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Amy Klemm Verbos, Joe S. Gladstone and Deanna M. Kennedy Inclusive Virtuous Circle

Native American Values and Management Education: Envisioning an

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1University of South Dakota, Vermillion, SD, USA 2New Mexico State University, Las Cruces, NM, USA 3University of Washington Bothell, Bothell, WA, USA

Corresponding Author: Amy Klemm Verbos, Beacom School of Business, University of South Dakota, 414 E. Clark Street, Vermillion, SD 57069, USA Email: [email protected]

Native American Values and Management Education: Envisioning an Inclusive Virtuous Circle

Amy Klemm Verbos,1 Joe S. Gladstone,2 and Deanna M. Kennedy3

Abstract

Circles are symbols of interconnectedness. Behavioral circles can be vicious or virtuous. Many American Indians are caught in a vicious circle of exclusion from the purported benefits of Westernization, entrapment in its negative elements, and the ongoing undermining of their culture and thus their identi- ties. Yet Native Americans, along with many indigenous peoples the world over, are holding fast to traditional values. Indigenous knowledge systems include spiritual orientations that, in the face of the social and environmental issues facing humanity, may provide an alternative set of values for generating life-enhancing business behavior. The authors introduce management educa- tors to Native American values generally and specifically to four traditional Lakota values: bravery, generosity, fortitude, and wisdom. Management education might move toward to an inclusive, virtuous circle through respect for Native American values as an equally valid alternative to dominant management values.

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Verbos et al. 11

Keywords

Native American values, American Indian values, vicious circles, virtuous circles, diversity, indigenous perspectives

Introduction

The greatest principle the circle symbolizes for me is the equality that applies to all forms of life . . . we are all part of a larger com- munity, the largest of all: the Circle of Life. (Marshall, 2001, pp. 225-226)

Circles symbolize relationships, interconnectedness, and are a positive part of cultural and spiritual Native American traditions (Marshall, 2001; Mattern, 1999). Virtuous circles explicate increasingly positive human behavior in social systems, whereas vicious circles explain pathological negative spirals (Maruyama, 1963; Weick, 1979; Wender, 1968). Unresolved historical grief attributable to past traumatic events, including genocide through warfare, massacre, and disease, loss of homelands, and cultural genocide, holds many American Indians in a vicious circle of dependence, poverty, substance abuse, and hopelessness today (Juntunen & Cline, 2010; Yellow Horse Brave Heart & DeBruyn, 1998). A Native American temporal perspective encompasses past, present, and future (see, e.g., Verbos, Kennedy, & Gladstone, 2011), so historical traumas hold present meaning (Jervis, Beals, Croy, Klein, & Manson, 2006). As a result of this vicious circle, American Indians have fewer formal qualifications, lower employ ment rates, lower incomes, and higher poverty rates than the overall U.S. population (Cornell & Kalt, 2007; Ogunwole, 2006). They share these unenviable characteristics with indige- nous peoples the world over (United Nations, 2009).

Indigenous peoples demonstrate a remarkable resilience in the face of generalized devastation and a determination to thrive with their unique iden- tities intact (see, e.g., Denham, 2008). Together with many other indigenous peoples, Native Americans express a deeply founded spiritual relationship to Earth. In fact, reestablishing American Indian identity and spiritual practices are key to healing multigenerational grief and its consequences (Gone, 2009). Importantly, traditional Native American spirituality holds that all creatures and natural phenomena are animate, connected, and worthy of respect (see, e.g., Garrett & Garrett, 1994; James, 2004; Verbos et al., 2011). These sys- tems of knowledge may hold crucial insights toward more sustainable and

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12 Journal of Management Education 35(1)

humane global business practices countering myopic tendencies in manage- ment toward values neglect (Swanson, 1999).

