islam

A Geographic Sketch of the Arabian Peninsula The Arabian Peninsula is the homeland of Islam. Its culture, geography, and climate are closely related to the birth of Islam. A basic knowledge of the geography of Arabia is a must for beginning students of Islam. While accessing a map of the modern Middle East (such as Map 12.2 in RELG), read the description of Arabian geography.

The Arabian Peninsula, the birthplace and spiritual center of Islam, is in southwest Asia at the junction of Africa and Asia, a part of the “Middle East.” (The terms East, Middle East, and Far East are of course oriented geographically to Europe.) This strategic location is ideal for taking advantage of long-distance trade between Europe, Africa, and the rest of Asia. Most of the Arabian Peninsula is a desert—despite its vast size, not one river runs through it—making irrigation and land reclamation projects essential in the modern world. Goats, sheep, and camels are widespread throughout the region, especially near its oases and at the coast. The narrow coastal plains and isolated oases in the Arabian Desert are used to cultivate grains, fruit, and coffee, the last item being Saudi Arabia’s only main food export. (You may have had strong coffee with “Arabica” beans.) Although these fertile areas

are only 1 percent of the Arabian Peninsula, they loom large in Arab culture.

The coast of the Arabian Peninsula on the west faces Africa; on the south is the Arabian Sea, a part of the Indian Ocean; and on the east it faces Iran over the Persian Gulf. Geographically, the Arabian Peninsula includes the desert western regions of Iraq and parts of eastern Syria. The Euphrates River in Iraq separates it geographically from the rest of Asia to the east. It is comprised today of the smaller nations of Bahrain, Kuwait, Qatar, and the United Arab Emirates, and the larger nations of Saudi Arabia, Jordan, Oman, and Yemen. It contains some ultra-conser- vative Muslim nations like Saudi Arabia, and some that are liberal by comparison, like the city-state of Dubai in the United Arab Emirates. With the exception of Yemen and Jordan, these countries have become some of the wealthiest nations in the world due to their vast reserves of oil and natural gas. In 2009, the estimated population of the Arabian Peninsula was 74 million.

A Geographic Sketch of the Arabian Peninsula. Bob Van Voorst, Cengage Learning. RELG: World, 2nd edition, © 2013A Geographic Sketch of the Arabian Peninsula. Bob Van Voorst, Cengage Learning. RELG: World, 2nd edition, © 2013

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A Hadith: What Is the Greatest Verse in the Qur’an? The Hadith are the collections of the sayings and actions of Muhammad. They are not in the Qur’an, which Muslims believe to be only the words of God through the angel Gabriel to Muhammad. The Hadith arose early as an inter- pretive tool for understanding and implementing some of the more challenging passages in the Qur’an.

It is related from Ubai bin Kab that, “The Apostle of God said, ‘O Abu al-Mandhar, do you know which verse from the Book of God most High is the greatest?’ I said, ‘God and His Apostle know best.’ He said, ‘O Abu al-Man- dhar, do you know which verse from the Book of God is

greatest?’ I said, ‘God, there is no God but He, the Living, the Self-subsisting.’” Ubai said, “And he struck me on my breast and said, ‘O Abu al-Mandhar, may knowledge be welcome to you.’”

From Selections from Muhammadan TraditionsWilliam Goldsack; Selections from Muhammadan traditions: being a carefully chosen and thoroughly rep- resentative collection of the most authentic traditions from the celebrated Mishkátu’l-masábíh. Madras: Christian Literature Society for India, 1923Wil- liam Goldsack; Selections from Muhammadan traditions: being a carefully chosen and thoroughly representative collection of the most authentic tra- ditions from the celebrated Mishkátu’l-masábíh. Madras: Christian Literature Society for India, 1923

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Alms In Islam, the giving of alms (zakat) is mandatory, one of the “pillars” of the faith. Alms are more of a tax than an offering, but believers are urged to give fully and willingly. This passage deals especially with the issue of who may receive alms.

[9:53, Medina] Say: “If youyou: Hypocrites among the Muslims. make your offering willingly or by constraint, it cannot be accepted from you, because you wicked people.”

What hinders the acceptance of their offerings? That they do not believe in God and His Apostle, and discharge the duty of prayer with sluggishness, and make offerings only with reluctance. Do not let their riches or their chil- dren amaze you. God will punish them by means of these in this present life, so that their souls may depart while they are unbelievers.

