genetic Psychology, Educational and Psychological Measurement, Journal of Business and Psychology, Journal of Interpersonal Violence, Human Resource Development Quarterly, Journal of Management Development, International Journal of Self-Directed Learning, and Teaching and Teacher Education. He has authored chapters in the Handbook of Educational Psychology, Emerging Directions in Self-Directed Learning, Teaching and Learning: International Best Practice, and Research on Sociocultural Influences on Motivation and Learning. He has over 16 years of experience as a training and development director, organizational consultant, and operations manager.
Karim A. Remtulla, PhD (Toronto) is a graduate of the Adult Education and Community Develop- ment Program in the Department of Adult Education and Counselling Psychology at the Ontario Institute for Studies in Education of the University of Toronto (OISE/UT). He also holds a Master’s of Business Administration (Schulich School of Business at York University) as well as a Master’s of Science in Information Resources Management (School of Information Studies at Syracuse University). He also holds a Bachelor of Commerce (Rotman School of Management at University of Toronto). Karim has been involved with workplace adult education and training research and practice for over twenty years. His explorations engage the humanistic aspects of ICTs and instruction regarding adults in the work- place and society at large. His research interests include the long-term social, cultural, and pedagogical implications of the internet, globalization, pluralism, and the digital divide, on adults’ civic engagement,
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About the Contributors
democracy, work, and learning. Karim has presented papers at global conferences and symposia. His publications include peer-reviewed academic journal articles, commentaries, and book chapters. He is also a member of the editorial review board of several peer-reviewed academic journals. Karim’s authored book entitled Socio-cultural Impacts of Workplace E-learning: Epistemology, Ontology and Pedagogy, recently published by IGI Global, presents cutting-edge thinking on the socio-cultural complexities of adult learning in a globalized, digitized, and knowledge-based world.
Grace L. Reynolds, PhD, received her Doctorate in Public Administration from the University of Southern California and is currently an Assistant Professor of Health Care Administration at California State University, Long Beach (CSULB). She serves as the Associate Director of the Center for Behavioral Research and Services, one of the organized research centers at CSULB, a position she has held since 2000. She is also the Graduate Advisor for the CAHME-accredited programs in Health Care Admin- istration at CSULB. She has published extensively on topics related to health care and public health.
Debra Leigh Walls Rosenstein, EdD, is an Associate Professor in the Tift College of Education at Mercer University in Atlanta, GA. She holds an EdD from Virginia Polytechnic. Her experience is in elementary education focusing on multiple intelligences and brain-based teaching. Her pioneering work as a play therapist for medically fragile children includes burn victims and those with cystic fibrosis. She took a leadership role in developing several camp experiences for medically fragile children to allow them to participate in the camp experience.
Käthe Schneider, EdD, is Professor of Adult Education, University of Jena, Germany. She earned her diploma degree and her Doctorate in Educational Science from the University of Bonn, Germany. Her research interests include learning processes of adults, self-development of executives, and lifelong learning architectures. Prior to joining the University of Jena, she was Director of Executive Develop- ment with WHU, Otto Beisheim School of Management, Germany.
P. J. Snodgrass, PhD, worked as an IT Specialist for about ten years at The University of Tennessee. She is currently serving as the Assistant Director of the University’s IT Business Office. Dr. Snodgrass co-published an article entitled “Relationship Between Telecommuting and Recruitment and Retention of IT Staff” in the Journal of Software Engineering. She received her PhD from The University of Ten- nessee in the Department of Human Resource Development.
Jim Spaulding, EdD, has years of experience in the computer industry as a systems engineer, technical trainer, project manager, consultant, and executive. He is skilled in needs analysis, course development, and training. He has delivered complex technical topics to a wide range of audiences and regularly de- signs and delivers workshops, training interventions, and programs with instructor-led, virtual/hybrid, web-based, and computer-based training. Jim is an experienced corporate teacher and a faculty member for over a dozen years at Penn State University in Graduate School, Continuing Education, Accelerated Program, and Professional Education on a variety of subjects such as: Instructional Design, Database Design, Business Analysis, Computer Technology, as well as Project Management. He has succeeded in many client assignments for firms such as Microsoft Corporation and Hitachi Data Systems. Jim studied Systems Engineering at Widener University after a BS in Mathematics from Villanova. He
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About the Contributors
earned a Doctorate from Penn State, and a Master’s in Educational Leadership from Immaculata. He is a published author of non-fiction as well as scholarly work. His recent paper, Playfulness in the Adult Classroom testifies to his research interest in experiential and adult learning. He maintains memberships in many professional organizations and operates his own consulting firm focusing on IT and Project Management for a broad range of clients.
Diana Stanfill, EdD, is a practicing educational technologist and professional developer at Linden- wood University, located in Saint Louis, Missouri, and a former library media specialist at the elementary level. Diana’s background includes teaching students ranging from kindergarten to graduate school. She holds advanced degrees in library science, instructional leadership, and educational technology. Diana has one daughter and one son-in-law, Crystal and Gary; and two grandchildren, Elijah and Easton.
David Stein, PhD, is Associate Professor in the College of Education and Human Ecology at The Ohio State University. His Doctorate in adult education is from the University of Michigan. He also received an MS in community health planning and administration from the University of Cincinnati. Dr. Stein specializes in adult teaching and learning. He has conducted workshops on principles of adult teaching and has served as a consultant to professional associations, The Ohio Board of Regents, the Supreme Court of Ohio Judicial College, and other universities on adult education. Presently, Dr. Stein is researching online learning and its influence on adult learning. He has presented at national and regional conferences on adult learning and has written extensively on how adults learn.
Stephen D. Stockton is a Director of a federally funded project at The University of Tennessee- Knoxville (UTK) where he is completing his PhD in the Department of Educational Leadership and Policy Studies (ELPS). He has collaborated in the writing, reviewing, and implementation of grant proposals. Stockton has experience working in several different grant programs as well as working as an instructor in the high school classroom setting. He has developed and participated in several regional and national conference workshops focusing on technology. His research interest is on the use of tech- nology in the school system.
