Post a ( 200 Word APA Format) brief justification for three components of the Six Aims of High-Quality Health Care that you think are most important when evaluating a crisis management plan. Then provide a brief analysis of the “Five Years After Katrina:

Violence Prevention after Columbine: A Survey of High School Mental Health Professionals

M. Franci Crepeau-Hobson, MaryLynne FilacciOy and Linda Gottfried

The authors examined changes in mental health services and violence prevention strategies in public high schools since the shootings at Columbine High School. Surveys were mailed to school mental health professionals at public high schools in Colorado. Respondents included school counselors, school psychologists, school social workers, principals, and other personnel.

Significant increases were observed in the percentage of schools that had a crisis plan or crisis team and offered group counseling. Most schools also made changes in security procedures.

Larger schools in urban and suburban areas demonstrated the most changes. Significant differences were also observed for services and changes desired by the respondents and for

perceived obstacles to services provision. Future directions and implications for school mental health professionals are discussed.

KEY WORDS: mental health professionals; school-based services; violence prevention

A ccording to the Centers for Disease Con- trol and Prevention (2t)()0), between June 1994 and June 1999.177 homicides of stu-

dents between ages five and 19 were committed at school. Eighty-four percent of these homicides in- volved firearms. During the 1999-2000 school year, 24 homicides occurred at school (National Center for Education Statistics [NCES], 2003), accounting for fewer than 1 percent of all homicides among youths. Analysis of trends in the 1990s indicated that homicides in the school setting had declined (U.S. Department of Health and Human Services [HHS], 2001),The exception to these trends is for homicides involving more than one victim. Dur- ing the school years between fall 1996 and spring 1999, nine cases of multiple-victim violent assaults occurred on school grounds. Several multiple-vic- tim shootings have been committed at schools since then. In many cases in the United States students had lethal weapons and intended to kill or injure others, but were discovered before they acted (Bower, 2001 ;Verlinden, Hersen, &Thomas, 2000). It is estimated that nearly 6 percent of high school students regularly carry some type of weapon to school, and around 2 million thefts and violent crimes occur at schools every year (NCES).

RISK FACTORS FOR YOUTH VIOLENCE Risk factors for violence generally are not consid- ered causes per se, but can be conceptualized as characteristics or conditions that predict the onset, continuity, or escalation of violence (HHS, 2001). According to a review by Verlinden and colleagues (2000), risk factors for youth violence can be grouped into to the following categories: indi- vidual, such as a history of aggression and substance abuse; family, including child abuse and ineffective parenting; school and peers, for example, large schools and bullying; and societal-environmental factors such as media violence and cultural norms. Research on factors that place youths at risk of violent behavior suggests that risk facton tend to operate additively. In other words, the more risk factors to which a child is exposed, the more likely he or she might become violent (HHS, 2001).

PREVENTION OF YOUTH VIOLENCE Recent meta-analytic and evaluation research stud- ies have demonstrated that a variety of programs are successful in combating youth violence (for example, Elliott &ToIan, 1999; Larson, 1994;Lipsey, 1992; Lipsey & Wilson, 1998; Thornton, Craft,

CCC Code: 1532-8759/05 13.00 O2005 National Aisociation of 5ocial Workers '57

Dahlberg, Lynch, & Baer, 2000. The surgeon generals report on youth violence released in 2001 provides an excellent and comprehensive review of youth violence prevention and intervention pro- gram effectiveness research (HHS, 2001). Accord- ing to this report, the most promising programs target specific populations of youths identified by risk factors and address individual risks and envi- ronmental conditions. Model programs generally focus on developing individual skills and compe- tencies, improving the social climate of the school, improving parent effectiveness, and changing type and level of involvement in peer groups.

The effectiveness of security measures and school discipline approaches in reducing and pre- venting school-related violence has also been in- vestigated. Increases in the use of metal detectors and the presence of law enforcement ofEcers in public schools have been noted in recent research (U.S. Department of Education and U.S. Depart- ment of Justice, 1999).Yet, evidence suggests that such practices are ineffective and may even con- tribute to school-related violence (Hyman & Perone, 1998; Mayer & Leone, 1999).

