Psychology Essay 10

owanaba

WADE_PPT_12.pdf

Home >Psychology homework help >Psychology Essay 10

Psychology Twelfth Edition

Chapter 12 Motivation

Motivation and the Hungry Animal

• LO 12.1.A Define motivation, and distinguish between

intrinsic and extrinsic motivation.

• LO 12.1.B Discuss the biological factors that contribute

to weight, and define what a set point is.

• LO 12.1.C Discuss five major environmental influences

on weight, and provide an example of each.

• LO 12.1.D Distinguish between anorexia nervosa and

bulimia nervosa, and discuss some factors that

contribute to each disorder.

Defining Motivation (1 of 2)

• Motivation refers to a process within a person or

animal that causes that organism to move:

– toward a goal or

– away from an unpleasant situation

• Intrinsic motivation refers to the desire to do

something for its own sake and the pleasure it

brings.

– Example: A runner may be motivated to exercise

simply because it makes her feel good and energized.

Defining Motivation (2 of 2)

• Extrinsic motivation refers to the desire to do

something for external rewards, such as money

and good grades.

• Whether your motives are intrinsic or extrinsic

affects:

– how readily you meet your goals, and

– how satisfied meeting them can make you feel

The Biology of Weight (1 of 4)

• At one time, most psychologists thought that being

overweight was a sign of emotional disturbance.

• If you were fat, it was because you:

– hated your mother

– feared intimacy, or were

– trying to fill an emotional hole in your psyche by loading

up on rich desserts

• But this idea was based on flawed evidence.

The Biology of Weight (2 of 4)

• Overweight and obesity are not simply a result of:

– failed willpower

– emotional disturbance, or

– overeating

• Hunger, weight, and eating are regulated by:

– a set of bodily mechanisms

– and a number of fat cells

• Everyone has a genetically programmed basal

metabolism rate.

The Biology of Weight (3 of 4)

• These influences keep people close to their

genetically influenced set point.

• Genes influence:

– body shape

– distribution of fat

– number of fat cells

– amount of brown fat, and

– whether the body will convert excess calories into fat

The Biology of Weight (4 of 4)

• The ob gene regulates leptin.

• Leptin enables the hypothalamus to regulate

appetite and metabolism.

• The hormone ghrelin spurs appetite and leptin

reduces it.

• The complex set-point system seems to explain

why dieters who lose weight so rarely keep it off.

Environmental Influences on

Weight (1 of 2)

• Genetics alone cannot explain why rates of

overweight and obesity are rising all over the

world.

• The rates are increasing among all:

– social classes

– ethnicities, and

– ages

Environmental Influences on

Weight (2 of 2)

• The five major environmental reasons are:

– (1) the increased abundance of inexpensive fast food

and processed food

– (2) the increased consumption of high-calorie sugary

sodas

– (3) the rise of sedentary lifestyles

– (4) increased portion sizes, and

– (5) the availability of highly varied foods

The Body as Battleground: Eating

Disorders (1 of 2)

• Anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa are the

best-known eating disorders.

• They occur mostly among young white women.

• However, a large percentage of all cases of eating

disorders affect women and men of varying ages

and ethnicities.

The Body as Battleground: Eating

Disorders (2 of 2)

• Genetic and cultural factors influence eating

disorders.

• But most are due to psychological causes, such

as:

– depression

– anxiety

– perfectionism, or

– distorted body image

The Social Animal: Motives to Love

• LO 12.2.A Describe how passionate love,

compassionate love, social bonding, and the action

of vasopressin and oxytocin all contribute to our

understanding of the biology of love.

• LO 12.2.B Explain how attachment theory can be

applied to adult romantic relationships.

• LO 12.2.C Summarize the research on gender

differences and cultural differences in romantic

relationships.

The Biology of Love (1 of 2)

• All human beings have a need for:

– attachment and

– love

• Psychologists distinguish between:

– passionate (romantic) love

 a whirlwind of intense emotions and sexual passion

– companionate love

 characterized by affection and trust

The Biology of Love (2 of 2)

• Various brain chemicals and hormones are

associated with bonding and trust:

– vasopressin

– oxytocin

• The rushes of pleasure and reward associated

with romantic passion are created by:

– endorphins

– dopamine

The Psychology of Love (1 of 3)

• Two strong predictors of whom people will love

are proximity and similarity.

• Proximity:

– We tend to choose our friends and lovers from the set

of people who live, study, or work near us.