They swear by God that they indeed belong to you,you: Muhammad. but they do not. They are afraid

of you. If they find a place of refuge, or caves, or a hid- ing place, they certainly haste to it. Some of them also defame you over alms; if a part is given them they are content, but if no part is given them, they are angry!…

Alms are only for the use of the poor and the needy, for those who collect them, for those who are won to Islam, for ransom of slaves and debtors, for advancing the cause of God, and for the needy wayfarer. This is an ordinance from God, and God is knowing and wise.

From Robert E. Van Voorst, Anthology of World Scriptures, 8th ed. (Boston: Wadsworth, 2013). Copyright © 2013, Wadsworth, Cengage Learning. Used by permission of Cengage Learning.From Robert E. Van Voorst, Anthology of World Scriptures, 8th ed. (Boston: Wadsworth, 2013). Copyright © 2013, Wadsworth, Cengage Learning. Used by permission of Cengage Learning. from Qur’an 9:53–60From John M. Rodwell, The Koran (London: B. Quarich, 1876).From John M. Rodwell, The Koran (London: B. Quarich, 1876).

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God’s Absolute Oneness One of the main themes of the Qur’an is the absolute oneness of God. The first passage from Surah 6 is given against jinn (spirits) being considered divine and against the notion of God having sons and daughters. The word- ing of the short Surah 112, entitled “Oneness,” seems to suggest that it is specifically against the Christian belief that God the Father begot the Son and that the two are equal in being and power.

[6:100] They call the jinnjinn: Supernatural spirits in earth and heaven, but not angels. God’s partners, although He created them. In their ignorance they also falsely ascribe sons and daughters to Him. Glory be to Him! May he be highly exalted above what they say about Him! He is the sole maker of the heavens and of the earth! How, when He has no consort, should He have a son?have a son: The singular noun son might indicate that this counters the Christian belief in Jesus as the Son of God.

The Qur’an more typically attacks the “daughters of Allah” in pre-Islamic Arabian religion. He has created everything, and He knows everything!

This is God your Lord. There is no God but Him, the creator of all things, so worship Him alone. He watches over all things. No [human] vision takes in Him, but His vision takes in everything.

[112] In the name of God, the Compassionate, the Merciful. Say: “He is God alone, God the eternal! He does not beget, nor is He begotten. There is none like Him.”

From Robert E. Van Voorst, Anthology of World Scriptures, 8th ed. (Boston: Wadsworth, 2013). Copyright © 2013, Wadsworth, Cengage Learning. Used by permission of Cengage Learning.From Robert E. Van Voorst, Anthology of World Scriptures, 8th ed. (Boston: Wadsworth, 2013). Copyright © 2013, Wad- sworth, Cengage Learning. Used by permission of Cengage Learning. from Qur’an 6:100–103; 112From John M. Rodwell, The Koran (London: B. Quarich, 1876).From John M. Rodwell, The Koran (London: B. Quarich, 1876).

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Heaven and Hell The first passage (76:1–22) is one of the fullest descrip- tions in the Qur’an of the blessings of heaven. They are physical to the point of sensuousness, with little explicit development of the spiritual blessing or happiness of the residents of heaven.

[76:1] Does not a long time pass over man, a time unremembered?a time unremembered: To judge from the next verse, this time is life in the womb before birth.

We have created man from the union of the sexes that we might test him. We made him to hear and see. We have guided him into a right way, whether he is thankful or ungrateful.

For the unbelievers we have prepared chains, collars and flaming fire. [5] But the just will drink a wine cup tempered at the camphor fountain, where the servants of God will drink. They fulfilled their vows, and feared the day whose woes will spread far and wide. Though longing for food themselves, they bestowed it on the poor, the orphan and the captive, saying, “We feed you for the sake of God, and we do not seek from you either reward or thanks. We dread a stern and calamitous day from our Lord.”

Therefore, God has delivered them from the evil of that day, and made their faces bright with joy. God has

rewarded their constancy with Paradise and silken robes. Reclining on bridal couches, they will know nothing of sun or piercing cold. Shade trees will be close over them, and their fruit will be low-hanging.

Vessels of silver and goblets like flagons will be car- ried among them, flagons that on their own measure out their drink. They will be given to drink of the cup tem- pered with ginger, from the fountain there named Ginger. Ever-blooming youths walk among them. When you look at them you would think they were scattered pearls. You will see many delights and a vast kingdom.

Your clothing will be green silk robes and rich bro- cade; with silver bracelets you will be adorned. Your Lord will give you a pure beverage. This will be your reward. Your efforts will meet with thanks.

