infant education
rockshan19977
W6L2ThinkingSkills2021.pptxTHINKING SKILLS
ECHE2180 | Penny Van Bergen
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(With thanks to Helen Little, Carol Newall, and Anne-Lii Hardy for some of the slides here-within!)
Lecture Outline
Memory and higher order thinking
Problem solving and reasoning
Executive functions
Educational implications
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Cognition (revision)
PROBLEM
SOLVING
ANALYSING
REMEMBERING
THINKING
Memory and HOT both come under information processing umbrella
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Links between Memory and Higher Thinking
Retrieval not just for simple facts, word lists etc.
You use knowledge in LTM for higher-order thought
Establish goals
Evaluate new arguments
Find and build on gaps
Thinking takes place in working memory
(e.g. Baer, 1991; Ennis, 1987; Halpern, 1997)
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Creativity, decision making, problem solving, critical thinking
e.g. creativity is strongest in one domain, with cross domain correlations only about .2
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Modal Model (revision)
WORKING
MEMORY
LONG
TERM
MEMORY
ENCODING
RETRIEVAL
SENSORY
MEMORY
ATTENTION
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Now called working rather than short term memory to reflect active processing
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Lecture Outline
Memory and higher order thinking
Problem solving and reasoning
Executive functions
Educational implications
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What is Problem Solving?
Problems exists when current and desired states differ
Occurs in learning and everyday life
Problem solving is the process between these states
Goal of process: achieve desired end state
CURRENT
STATE
PROBLEM SOLVING
DESIRED
STATE
What is Reasoning?
Applying logical thought to a problem
Underpins a range of thinking tasks
Emerges across time
Recall Piagetian development!
Excellent way to support learning
Requires child to draw on knowledge in LTM
Provides deep processing to support memory
Prone to logical fallacies
May or may not solve a problem!
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Types of Reasoning
Adult-like Reasoning:
Deductive reasoning– general to specific
Inductive reasoning– specific to general
Child-like Reasoning:
Transductive reasoning (2-4 years) – specific to specific. If two events occur together, one must have caused the other.
Syncretism (4-11 years) – merging idiosyncratic ideas into a confusing whole.
Interviewier: why do some people get very excited? | 8 year old: “Because the words are about the same… it means that some people get very excited, but afterwards, they do nothing, they are too tired. There are some people who get excited. It’s like when cats run after hens and chicks. They come and rest in the shade, and go to sleep. There are lots of people who run about a great deal… Then afterwards, they are worn out and go to bed.”
All dragons breathe fire (General) Puff is a dragon. Therefore, Puff can breathe fire (Specific)
Robins and sparrows make nests (Specific). Robins and sparrows are birds. All birds make nests (General).
Piaget believed that a young child’s reasoning lies somewhere between deductive and inductive – what he called “transductive” reasoning.
Transductive – take two specific things and determine a causal relationship.
I nap (specific) in the afternoons (specific). I haven’t napped. So it can’t possibly be afternoon yet! An orange is round (specific). A ball is round (specific). An orange is a ball (specific).
Syncretism (4-11yrs, Piaget’s early work). Cobbling together random bits of ideas into one confusing whole. An example from an 8yr-old boy (LT):
Thirty-five 9yr olds (boys and girls) with a series of proverbs and a collection of explanatory sentences. “When the cats’ away, the mice will play” – an 8yr old said that the explanation that corresponds with it is “some people get very excited but never do anything”. Piaget asked why.
“Because the words are about the same… it means that some people get very excited, but afterwards, they do nothing, they are too tired. There are some people who get excited. It’s like when cats run after hens and chicks. They come and rest in the shade, and go to sleep. There are lots of people who run about a great deal, who get too excited. Then afterwards, they are worn out and go to bed.”
Misinterpreted the sentence first off: “cat chases mice”. Then looked around for a sentence that sounded about the same. Then, child assimilates the sentences into the scheme which originally contributed to his interpretation. Ginsburg and Opper (1988, p. 106) calls it “Assimilation gone wild”
One of the main points of Piaget is he focuses on what children cannot do – which excites researchers as they go out to prove that they can.
Child (aged 4) to her mother: “Why does Daddy, James (older brother), and me have blue eyes, and you have green eyes?” The mother tells the child she got her eyes from Daddy. Then says goodnight and leaves the room. Child (calls her mother back 5 minutes later): “I like Pee Wee Herman and I have blue eyes. Daddy likes Pee Wee Herman and he has blue eyes. James likes Pee Wee Herman and he has blue eyes. If you liked Pee Wee Herman, you could get blue eyes too.” X (liking Pee Wee Herman) → Y (blue eyes) in 3 cases out of 3 XI (not liking Pee Wee Herman) → YI (green eyes) in 1 out of 1 case So if turn XI into X, this should turn YI into Y.