• Similarity:

– in looks, attitudes, beliefs, values, personality, and

interests

The Psychology of Love (2 of 3)

• When in love, people form different kinds of

attachments.

• Attachment theory views adult love relationships,

like those of infants, as being:

– secure

– avoidant, or

– anxious

The Psychology of Love (3 of 3)

• The key ingredients of love are:

– passion

– intimacy, and

– commitment

• The ability to sustain a long and intimate love

relationship involves a couple’s:

– attitudes

– values

– balance of power, and

– motivation to maintain the relationship

Gender, Culture, and Love (1 of 2)

• Men and women are equally likely to feel love and

need attachment.

• But they differ, on average, in:

– how they express feelings of love and

– how they define intimacy

• These gender differences reflect gender roles.

• Gender roles are in turn shaped by social,

economic, and cultural forces.

Gender, Culture, and Love (2 of 2)

• Our motivations to love often start with biology

and the workings of the brain.

• But they are shaped and directed by:

– our early experiences with parents

– the culture we live in

– the historical era that shapes us, and

– something as utterly unromantic as economic

dependency or self-sufficiency

The Erotic Animal: Motives for Sex

• LO 12.3.A Summarize early research findings on

sexuality, and describe how biology, hormones,

and expectations might contribute to differences in

the sexuality of women and men.

• LO 12.3.B Discuss six motives for sex and contrast

these with three motives for rape.

• LO 12.3.C Explain the ways in which culture and

gender contribute to both sexual behavior and

expectations about that behavior.

The Biology of Desire (1 of 5)

• Human sexuality is not simply a matter of “doing

what comes naturally.”

• What is “natural” for one person or culture may not

be so natural for others.

• Human sexuality is influenced by a blend of

factors:

– biological

– psychological, and

– cultural

The Biology of Desire (2 of 5)

• Surveys (Kinsey) and research (Masters and

Johnson) showed that physiologically, both sexes

are capable of sexual arousal and response.

• Masters and Johnson’s “four stages of the sexual

response cycle” include:

– desire

– arousal (excitement)

– orgasm, and

– resolution

The Biology of Desire (3 of 5)

• Unfortunately, there has been an impulse to treat

these four stages as if they were like the cycles of

a washing machine.

• This has led to a mistaken inference of

universality.

• Individuals vary enormously in:

– sexual excitement

– response, and

– inhibition

The Biology of Desire (4 of 5)

• The hormone testosterone promotes sexual desire

in both men and women.

• However, hormones do not cause sexual behavior

in a simple, direct way.

• The question of whether men and women are

alike or different in some underlying, biologically

based sex drive continues to provoke lively

debate.

– biological factors versus gender roles

The Biology of Desire (5 of 5)

• A balanced view of sexuality is that:

– male sexuality is more biologically influenced than is

women’s, whereas

– female sexuality is more governed by

 circumstances

 relationships, and

 cultural norms

The Psychology of Desire (1 of 3)

• Men and women have sex to satisfy many

different psychological motives, including:

– pleasure

– intimacy

– security

– the partner’s approval

– peer approval, or

– to attain a specific goal

The Psychology of Desire (2 of 3)

• Motives for consenting to unwanted sex vary.

• In one study, anxiously attached women were the

most willing to consent to unwanted sex.

– especially if they feared their partners were less

committed than they were

• Securely attached women also had unwanted sex:

– to gain sexual experience

– to satisfy their curiosity, or

– to actively please their partners and further the

intimacy between them

The Psychology of Desire (3 of 3)

• One of the most persistent differences in the

sexual experiences of women and men has to do

with sexual coercion.

• Men who rape do so for diverse reasons:

– narcissism and hostility toward women

– a desire to dominate, humiliate, or punish the victim

– (sometimes) sadism

Gender, Culture, and Sex (1 of 3)

• Simply having the physical equipment to perform

a sexual act is not enough to explain sexual

motivation.

• People have to learn:

– what is supposed to turn them on (or off)

– which parts of the body and what activities are erotic

(or repulsive), and even

– how to have pleasurable sexual relations

Gender, Culture, and Sex (2 of 3)

• Cultures transmit ideas about sexuality through:

– gender roles and

– sexual scripts

• These specify appropriate behavior during

courtship and sex.