From Robert E. Van Voorst, Anthology of World Scriptures, 8th ed. (Boston: Wadsworth, 2013). Copyright © 2013, Wadsworth, Cengage Learning. Used by permission of Cengage Learning.From Robert E. Van Voorst, Anthology of World Scriptures, 8th ed. (Boston: Wadsworth, 2013). Copyright © 2013, Wadsworth, Cengage Learning. Used by permission of Cengage Learning. from Qur’an 76:1–22From John M. Rodwell, The Koran (London: B. Quarich, 1876).From John M. Rodwell, The Koran (London: B. Quarich, 1876).

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Islam in Spain Spain was the only western European nation to be under Muslim control, from about 750 to 1492. Christians and Jews were sizeable religious minorities there, and on the whole interreligious relationships worked well enough, as long as Muslim rule and general cultural authority were not challenged. An enduring cultural heritage of this Muslim rule was a rich combination of Arab and Spanish architecture. Read more about Muslims in Spain at http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/ religions/islam/history/spain_1.shtml

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Learning the Qur’an Three young boys receive Qur’an classes in West Africa. They use traditional wooden tablets to practice short verses from the Qur’an, and get some familiarity with Arabic (not their first language) in the process. Most education in traditional Muslim areas is oriented on the Qur’an, and spends most of its time in reading and memorizing it.

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Muslim Americans Here the Arab American Association of New York, a Muslim society, holds its annual Bay Ridge Arab American Bazaar and Eid celebration. A main feature of Muslim life in the United States today is uncertainty over whether Muslims are accepted here as equals in the aftermath of the 9/11 attacks and other violent events through the present, a few of them by American-born Muslims. This has an objective side—how Muslims are actually treated—and a subjective side—how they feel about their place in America. Read the article, “American Muslims Ask, Will We Ever Belong,” http://www.ndtv. com/world-news/american-muslims-ask-will-we-ever-belong-430201

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Muslim Diet in Many Cultures Islamic ethics encompasses all of life, including diet. Although Muslim halal (permitted food) rules are not as extensive or strict as Jewish kosher rules, they are fully important to Muslims. Some of these rules include not eating pork in any form, and not consuming alcoholic beverages in any way. This includes things like medicinal use of alcohol and cooking with wine. All Muslims around the world have their own types of food, and Muslim dietary laws have been applied to them all, including the African American “soul food,” as in this neon sign in New York City.

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Muslim Prayer A Muslim soldier in the United States Army offers prayer at one of the appointed hours of prayer. He—and his prayer rug—are pointed toward Mecca, the direction of all formal Muslim prayer. His boots are off, as the rules for prayer specify, but they are at the ready. Prayer is at the center of Muslim worship and devotion; it is done formally five times a day.

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Muslims in China We usually don’t associate Islam with China, but millions of Chinese citizens in the west- ernmost provinces of China are Muslims. But there is rising difficulty between Muslims, who come from a Turkic ethnic group called the Uighurs, and the Chinese government, which dislikes open displays of religion. The government makes taking a pilgrimage to Mecca difficult, and it has issued a decree in 2015 that no religious dress is to be seen on the streets. The women in this photo are breaking this rule; for many Muslim women around the world, wearing head coverings is not a symbol of male domination but rather a proud assertion of their Muslim identity.

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Pilgrimage The Sacred Mosque of Mecca, which houses the Kaba (the holy stone) and its shrine, was reclaimed by Muhammad from Arab polytheism and made the geographic center of Muslim pilgrimage and the precise direction of Muslim prayer. In 2:196–199, rules for the pilgrimage are given.

Make the pilgrimage and visit the holy places in honor of God. If you are hemmed in by foes, send what- ever offering you can. Do not shave your heads until your offering reaches the place of sacrifice. But anyone among you who is sick, or has an illness of the head, must satisfy [the obligation of pilgrimage] by fasting, by alms, or by an offering.

When you are safe from foes, he who contents him- self with the visitation of the holy places until the pilgrim- age will bring whatever offering he can.

But he who has nothing to offer will fast three days in the pilgrimage itself and for seven days when he returns, for ten days in all. This is binding on him whose family is not present at the sacred Mosque. Fear God, and know that God is terrible in punishing.

Let the pilgrimage be made in the set months. Whoever undertakes the pilgrimage must not have sexual

relations on the pilgrimage, nor transgress, nor argue. The good which you do, God knows. Provide for your journey, but the best provision is the fear of God. Fear Me, you men of understanding!