The Columbine incident and shootings at other schools in the United States have placed schools in the violence prevention spotlight. In addition, re- cent state and federal legislation mandates provi- sion of a safe, secure school environment to foster healthy development and learning (Miller, 1994). Thus, there is pressure for schools to develop and implement tactics to reduce and prevent youth vio- lence. Strategies to make schools safer range from direct or radical approaches, such as metal detec- tors and a police presence, to indirect strategies, such as conflict resolution and anger-management programs. To be effective, schools must use indirect and direct strategies (Walker & Gresham, 1997). Although extensive research has been conducted evaluating risk factors associated with school vio- lence and program effectiveness, it is unclear what steps secondary schools have taken in this area since the recent rash of school shootings. In addition, research has not evaluated the perceptions of school personnel regarding services and strategies they would like to see implemented.

This study presents the results of a statewide sur- vey of mental health services and violence preven- tion programs and strategies being implemented in Colorado public high schools.We examined changes made in service provision since the tragedy at Col-

umbine High School and programs and strategies desired by school mental health professionals. Fac- tors perceived to be obstacles to service provision and changes desired are discussed.

METHOD Respondents and Procedures Surveys were sent to all public high schools listed in the Colorado Department of Education direc- tory, including alternative and charter schools (335 total). Because these settings generally include non- traditional student populations, surveys were not sent to day treatment centers, night schools, trade schools, and schools for the deaf and blind. Sur- veys were addressed to "School Mental Health Pro- fessional" and were attached to a cover letter ex- plaining the study and requesting participation. A postage-paid envelope was included for return of the survey. Potential respondents were assigned an identification number and were guaranteed ano- nymity and confidentiality. Four weeks after the original mailing, a second survey and follow-up cover letter were sent to those who had not re- sponded. The mailings occurred in the winter and spring two years after the shootings at Columbine High School.

Instrument The survey used in this study asked respondents to disclose information related to several areas,includ- ing demographic and school information, mental health services, violence prevention programs, and strategies provided and desired.

Demographic and School Information. R e - spondents were asked to disclose their position at the school, the type and size of the school in which he or she worked, the type of community in which the school was located, and how long they had worked in their present school. These items required respondents to check the appropri- ate response.

Mental Health Services,Violence Prevention Pro- grams, and Strategies. A checklist of school-based mental health services and programs was gener- ated from a review of the literature relevant to cur- rent practices (for example, HHS, 2001;ToIan & Guerra, 1994) and an informal survey of local school mental health professionals. Services and programs listed on the checklist included individual counseling, group counseling, systemic or other types of family therapy, social skills training.

158 Children & Schools VOLUME Z7, N U M B E R 3 JULY 1005

parenting training classes, peer mediation, peer counseling, having a crisis response team or a crisis response plan, conflict resolution programs, and buUy-proofmg programs, among others. An "other" category was included so respondents could specify services and prevention strategies not on the check- list. Respondents were asked to indicate those ser- vices and programs that were provided at their school before and after April 1999 and to indicate changes made with regard to security and person- nel since April 1999 (for example, tighter security procedures such as visitor check-ins and locking all doors). Respondents also were asked to indi- cate services they would like to offer to students and which factors impede service availability. Again, checklists were used to obtain these data.

RESULTS

Demographic and School Variahles Of the 335 surveys mailed, 234 were returned, rep- resenting a 70 percent response rate. The largest group of respondents identified themselves as school counselors (40.3 percent). Nineteen percent were school psychologists, almost 8 percent were school social workers, 14 percent were principals or assis- tant principals, and slightly more than 18 percent checked the "other" category (this group included school nurses and school-based intervention and behavior specialists).

The majority of respondents worked in a four- year high school (73.2 percent).Two percent were employed in a three-year high school, and the rest (24.8 percent) checked the "other" category (in- cluded K-12 schools and junior-senior high schools).

More than half of the respondents worked in small schools (500 or fewer students). Slightly more than 11 percent worked in schools with 501 to 800 students,6percent with 801 to 1,000 students, about 13 percent with 1,001 to 1,500 students and with 1,501 to 2,000 students, and 3.4 percent with stu- dent populations that exceeded 2,000. Respondents in rural schools represented almost 60 percent of the sample. Twenty-eight percent of the respon- dents worked in schools in suburban areas,and 12.4 percent were employed in urban schools.These data (school size and surrounding community) were compared with information provided in the Colo- rado Department ofEducation directory.This com- parison indicated that the sample was representa- tive of schools in Colorado.

Mental Health Services and Violence Prevention Programs and Strategies Respondents were asked to indicate which mental health services and violence prevention programs were provided at their school before and after April 1999. Chi-square analyses for paired observations were performed to determine the services and strat- egies that had changed significantly since April 1999.