• They vary from culture to culture, as members act

in accordance with the sexual scripts for their:

– gender, age, sexual orientation, religion, social status,

and peer group

Gender, Culture, and Sex (3 of 3)

• As in the case of love, gender differences (and

similarities) in sexuality are strongly affected by:

– cultural factors and

– economic factors

• Gender roles have become more alike and

women have become more economically

independent.

– As such, the sexual behavior of men and women has

become more alike.

– Women want sex for pleasure rather than as a

bargaining chip.

The Competent Animal: Motives to

Achieve

• LO 12.4.A Describe three conditions that make

goal-setting successful, distinguish between

performance goals and mastery goals, and discuss

the self-fulfilling prophecy cycle.

• LO 12.4.B Describe how working conditions affect

motives to achieve.

The Effects of Motivation on Work (1 of 3)

• What you accomplish depends on the goals you

set for yourself and the reasons you pursue them.

• A goal is most likely to improve your motivation

and performance when three conditions are met:

– The goal is specific.

– The goal is challenging but achievable.

– The goal is framed in terms of getting what you want

rather than avoiding what you do not want.

 approach goals (desired outcomes or experiences)

 avoidance goals (avoiding unpleasant experiences)

The Effects of Motivation on Work (2 of 3)

• The motivation to achieve also depends on

whether people set:

– mastery (learning) goals, in which the focus is on

learning the task well, or

– performance goals, in which the focus is on performing

well for others

• Another contributor to success is self-control.

– the ability to regulate attention, emotion, and behavior

in the presence of temptation

The Effects of Motivation on Work (3 of 3)

• Self-confidence and grit both contribute to the

attainment of goals.

– Grit is a sustained dedication to a passionate interest

with determination and effort over a period of years.

• People’s expectations can create self-fulfilling

prophecies of success or failure.

• These expectations stem from one’s level of self-

efficacy.

– acquired through experience in mastering new skills,

overcoming obstacles, learning from failures

The Effects of Work on Motivation (1 of 2)

• Work motivation also depends on conditions of the

job itself.

• One factor that affects many people’s motivation

to work in a particular field is the proportion of

men and women in that occupation.

• When jobs are highly gender segregated, people

often stereotype the abilities of the women and

men working in those fields.

The Effects of Work on Motivation (2 of 2)

• Working conditions that promote motivation and

satisfaction are those that provide workers with:

– a sense of meaningfulness

– control

– variation in tasks

– supportive relationships

– feedback, and

– opportunities for advancement

Motives, Values, and the Pursuit of

Happiness

• LO 12.5.A Discuss how accurate people are at

estimating the type, duration, and extent of their

future emotions, and comment on what research

indicates makes people happy.

• LO 12.5.B Describe three types of motivational

conflicts people often face, and give an example

of each.

Imagining and Attaining Happiness (1 of 2)

• People are not good at predicting:

– what will make them happy

– what will make them miserable, and at

– estimating how long those feelings will last

• Well-being increases when people enjoy the

intrinsic satisfaction of an activity.

• Having intrinsically enjoyable experiences makes

most people happier than having riches and

possessions.

Imagining and Attaining Happiness (2 of 2)

Figure 12.1

The Misprediction of Emotion

(Dunn, Wilson, & Gilbert, 2003)

Should I Stay or Should I Go? (1 of 4)

• When values and goals are in conflict, the

discrepancy can produce emotional stress and

unhappiness.

• Two motives conflict when the satisfaction of one

leads to the inability to act on the other.

• The three major kinds of motivational conflicts:

– approach–approach

– avoidance–avoidance

– approach–avoidance

Should I Stay or Should I Go? (2 of 4)

• In an approach–approach conflict, a person is

equally attracted to two goals.

• In an avoidance–avoidance conflict, a person is

equally repelled by two goals.

• An approach–avoidance conflict is the most

difficult to resolve because the person is both

attracted to and repelled by the same goal.

Should I Stay or Should I Go? (3 of 4)

• Abraham Maslow envisioned people’s motives as

forming a pyramid.

• The motives ranged from basic survival needs at

the bottom to “self-actualization” at the top.

• But the theory has had little empirical support.

• The main reason is that people have simultaneous

needs, and higher needs may supersede lower

ones.

Should I Stay or Should I Go? (4 of 4)

• Many motives spur us to action.

• Psychological well-being depends on:

– finding activities and choosing goals that are

intrinsically satisfying and consistent with our core

values, and

– developing the self-efficacy to achieve them

• The motives and goals that inspire us, and the

choices we make in their pursuit, are what give

our lives passion, color, and meaning.