It will be no offense in you if you seek an increase [of blessings] from your Lord. When you go down swiftly from Arafat,Arafat: One of the mountains near Mecca, a stop on the pilgrimage. remember God near the holy monument. Remember Him, because He has guided you even though you belonged to those who went astray. Then pass on quickly where the people quickly pass, and ask pardon of God, for God is forgiving and merciful. When you have finished your holy rites, remember God as you remember your own fathers, or with a more intense remembrance!

From Robert E. Van Voorst, Anthology of World Scriptures, 8th ed. (Boston: Wadsworth, 2013). Copyright © 2013, Wadsworth, Cengage Learning. Used by permission of Cengage Learning.From Robert E. Van Voorst, Anthology of World Scriptures, 8th ed. (Boston: Wadsworth, 2013). Copyright © 2013, Wad- sworth, Cengage Learning. Used by permission of Cengage Learning. from Qur’an 2:196–199From John M. Rodwell, The Koran (London: B. Quarich, 1876).From John M. Rodwell, The Koran (London: B. Quarich, 1876).

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Prayer At first, Muhammad and his followers faced Jerusalem during prayer, as was the Jewish custom. Later, after rela- tions with the Jews of Medina had soured, he changed the direction of prayer (qiblah) to the holy shrine at Mecca, as this passage (2:142–149) relates, and particu- larly to the Kaba within it. The duty and direction of prayer are discussed in the Qur’an, but the content of prayer is not, perhaps because the Qur’an itself is rich with prayers and other devotional material.

The foolish will say, “What has turned them from the qiblah that they used?” turned them from the qiblah: That is, change the direction they face during prayer, from Jerusalem to Mecca.

Say: The East and the West are God’s. He guides whom he will into the right path.

We have made you a key people, that you may wit- nesses to all people, and that the Apostle may be a wit- ness in regard to you. We appointed the qiblah which you formerly had, only that we might know him who follows the Apostle from him who turns on his heels. This change is difficult, but not to those whom God has guided. God will not let your faith be fruitless, for God is merciful and gracious.

We have seen you turning your face toward every part of heaven; but We will have you turn to a qiblah

which will please you. Turn your face toward the Sacred Mosque; wherever you are, turn your faces there.

[145] Those to whom this Book has been given know this to be the truth from their Lord. God is not unknowing of what you do. Even though you should bring every kind of sign to those who have received the Scriptures, they will not adopt your qiblah. Neither will you adopt their qiblah If, after the knowledge which has come to you, you follow their wishes, you will become unrighteous.

Those to whom We have given the ScripturesScriptures: both Jewish and Christian. know the Apostle as they know their own children. But some of them conceal the truth, although they are acquainted with it. The truth is from your Lord, so do not doubt it.

All have an area under heaven to which they turn [in prayer]; but wherever you are, hasten after good. God will one day bring you all together; truly, God is all-powerful.

Wherever you are, turn your face toward the Sacred Mosque. This is the truth from your Lord; God is not inat- tentive to your deeds.

From Robert E. Van Voorst, Anthology of World Scriptures, 8th ed. (Boston: Wadsworth, 2013). Copyright © 2013, Wadsworth, Cengage Learning. Used by permission of Cengage Learning.From Robert E. Van Voorst, Anthology of World Scriptures, 8th ed. (Boston: Wadsworth, 2013). Copyright © 2013, Wad- sworth, Cengage Learning. Used by permission of Cengage Learning. from Qur’an 2:142–149From John M. Rodwell, The Koran (London: B. Quarich, 1876).From John M. Rodwell, The Koran (London: B. Quarich, 1876).

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Resurrection and Judgment Like most of Judaism and Christianity in the sixth century c.e., Islam foresees a literal resurrection of the body from death; soul and body are rejoined to face judgment. The Meccan origin of these Qur’an passages (75:1–15; 69:14–35) is reflected in their lyrical style and power. The second passage, vivid in its emotional intensity, describes the last judgment that follows the resurrection on the last day. The use of “right” and “left” is reminiscent of the New Testament teaching that at the last judgment the righteous will stand at God’s right and the unrighteous at the left.

[75:1, Mecca] In the name of God, the Compassionate, the Merciful.

I need not swear by the day of the resurrection, or by the self-accusing soul.

Does man think that we will not re-unite his bones? We can replace his very finger tips perfectly. [5] But man chooses to deny what is coming. He asks, “When is this day of Resurrection?” But when the eye will be dazzled, and the moon darkened, and the sun and the moon will appear together, [10] on that day man will cry, “Where can I flee?”