Before April 1999. Before the shootings at Col- umbine, the majority of Colorado high schools of- fered a variety of services and programs to students, including individual counsehng (87.5 percent) and procedures for identifying (70.8 percent) and in- tervening with (67.8 percent) at-risk students (Table

1). After April 1999. Almost every mental health

service and violence prevention program evaluated in this study increased in terms of availability after April 1999 (Table l).The largest increase was in the number of schools that had a crisis plan: up 20.2 percent to 79.1 percent since the Columbine trag- edy [x^(l, N = 233) = 28.69, p < .001]. Other significant increases observed were in group coun- seling, crisis team, and other services such as bully- ing programs. No significant decreases in the per- centage of schools offering particular services were observed.

Other Changes. Respondents also were asked to indicate other changes related to security practices that had been implemented in their schools since April 1999.These data are presented in Table 2.

Differences in Services and Programs Offered, by School Demographics Chi-square analyses were conducted to examine differences in service provision since the Colum- bine shootings by school size and surrounding community. Significant differences based on school size were observed for peer counseling [X~(5, N = 191) = 16.01, p = .007]. Results indicated that most of the smallest schools did not offer this service, and larger schools were significantly more likely to offer this service. A significant difference also was observed for increasing security presence by school size ix'(5, N = 220) = 43.20, p = .001). Fewer than 38 percent of schools with fewer than 500 students increased the number of school secu- rity guards or police officers; about half of the larger schools did.

Significant differences by surrounding commu- nity were observed for affective education programs

C R E P E A U - H O B S O N , FiLACCio, AND GoTTFRiED / Violence Prevention after Columbine 159

Table 1: Percentage of Schools Providing Services before and after April 1999

Service/f^rogram

Crisis plan

Group counseling

Crisis team

Other services

Daily check-Ins with ar-risk students

Conflict resolution program

Social skUJs training

Affective education program

Parenting dasscs

Interventions for at-risk students

Interagency team

Family therapy

Procedures for identifying at-risk student

Coniraacd mental hcaith services

Peer mediation

Mentoring progiaxn

Peer counselors

Individua! counseling

Before ApriliSSS

(%)

58.9

50.0

62.0

7.8 22.4

32.3

33.3

16.7

14.6

67.8

32.3

9.9 s 70,8

47.4

30.2

30.7

39.1

87.5

After Aprit 1399

(%) 79.1

69.7

71.2

i7.2

30.4

39.8

40.3

23.6

21.5

74.5

38.2

147

75.4

51.3

34.0

34.0

38.5

85.9

% Change

20.2

9.7

9.2

9.4 8.0

7.5 7.0 6.9 6.9 6.7 5.9 4.8

4.6 3.9

3.8

3.3

~4).6

-1.6

28.69

11.56

11.57

13.5

8.17

6.53

8.17

10.9

9.8

6.53

7.2

9.0

3.24

2.32

2.13

l . U

0.22

0.47

df 1

1

!

1

1

I

1

1

1

1

1

i

I

1

I

1

I

1

P <.Q01

<.O0I

<.00I

<.D01

<.O1

<.O2

<.O1

<.O1

<.O1

<.O2

<.O2

t.OI

NS NS NS NS

NS NS

Note: NS = not significant.

[)C{2, N = 192) = 7.57,p = .023], family therapy [X^(2,N=192)= 17.07,p=.001], and daily check- ins with at-risk students [x^(2,N = 192) = 8.77,;J = .012]. Schools in urhan communities (45.8 per- cent) were significantly more likely than suhurban (20.7 percent) or rural (20.2 percent) schools to implement structured affective education programs, to offer family therapy (41.7 percent of urban schools, 6.9 percent of suburban school, and 12.8 percent of rural schools),and to check in daily with at-risk students (54.2 percent of urban school,32.9 percent of suburban schools, and 23.9 percent of rural schools).

Significant differences by surrounding commu- nity also were observed for implementation of other strategies after the Columbine tragedy. Dif- ferences were obtained for increasing security pres- ence (X'{2, N = 220) = 38.18, p - .001], conduct- ing locker searches [X (̂2, N = 220) = 9.05, p = .011], and for adding security procedures [X (̂2, N = 220) = 7.53, p = .023]. Results indicate that about one-half of urban and suburban schools added security guards or police officers after April 1999; fewer than 20 percent of rural schools did. More than one-third of urban schools started searching lockers after April 1999; significantly

fewer suburban and rural schools made this change. A majority of schools in each community made changes to their school's security procedures, such as locking doors and requiring visitor check-ins, but significantly more suburban schools made these kinds of changes.

