Evaluate the claim "we can predict who will become a criminal"
Sharonhy
W5-Sexoffenses.pptxCriminal Behaviour CRM203
Workshop 5: Sex Offenses
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Content
Legal aspects
Psychological aspects Statistics
Characteristics of sex offences
Classification of sex offenders
Cultural factors and sex offending
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KEY POINTS
One of the most serious issues for students of criminal behaviour
True rate of offending not known
In view of 2, what is known about offenders is possibly skewed
Sexual behaviour is principally learned behaviour. Although the sexual drive is naturally innate, the expression of sexual behaviour is learned.
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Classification
The aim of classification is to allow for better understanding of different factors and may be useful in development of treatment.
The main classifications are related to rape and to North American perspectives. As noted, this may be a limitation since it is dependent upon those who are caught.
Availability of weapons might also be an issue.
Given that cognitions play an important factor, north American attitudes may be different to other cultures
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Massachussetts Treatment Centre (MTC)
Recognises both aggressive and sexual features
Incorporates both into classification
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Displaced Aggression
Also known as displaced anger or anger retaliation
Rape is a violent act, anger & aggression are the motivation – the intent is to hurt, sexual violence and degradation is just another component of overall violence
No indications of sexual pleasure from the offender;
Victim resistance increases violence
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Displaced Aggression
(eg offender who cut face of wife to ensure she retained a memory of him, then raped her and her girlfriend)
Concept of displacement – offender attacks women who are unknown but representative of their anger objects
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Displaced Aggression
Perceive women as unfaithful, users and not loving
May be in relationships but these are not happy
Dysfunctional backgrounds including neglect and abandonment
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Compensatory
Sex is motivation
Passive individuals act out fantasies
Compensates for inadequacy; retreats from victim resistance
Believes victims will come to love him
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Compensatory
Problems with intimacy, and self esteem
Functional in other areas of life but not high achievers
Not generally anti-social
eg offender who used stupefying drugs to assault, believed that victims would love him after the offence.
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Sexual Aggressive
AKA Sadistic Rapist:
Motivated by sex and aggression
Aroused by pain of victim
Offence characterised by sadistic sexual assault and severe physical injury
Enjoys victim resistance
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Sexual Aggressive
Believes victims enjoy the experience
Believes yes means no (see B&B)
Difference between sadist and displaced: sadist – the assault and violence was part of the sex act
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Impulsive
Opportunistic
Impulsivity
Limited violence – enough to overcome resistance
Victim resistance probably deters.
Best described as a sexual thief – just takes anything he wants including sex
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MTC:R3
MTC:R3 utility for offender profiling
Opportunistic (impulsive): High and low social competency distinction
Pervasive anger: anger problems, very violent
Sexual gratification: sadistic and non-sadistic and further divided by social competency
Vindictive: displaced aggression and further divided by social competency
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Groth’s Classification
Doesn’t accept straight sexual gratification/arousal in rape
Believes rape is motivated by power and aggression
Feminist perspectives were very powerful force in 1970’s – strongly argued against viewing sexual assault as a sex act
This perspective is evident in Groth’s classification
Groth’s typology of adult, male rapists (Taken from Gavin, 2014)
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Anger Rape
Aim is to hurt and humiliate
Is acted out of anger
Offender views sex as dirty and the assault humiliates victim
Includes violence and brutality
Estimated 40% of rapes
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Power Rape
Aim is to control and demonstrate masculine power
Victims may be assaulted to get compliance
May include long term captives
Estimated 55% of rapes
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Sadistic Rape
Aggression is eroticised
Estimated 5% of rapes
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Power Reassurance
Least violent and aggressive
Least socially competent
Problems with low self-esteem and feelings of inadequacy
Involvement in transvestism or promiscuous sexual behaviour:
Voyeurism
Fetishism
Purpose of the rape is to elevate his status and the primary aim is sexual – the sex act validates his position of importance
Only enough force necessary to commit the rape
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Power Reassurance
Social characteristics
Single
Living with parents
No sex partner
Non-athletic
Quiet, passive
Social loner
Menial occupation
Preference for adult bookstores
Voyeur
Exhibitionist
Fetishist
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Power Reassurance
Neighbourhood attack
Belief that the victim enjoys the rape
Little use of profanity
Victim asked to ‘talk dirty’
Victim asked to remove clothing
Only body parts essential for the rape are exposed
Victim same age cohort as rapist
Rape committed every 7-15 days
Rapist travels on foot
Rapist may be impotent
Use of weapon of opportunity
Increasing violence as rape increases in number
Possible later contact with victims
Possible covering of victim’s face
Rapes continue until apprehended
Possible collection of souvenirs
Rapist might keep a written diary
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Power Reassurance
Power Reassurance (Compensatory)
This offender has fantasies that involve a consensual relationship with the victim, and although there may be violence involved, it is more likely that he will try to avoid doing so in order to preserve the fantasy. When victims fight with this type of offender, he is more likely to attempt to compromise or leave because an attacking victim has destroyed the fantasy. This type of offender does not wish to hurt the victim, and there have been cases where this sort of offender attempts to contact the victim after the attack.