Karen Weller Swanson, EdD, has her degree in Curriculum and Instruction. She currently teaches Doctoral research methods for Mercer University in Atlanta Georgia. Her research encompasses trans- formative education, teacher professional development, and instructional technology. Dr. Swanson serves as a reviewer for The Middle School Journal, Reviewer for Networks: An Online Journal for Teacher Research and Teacher Education. Her publications include chapters on blended learning, self-assessment, collaborative teaching and transformative learning. The peer-reviewed journal articles include publi- cations with Journal for the Practical Application of Constructivist Theory in Education, Journal of Educational Technology and Society, Studying Teacher Education, and Childhood Education. She is a member of National Middle School Association and the American Research Association.
Gainiya Tazhina, PhD, is an Associate Professor in Organizational Behavior and Work Psychology at the University of International Business in Almaty, Kazakhstan. She has earned a PhD from Kazakh Academy of Sciences, and has graduated from Novosibirsk State University, Russia and Kazakh State University, Kazakhstan. Gainiya O. Tazhina has extensive experience in academic research in general
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About the Contributors
and especially in industrial psychology. She has also designed and conducted training for international and local Kazakhstan companies, government, and non-government organizations with a focus on the improvement of interpersonal relationships, team building, effective leadership, and conflict manage- ment supported by technical assistance of USAID and IREX. Gainiya O. Tazhina has been awarded an OSI funded Faculty Development Fellowship (2008-2010) aimed at encouraging the pursuit of academic careers by outstanding faculty, generating innovative approaches to curricular and pedagogical reform in the countries served, and supporting the development of regional and international institutional partner- ships and collaborative projects. She has also been awarded ISA granted WISC: Bringing International Studies Together (2005), MASHAV (2004), and IREX Community Connections Fellowship (2003).
Lawrence A. Tomei, EdD, is the Senior Associate Provost for Academic Affairs and Professor of Education, Robert Morris University. Born in Akron, Ohio, he earned a BSBA from the University of Akron (1972) and completed his Master’s degrees in Public Administration and Education at the University of Oklahoma (1975, 1978) and his Doctorate in Education from USC (1983). As Associate Provost, he directs the activities of academic services including the registrar’s office, academic technol- ogy, the honors and cooperative education programs, and veteran services. He holds a dual appointment as a Professor of Education in the School of Education and Social Sciences. His most recent articles and books on instructional technology include: Designing Instruction for the Traditional, Adult, and Distance Learner (2010), the Lexicon for Online and Distance Learning (2010), and ICT for Enhanced Education and Learning (2009).
Jia Wang, PhD, is an Associate Professor of human resource development in the Department of Edu- cational Administration and Human Resource Development at Texas A&M University. Before joining Texas A&M University, Jia was an Assistant Professor and PhD program coordinator at Barry University Fort Myers Campus. With a wide range of international experience in China, Africa, the United Kingdom, and the United States, Jia’s research focuses on international HRD, crisis management, and learning in organizations. Jia’s work has been published in a number of international journals. She currently serves on the Editorial Board for Advances in Developing Human Resources, Journal of Research on Leadership Education, and Journal of Chinese Human Resource Management. Jia is also the Associate Editor for the Proceedings of Academy of Human Resource Development 2011 International Research Conference in the Americas. Jia received her MBA from Aston University, UK, and MEd and PhD in Human Resource and Organization Development from the University of Georgia, USA.
Constance Wanstreet, PhD, is an Adjunct Assistant Professor in the College of Education and Hu- man Ecology at The Ohio State University. Her Doctorate from Ohio State is in workforce development and education. Dr. Wanstreet has developed and implemented training programs for adult learners in workplace settings and has served as a consultant to the Ohio Board of Regents and the Supreme Court of Ohio Judicial College. She has presented at national and regional conferences, primarily on how adults learn in online environments.
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Maria Martinez Witte, EdD, is an Associate Professor in Adult Education within the Department of Educational Foundations, Leadership, and Technology at Auburn University. Academic areas of interest include analyzing effective content, context, and processes that enhance the teaching-learning environment, learning styles, and the assessment of learning. Her skills include facilitating, coordinat- ing, developing, and delivering educational programs.
Deborah Wooldridge, PhD, is a Professor and the Director of the School of Family and Consumer Sciences and the Associate Dean for Research and Field Experiences in the College of Education and Human Development at Bowling Green State University. Dr. Wooldridge served as the Dean of the College of Family Sciences at Zayed University in the United Arab Emirates, as Associate Dean of Education, and the Coordinator of External Funding at Southeast Missouri State University. She was a middle school and high school teacher in Oklahoma. Deborah was a Fulbright Senior Scholar at the University of Bahrain in the Kingdom of Bahrain and has done consulting with Ministries of Education and Ministries of Labor and Social Affairs in Oman, Kuwait, Bahrain, and the United Arab Emirates, as well as acting as a liaison for UNICEF officials in Saudi Arabia for the Dubai and Abu Dhabi areas. She has a PhD in resource management and consumer sciences from Texas Woman’s University and a BS and MS in Education from the University of Oklahoma. During her career in higher education she has published and secured international, federal, and state funding for research and community partnership projects. Her research interests are cultural and social issues of the family, learning outcomes assessment, and curriculum redesign and assessment.
Harun Yilmaz, PhD, completed his Master of Science degree in the department of Instructional Design Development and Evaluation (IDDE) at Syracuse University. He got his Doctorate in the field of Instructional Design and Technology focusing on distance education and accreditation from Virginia Tech. During his Doctorate study, he worked as a grader and instructional designer at the Instructional Technology Master’s program (ITMA) offered online at Virginia Tech. Before being awarded with a PhD degree, he started working at the University of Phoenix in the College of Undergraduate Business and Management (UBAM) as a full-time instructional designer, as well as an online instructor for the University of Phoenix Online. At the University of Phoenix, he was responsible for providing the ap- propriate level of instructional design support and leadership for the John Sperling School of Business (JSSB) and all related assessment development activities, as well as leading the programmatic assessment and accreditation projects for the College of Undergraduate Business and Management between 2005 and 2007. Since his moving to Turkey in 2007, he has been working at the Scientific and Technologi- cal Research Council of Turkey (TUBITAK) as a scientific programs expert to manage the process of evaluating and monitoring of grant projects submitted to TUBITAK by universities in the field of social sciences and humanities. He has publications including a book, book chapters, and research articles fo- cusing on distance education, accreditation, instructional design, teacher education, and cyber-bullying.