But they will cry in vain; there is no refuge. Your Lord on that day will be the only refuge. On that day, man will be told of all that he has done from his first [day] to his last. Yes, a man will be the eyewitness against himself.

[69:14, Mecca] When one blast is blown on the trum- pet, and the earth and the mountains are shaken, both will be crushed into dust in a single crushing. [15] On that

day the woe that must come suddenly will indeed come suddenly.

The heaven will split apart, for on that day it will be fragile. On that day eight angels will bear up the throne of your Lord. You will be brought before Him. None of your hidden deeds will remain hidden.

He who has his book given to him in his right hand will say to his friends, [20] “Take it, and read my book! I always thought that I would come to this reckoning.” His will be a life that pleases him greatly, in a lofty garden whose clusters [of fruit] will be near at hand. He will eat and drink with relish, as the reward for what he sent ahead [to heaven] in his days which are past.

[25] But he who has his book given into his left hand will say, “O that my book had never been given to me, and that I had never come to my reckoning! Would that death had made an end of me! My wealth has not profited me, and my power has left me!”

[30] The angels will seize him and chain him, then burn him in the fires of hell, with a chain seventy cubits long. He did not believe in the Most High God, and did not care to feed the poor. [35] He will have no friend there, but only the rotten food that sinners eat.

From Robert E. Van Voorst, Anthology of World Scriptures, 8th ed. (Boston: Wadsworth, 2013). Copyright © 2013, Wadsworth, Cengage Learning. Used by permission of Cengage Learning.From Robert E. Van Voorst, Anthology of World Scriptures, 8th ed. (Boston: Wadsworth, 2013). Copyright © 2013, Wadsworth, Cengage Learning. Used by permission of Cengage Learning. from Qur’an 75:1–15; 69:14–35From John M. Rodwell, The Koran (London: B. Quarich, 1876).From John M. Rodwell, The Koran (London: B. Quarich, 1876).

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Saudi Arabia’s Muslim Identity Because of its size, oil wealth, history in Islam that goes back to its founding, and especially the fact that it contains the pilgrimage city of Mecca, Saudi Arabia has a leading influence in much of the Muslim world. Its strong Wahhabi identity has made it rigorously concerned for strict Muslim identity and practice. Even its flag is a quotation of the main state- ment of belief in Islam: “There is no god but God, and Muhammad is God’s prophet.” This webpage, “Saudi Arabia: Islam’s Heartland,” is an effort to put Islam’s “best face forward” to Westerners. http://www.saudiembassy.net/about/country- information/Islam/saudi_arabia_Islam_heartland.aspx

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Symbol of Islam? If Islam has any unofficial symbol, it is the crescent moon and a star. Crescents without a star are often found at the top of mosques, where they remind Muslims of God’s rule over creation, and in particular of the importance of the moon in the Muslim religious calendar—which is based on the phases of the moon, not the sun. Also, the crescent and star are carved as a symbol of Islam into the gravestones of Muslims in the U.S. armed forces buried in U.S. military cemeteries. But on the whole, Islam has no official symbol, mostly because it is so opposed to the religious use of images.

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The Call of Muhammad in the Qur’an The call of Muhammad is when God summoned him to convey the divine message to others, by means of the command “Recite!” In Arabic, this is the verb from which the noun Qur’an, meaning “recitation,” comes. However, the process of transmitting the Qur’an was at first a com- pletely oral process.

▪▪ In the name of God, the merciful and the compassionate.

▪▪ Recite, in the name of your Lord!

▪▪ He created man from congealed blood.

▪▪ Recite, for your Lord is most generous!

▪▪ [5] He taught the pen, and taught man what he did not know.

▪▪ Humans are indeed outrageous when they see themselves get rich!

▪▪ Truly, unto your Lord you shall return!

▪▪ —Qur’an 96:1-9

From E. H. Palmer, The Koran (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1880)From E. H. Palmer, The Koran (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1880)

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The Call of Muhammad In traditional Muslim understanding, Surah 96 is the story of Muhammad’s call vision. A hadith relates that while Muhammad was meditating in a cave, an angel appeared to him and commanded him to recite (iqra’, the impera- tive form of Qur’an). Muhammad at first refused, but the angel choked and threatened him into submission. Modern scholars typically identify “The Star,” Surah 53, as Muhammad’s call vision. It is related as a challenge to those who “question what he sees.” Muhammad’s vision is inspired and authoritative because it is “received from one who is powerful and mighty.” Surah 53 tells of two visions, and Islamic tradition says that these are the only two times when Muhammad actually saw Gabriel.