Desired Services, Programs, and Changes Using a checkhst, respondents were asked to indi- cate services and programs they would like to see

Table 2: Percentage of Schools Making Additional Change in Violence

Prevention Strategies Since April 1999

Stricter disciplinary procedures

increased security presence

Other

Locker seart^es

Increased no. mental health providers

Increased oo. administrators

62.7

40.0

32.3

26.4

17.3

12.7

8.6

i 6 o Children dr Schools VOLUME 27, N U M B E R 3 JULY 2005

provided that were not, and other desired changes, in their schools.The number one item endorsed in this area was an increase in the number of mental health professionals in the school: 44.2 percent of the respondents endorsed this item. Almost 40 per- cent indicated that they would like to offer parenting classes to students' parents. The establishment of a conflict resolution program was desired by almost 40 percent, as well. About one-third of respondents endorsed family therapy, social skills training, and group counseling. Nine percent of respondents indicated that they were happy with the services currendy offered at their school and desired no changes at all.

Differences in Services and Programs Desired, by Demographics Chi-square analyses were conducted to examine differences in desired services and programs hy each demographic variable {respondentposition, school size, surrounding community). Signi{ic3nt differences were observed for each of these variables.

Differences in desired programs and changes, by respondent position, were observed for the follow- ing variables: interagency team [X (̂5, N = 233) = 26.59,p= .001]; family therapy [X^{5,N= 233) = \2.64,p = .027]; outside, contracted mental health services [x^(5.N= 233} = 32.46,p = .001]; check- ins for at-risk students [x'{5, N = 233) = 29.05,p = .001]; and no changes or additions [X̂ (5, N = 233) = 15.64,p= .008].

Virtually none of the administrators who par- ticipated wanted an interagency team at their schools, and more than one-half of the school so- cial workers indicated a desire for this type of pro- gram. About 20 percent of school psychologists and school counselors reported that they would like to add an interagency team to their repertoire of pro- grams and services.

Family therapy services also were desired by a majority of social workers {60 percent) and about one-half of school psychologists. Only 15 percent to 20 percent of principals and assistant principals reported wanting family therapy to be provided in their schools.

Similar results were observed for respondents who wanted outside mental health services provided at their schools. Eighty percent of school social workers and 70 percent of school psychologists indicated that they would like services provided by contracted mental health professionals. Only ahout 15 percent

of the assistant principals and principals in the sample indicated a desire for outside services.

Sixty percent of school social workers and al- most 40 percent of school psychologists indicated that they would like to have daily check-ins for at- risk students at their school. Approximately 10 per- cent of school administrators indicated a desire for daily check-ins. Finally, a significant difference was observed for those respondents who were happy with the services and programs currently offered at their schools.Twenty-five percent of assistant prin- cipals and principals indicated that they did not want additional services or changes in programs and security. Very few respondents in other posi- tions felt this way.

Differences in services and changes desired were also observed based on school size. Desire for con- tracted services hy outside mental health profes- sionals differed by school size [x^{5, N = 233) = 27.03, p = .001], as did desire for daily check-ins with at-risk students [X"{5, N - 233) = 24.23,p = .001]. Similar trends were noted for each of these variables, with larger schools generally indicating a desire for these services.

Additional significant differences in services and changes desired were observed, by surrounding community.These included conflict resolution pro- grams [f{2, N = 233) = 7.79,p = .02], structured affective education program [X (̂2, N = 233) = 8.20, p = .017]; interagency team [X {̂2, N = 233) = 6.94, P = .031], contracted outside mental health ser- vices [X (̂2, N = 233) = 20.93, p = .000], and daily check-ins with at-risk students [X (̂2, N - 233) = 8.40, p = . 0 0 9 ] .

A majority of respondents in urban schools (62 percent) would have liked a conflict resolution pro- gram in their school; fewer than 40 percent of re- spondents in schools in other communities did. Significantly more urban school respondents than those in suburban and rural schools would have liked an affective education program offered to their students. An interagency team, contracted outside mental health services, and check-ins for at-risk students were services desired hy more respondents in both urban and suburban schools than in rural schools.