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Volume I pp. 1-329; Volume II pp. 330-600; Volume III pp. 601-862
Symbols 21st century digital economy 138 21st Century Learning Skills 361 3-dimensional 648, 725
A academic freedom 220, 222-223, 232, 307, 309 Academic Medical Center (AMC) 219-221, 223,
229, 232 academic mobbing 321-322, 326-328 acceptance 24-25, 27, 79, 82, 124, 126-127, 129,
135, 137, 270, 347, 365, 369, 372, 378, 389, 459, 461-462, 500, 503, 533, 571, 626, 701, 710, 742, 762, 776, 790
accredited program 245 action learning 225, 231, 280-281, 284, 287, 624 adopter 129, 135, 503, 522 adoption 1-3, 5-6, 50, 61, 124-125, 129, 131, 133,
136-137, 144, 152, 159, 164, 200, 203, 234, 240, 243-244, 302, 345, 354, 397, 403, 406, 465, 467, 491-495, 499, 501, 503, 506, 509, 521, 525, 768, 805, 819, 830, 849, 856
adult development 135, 317, 463, 489, 546, 553, 555, 574-575, 584, 781
adult learner 20, 62, 134, 196, 247, 250-252, 258, 261, 265, 287, 327-328, 366, 566, 577, 583- 584, 695, 795
advisor blog 702, 711 affective domain 131, 239, 242, 245, 383, 558, 563,
568 aggression 66-67, 73, 75-77 alpha 70, 143, 706-707 ambiguity 162, 168, 191, 193, 197, 214, 409, 629,
654, 687 American Association of School Administrators
267, 635
American Psychological Association (APA) 81, 85, 115, 798, 804
andragogy 5, 250, 465, 558, 561-563, 565-566, 569-570, 577-579, 585, 783
approachability 372 approaches to play therapy 670, 679 Artifical Intelligence (AI) 63, 477 Association for Play Therapy 79-82, 85, 87, 670,
676 assuring quality 423, 426, 432-433, 436 asynchronous 23, 30, 33, 59, 83, 85-87, 97, 118-
119, 145-146, 148-149, 153, 176, 260, 263, 272, 386, 398, 590, 593-596, 599-600, 700, 714, 720, 724, 795, 844-845, 851
at-risk students 469, 471, 473, 475, 478, 635 augmented reality (AR) 802, 805, 807 augmented virtuality (AV) 802, 807 authoritarian 13-15, 17, 21, 67, 190, 323, 747, 750,
754 avatar 88, 273, 713-723, 725, 801 axiology 763, 770
B bandwidth 31, 381, 393, 512, 541, 544, 593, 643 barriers to transfer 297 beta 74, 143, 361 Blackboard 11, 58-59, 63, 97, 114, 256, 259, 265,
592, 595-596, 659, 702, 711, 718, 779, 786 blended learning 3 blogs 8, 11, 39, 48-50, 57, 59, 75, 90, 118, 158,
204, 209, 254-255, 259, 270-272, 275, 277, 283, 355, 381, 395-396, 419, 427, 448, 480, 511, 537, 539, 590, 592, 604, 606, 700, 779, 785, 851, 861
bullying 73, 76-77, 418, 851, 853
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C capability 5, 21, 148, 169, 208, 217, 256, 280, 297,
367, 369-372, 384, 398, 410, 441-442, 456, 523, 560, 727, 749, 860
capital-intensive industries 13, 19 Carl Rogers 23-24, 32-34, 672, 696 case study 30, 57, 61, 86, 167, 199, 204, 209, 259,
330, 348, 359, 395, 405, 409, 418, 442, 461, 614, 639, 726-727, 742, 744, 835-836, 838, 841, 843
CD Rom 453, 457, 459-460, 467 censored data 818 change agent 122-123, 126, 128-131, 134-137, 255,
376, 524, 528, 531 changing demographics of the work force 13, 19 charisma 18, 21 chief knowledge office 154 chief learning officer 154, 524, 528 civic literacies 5 client-centered therapy 20, 23-24, 33, 197, 672,
682, 696 closed chat session 711 cognitive domain 172-173, 180, 183, 185, 238, 242,
558, 563 cognitive presence 30, 83, 86, 844 cognitive style 3 Colege and University Professional Association for
Human Resources (CUPA-HR) 491, 495, 503 collaborative leadership 268-270, 272, 275-277 collaborative learning 10, 87, 147, 254, 259, 264,
381-382, 389-390, 403, 440-441, 451, 506, 554, 595, 598, 716, 722, 783, 785, 792, 800, 803-804, 806
Commission on the Accreditation of Management Health Education (CAHME) 233-234, 238, 244
communication-assisted training applications 145 Community of Practice 96, 106, 162, 248, 268-270,
375, 399, 407, 441, 532-533, 540, 543-545, 552-553, 556, 851
competency 54, 80, 92, 177, 191, 233-234, 238- 240, 242-245, 350, 373-376, 381-383, 385-389, 396, 404, 428, 454, 482-483, 535, 570, 586, 631, 651, 762
competing values model 697 complexity leadership 268, 276 computer conferencing 85-86, 184, 467, 795, 844-
845 Computer Mediated Communities (CMC) 86, 90,
95-96, 101
computer-mediated learning 29, 32, 34 conceptual skills 16, 322, 325, 327, 329, 629, 640 congruence 24-27, 30, 34, 310-311, 629, 680-682,
684-692, 694-697 content-focused instruction 140, 143-144 contingency theory 322, 328, 503 Continuing Medical Education (CME) 28, 453-467 continuous improvement 164, 238, 432, 435-436,
463, 691 copyright 11, 22, 35-47, 77, 178, 298-309, 384,
386, 419, 436 Copyright Act of 1976 36, 301, 305 Council for Accreditation of Counseling and Related
Educational Programs (CACREP) 82, 85, 87 Council of Graduate Schools (CGS) 108, 110, 112,
118, 120, 247-248, 259-260, 263-264 counseling competency 570, 586 counselor 82, 109, 118-119, 431, 570-571, 573-576,
578-579, 581-585, 700, 711 courseware 265, 299-300, 305, 307-309, 417, 665 coworker incivility 65, 68-74 Creative Commons 38-39, 42-43, 45-47, 305, 307 critical theory 130, 137 cultural leadership 267 cultural systems 424-427, 431-432, 436 curriculum 3, 6, 8-9, 27-28, 50, 52, 55, 58-59, 63,