Once almost the sole domain of critically oriented management scholars, there is now a more widespread call for change in management education most explicitly articulated in the United Nations’ “Principles for Responsible Management Education” (http://www.unprme.org). Critics assert that pre- vailing values in management education perpetuate self-interested and uneth- ical behaviors (Ferraro, Pfeffer, & Sutton, 2005; Ghoshal, 2005) and are, to some extent, complicit in the challenges facing humanity, including human rights violations, labor exploitation, environmental degradation, and corrup- tion (see, e.g., Adler, Forbes, & Willmott, 2007; Delbridge & Keenoy, 2010). At the time of this writing, BP’s catastrophic environmental disaster unfolds in the Gulf of Mexico. A New York Times article implicates BP’s corporate cultural emphasis on low-cost production and high profits (Nocera, 2010). This profit-at-any-cost dictum comports with dominant values in manage- ment education but is contrary to Native American beliefs that human inter- actions with natural systems must be brought into balance.

Values such as balance may hold key insights for global application. Economic development initiatives consistent with tribal values are finding success in Indian Country1 (Cornell & Kalt, 2007; Reyner & Eder, 2004). Although a number of these values appear common among indigenous peo- ples the world over, we emphasize that even Native American tribal identi- ties are unique and quite diverse. Native American adaptation, resistance to assimilation, and work to preserve endangered cultures and languages are testament to the resilience of the people who uphold these values in the face of intensifying Western economic rationalism.

America’s indigenous people are virtually invisible in U.S. management education and literature. Native Americans are the smallest and most under- represented minority group in business schools (Diversity PipelineAlliance®, 2007; Ogunwole, 2006). We suggest that inclusion of traditional Native American values may contribute to a virtuous circle to be developed for management education. As a contribution to the greater inclusion of indig- enous wisdom in the education of management students, we explain how traditional Native American values may open a door to different business ideas and practices by shifting underlying business assumptions about what is good and right vis-à-vis interconnected others, creatures, and ecological systems. We direct attention to specific examples from some well-known tribes. For instance, Billy Mills (Lakota and 1964 gold metal Olympian) travels widely and speaks about Lakota values, including how living these values in business will benefit the Earth and all its peoples. Lisa Little Chief

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Verbos et al. 13

Bryan (2004), a Lakota entrepreneur, colleague, and friend of the first author, further elaborated on these values in business. We have been touched and inspired by them. Also, writings by Lakota authors may be more widely available to management educators interested in reading more about spe- cific values.

From Vicious to Virtuous Circles For thousands of years before contact with Europeans would change the tra- jectory of their destiny, hundreds of groups of people who inhabited the landmass now known as the United States of America had their own names for homelands and themselves as peoples (Brown, 1971; Stuckey & Murphy, 2001). For our kin, these names were Bodewadmi, Pikuni, and Aniyvwiyai (also known as Potawatomi, Blackfeet, and Cherokee, respectively). Today the words indigenous, American Indian, and Native American conflate more than 500 unique and diverse groups of people across the United States. “American Indian” is a socially constructed racial category. It originated with Columbus, who thought he had reached the Indies (Stuckey & Murphy, 2001). His appellation was one of myriad misunderstandings that fol- lowed. “Native American” is used somewhat interchangeably with American Indian and generally appears in diversity literature. The word “Indigenous” is used in a global context for original inhabitants of a particular place. For example, the United Nations Declaration on Rights of Indigenous Peoples and the call for papers to this Special Issue refer to “indigenous” peoples in this way.

Names often carry dire consequences. According to Johnson (2006), racial categorization serves to stratify people so a dominant race can oppress others. In the context of American history, claiming all Indians as an alien threat has justified massacres and forced removal to reservations (Brown, 1971). Subsequent government policies overtly attempted to destroy indigenous cul- tures and to force people to assimilate into a largely hostile foreign culture that viewed them as inferior (Prucha, 1986; Stuckey & Murphy, 2001; Ward, 2007). Deep bonds to land were severed by removal, enforced assimilation, “and by almost total eradication of an economic relation to it as a material provider of sustenance” (Pommersheim, 1995, p. 33). Many American Indians engaged in agriculture and trade prior to forced geographical confinement to reservation lands held in trust and managed by the government (Brown, 1971; Prucha, 1986). Without freedom to live or move about on their own terms, they became dependent on the U.S. government for an inadequate subsistence living. Further losses ensued. Trust lands, for example, were allotted to

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14 Journal of Management Education 35(1)

individual Indians and sold as surplus lands to non-Indians under the Dawes Severalty Act of 1887, eroding tribal land bases from 138 million acres in 1887 to 52 million acres in 1934 (Pommersheim, 1995; Prucha, 1994). Conflating tribes into a single category obscures their uniqueness and facili- tates practices against their flourishing.