Oisstacies t o Service Provision and Changes When asked to indicate the obstacles to providing desired services and making changes, lack of funds was endorsed by 72.3 percent of respondents. Lack

C R E P E A U - H O B S O N , F I L A C C I O , AND G O T T F R I E D / Violence Prevention after Columbine

of personnel available to provide services was per- ceived to be an obstacle by 64.5 percent of respon- dents. Finally, a majority of respondents (54.4 per- cent) perceived a lack of rime to plan, research, develop, and implement services to be an obstacle to providing desired services to students.

Differences in Perceived Obstacles to Services, Programs, and Changes Desired, by Demographics Differences in perceived obstacles to services pro- vision and desired changes were evaluated by the demographic and school variables. A number of significant diiferences were observed. Differences in perceived obstacles by respondent position in- cluded lack of funds |x'(5. N = 228) = 12.14, p - .033] and lack of district support [x-{5, N ^ 228) ^ 26.85, p - .0011. Slightly fewer than one-half of principals saw a lack of funds as an obstacle to ser- vices provision; a majority of other respondents perceived lack of funds to be an obstacle (70 per- cent to 90 percent). Lack of district support was considered to be an obstacle to service provision by almost 60 percent of social workers and by virtu- ally no administrators.

Lack of district support was tbe only perceived obstacle for which significant differences were ob- served based on school size |X"(5, iV= 228) = 15.95, p = .007]. Respondents in larger schools, compared with than those in small schools, tended to view lack of district support as an obstacle.

Perceived obstacles to service provision that dif- fered by surrounding community included baving other priorities [x%2, N = 228) = 6.68, p = .035] and lack of district support [X^(2,^' = 228) = 25.61, p = .001].These were more likely to be perceived as obstacles by respondents in urban and suburban schools than by those in rural schools.

DISCUSSION The results indicate that a majority of the schools offer individual and group counseling and that about three-quarters have procedures for identifying and intervening with at-risk students. In addition, about one-half of all the schools surveyed contracted with outside mental health professionals for services.

Most of the schools increased the number of mental health services and violence prevention strat- egies after the shootings at Columbine.The great- est increase was in the percentage of schools that had a school crisis plan (up 20.2 percent since the

shootings). Other large increases were for group counseling (increased 9.7 percent); having a crisis team (increased 9.2 percent), and other services such as bullying programs (increased 9.4 percent). A few significant differences were noted by school size and surrounding community, with larger schools in urban and suburban settings demonstrating the most increases.This disparity is consistent with pre- vious findings (see Gottfredson et al., 2000, for a review) and may reflect differences in perceived need or resources.

Although many of the school-based mental health services provided in most high schools, such as in- dividual counseling, may be effective in addressing some problems and issues, they have been less ef- fective in preventing violent behavior (Tolan & Guerra, 1994). Research suggests that more struc- tured programs such as social skills training and fam- ily therapy are more effective in reducing youth violence (HHS,2()01 ;Mendel,2000). However,only about 40 percent of the schools m the sample cur- rently provided students with social skills training, and a small minority (fewer than 15 percent) of- fered family therapy.

The vast majority of schools made additional changes in security, discipline, and personnel, with 62.7 percent of schools implementing tighter se- curity procedures since April 1999.These new pro- cedures included such tactics as locking doors, hav- ing metal detectors, and requiring visitor check-in. The increase in the use of such measures is consis- tent with earlier findings (U.S. Department of Edu- cation and U.S. Department of Justice, 21 )01) .These data suggest that although Colorado public high schools are attempting to address the issue of school- related violence using a variety of strategies, the majority use primarily security and tertiary mea- sures to address the problem. Use of these reactive practices has been found to be ineffective in solv- ing school violence problems (Mayer & Leone, 1999) and has been implicated in contributing to some types of scbool violence (Hyman &; Perone, 1998; Mayer & Leone; Noguera, 1995) .Attempting to make schools safer and more secure through physical means such as metal detectors and locked doors, as well as personnel-based interventions (for example, security guards) may produce a prison-like atmosphere where children remain unsafe (Mayer & Leone). Yet, this is what most Colorado high schools have done since the shootings at Columbine.