82-84, 99, 101, 137, 143, 153, 173, 176, 201- 202, 204, 207-208, 210-211, 213, 218, 221, 223-224, 226, 228, 232-234, 238-241, 243, 248, 250-253, 263, 267, 332-333, 343-344, 346-347, 352, 357, 364-365, 388-389, 408- 410, 413-414, 420, 437-439, 442, 450-451, 454, 475, 484, 493, 532-533, 535, 543, 553, 555-560, 562, 565-568, 602, 607, 610, 613, 623, 631, 635, 643, 650-652, 668, 708, 720, 729-732, 738, 741-742, 773, 821-823, 829, 833-834, 848, 851
D data mining 63 decile 204, 211 Delicious 42, 385 Delta Cost Project 214, 230 developmental dimension 697 diffusion 46, 125, 131, 133, 136-137, 200, 210,
390, 419, 460, 462-463, 466-467, 492, 503, 521, 530, 621, 768
digital age learning 6, 853, 855 digital immigrant 140-141, 153 digital learning objects 442, 452, 654
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Digital Literacy 5, 8-9, 99, 361, 439, 852 Digital Millennium Copyright Act (DMCA) 36,
300, 302 digital native 97, 140-141, 153, 362 digital networks 40 Digital Objects Identifiers (DOI) 9-10, 33-34, 40,
46, 61-63, 75-76, 85-87, 102-105, 118-119, 135-137, 151-153, 165-169, 185, 209-211, 228- 232, 244-245, 259-265, 276, 294-297, 307-308, 317-319, 327-328, 347-348, 359-361, 389-390, 403-407, 421, 433-436, 450-451, 463-467, 477- 478, 487-489, 501-503, 512-513, 527-531, 543, 555, 566, 583-585, 598-600, 613-614, 637-639, 652-654, 664-665, 676-679, 696-697, 711, 722- 724, 743-744, 758, 766-770, 793-796, 804-806, 816-818, 843-846, 858-862
Digital Rights Management (DRM) 44-47, 300 digital skills 7 digital world 1, 35, 41, 183, 282, 359, 373, 388,
420, 604, 649, 703 Dissertation Committee Chair 119 distance education 31-32, 36, 44, 49, 54, 58, 60-62,
81-83, 85-88, 118, 165, 178, 248-250, 253, 257-264, 300, 302, 304-305, 307-308, 430, 433-435, 453-464, 467, 587-590, 593, 595, 598-600, 664-665, 713, 722, 724, 782-786, 789, 791-796, 805, 838-839, 841, 844-845, 858
distance learning 33, 35, 54, 62-63, 82-86, 102-103, 147, 177, 211, 253-254, 256-257, 259-261, 263, 265, 284, 299, 302-304, 307, 398, 430, 433-436, 452, 455, 457, 460, 462-463, 465, 543, 601, 664, 700, 710, 713, 784, 791, 795- 796, 804, 806, 835-836, 841, 843
DIY Ethos 357, 362 DIY Media 350-351, 354-360, 362 Doctorate of Education (Ed.D) 108-110, 112, 117-
118, 809 double loop learning 157, 618, 627 downsizing 13, 193, 197, 397 dropbox 257, 259, 264-265 dropout prevention 468-473, 476-478, 633 dropout rate 249, 420, 468, 470, 478
E e-blast 711 educational games 642, 654 educational leadership 15, 26, 33, 111, 151-152,
251, 255, 260, 263-264, 266-268, 274-275, 277, 307, 324, 390, 409, 420-422, 451, 476, 557, 565, 567, 629, 631, 636, 638, 640, 724, 832-833, 843, 848, 852, 858, 861
educational technology 10, 62, 135-136, 152, 182, 210-211, 261, 275-276, 287, 295, 301, 361, 390, 408-411, 421-422, 435, 450-451, 472, 506, 512, 543, 598-599, 654, 657, 659-661, 663-665, 723-724, 765, 804-806, 819-832, 834, 847, 849, 856-857, 859-860, 862
EDUCAUSE Learning Initiative (ELI) 50, 62, 800- 801, 804
e-gaming 388, 390 EI model 197 e-leadership 12-13, 15-19, 21, 408, 422 e-learning 2-3, 8, 10, 34, 61, 63, 81-83, 86, 103,
145, 149-152, 161, 164, 167, 184, 200, 210, 231, 256, 259, 261, 296, 298-299, 306, 308, 360, 373, 375-383, 385, 387-390, 393, 405- 406, 408-409, 413-414, 421, 434, 439, 451, 466, 533, 543, 552, 555, 642-643, 651, 655, 665, 697, 724-725, 782-794, 796, 804, 845, 847-848, 852, 855, 858-859, 862
Electronic Health Record (EHR) 17, 23, 26, 34, 43, 77, 79, 95-96, 114-115, 120, 130, 133, 156, 220, 236, 244-245, 268, 301, 306, 310, 312, 314-315, 325-326, 341, 351, 356, 367, 370-371, 375-378, 387, 424, 426-428, 446, 456-457, 485, 496, 499, 561, 570, 572-574, 577-578, 582, 585, 611-612, 617, 619, 630, 645-647, 668-675, 700, 702, 706, 714, 717, 736, 750, 758, 787-788, 799
Electronic Medical Records (EMR) 226, 233-237, 239-241, 243-246
e-lert 711 emerging technologies 31, 48-50, 56, 58-61, 98,
387, 414, 442, 454, 616, 651, 717, 797-798, 800, 802-803, 806, 859-860
emotional intelligence 192, 194, 196, 227, 230, 280, 333, 348, 646, 733, 744
empathetic understanding 24-27, 30, 34 employee-oriented 15 episodic change 531 epistemology 547, 697, 763, 770 e-portfolio 443-444, 452 evaluation 7, 15, 17, 28, 44, 50, 52, 55, 87, 105,
131, 138-139, 141, 144, 149-152, 167, 171, 173, 180, 184-185, 209, 234, 267, 289, 291, 294, 296, 308, 314, 332-333, 339, 345, 347, 375, 378, 382, 386, 390, 396, 401, 405, 413- 414, 420, 423-426, 432, 435-436, 459, 462, 464, 474-475, 477, 480, 524, 549, 552, 556- 559, 562-564, 567, 574-575, 577, 591-592, 600, 604, 614, 630-631, 635-636, 640, 719, 722-723, 728, 730-732, 734, 743, 772, 779, 783, 803, 814, 817, 823-824, 827-830, 833, 857
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exogenous 185, 388, 762, 770 Experiential Learning (EL) 215, 217, 224-227, 231,