For policy makers, officials, and even in various tribes, deciding who is an American Indian is complicated. U.S. government agencies officially recog- nize 562 Indian tribes (U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Indian Affairs, 2007). Descendents from tribes terminated under federal law, how- ever, are not recognized. Blood quantum criteria originated in federal Indian policies based on race are not an indigenous practice, although some tribes making per capita casino profit distributions prefer blood quantum standards for tribal enrollment (Kalt, 2007). Such a blood quantum standard creates an intergenerational racial separation by excluding future generations from the tribe. Moreover, individuals with a multitribal heritage may be ineligible to enroll in any tribe. Other tribes base enrollment on ancestry, favoring inclu- siveness. Neither standard is perfect since subsequent generations may have little connection to the community.

For tribal people, “Indianness” is cultural, based on ties to homeland, val- ues, cultural practices, and worldview (Juntunen et al., 2001; Mihesuah, 1999). In contrast, U.S. government policies prior to late 20th century pro- moted assimilation; that is, American Indians would vanish into White soci- ety (DeJong, 1993; Ward, 2007). Historically, government boarding schools implemented “subtractive” education (Reyner & Eder, 2004), forbidding Native languages, tribal rituals, and cultural practices (DeJong, 1993; Grover & Keenan, 2006; Ward, 2007). Traditionally, Native Americans value self-identity including tribal history, ancestry, and stories (DeJong, 1993; Pommersheim, 1995). Some children whose home environment was not nurturing benefited from boarding schools. But children lost cultural edu- cation, care, and acceptance from their extended families during their devel- opmental years (DeJong, 1993). As a result, some Native Americans view “education” with caution or hostility.

Nevertheless, American Indians overall favor schools when the goal is “additive,” including both Native and non-Native elements (Reyner & Eder, 2004). Relational education preserves differences while advancing mutual respect, understanding, and well-being (Pommersheim, 1995). Tribal com- munity colleges provide an essential partial solution: access to culturally appropriate education and support for Native American language sustenance efforts in often remote communities (DeJong, 1993; Reyner & Eder, 2004). Strengthening entrepreneurship education at tribal colleges is an important

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goal pursued by the Gonzaga MBA in American Indian Entrepreneurship (AIE) degree program (Stewart & Pepper, 2011). However, to truly imple- ment a relational solution with mutual benefits, we cannot simply look to tribal colleges.

Today, Native Americans are underrepresented in higher education at all levels, a problem exacerbated by high undergraduate attrition rates (Shotton, Oosahwe, & Cintron, 2007). In the 2000 Census, only 11% of American Indians reported at least a bachelor’s degree, compared with 24% of the over- all population (Ogunwole, 2006). Perceived or actual discriminatory treat- ment marginalizes and isolates Native American students in predominantly White universities (Lin, LaCounte, & Eder, 1988; Pewewardy & Frey, 2004). Non-Indian educational institutions, including those in higher education, often denigrate traditional American Indian culture (DeJong, 1993; Reyner & Eder, 2004). As such, Native American students may feel their cultural identity threatened at predominately non-Indian colleges and universities (Buckley, 2004; Lin et al., 1988).

To envision management education as furthering a virtuous rather than vicious circle, we recommend additive, relational solutions. Furthermore, we suggest the importance of bridging differences between dominant values in management education and Native American values.

Contrasting Values Perspectives

We all come from the same root, but the leaves are all different.

—John Fire Lame Deer, Lakota

According to Clegg and Ross-Smith (2003), U.S. management knowledge is constructed with “glacierlike stability” in its underlying cultural assump- tions. Business schools tout their value to students as a path to financial gain (Pfeffer & Fong, 2004) consistent with the norm of self-interest prevalent in Western cultures (Miller, 1999; Ratner & Miller, 2001). Economic theoreti- cal models assume rational, self-interested, and maximizing human behavior (Ferraro et al., 2005; Jensen & Meckling, 1994). Such assumptions are anti- thetical to traditional Native American values as summarized in Table 1. Dissonance theory (Festinger, 1957) predicts that individuals seek to affirm their beliefs and avoid conflicting beliefs (Fiske & Taylor, 1991). Thus, the values that dominate management education may cause some American Indian students as well as others who hold similar values to opt out of business school. Of course, individual Native Americans may differ and cultures are

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not uniform (Worthington, Flores, & Navarro, 2005). Yet more inclusive values may be a key to more responsible management education.