Children & Schools VOLUME 17, N U M B E R 3 Jui.v 2005

When asked if they would like additional ser-̂ vices or strategies provided or used at their schools, the majority of study participants responded favor- ably, with only 9 percent of respondents indicating that they are happy with the services currently of- fered at their school and desire no changes. Differ- ences in services and changes desired were observed based on respondent position. Not surprising, re- spondents in mental health positions (for example, school psychologists and social workers) were more likely to desire mental health services and preven- tion programs such as family therapy and daily check-ins for at-risk students than those in admin- istrative positions. Administrators were significantly more likely than mental health professionals to in- dicate that they were happy with the services and programs currently offered in their schools and desired no changes. Although some research has investigated differences in perception of risk of vio- lence by position (for example, Pietrzak, Petersen, & Speaker, 1998), no previous research has evalu- ated differences regarding services desired by vari- ous school personnel.Thus, it is difficult to deter- mine explanations for this difference. Perhaps this difference reflects differences in perceived student need or administrators' lack of knowledge of effec- tive prevention and intervention strategies. It is also possible that individuals in administrative positions differ from those in mental health professions in their perception of risk of school violence and other problems. Finally, because administrators have more control over the allocation of resources, they are more likely to view the services offered at their school as adequate. Regardless of the reason or rea- sons, that school principals and assistant principles were more likely to prefer the status quo is impor- tant: Administrators may be key decisions makers for bringing in new services recommended by ser- vice providers.Thus, they may be considered a pos- sible barrier to mental health services provision.

Differences were noted by respondent position regarding obstacles to service availability and pro- vision. Principals and assistant principals were less likely than respondents in mental health positions such as school psychologists and school social workers to see lack of funds and lack of district support as obstacles to providing additional services. These differences are noteworthy if school psy- chologists and other mental health professionals are to effect meaningful change in service provision and violence prevention strategies.

LIMITATIONS Several limitations in this study should be noted. First, a distinction was not made on the survey be- tween mental health services available to the gen- eral student population and special education ser- vices. Some of the services offered at some schools may only be obtained by special education students. Thus, the data may overestimate the number of schools that provide some services.

Second, the significant differences observed based on respondent position and school size may be a result of an interaction among these variables. Most of the principals and assistant principals who par- ticipated in the study worked in smaller schools, and maybe this combination of factors accounted for some of these differences. However, because of the nature of the data, analysis of these interactions was not possible.

The study is also limited because the respon- dents provided only one penpective and might have been unaware of the exact strategies used, services offered, and changes made since the shootings at Columbine High School.The individuals who make decisions regarding services and strategies and are in the best position to know the exact changes and extent of those changes may not be those who work directly with youths at risk of violent behavior. In addition, understanding what each mental health service and violence prevention strategy entails may vary from position to position and from school to school; this could have affected the results.

Social desirability is a limitation inherent in the self-report measure used in this study. School per- sonnel may have had a strong interest in showing that they are taking steps to prevent school vio- lence post-Columbine.Thus, the number of schools providing mental health and violence prevention services may be low êr than reported.

Finally, because only respondents working in high schools were surveyed, it is not possible to general- ize to violence prevention efforts at the elementary and preschool levels. Furthermore, because only schools in Colorado were considered, these results may not generalize to schools elsewhere in the country, particularly those in areas that have not experienced a school shooting.

IMPLICATIONS AND FUTURE DIRECTIONS The multiple-victim school shootings that have occurred over the past decade have shown that it can happen at any school, anywhere. And despite

C R E P E A U - H O B S O N . F I L A C C I O , AND G O T T F R I E D / Violence Prevention after Columbine 163

all that we have learned regarding risk factors and effective prevention and intervention programs. research on school violence suggests that schools continue to be plagued by aggressive and violent behavior. Indeed, assaults, weapons, and gangs in schools were among the top prohlenis requiring a disciphnary response in 1995 {Flannery, 2000), and 8 percent of students reported being bullied at school in 2001 {NCES, 2003).

It is encouraging to know that high schools have made and continue to make changes in their efforts to deal with potentially violent students. Increases were observed in direct and radical approaches such as metal detectors and a police presence and in in- direct strategies such as conflict resolution and af- fective education programs. Unfortunately, most of the changes may not be effective in preventing or reducing school violence. A lack of research dem- onstrating the efficacy of many interventions, par- ticularly when applied in the school setting may be due in part to the lack of useful evaluations for most practices used to prevent violence in tbe schools (Gottfredson, 1997). Interventions with demonstrated effectiveness appear to be underused in the school setting.