259, 352, 360, 470, 642-647, 649-654, 718 extranets 147
F Facebook 2, 31, 37, 75, 89-91, 97-104, 106-107,
182, 254, 256, 258-259, 262, 265, 306, 385, 391, 419, 480, 539, 590, 596, 700, 702, 710- 712, 800, 822, 851, 854, 856, 858, 860-861
facilitative leadership 12, 14-19, 21 fair use 35-38, 44, 46-47, 178, 298-304, 306-309 filial therapy 79-80, 85, 87 final examination 808, 810-813, 818 formative evaluation 138, 332, 592, 600, 730-731 for-profit 31, 214, 364-365, 370, 372, 587, 727-728,
731, 784, 789, 855 forum 91, 93-94, 96, 99, 101, 103-104, 106, 110,
205, 283-284, 446, 448-449, 451, 477, 489, 505, 553, 623-624, 640, 832-833
future educational leaders 409-410, 412, 422
G generational blending 249, 252, 265 globalization 50, 59, 134, 154, 212, 257, 275, 283,
337, 346, 374, 391, 393, 399, 515, 527, 695, 697, 733, 742, 746-748, 751, 757, 760, 770
global survey 333-334, 336, 340, 344, 346, 348, 727, 732, 739-742, 744
google docs 257, 259-260, 265, 385, 597, 718 graduation rate 468, 475, 478, 809, 817 group dimension 697 group maintenance 15
H health behavior change 504-507, 509-513 Health Care Administration (HCA) 233-234, 238-
239, 243 health care administrator 238, 246 health prevention 513 Health Professional Shortage Area (HSPA) 467 hierarchical dimension 697 hierarchical integration 319 hierarchical regression 65, 71 Higher Education (HE) 2-3, 6-10, 12-15, 24-28,
30, 32-33, 42, 55, 60-61, 77, 81-82, 85, 87, 90-91, 101-103, 111, 123-125, 127, 129, 131, 133, 158, 171-172, 175, 179-182, 184, 195,
197, 212-215, 217-223, 225-232, 248-249, 251-253, 257-261, 263-265, 279-281, 288, 290, 298, 303, 307-308, 313, 320-328, 330, 337, 350-351, 353, 364, 366-367, 369-370, 382, 389, 398, 404, 410, 413, 421, 427, 434-435, 438, 461, 464, 466, 474, 478, 486, 491-493, 495, 499-503, 525, 528, 548, 555, 560, 567, 569, 571-577, 579-583, 585, 588-589, 595, 599, 610-612, 617-620, 623-624, 629, 647-649, 668, 682, 688, 696-697, 699-701, 708, 711, 713-719, 722-724, 733, 749, 751, 761-763, 765-766, 778, 780-781, 783-784, 786, 790-795, 800, 809, 816-817, 824, 829, 836, 842-845, 853, 861
high impact practices 425, 436 Horizon Report 50, 442 Howard Gardner 55, 174, 280 hub 442, 533, 544 human capital 170, 194-195, 480-481, 487-490,
583, 762, 769 humanistic education 25-26, 33-34 humanistic psychology 24 Human Performance Technology (HPT) 50, 61-62,
392 Human Resource Development (HRD) 62, 76, 132,
135, 164-169, 191-194, 219, 225, 228-230, 261, 327-328, 347-348, 372, 391-392, 394-407, 485, 489-490, 583-584, 622, 743-744, 747, 759-770
hybrid learning 3
I immersive learning environments 87 impoverished leader 180 incentive 54, 137, 216, 236, 352, 621, 647 incivility 65-77, 488 information consumer 2 information efficiencies 156 information literacy 7, 260, 373-376, 381-390 information synergies 156 instant messaging 145-146, 277, 393, 396, 419,
448, 593, 595, 785, 820 instructional design 6, 54, 144, 181-182, 302, 361,
376, 381-383, 385-386, 388, 390, 400, 425, 432-435, 451, 545, 566, 587-588, 591-592, 598-600, 643, 648-649, 651, 657, 730, 786
instructional strategies 54-55, 144, 172, 174-175, 178, 181-182, 185-186, 385, 420, 425-426, 559, 561, 592, 629, 821
integrated learning management system 390
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Index
Integrated Readiness Matrix 171-172, 180, 183-185 intellectual property 35-39, 43-47, 219, 298-299,
301, 303-305, 307-309 interactive video 454, 457, 459, 467, 665 interactivity 2, 30, 41, 44, 49, 147-148, 253, 270,
274, 507, 511, 605, 643, 646, 648, 653, 658, 786, 802
intermediate schools 211, 452 International Society for Technology in Education
National Educational Technology Standards for Administrators (ISTE NETS-A) 409, 422
interpersonal intelligence 174 interpretive inquiry 339, 348, 734, 744 intranets 147-148, 155, 165, 228, 393 intrapersonal intelligence 174 in-world 716, 722, 725
J Jing 206-207, 446 junk bonds 13, 19
K knowledge creation 2, 7, 10, 29, 157-158, 168, 170,
212, 217-218, 227, 392, 394, 399, 533, 803, 860
Knowledge Management (KM) 41, 134, 154-155, 157-161, 163-170, 216-217, 219, 228-229, 231- 232, 269, 275-277, 301, 377, 393-394, 397, 399-400, 402-403, 406, 543, 721, 761, 769
Knowledge Net (KNet) 199, 204-205, 207-208, 437-438, 440, 442-444, 446-450, 452
knowledge retention 158, 645 knowledge sharing 163, 165, 212-213, 215-228,
230, 232, 399, 403, 406, 525, 536-538, 807
L leader-member exchange theory 323, 328 leadership approach 15 leadership training 278-286, 321, 332, 340, 643,
730-732, 735, 752 Learner-centered Instruction (LCI) 546, 554, 772,
797-799, 801-803, 807 learner-centered pedagogy 545, 556, 803-804 learner demographics 48, 258 Learner Experience 2, 11, 57, 59 learner-focused instruction 140 Learner Voice 2, 9, 11 learning communities 1-2, 6, 60, 98, 103, 134, 247-
265, 268, 270, 287, 397, 399, 403, 471, 542,
555, 606, 612, 614-615, 626, 785, 787, 792, 794-795, 827, 829, 837, 845, 851, 858-859, 861