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Anger Retaliatory
Purpose to hurt victims – victim is an object – choice of victim female in wrong place at wrong time
Rape to get even with women and compensate for injustice experience (real or imagined) by other women
Rapist perception of self: athletic and masculine
Family and friends will report he has a quick and violent temper
Connection between sexual gratification and his expression of anger and rage
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Anger Retaliatory
Social characteristics
Divorced parents
Low level education
Married
Physically abusive
Socially competent
Hatred for women
Adopted (in 20% of cases)
Wife not assaulted
Athletic
Bars frequented to find victims
Preference for contact sports
Action-oriented occupation
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Anger Retaliatory
Neighbourhood attack
Blitz attack
Little planning
Intent to harm victim
Use of weapons of opportunity
Victim’s clothing ripped off
Use of excessive profanity
Rapes committed every 6 months to 1 year
Possible ejaculation into face of victim
Anal then oral sex
Victim same age or older than rapist
Possible retarded ejaculation
Increasing aggression
Situation-precipitated attack
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Anger Retaliatory
Anger Retaliatory (Displaced)
This offender is one who is punishing the victim for real or perceived wrongs done to him early in life. For this individual, the act of rape is justified by the fact that he is taking revenge upon those (type of victim) who have hurt him in the past. Like the Power Assertive rapist, he may use great violence as a means to punish or degrade the victim.
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Power Assertive
Rape is an attempt to express virility and personal dominance
Sense of superiority in being male
Rape is an entitlement
Rape is an impulsive act of predation – aggression is shown to secure compliance of the victim
No use of masks, blindfolds or darkness
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Power Assertive
Social characteristics
Single parent home in childhood (69%)
Time spent in foster homes (31%)
Physical abuse in childhood (74%)
High school dropout
Serial marriages
Image conscious
Preference for single bars
Macho occupation
Domestic problems
Property crime record
Athletic
Dishonourable discharge from military
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Power Assertive
Rapist cruises singles bars
Attacks occur from 7pm to 1am
Victim’s clothing likely to be torn
Rapist strikes about every 20- 25 days
Multiple assaults perpetrated
Assault is often both anal and oral
Rapist is selfish in his behaviour
Rapist has retarded ejaculation
Rapist has no further contact with the victim
Victim is conned and overpowered
Rapist does not hide identity
Rapist’s attack is brutal
Victim is of rapist’s age group
Victim is of rapist’s race
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Power Assertive
Power Assertive (Exploitative)
This offender may have self-esteem problems and rapes the victim in order to prove to himself that he is a man. This offender does not want the victim to be a participant like the power reassurance rapist, as he must prove to himself that he is able to dominate the victim. If the victim attempts to fight off the offender, the violence will escalate to maintain the dominant position.
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Anger Excitatory
Rape is an expression of sexually aggressive fantasies
Purpose to inflict physical and psychological pain on the victim
Antisocial personality
Connection made between sexual gratification and aggressive behaviour – aggression and violence has been eroticised
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Anger Excitatory
Social characteristics
Single parent home in childhood (60%)
Time spent in foster homes (13%)
Physical abuse in childhood (63%
Sexually deviant home in childhood
Middle-class family man
Some college education
Married
No arrest record
Age range 30-39
Compulsive personality
White-collar occupation
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Anger Excitatory
Victim stalked
Victim transported
Use of gags, bondage, handcuffs
Possible use of blindfolds
Victim’s clothing cut
Elements of ritualism
Degrading language
Retarded ejaculation
Increasing violence with additional rapes
Rapist has rape kit
Rapist may eventually kill
Periods between rapes vary
Victim’s ages vary
ANYWHERE, ANYTIME, ANYPLACE, ANYONE
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Behaviour
Approximate
frequency (%)
Makes
a surprise approach
35%
Child present during stranger attack
0.05%
Use weapon to control victim (e.g., threaten with knife)
22.5%
Offender
reveals details about himself
40%
Offender
kisses victim
36%
Offender
rips clothing
12.3%
Blindfold
or gag
3.5%
Offender kicks or punches victim (more than once)
15%
Offender
apologises to victim
6.7%
Blitz
attack (sudden violence on initial approach to overpower victim
1%
Frequencies of behaviours in sexual attacks in stranger rapes
Rape Behaviour Statistics
Legal Aspects
Types of assault: indecent & sexual penetration and others
Aggravation: for example being armed (or pretending to be), harm, age of victim, degradation of victim, threats, in company
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Types of non-consent
Threats to victim or others
Victim is detained
Victim is asleep, unconscious, or impaired by drugs
Mistaken identity
Doesn’t understand
Believes it is for medical purposes
Consent is fraudulent
Consent is withdrawn
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Psychological Aspects
Distinction between dysfunction, paraphilia, and unlawful behaviour
For example:
Bestiality, voyeurism, frotteurism, rape, paedophilia, indecent exposure, necrophilia, pornography (especially child), obscene calls, fetishism, masochism, bigamy, homosexuality (at different ages/times), adultery (different places/times)
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Statistics
Great variations in reports of sex offences between and within jurisdictions
Official statistics do not resemble actual levels
Actual level is difficult to determine and official statistics are dependent upon many other factors – in some countries victims are criminalised and in many ostracised
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In Australia
1 in 5 females & 1 in 20 males sexually assaulted since age 15
1 in 3 females & 1 in 6 males abused before age 18
93% of offenders are males
30% or less report offences to the police
20% of reports lead to criminal proceedings by police (ie investigated – nearly 80% no further action after reporting)
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In Australia
10% of incidents result in guilty outcome; between 1/4 and 1/3 do not make it to court
3% of offences result in conviction
Girls age 10 to 14 in highest victimisation bracket followed by 15 to 24; then 0 to 9 which is higher than 25 to 44
30% by family member; 43% by known other (but may include family member); 21% by stranger (but 8% for 0 to 9 group)
60% in private dwelling with another 6% in other residential
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Key Issue: INCREASE REPORTING
Any strategy that decreases reporting is counter-productive
See especially any strategies/laws which punish offenders excessively
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Why is it not reported?