The training and expertise of school mental health professionals in research methodology, pro- gram evaluation, and prevention and intervention place them in a unique position to he involved in the prevention and treatment of violent and ag- gressive behavior in the schools {Leff, Power, Manz, Costigan,& Nabors, 2001).They could and should play a role in the development, implementation, and evaluation of violence prevention and violence reduction services and programs {Miller, 1994). It is important for school mental health professionals to place themselves in positions in which they can be involved in decision and policy making to effect change. Decisions regarding violence prevention practices are frequently made solely on the basis of budgetary and political considerations (Noguera, 1995).

In the present study, lack of funds was cited as the biggest perceived obstacle to violence preven- tion and mental health service availability. Discon- tinuing the provision of ineffective or less effective services and using those resources to develop and implement other, more effective strategies to pre- vent and reduce school violence may be one solu- tion for schools (Mendel, 2000). In addition, pro- fessionals providing school-based mental health and

violence prevention services need to use the exist- ing literature to better meet the needs of at-risk students. Research is fairly conclusive regarding tactics that are effective in preventing and reducing school-related violence and those that are not. Understanding violence, crime statistics, and vio- lence risk factors, as well as evaluating method- ologically sound outcome research should be the basis for informed practice (Hyman & Perone, 1998). As professionals knowledgeable about school vio- lence and how to effect systemic change, school mental health providers need to assume a leader- ship role in providing guidance and support at all levels of policy making and in program planning, implementation, and evaluation, ffi

REFERENCES liower.A. {2(10!, Mari-h IV). Scorecard of hatred. Time.

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. National Center for Chronic Disease Prevention and Health Promotion. (2000). Assessing health risk behaviors iimotifi youn)< peopleiWnilh risk behavior surveiilame system, ai-a-^lance. Retrieved ApTil 1. 2002, from http://www.cdc.gov/nccdphp/dash/yrbs/ yrhsaag.htm

Elliott, D. S.. & Tolan, P. H. (1999).Youth violence, prevention, intervention and social policy. In D. J. Fiannery & C. R. Huff (Eds.), Youlli I'iolah'c: Prevention, ititerventioti anil social policy (pp. 3-^6). Washington, DC :̂ American Psychiatric Press.

Flannery; R. B. (2000). Preventing^ youth violence:A guide for parent;, teachers, and counselors |Brochure). New York: Continuum International Publishing Group.

Gottfredson, D, C. (1997). School-based crime preven- tion. In L.W. Sherman, D. C. Gottfredson, D. Mackenzie, J. Eck, P. Reuter, & S. Bushway (Eds.), Preventing crime: Wl\at uwh, what doesn't, what's promising: A report to the United States Conf^ress (NCJ 171676',pp. 125-182). Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Justice Programs.

Gottfredson, G. D., Gottfredson, D. C , Czeh. E. R., Cantor, D., Crosee, S. B., & Hantman. I. (20(10). National study oj delinquency prevention in schools. Retrieved April 2, 2002. from http://gottfreson. com/National.htm

Hyman, 1. A., & Perone. D.C. (1998).The other side of school violence; Policies and practices that may contribute to student inishehavior._/()i(rnij/of 5i"/mci/ Psychology 36, 7—27.

Larson,J. (1994).Violence prevention in the schools: A review of selected programs and procedures. School Psychotoi^ Review. 23. 151-164.

Leff, S. S., PoWer.T J., Manz, P H., Costigan,T. E., & Nabors, L. A. (2001). School-based aggression prevention programs for young children: Current status and implications for violence prevention. School Psychology Review. 30. 344-362.

Lipsey, M. W (1992).The effect of treatment of juvenile delinquents: Results from meta-analysis. In F Losei, D. Bender, & T. Bliesener (Eds.), Psychology and law: International perspectives (pp. 131-143). New York: Walter de Gruyter.

Lipsey, M. W , & Wilson, D. B. (1998). Effective interven- tion for serious juvenile offenders: A synthesis of

164 Children &Scbooli VOLUME 27, N U M B E R J JULY 2005

research. In R. Loeber & D. P. Farrington (Eds.), Serious and violent juvenile offenders: Risk factors and successjul interventions (pp, 313-345).Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.

Mayer, M. J., & Leone, P. E. (t999). A structural analysis of school violence and disruption: Imphcations for creating safer schools. Education and Treatment of Children, 22, 333-356.

Mendel, R. A. (2000). Less hype, more help: Reducing juvenile crime, what works-and what doesn't. Retrieved March 8, 2002, from http://www,aypf.org/ mendel/ index, html

MiDer, G. E. (1994). School violence miniseries: Impressions and implications. School Psychology Review, 23, 257-26\.

