Discussion

W&M Criminological Theory

1. Chapter 1: Introduction a. Introduction to Theory

i. Theory is a product of the scientific approach ii. Everyday uses of theory can be seen in the criminal justice system

1. Police departments use theories to design patrols and predict criminality.

2. Judges assign sentences using theories based on the character of their offender and the offender’s environment.

3. Jurors determine punishment based on how dangerous they believe an offender to be and how likely the view them to repeat their crimes.

4. Probation officers/treatment professionals use theory to try to address issues.

5. Prison authorities use theory to attempt to re-socialize and deter. iii. The simplest version of theories has two criteria: (1) The use of objective

evidence and systematic observation and (2) a rational explanation of that evidence.

1. Theories can be simple or complex and theories can also be concrete or abstract.

2. Theories are really generalizations – they explain how two or more events are related to each other and the conditions under which the relationship takes place.

a. The way these generalizations are expressed depends on the form of knowledge used.

i. We know things through experience (empirical knowledge), intuition, common sense, science, authority.

1. For example, causes of crime (poor socialization, lack of religion/moral authority, social conditions, etc.) are assumed to be known by most, and they can explain crime to a certain extent. These are all technically theories. However, these are not good theories because they are too simplistic, and they cannot explain why all people faced with similar circumstances/life situations do not commit crime.

3. As a rule, scientific theories reflect systematic observation (observation made through the use of rules – the scientific method), repeated evidence, and careful logic.

4. Theories are never proven – they are supported by observable evidence.

5. Not all criminal acts are the same, and part of the problem with crime theory is the wide range of acts it tries to explain. Additionally, criminal behavior may be just a variety of other similar behaviors.

b. What is Good Theory i. A good theory can be tested, and it fits the evidence of research. Thus,

good theories are scientific and be based on research evidence. ii. There should be no differences between the natural and physical sciences

in determining good theory. 1. However, there are differences in measurement. It is difficult to

measure certain social science variables, like social class. 2. If a variable is not measurable to some extent, and a theory is not

testable or if evidence does not support it, then it is not a good theory.

iii. Logical soundness means that they theory does not propose illogical relationships, and that it is internally consistent.

iv. The ability to make sense of several conflicting propositions means that when evidence seems to indicate that there are two or more opposing facts, a theory that can reconcile those facts is a good one and is better than having different theories to account for each fact.

v. The notion that something must be correct because it seems correct is one of the biggest mistakes that laypeople make about good theories – popularity does not matter.

vi. Ultimately, good theory, then, is logically constructed, is based on the evidence at hand, and is supported by subsequent research.

1. Theory development allows us to make sense out of various facts and serves to make us aware of the surrounding circumstances of the phenomenon it is attempting to explain.

c. Kinds of Theory i. Unit theories emphasize a particular problem and make testable

assertions about that problem. This is really what is usually what is being referred to when people use the word theory.

ii. Metatheories are ways of looking at the world/interpreting reality – they are not testable theories.

iii. Most classifications of theory aren’t real/absolute – they are just artificial ways to classify theories.

d. Levels of Abstraction i. Macrotheories – broad in their scope and tend to explain social structure

and its effects. 1. Focus on rates of crime (epidemiology) rather than on criminals

and their behavior – not interested in individual behavior (examples: anomie or conflict theories)

ii. Microtheories – based on the assumption that a particular way of characterizing society is the best; that characterization is then used directly to explain how people become criminals (etiology).

1. Focus may be on specific groups or individuals. 2. Can be social, psychological, or biological. 3. Tell us how people become criminal. 4. Not interested in social structure and crime rates. 5. Examples: social control and social learning theories

iii. Bridging theories (in-between theories) 1. Attempt to tell us both how social structure comes about and how

people become criminal. 2. Both epidemiological (explaining different rates of crime) and

etiological (explaining criminal behavior itself). 3. Examples: subculture theory and differential opportunity theory

e. Levels of Explanation: What a theory is trying to explain (e.g., social structure, classes of people, small groups, individual criminality, etc.).

f. Other Common Classification Schemes i. Classical – focus on legal statutes, governmental structures, and the

rights of humans. Concerned with the human condition. ii. Positivist – focus on pathology in criminal behavior, on treatment, and on

the correction of criminality within individuals. Derives from the use of the scientific method of study, and most of today’s theories are positivist.

iii. Structure and Process 1. Structural theories are those that focus on the way society is

organized and its effect on behavior. 2. Process theories attempt to explain how people become criminal

or delinquent. iv. Consensus – based on the assumption that there is agreement among

people in a society – assume that members of a given society at least have/hold a common set of values.

v. Conflict – based on the assumption that disagreement is common, and people hold conflicting values. Emphasize that differences are found among social classes in our country.

g. Social Context and Theory i. People who create theory are also susceptible to influence from their

social worlds/perspectives. Thus, no theory can be really understood and appreciated without understanding or being aware of the context in which the theory was created. Theorists also make certain assumptions about the way the world is, the nature of humans, and the value of particular concepts.

ii. Context has two major forms 1. Social – the world about us. 2. Intellectual – refers to the personal influence of those around us.

h. Theory, Research, and Policy

i. Theory is the logical starting point for any examination of potential strategies for improving the criminal justice system.

ii. Theory can be used to construct research, and research gives us insight into how theory needs to be clarified and revised.

iii. Policy should not be formulated or implemented without proper research to evaluate the costs and the benefits of certain endeavors.

i. A Note on Evidence, Theory, and Reality i. Reality is a product of belief and perception – objective reality matters,

but it does require interpretation. 1. Theories are proposed to explain criminal or delinquent behavior

based on what we think is true about human nature. Evidence is then selectively accepted or ignored based on one’s view of a “proper reality.” These belief come from culture, socialization, experiences, biology/neurochemistry, etc.