Illustrates that children as young as 4yrs of age can exhibit deductive reasoning and hypothesis testing.
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Problem Solving
What should I make for a snack?
What do I want to be when I grow up?
How should I solve this maths question?
How can everyone in the world have enough to eat?
Which assignment approach is better?
How do I fix this toy?
Problems range in difficulty and diversity!
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How do Problems Differ?
Ill-defined problem
More than one acceptable solution
No agreed on problem solving strategy
e.g. global warming
Well-defined problem
One correct solution
An agreed on problem solving strategy
e.g. 3A + B = 5. B = 2. A = ?
(e.g. Hayes, 1988, Schunk, 2000)
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Activity I
You have 6 matches. Arrange them to make 4 equilateral triangles (Sheerer, 1963)
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Activity Solution
Often constrained by idea that solution must be in 2D!
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Activity II
Duckner’s candle mounting problem (1945)
Hindrances to Problem Solving
Functional fixedness hinders problem solving
Inability to view familiar things in a novel way
Flexibility aids problem solving
Allows things to be used in unusual or atypical ways
Those under stress often revert to fixedness
e.g. Korean War paratrooper and left-handed chute
(Csikszentmihalyi, 1990)
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Strategies
Algorithms are rule-based strategies
Guaranteed to work in that situation
e.g. “I before E except after C”
Heuristics are rules of thumb
Do not guarantee a solution (less effective)
Includes trial and error
More commonly used by younger children
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A General Problem Solving Strategy
I - Identify problems and opportunities
D - Define goals and represent problem
E - Explore possible strategies (algorithm or heuristic)
A - Anticipate outcomes and act
L - Look back and learn
(Bransford & Stein, 1993)
Siegler’s Strategy Use (1996)
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For study on gears using these overlapping strategies, see:
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0885201418300753#fig0020
Looking Back and Learning
Evaluation of both solution itself and solution process
Common misconception: evaluation doesn’t matter
It comes ‘after the fact’
BUT you will learn better problem solving skills
Can be used at next opportunity
Most improvement in learning is from evaluation (e.g. Baker, 1989; Schon, 1987; Zimmerman, 1990)
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Tips
Build prior knowledge
Ask probing questions
Challenge thinking
Scaffold as needed
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(Whittaker, 2014)
… and think about task order
Aim: to test the effects of task order on student learning
Participants: Year 5 students from Ballarat
Task: Learn about light energy transfer in STEM
Findings: “Cognitive load” approach better for learning
“Productive failure” approach
(problem solving then direct instruction)
“Cognitive load” approach
(direct instruction then problem solving)
VS
(Ashman, Kalyuga & Sweller, 2019)
Across two studies. In study one, cog load approach superior for learning and no difference for transfer. In study two, with higher element interactivity, cog load approach better for learning and transfer
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Lecture Outline
Memory and higher order thinking
Problem solving and reasoning
Executive functions
Educational implications
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What is Executive Function?
Cool EF: Cognitive aspects, abstract problems
Hot EF: Affective aspects, emotional/motivational regulation
Although definitions vary, it is generally considered to be a set or family of processes which are involved in planning and executing actions towards a goal
Research literature makes frequent reference to 3 core skills:
Working memory: holding information in mind while manipulating that information
Inhibitory control: involves controlling one’s dominant attention, thoughts and/or behaviours
Cognitive flexibility a.k.a attention shifting: the ability to adjust to new demands or rules
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Executive Function
(plan / set goals / organise / execute / monitor)
Flexibility/
shifting
Inhibitory control
Working memory
Executive Functions
Skills related to the regulation of self
Planning, controlling, and monitoring
Initiating cognitive processes
Inhibiting unwanted impulses and behaviors
Supports everyday wellbeing
Friendships and relationships
Emotional control
Classroom performance
BUT needs extensive scaffolding in early years!
Provide structure and reminders
Give support for child to manage
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Executive functions in learning…
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Executive Function and Associated Factors
EF is associated with significant outcomes across the lifespan
>> This construct would seem to be something important for parents and educators to promote in children.
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High EF
School readiness
Academic achievement
Low EF
Dropping out of high school
Substance abuse
Job success
Relationship harmony
Obesity
Imprisonment
Source: Center on the Developing Child, Harvard University
Development Across Time
The major developmental period is 3-6 years, but there is development outside of that period.
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Development Across Time
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Lecture Outline
Memory and higher order thinking
Problem solving and reasoning
Executive functions
Educational implications
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Educational Implications
Encourage problem solving activities
Focus on thinking processes and flexibility
Use explicit evaluation or ‘look back’ tasks
Give prompts… but resist urge to ‘do’ for child
Scaffold executive function as it emerges!