learning facilitator 49, 612 learning innovation 49, 52-54 Learning Management Systems (LMS) 2, 7, 11,
148, 159, 172, 199-200, 223, 225-226, 385, 413, 417, 419, 437, 440-442, 447-451, 592, 710, 764
learning organization 162, 167-170, 188, 190, 194, 287, 466, 530, 606-607, 616, 618-619, 622- 624, 626-627
learning outcome 242, 246, 376, 656, 659, 661, 663-664
learning processes 6, 154, 157, 164, 166, 168, 224, 284, 390, 429, 507, 522, 579, 603, 627
learning story 445, 447, 452 Learning Technology 6, 9-10, 555, 642, 796 learning theories 55, 172, 176, 185, 439, 591, 665 Legitimate Peripheral Participation 91-92, 104, 106,
805 LibraryThing 42 linguistic intelligence 174 locus of control 26-28, 30, 34, 55, 297, 395, 535
M machine learning 50, 63 maintenance of transfer 297 managerial grid 178-179, 181, 185, 754 MANOVA 65, 71, 73 maturing 228, 540, 570, 578, 586 medical education 83, 212-223, 225-226, 228-232,
453-454, 457, 463-467, 600 mentee 468, 473-475, 478 mentor 23, 111, 120, 192, 285, 317, 398, 402, 468,
471, 473-475, 477-478, 524, 711-712, 829, 832, 842
mentoring 5, 8, 52, 58, 163, 223, 259, 263, 265, 340, 362, 397-398, 402-403, 420, 431, 447, 449, 468, 470, 472-478, 485, 538, 540, 611, 735, 815, 843
merging 3, 13, 193, 198, 569, 650, 689, 822 metacognition 231, 390 Meta Tags 50, 63 microblogs 57 middle-of-the-road leader 180 missing paradigm 5 Mixed Reality (MR) 653, 802, 805, 807 mobile applications 48-49 mobile learning 3, 149, 387, 806, 852-855, 857, 862
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Index
Modular Object-Oriented Dynamic Learning Envi- ronment (Moodle) 59, 63, 448, 779
MP3 audio 702, 711 Mulitple Intelligences (MI) 55-56, 118, 308, 477,
582-583, 796 Multiliteracy 89-90, 92, 94, 98-99, 101-103, 106 multimedia technology 657, 665 multimodalities 3 multivocal synthesis 601, 607-608, 615 musical intelligence 174
N National Assessment of Educational Process
(NAEP) 481-482, 490, 567 National Center for Victims of Crime 67, 76 national culture 617, 750, 752-753, 758 naturalist intelligence 175 needs assessment 131, 238, 289, 322, 330-333, 344-
346, 348, 412, 462, 467, 509, 536, 565, 574, 600, 636, 709, 730-733, 741-742, 744
new century 12-13, 15-19, 189, 195-196, 433 New media Consortium 50 next generation learning challenges 7 Ning 59, 63, 256, 854 non-adopter 503 Non Governmental Organization (NGO) 330-337,
339-348, 726-744 nonprofit 37, 47, 279, 287, 332, 348, 363-365, 368-
372, 394, 626, 727-728, 732, 743-744, 843 normal school 211
O oil cartel 13, 19 online community of practice 532, 540, 544 online course 12, 59, 63, 87, 110, 119, 178, 248,
250, 299, 304, 308-309, 423-426, 429-431, 433, 436, 597, 659, 665, 724, 786, 844-845
online discussion board 108-112, 114-119, 261, 356 online instruction 31, 83, 299-300, 308-309, 384,
433-434, 538, 656-657, 665 online placement test 711 online teaching and learning 30, 423-425, 427-428,
430-433, 436, 665, 714, 790, 843 on-the-job training (OJT) 297 ontology 697, 763, 770 open education 4, 7, 33, 49, 51, 58, 61, 63, 804 Open Educational Resource movement (OER) 4 Open learn Labspace 4 open source 7, 11, 39, 41, 43, 47-49, 58, 255, 265,
274, 381, 427, 448, 606, 814
Open University 4, 573 operationalize 311, 313-314, 770 organizational commitment 66, 68-70, 72, 76-77 Organizational Learning (OL) 139, 154-170, 216,
229, 268, 276, 392, 399-400, 405, 407, 511, 527, 616-618, 622, 624-627
organization change 348, 395, 401, 744, 762 organization culture 348, 744 organization values 334, 348, 730, 739, 744
P parent portal 199-209, 211, 442-443, 450, 452, 543 Participatory Culture 9, 358, 362, 731, 800 path-goal theory 322, 327, 329 pedagogical change 1 Pedagogy 2.0 5, 11 peer 2, 82, 108-111, 113, 115-118, 120, 123, 176,
200, 219-221, 251, 255, 264, 282, 284-285, 294, 297, 340, 343, 382, 384, 426, 432, 441, 447, 449, 486, 521, 552, 574, 701-702, 709, 712, 715, 717, 735, 738, 783, 785-787, 791, 793, 795, 829-830, 832, 844
peer review 108, 110-111, 113, 115-118, 120, 219- 221, 264, 426
performance innovation 48-54, 56-60 personal factors 67, 124, 697 Personal Learning Environment (PLE) 57-58, 62,
443 Personal Learning Network (PLN) 57, 59, 62 person-centered psychological approach 23 Ph.D. Completion Project 108-110, 112, 120 philosophy 20, 31, 38, 188, 190-193, 195, 204, 229,
255, 328, 350, 353-354, 365, 455, 554, 576, 588, 672, 759-761, 763, 765-766, 770, 803
physical violence 66-67, 73, 75, 77 pilot study 348, 745, 768 plagiarism 299-300, 305-309, 419 playfulness 646-652, 654 play therapist 81-82, 84-85, 668, 672-675, 679 play therapy techniques 671, 673, 679 portfolio of literacies 4 possible selves 313-319 Principal Content Analysis (PCA) 608-609, 615 production-oriented 15 public health 288-289, 291, 294-295, 297, 453-454,
463-464, 467, 477 push and pull technology 271
Q quadrants 15, 19, 21
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Index
quantitative research 348, 745
R Ralph Tyler 557, 559-560, 565, 567-568 rational dimension 697 Really Simple Syndication (RSS) 43, 271, 277, 383,