Rational self-interest and individual achievement are inconsistent with traditional American Indian values of humility, modesty, and equality (Badwound & Tierney, 1988; Garrett & Garrett, 1994). Likewise, they do not hold a place in the four greatest Lakota values—bravery, fortitude, generos- ity, and wisdom (Lame Deer & Erdoes, 1972; Pommersheim, 1995)—which provide a different way of living (Marshall, 2001). Four is the most powerful number for Lakota people; exemplified by the medicine wheel, a circular representation of creation, intersected by four lines that represent the four directions (North, South, East, and West), four seasons, and mental, physical, emotional, and spiritual realms (Marshall, 2001; Mills & Sparks, 1990). Lakota values handed down through oral storytelling by elders and cultural advisors are a key to healthy and vibrant Native communities (Little Chief Bryan, 2004).

Table 1. Values Differences

Dominant Values in Management Educationa

Traditional Native American Valuesb

Human behavior Rational, self-interested Generous, modest Individual motivation Maximize self-interest, money,

status Contribute to well-being

of family/tribe; respect and humility

Environment Natural resources to be exploited for profit

Nature as spiritual and practical; maintain harmony and balance

Self-construal Individualistic Collectivistic; respect for elders

Decision making Made through formal authority Reflective, participative Property rights Formal, based on title Based on use or communal Organization Hierarchical; formal (pyramid) Greater egalitarianism

(circle) Organizational goals Efficiency, effectiveness, profits Provide jobs and enhance

community value

a. See, for example, Badwound and Tierney (1988), Ferraro et al. (2005), Ghoshal (2005), Ghoshal et al. (1999), Mintzberg et al. (2002), and Pfeffer and Fong (2004). b. See, for example, Badwound and Tierney (1988), Garrett and Garrett (1994), Juntunen et al. (2001), and Ward (2007).

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Generosity is a timeless virtue favored over material accumulation (Marshall, 2001; Pommersheim, 1995). “The false lesson is that he or she who has the most is the best” (Marshall, 2006, pp. 43-44). The Lakota belief in generosity is that “the Earth Mother gives us all that she has” (Marshall, 2001, p. 190), so people must do likewise. Generosity is integral to the every- day operation of an ethical and socially responsible business. Research by Juntunen et al. (2001) found that to Native Americans career success means to contribute to the well-being of one’s tribe, family, or future generations. As a result, many Native Americans reject material gain as a reason to pursue a career (Juntunen et al., 2001). One’s extended family and tribe are stronger sources of identity and worth than career (Miller & Brown, 2005).

Any challenge in life, including a business challenge, invites bravery (Marshall, 2001). Fortitude is strength of heart that helps a person to persevere through adversity (Marshall, 2001, 2006). Native American entrepreneurs exercise bravery and fortitude in starting businesses to support their families and communities (Little Chief Bryan, 2004). Bravery and fortitude in a man- agement context are elements of moral courage and long-term thinking.

Research by Garrett and Garrett (1994) and Marshall’s (2001) Lakota sto- ries attest that Native Americans prefer participative decision making, coop- erative behavior, and a deep respect for elders. Native American business people are less concerned about maximizing profits than about providing jobs and contributing to the community (Garsombke & Garsombke, 2000). For example, Ho-Chunk, Inc. (2007), a successful, diversified holding corpo- ration established by the Winnebago Tribe of Nebraska, meets social needs as a part of its overall strategy (Begay, Cornell, Jorgenson, & Kalt, 2007). Lance Morgan, CEO and President of Ho-Chunk, Inc., defines success as profits, jobs, and community development:

We define success slightly differently than a non-tribal corporation because we are so much more. We are a means of escaping the cycle of poverty. We are an opportunity for individual growth. We are a chance to put your education to work in a tough and competitive but nurturing environment. But most of all, we are a corporation that cares about people. That is not just some slogan. It is in fact our reason for existence. (Ho-Chunk Inc., 2007).