National Center for Education Statistics. (2003). Indicators of school crime and safety, 2002. Retrieved August 23, 2004, from http://nces.ed.gov/pubs2003/ schoolcrime/

Noguera, P. A. (1995). Preventing and producing violence: A critical analysis of responses to school violence. Harvard Educational Review, 65, 189-212.

Pietrzak, D., Petersen, G. J., & Speaker, K. M. (1998). Perceptions of school violence by elementary and middle school penonnel. Professional School Counseling, 1(4), 23-29.

Thornton,X N., Craft, C. A., Dahlberg, L. L., Lynch, B. S., & Baer, K. ( 2 0 0 0 ) . Best practices of youth violence prevention: A sourcebook for community ijffioM. Atlanta: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Injury Prevention and Control.

Totan, P. H., & Guerra, N. G. (1994). Wliat works in reducing ado!e.(cent i'iolence:An empirical review of the field. Boulder: University of Colorado, Center for the Study and Prevention ofViolence, Institute for Behavioral Sciences.

U.S. Department of Education and U. S. Department of Justice. (1999). Indicators of school crime and safety (NCES 19989-057/NCJ" 1772215) .Washington, DC: Author.

U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. (2001). Youth violence: A report of the surgeon general. R e - trieved Novemher 30, 2001, from http://wvAv. surgeongeneral.gov/library/youthviolence.report

Verlinden, S., Hersen, M., & Thomas, J. (2000). Risk factors in school shootings. Clinical Psychology Review, 20{\), 3-56.

Walker, H. M., & Gresham, F M. (1997). Making schools safer and violence free. Intervention in School and Clinic, 32, 199-204.

Af. Franci Crepeau-Hobion, PhD, NCSP, is assistant professor. Division of Professional Psychology, University of

Northern Colorado, Campus Box 131, Greeley, CO

80639; e-mail:[email protected].

MaryLynne Filaccio,JD, is a doctoral student. University of Northern Colorado; Linda Gottfried, EdS, NCSP, is a counselor/psychologist, Englewood Schools, Englewood, CO.

An earlier version of this article was presented at the Annual

Convention of the National Association of School Psycholo-

gists, April 2, 2002, Chicago.

Accepted February 4. 2OQ5

Mark W. Fraser, Editor

Liici^iure is rcfJete mtti mva

of diiWren who nwm againit

isipotslble odds. Ito tcss <irvnatic

w t real-life aoounti in locial wtxii

caie files. 8utwti)f art some childrei

]o resilient when others are RM?

How can miaJ WOTIC practice

iate theH posinve forces

fjik and fallienct In Childhood: An

kelogica! Perspective. 2ad Edition

lakn i majer teap forward from

othtf l o t l ^ worii lexis to pnAx

ftot only risk but rKilience and Ihe protectWe hnon that promott poiitin

developmental outcome]. Firmly nwuth bued, rt bridges tbe gap between

ecological Sieory and strengths-based practia and provides a f o u r ^ i n n im

ic imerventioiK.

Building « i tlw concepts utd models artioiiattd so overtly in the best-ulting first

edition, the authors {HHskind SeiilieKe, 2nd Edition introduce a HimewoH: and

interdisciplinary Ur^age t « understan<iing and conceptuaiiiing social and health

j v o l ^ m M children and Iheir families. Ruuten will easily draw anpiicatiofls for

^ c t i c e from its clear and organiitd pmnttation. Using an ecotogkal and

tnuimystems perspedite, «ich chapur examines risk ind prouctne ixtm for

^ i f i c social [voblems and disorden in diiliHiood, Includiij; drug abuse, school

failure, ^oleswH pregnancy, and delinquency. Hiskind Resilitnce, 2n<IEditim

is a coni|»lling and rich resource fw pnctitioners, uMin, and educators.

I S B N : » « 7 I O I - 3 5 6 - a , FaH 2 0 0 3 ( # 3 5 6 8 ) , 2 9 6 patget. $ 4 9 . 9 9

NASW PRESS

ORDER TODAY! Call: 1-800-227-3590 PLEASE REFER T O CODE APRR03

VISIT OUR WEB SITE AT:

www.naswpres5.org

#NASW

C R E P E A U - H O B S O N , FiLACCto, AND G O T T F R I E D / Violence Prevention after Columbine 165