388, 395, 596 Resource Management Software 309 restructuring 13, 103, 127, 193, 198, 215, 226-227,
410, 421, 469, 517, 521, 696, 762 Return on Capability Employed (ROCE) 369-370,
372
S sanctioning board 629, 641 scaffolds 6, 376 Scholarly Publishing and Academic Resources Co-
alition (SPARC) 45 school board 76, 628, 631, 633, 635-638, 640-641,
678, 861 school leadership 203, 260, 264, 270, 275-276, 349,
409-410, 536, 639-641, 847-850, 852, 855, 857-859, 861-862
school superintendent 628, 637, 640-641 Second Life 149, 153, 273, 306, 375, 400, 403, 449,
451-452, 596, 600, 713-725, 801 self 5, 12, 27, 29, 79, 104, 122, 197, 202-203, 258,
310-313, 315, 317-319, 337-338, 434-435, 443, 447, 465, 535, 573, 599, 607, 612, 629, 645, 672-673, 684-685, 692, 707, 715, 733, 754, 775, 779, 788, 798, 838, 840, 843
self-efficacy 124, 131, 137, 290, 294, 296-297, 401, 403, 466, 488-489, 509-511, 665
self regulation 798 Serious Game (SG) 643, 654 sharing of knowledge 449, 533, 542, 544, 784 signifiers 157 similarity-attraction paradigm 697 simulation 176, 218, 223-225, 228, 230, 232, 238,
243, 277, 385, 525, 590, 592, 642-643, 646, 648-650, 652-654, 765, 805
simulation education 223-225, 232 single loop learning 157, 627 situational approach 322, 329 skills approach 329 social development theory 110-111, 120, 669 social media 1-3, 5-6, 8-9, 11, 23, 49-51, 56-59, 63,
418, 529 Social Networking Communities (SNC) 90-91, 97-
98, 100-101, 105, 851
social presence 30, 83, 86, 104, 714, 784, 787, 792- 793, 795-796, 836-838, 841-846
social software 1-3, 5-7, 9-10, 260, 814 socio-pragmatic competence 90, 106-107 socio-pragmatic development 99 state schools 211 static organizations 188-198 streaming video 349, 665 student management system 211, 448 style approach 329 summative assessment 426, 546, 551, 778, 781 summative evaluation 138, 592, 600 supervisor 65, 67-74, 77, 111, 119, 132, 297, 341,
414, 493, 638, 736 survival analysis 808-810, 812, 816-818 sustainability 135, 330-331, 346, 514-516, 521-523,
528, 531, 535, 680-681, 688, 692, 726, 728- 730, 742, 820, 853, 856
sustainable innovation 516, 523-524, 527-531 synchronous 23, 59, 82-83, 97, 145-146, 148-149,
153, 176, 272, 352, 362, 398, 590, 593-595, 599-600, 700, 717, 719-721, 844, 851
synergism 15, 21-22
T taxonomy 131, 135, 171-175, 177-178, 180-181,
183, 185-186, 238-239, 241, 243, 318, 434, 451, 550, 554, 558, 564-565, 567, 643, 805
Taxonomy for the Technology Domain 171, 177, 180, 185-186
teaching presence 31, 83, 85 team leader 180, 754 technological aspirations 172 Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge
(TPCK) 797-800, 805-807 technology diffusion 137 Technology, Education and Copyright Harmoniza-
tion Act (TEACH) 29, 32, 36, 43, 55, 82-83, 175, 178, 206, 219-220, 224, 230, 253, 285, 300, 302, 354, 356, 359, 382, 385-386, 418- 419, 425, 431, 464, 472, 484, 486, 539, 546, 548-549, 552, 554-555, 559, 576-577, 602, 604, 606-607, 611-613, 620, 634-635, 642, 649, 653-654, 668, 700, 713, 715, 724, 772, 780-781, 822, 828-829
Technology Enhanced Learning (TEL) 638, 642- 643, 645-646, 648-652, 655
technology for collaboration 177 technology for decision-making 177 technology for learning 178, 180, 223
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Index
technology for literacy 177 technology for teaching 177-178, 180 technology infrastructure 331, 346, 348, 409, 413,
534, 540, 729, 742, 745, 851 technology integration 133, 137, 143-145, 152-
154, 181, 223, 233, 243, 270, 356, 391, 400, 409-410, 413, 415-416, 422, 514, 527, 746, 797-800, 803-804, 807, 819-821, 823-824, 826, 831, 834
technology integration plan 413, 422 technology professional development 410, 422,
819-832, 834 tech-ology 177-178, 180 telecommuting 20, 406, 491-503 teleconferencing 146, 254, 456, 595 teleport 640, 725, 801 tenets 13, 16, 22, 26, 213, 250, 252 text-based interaction 272 theoretical framework 54, 110, 297, 507, 546, 667,
763, 774, 795 theories of leadership 267, 277, 616 Theory X 22, 323 Theory X-hard approach 15 the Sloan Consortium 30-31, 33, 248 third space 100, 107 threaded 145-146, 256, 381-384, 590, 594, 700, 711 traditional academic advising 698-699, 701, 703,
706-707, 711 traditional aged student 711 transfer of related training 290-292, 294-295, 297 Transfer of Training Inventory (TTI) 291, 294, 297 transformational learning 507, 513 transformative change 130, 137 transliteracies 5 turnover intent 65-66, 68-72, 74-75, 77 twitter 2, 31, 57, 59, 256, 258, 265, 272, 391, 480,
590, 596, 851, 856, 861 types of play 669, 673, 679
U unconditional positive regard 24-27, 34, 629
V value congruence 686-687, 695-697 videoconferencing 103, 183, 254, 270, 274
virtual academic advising 698, 707, 709, 711 virtual classroom 149, 558 Virtual Communities of Practice (VCoPs) 154, 159,
162-163, 165, 397, 399, 403 Virtual Human Resource Development (HRD) 219,
225, 392, 394-395, 397, 399, 401-402, 407 Virtual Learning Envorinments (VLE) 2, 11, 63,