Wisdom is when a person uses knowledge of what is right and true to make good decisions (Marshall, 2001). Wisdom requires generosity because it is a gift that must be given away (Marshall, 2006). American Indians con- sider people as part of a greater interdependent whole, as opposed to a group

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composed of individual members (Garrett & Garrett, 1994). That “whole” includes nature and the entire circle of life (Marshall, 2001). Traditional Native Americans live in harmony with natural systems and prefer sustainable uses and practices that do not injure land, ecosystems, or are harmful to the balance between man and nature (Garrett & Garrett, 1994). This is because humanity is equal rather than superior to other forms of life (Marshall, 2001). Values work in concert to help a person travel life’s path with wisdom.

Traditional Native American values hold promise as a different lens for viewing business, including how to conduct business in an ethical, sustainable manner. Some examples are that humility and equality promote diversity, whereas modesty and participative decision making promote teamwork. Lakota values support positive management practices such as mentoring, sus- tainable business practices, and attention to stakeholder concerns. Each of these values holds potential benefits in the context of management education.

Envisioning an Inclusive Virtuous Circle

If we listen to each other, we will not necessarily erase difference; rather, we may use it to our mutual advantage. (Pommersheim, 1995, p.199)

A virtuous circle begins with a change that generates positive deviation– amplifying feedback (Maruyama, 1963; Wender, 1968). Within Indian Country, the Indian rights movement culminated in the Indian Self- Determination and Education Assistance Act of 1975 (Prucha, 1986). Now, tribal governments exercise their rights to promote long-term economic growth and social development (U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Indian Affairs, 2007; Jorgenson, 2007; Kalt, 2007). The Harvard Project on American Indian Economic Development has studied economic development processes in Indian Country since 1986 (Jorgenson, 2007). It focuses on insti- tutional structures and policies that serve as bases for nation building efforts (Cornell & Kalt, 2007). The Harvard Project finds that successful governance and development structures are consistent with a specific Native nation’s culture (Begay et al., 2007). In contrast, unsuccessful efforts impose dominant culture’s ideas or a one-size-fits-all approach to governance and development (Cornell & Kalt, 2007). A thread runs consistently through literature about Native American careers, law, education, and economic development: To meet the needs of this population, it is necessary to develop programs that are culturally appropriate and consistent with traditional values (Badwound &

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Verbos et al. 19

Tierney, 1988; Begay et al., 2007; Buckley, 2004; Duffy & Stubben, 1998; Garrett & Garrett, 1994; Muller, 2000; Pommersheim, 1995).

It is a positive sign that a small sample of American Indians report that Indian culture and traditions do not impede business growth and success (Stewart & Schwartz, 2007). Gonzaga University’s MBA in AIE is one pro- gram responding to a need for more entrepreneurial and management exper- tise (Stewart & Pepper, 2011). Non-Native business schools can also meet these needs and increase Native American presence in management educa- tion. Increasing presence will, in turn, increase the relevance of Native American perspectives, expanding a virtuous circle.

As enrolled tribal members with a commitment to the flourishing of indig- enous peoples and integration of life sustaining values in the wider educa- tional system, we call on management educators to respect Native American values as an equally valid viewpoint. Faculty and students alike in Gonzaga University’s MBA in AIE degree program expressed that cultural values present important challenges and learning opportunities (Stewart & Pepper, 2011). We understand that change requires bravery, fortitude, generosity, and wisdom. We suggest four possible ways in which this strategy may enrich management education.

First, it would increase cultural intelligence. Cultural intelligence is a capacity to understand and appropriately interpret interactions with others who differ in cultural values, practices, and behaviors (Earley & Ang, 2003; Lévy-Leboyer, 2007). Cultural intelligence builds wisdom by facilitating broader conversations that critically examine dominant assumptions about business and its key objectives. Cross-cultural benefits were evident as Muller (2000) recounted an experimental class she facilitated at the University of New Mexico that examined how Native American business differed from the mainstream business models. Exposing students and faculty to cross-cultural perspectives can encourage creativity and innovation in organizational forms and management practices.