Concerns about offender
Disruption of family, life
Not believed
CJS procedures too humiliating
Assumed guilt of the victim
Fear of retaliation
Victim didn’t know it was illegal
Fear of being “silly”
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Why is it not charged?
no offender located
insufficient evidence
victim did not wish to proceed
police believe it is false reporting
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Overall:
Low rates of conviction
Strangers much more likely to be reported
Knowledge is based on convicted
Biased sample thus biased knowledge
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Recidivism
High recidivist rate, in WA:
non-Aboriginal sex offender .35 (base rate .45)
Aboriginal sex offender .80 (base rate .75)
But old study and biased
Currently estimated at 15% on average but goes much higher with persistent offenders and anti-social offenders
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Theory Perspectives
Rape and power theory.
Rape is an expression of masculine power (ie not motivated by insecurity but by masculine pride); and/or
Rapist is insecure, threatened by women, uses rape as an expression of power and domination.
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Theory Perspectives
Rape and violence theory
Rape as an act of violence
Instrumental sexual aggression: use just enough violence to achieve their goal
Expressive sexual aggression: violence part of the sexual experience
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Theory Perspectives
Sexual gratification theory
Traditional explanation - rape is sexual gratification
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Cultural Perspective
Cultural factors play an important role in rape especially the endorsement of rape myths:
Uncontrollable urges ie self restraint is reduced but evidence on level of planning refutes this.
Mental disturbance, weak personality etc - no evidence to support this.
Blame it on the alcohol or some other drug.
Blame it on the victim - she enticed me
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Cultural Perspective
False report – she asked for it, “woman with skirt up can run faster than man with pants down”, needle and thread
In any case, sexual behaviour is learnt in a culture. ie. learning and culture are important.
Cognition is critical factor. Both learning and cultural impact on cognition and see criminogenic attributes.
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Attributes of sex offenders
Arousal Rapists are aroused by scenes of consenting & non-consenting sex. Non rapists inhibited by violence or non-consenting sex. Material that depicts women in demeaning roles or contains violence is likely to entice a potential offender to commit acts of sexual offending. Aberrant sexual arousal is also a very high predictor of re-offending.
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Attributes of sex offenders
Empathy
Empathy deficits seem only to centre on victims. Most feel "good" after rape; 8% guilty; >1% concern for victim. Probably neutralisations are more critical than empathy deficits.
Intimacy problems
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Attributes of sex offenders
Self esteem problems with some offenders (see classification above)
Cognitive distortions (see also above), belief systems, attitudes, neutralisations. Literature abounds with offenders displaying criminal sentiments. From denial to cultural norms endorsing rape behaviours
And other criminogenic needs
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Treatment
Standard treatment of criminogenic needs - main additional treatment is on criminal sentiments – attitudes, beliefs, distortions, neutralisations.
As noted, considerable evidence of anti-social sentiments in sex offenders
Treatment of aberrant arousal if present
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Aversive Respondent
Respondent conditioning: sexual behaviour is naturally occurring S-R bond.
S-R bond becomes CS-CR bond.
Aim is to break the CS-CR bond by reconditioning the CS.
Present CS and aversive stimulus. CS then gets associated with unpleasant experience and patients seeks to avoid CS as sexual arousal.
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Aversive Respondent
Aversive stimuli can be
imagery
electrical shock
foul odour
foul taste
shame
anxiety
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Reconditioning
The above seeks to remove the CS as a sexual stimulus.
Reconditioning seeks to introduce new and appropriate stimulus for arousal.
Aim is to develop CS-CR bond where CS is adult females.
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Reconditioning
Techniques include
Fading - the inappropriate CS is gradually removed in favour of an appropriate one. Can also be used in an aversive manner: CS is gradually changed to an aversive stimulus.
These are combined with masturbatory reconditioning.
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Other Techniques
Sometimes the sexual deviation is related to anxiety (see classifications)
Desensitisation is then used - ie. changing stimulus from being anxiety producing to relaxed state.
Eg. Normal S-R sexual bond ie. women in erotic situations.
But this also produces anxiety ie. CS-CR bond of:
WOMEN-ANXIETY
This is replaced with women-relaxation
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