451 virtual peer advisor 712 virtual realities 46, 273 virtual team 330, 398, 401, 406-407 virtual workplace 396, 407 virtual worlds 8, 46, 134, 159, 162, 166, 276, 387,
391, 396-398, 400, 403-404, 407, 449, 596, 646, 649, 718, 722-724, 798, 801-804, 807
voice-over IP 273, 286 volatility 13, 22, 729
W Web 2.0 1-5, 7-11, 35-36, 42, 44, 47, 49-50, 56-58,
61, 63-64, 75, 89-93, 96-97, 100-101, 105, 110, 134, 208, 255-256, 258-260, 265-266, 270-272, 274-275, 277, 283, 286-287, 349-350, 355, 357-358, 362, 381-382, 384, 390, 392, 395, 405-406, 442, 444, 448, 587, 595-596, 598-599, 606, 616, 621, 625, 627, 699-702, 709-710, 712, 714, 718, 798, 800-804, 806- 807, 820, 859, 861
web-based instruction 1, 178, 384, 590-591, 600 web-based learning platforms 161 web-based technology-assisted training 147 webcast 148-149, 153, 273-274 webinar 148-149, 153 Wikibooks 4 wikispaces 59, 63-64 Wikiversity 4 work group 297 workplace incivility 65-70, 72, 75-76
Z Zines 351, 359, 362
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- Volume 1
- Title
- List of Reviewers
- Table of ContentsPreface
- Preface
- Acknowledgment
- Leading PedagogicalChange with Innovative WebTools and Social Media
- E-Leadership in theNew Century
- Person-CenteredOnline Education:What Carl Rogers Has to Say to Teachersin Computer-Mediated Environment
- Information Technologyand Fair Use
- Learning and PerformanceInnovation
- Workplace Incivility in Schools
- Play Therapy at a Crossroads:A Vision for Future Training and Research
- Web 2.0 Technologies andForeign Language Teaching
- Using an Online DiscussionBoard for Peer Reviewof Dissertation Writingfor Ed.D. Students
- Change Process
- Using Technology inProviding Effective Training
- Organizational Learningand Technology
- The IntegratedReadiness Matrix:A New Model for IntegratingPedagogy and Technology into HigherEducation Faculty Development
- A Critical Review ofLearning Organizationsin the 21st Century
- Case Study of a New ZealandSchool’s Use and Developmentof a Parent Portal
- Knowledge Sharing inAcademic Medical Centers:Examining the Nexus of HigherEducation and Workforce Development
- Technology Integrationand Graduate HealthManagement Education:A Review of Competency Models andApplication to Electronic Medical Records
- Engaging the AdultLearner Through GraduateLearning Communities
- Web 2.0 Technology andEducational LeadershipCommunication
- Global Leadership Trainingand Technology
- Multiple Factors of WorkforceDevelopment that Affect theEfficacy of Training Transfer tothe On-the-Job Performanceof Public Health Care Workers
- Fair Use, Copyright, andAcademic Integrity in an OnlineAcademic Environment
- Assessment Methodsfor Self-DevelopmentGoals of Executives
- Closing the Leadership GapsBetween Theory and Practice:A Glimpse of the Major LeadershipIssues in Higher Education
- Volume 2
- Defining Technology Challenges to Growth of an International Non-Governmental Organization (NGO)
- Do-It-Yourself Media in U.S. Education
- 21st Century Leadership in the Nonprofit Sector
- Information Competency and E-Learning
- Human Resource Development and Technology Integration
- Technology, E-Leadership and Educational Administration in Schools
- Assuring Quality in Online Course Delivery
- Fishing for Quality Learning
- The Efficacy of Continuing Education Technology for Public Health Physicians Practicing in Remote Areas
- Dropout Prevention
- Writing
- Leadership in Higher Education in Adopting a Telecommuting Program
- The Role of Targeted E-Mail Messaging at the Worksite
- Sustaining Organizational Innovation
- How to Utilize an Online Community of Practice (Cop) to Enhance Innovation in Teaching and Learning
- Learner-Centered Course Design
- Traditional Educational Leadership
- Counseling in an Andragogical Approach
- Distance Education at University Settings
- Volume 3
- Criteria That Contribute to High Quality Teaching
- The Impact of Technology on Organizational Learning and Leadership
- Leadership Characteristics of the Ideal School Superintendent
- Technology Enhanced Learning and Education
- The Effects of the Instructional Video on Pre-Service Teachers’ Technology Learning in an Online Environment
- Play and Play Therapy
- Congruency in Higher Learning
- Virtual Compared to Traditional Academic Advising Satisfaction Rates of First-Year College Students
- A New Vision for Distance Learning
- Challenges in International Consulting
- Leadership Development in Kazakhstan
- People, Technology and Human Resource Development (HRD) Philosophy
- Teacher Directed Instruction for Student Engagement
- Learning Together
- Learner-Centered Technology Integration
- Time to Graduation of Three Different Master’s Degrees in Psychology at a Public University
- Standards-Based Educational Technology Professional Development
- Building a Brand in Virtual Learning Spaces
- The Impact of Technology on School Leadership
- About the Contributors
- Index