Second, economic development and processes under tribal law encourag- ing citizen entrepreneurship throughout Indian Country are creating greater business and management opportunities for Native Americans (Cornell, Jorgenson, Record, & Timeche, 2007; Duffy & Stubben, 1998). However, Native Americans report being misunderstood and alienated in universities (Lin et al., 1988; Pewewardy & Frey, 2004). A commitment to respect Native American values will benefit a chronically underrepresented and economically disadvantaged minority group that is, at present, underserved by U.S. business schools. Moreover, increased acceptance of different

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perspectives could go a long way to welcoming all people who appreciate a more inclusive vision of business.

Third, although diversity is an important issue in contemporary manage- ment education, the American Indian perspective is not. Previous research stresses the importance of MBA programs recognizing workforce diversity (Cooper, Massey, & Graham, 2006; Gatenby & Humphries, 1999). Many AACSB-accredited business schools espouse diversity goals and maintain membership in the PhD Project, which has its mission to increase business education for Native Americans and other underrepresented minority groups (Stewart, Williamson, & King, 2008). It was discouraging that Stewart et al. (2008) excluded Native Americans from their study of the PhD pipeline due to statistically insignificant numbers. Ethical commitments to diversity should include respect for Native American perspectives.

Finally, including Native American perspectives is consistent with calls for a paradigm shift in management education and scholarship. A myopic focus on economic rationality may cause good people to self-select out of business careers.

Management education is driven by, and drives, such ideas of efficient, free-market, rational, profit-maximizing organizations, where relation- ships and intersubjective meaning are powered by a dominant dis- course of hierarchical power relationships. Management scholars are rarely cognizant that they do so from an ideologically driven basis. (Pitsis & Clegg, 2007, pp. 410-411)

Ferraro et al. (2005) contend that this worldview, institutionalized into management education, creates a self-fulfilling prophecy to our detriment. This view also constrains management education from achieving its full potential to teach critical thinking skills and instill a value of lifelong learn- ing (Pfeffer & Fong, 2004). Business schools need to broaden their appeal to improve management practice (Ghoshal, Bartlett, & Moran, 1999; Mintzberg, Simons, & Basu, 2002).

Native American values provide a basis for creating wiser organizational structures and management practices. Values are why we do what we do and are critically important to developing wisdom (Fukami, 2007). Wisdom as a Lakota value comes from life experience. Wisdom is “absolutely critical in the conceptualization and execution of one’s life and work” (Kessler & Bailey, 2007, p. xvii). We may teach with greater wisdom if we critically

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Verbos et al. 21

examine how to expand values in management education beyond the domi- nant paradigm.

Concluding Thoughts Our brief foray into history provides only a glimpse of devastation wrought by naming America and the vicious circles that remain. Indigenous people the world over are in similar straits. To honor our elders, their wisdom, and resilience, we present Native American values as a different perspective to generate a virtuous, inclusive circle within management education. This circle may increase cultural intelligence, benefit an underrepresented minority group, fulfill commitments to diversity, and contribute to wisdom in man- agement education. Respect for these values in management thought may lead to better decisions. Imagine, for instance, if society, and by extension, BP decision makers, held an animate view of the Gulf of Mexico. Perhaps society might have truly moved “beyond petroleum” by now. At a minimum, reflecting on these values will help educators to better understand the United Nations Principles of Responsible Management Education and businesses to follow through with the promises in the United Nations Global Compact. We encourage readers to reflect and consider business exemplars of bravery, fortitude, generosity, or wisdom for stories that will teach students to value more than efficiency and profit in business—to “manage” flourishing in the circle of all life.

Acknowledgements

We are grateful to Lisa Little Chief Bryan for inspiring us to examine Lakota values, sharing her unpublished work, and providing valuable comments on the manuscript. We thank Maria Humphries, Dale Fitzgibbons, and three anonymous reviewers for their supportive, constructive comments. We thank the Management Doctoral Student Association of the PhD Project for bringing us together. Finally, we acknowledge our respective tribes: the Pokagon Band of Potawatomi Indians, the Cherokee Nation of Oklahoma, and the Blackfeet Nation and Nez Perce tribes.

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The authors declared no conflicts of interest with respect to the authorship and/or publication of this article.

Funding

The authors received no financial support for the research and/or authorship of this article.

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22 Journal of Management Education 35(1)

Note

1. Indian Country is a general term used by American Indians to refer to their social spaces, whether geographical and physical, cultural, or psychological.

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