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JOHN R. SCHERMERHORN, JR. MANAGEMENT 12th Edition

Chapter 16

Motivation Theory and Practice

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Planning Ahead — Chapter 16 Study Questions

How do individual needs influence motivation?

What are the process theories of motivation?

What is the link between job design and motivation?

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Chapter 16 Learning Dashboard

Individual Needs and Motivation

Hierarchy of needs theory

ERG theory

Two-factor theory

Process Theories of Motivation

Equity theory

Expectancy theory

Goal-setting theory

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Chapter 16 Learning Dashboard

Motivation and Job Design

Job simplification

Job enrichment

Alternative work schedules

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Takeaway 1: Individual Needs and Motivation

Motivation—the forces within the individual that account for the level, direction, and persistence of effort expended at work

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Takeaway 1: Individual Needs and Motivation

Needs

Unfulfilled physiological and psychological desires of an individual

Explain workplace behavior and attitudes

Create tensions that influence attitudes and behavior

Good managers and leaders facilitate employee need satisfaction

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Takeaway 1: Individual Needs and Motivation

Hierarchy of needs theory

Developed by Abraham Maslow

Lower-order and higher-order needs affect workplace behavior and attitudes

Lower-order needs:

Physiological, safety, and social needs
Desires for physical and social well being

Higher-order needs:

Esteem and self-actualization needs
Desire for psychological growth and development

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Figure 16.1 Opportunities for satisfaction in Maslow’s hierarchy of human needs

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Takeaway 1: Individual Needs and Motivation

Hierarchy of needs theory

Deficit principle

A satisfied need is not a motivator of behavior

Progression principle

A need at one level does not become activated until the next lower-level need is satisfied

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Takeaway 1: Individual Needs and Motivation

ERG theory

Developed by Clayton Alderfer

Three need levels

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Takeaway 1: Individual Needs and Motivation

ERG theory

Any/all needs can influence behavior at one time

Frustration-regression principle

An already satisfied lower-level need becomes reactivated when a higher-level need is frustrated

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Takeaway 1: Individual Needs and Motivation

Two-factor theory

Developed by Frederick Herzberg

Hygiene factors:

Elements of the job context
Sources of job dissatisfaction

Satisfier factors:

Elements of the job content
Sources of job satisfaction and motivation

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Figure 16.2 Elements in Herzberg’s two-factor theory

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Takeaway 2: Process Theories of Motivation

Process theories of motivation …

How people make choices to work hard or not

Choices are based on:

Individual preferences
Available rewards
Possible work outcomes
Types of process theories:

Equity theory

Expectancy theory

Goal-setting theory

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Takeaway 2: Process Theories of Motivation

Equity theory

Developed by J. Stacy Adams

When people believe that they have been treated unfairly in comparison to others, they try to eliminate the discomfort and restore a perceived sense of equity to the situation

Perceived inequity
Perceived equity

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Takeaway 2: Process Theories of Motivation

Managerial implications of equity theory—

Underpaid people experience anger

Overpaid people experience guilt

Perceptions of rewards determine motivational outcomes

Negative consequences of equity comparisons should be minimized, if not eliminated

Do not underestimate the impact of pay as a source of equity controversies in the workplace

Gender equity
Comparable worth

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Takeaway 2: Process Theories of Motivation

Expectancy theory

Proposes we will behave in a certain way because we will select a behavior over other behaviors due to what we expect the result will be.

Key expectancy theory variables:

Expectancy — belief that working hard will result in desired level of performance
Instrumentality — belief that successful performance will be followed by rewards
Valence — value a person assigns to rewards and other work related outcomes

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Takeaway 2: Process Theories of Motivation

Expectancy theory

Motivation (M), expectancy (E), instrumentality (I), and valence (V) are related to one another in a multiplicative fashion:

Motivation = Expectancy x Instrumentality x Valence

If either E, I, or V is low, motivation will be low

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Takeaway 2: Process Theories of Motivation

Goal-setting theory

Developed by Edwin Locke

Properly set and well-managed goals can be highly motivating

Motivational effects of task goals:

Provide direction to people in their work
Clarify performance expectations
Establish a frame of reference for feedback
Provide a foundation for behavioral self-management

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Takeaway 3: Motivation and Job Design

Job design

The process of arranging work tasks for individuals and groups

Jobs should be designed so that both performance and satisfaction result

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Takeaway 3: Motivation and Job Design

Job rotation, enlargement and enlargement:

Job rotation

Increases task variety by periodically shifting workers among jobs involving different task assignments

Job enlargement

Increases task variety by combining two or more tasks previously assigned to separate workers

Job enrichment

Involves redesigning jobs so that they are more challenging and have less repetitive work

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Takeaway 3: Motivation and Job Design

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Takeaway 3: Motivation and Job Design

Alternative Work Schedules: Flexible working hours

Any work schedule that gives employees some choice in the pattern of their daily work hours

Core time — all employees must be at work
Flextime — allows employees to schedule around personal and family responsibilities

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Takeaway 3: Motivation and Job Design

Alternative Work Schedules: Job sharing

One full-time job is split between two or more persons

Potential advantages of job sharing: organizations benefit by employing talented people who are unable/unwilling to commit full-time

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Takeaway 3: Motivation and Job Design

Alternative Work Schedules: Part-time work

Work done on any schedule less than the standard 40-hour workweek and does not qualify person as a full-time employee