[96] In the name of God, the Compassionate, the Merciful.

Recite, in the name of your Lord who created and is creating man from clots of blood.clots of blood: This probably refers to the creation of individual humans in the womb; elsewhere, the Qur’an states that God created humans at the beginning of time from clay or dirt, as the Jewish and Christian book of Genesis affirms. Recite! For your Lord is most beneficent, and has taught by the penby the pen: the oral revelation that will eventually be written in the Qur’an. what man does not know.

A man is insolent when he grows rich. Truly, to your Lord all things will return.

What do you think of a man who holds back a servant of God when he prays? Has he followed the true guidance or urged piety? Has he not treated the truth as a lie and turned his back on it? Does he not know how God sees him? If he does not desist, WeWe: a “majestic” We, not meant to imply that God is not One. will seize him by his forelock, his lying, sinful forelock! Then let him summon his friends; We will summon the guards of Hell. No, do not obey him. Worship God and draw near to Him.

[53:1] In the name of God, the Compassionate, the Merciful.

By the star when it sets, your compatriotyour com- patriot: Muhammad, who was living among his tribe, the Quraysh, at the time of this surah. is not mistaken, nor is he led astray, nor does he speak from mere impulse. mistaken … led astray … impulse: These charges were leveled at Muhammad by his opponents among the Quraysh. Muhammad answers that what he says is a true message from God. This Qur’an is nothing else than a revelation revealed to him. One terrible in powerOne terrible in power: The angel Gabriel. taught it to him, one endued with wisdom. He [Gabriel] stood on the highest part of the horizon. Then he came nearer and approached, and was at the distance of two bows, or even closer. He revealed to his servant what he revealed. HisHis: “His” and “he” now refer to Muhammad. heart did not falsify what he saw. What! Will you dispute with him about what he saw?

He saw him also at another time, near the sidra tree, which marks the boundary. Near it is the Garden of Repose.sidra tree, Garden of Repose: The sidra tree is at the boundary of the highest heaven; the Garden of Repose lies in heaven, in the presence of God. This second vision is of heaven, which explains why Muhammad saw there some of his Lord’s greatest signs. When the sidra tree was covered with what covered it, his eye did not turn aside, nor did it wander, because he saw the greatest signs of his Lord.

From Robert E. Van Voorst, Anthology of World Scriptures, 8th ed. (Boston: Wadsworth, 2013). Copyright © 2013, Wadsworth, Cengage Learning. Used by permission of Cengage Learning.From Robert E. Van Voorst, Anthology of World Scriptures, 8th ed. (Boston: Wadsworth, 2013). Copyright © 2013, Wadsworth, Cengage Learning. Used by permission of Cengage Learning. from Qur’an 96:1–19; 53:1-18From John M. Rodwell, The Koran (London: B. Quarich, 1876).From John M. Rodwell, The Koran (London: B. Quarich, 1876).

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The Conduct of Believers The ethical dimensions of the Islamic life are spread evenly throughout the Qur’an, as one would expect for a religion that calls itself “submission” to God’s way. Occasional passages summarize the duties of the believer. This selection deals comprehensively with the moral structure of Islam; notice its relationship to the Ten Commandments of Judaism. This section ends with one of the most famous commands in Islam, “Do not walk proudly on the earth.”

[17:23] Do not worship other gods, lest you be disgraced and helpless. Your Lord has ordained that you worship only Him. Be kind to your parents if one or both of them attains to old age. Do not say to them, “Shame on you!” or reproach them, but speak to them respectfully. Defer humbly to them out of tenderness, and say, “Lord, have compassion on them, because they reared me when I was little.”

Your Lord well knows what is in your souls; he knows if you are righteous. Gracious is He to those who return to Him.

Render his due to one who is your kin, and also to the poor and to the wayfarer. Do not give wastefully, for the wasteful are brothers of Satan, who was ungrateful to his Lord. If you turn away from them because you yourself lack blessings from your Lord, at least speak to them kindly. Do not be stingy or profligate [in giving], because you will be shamed or impoverished. Your Lord will pro- vide with open hand for whomever he pleases, and will be sparing to others. He scans and inspects his servants.

Do not kill your children for fear of poverty.kill your children: In pre-Islamic times, unwanted infants,

especially females, were killed at the discretion of their fathers by being buried alive. The Qur’an views this prac- tice as murder. We will provide for them and you. Truly, killing them is a great wickedness.

Have nothing to do with adultery, for it is foul and evil.

Do not slay any one whom God has forbidden you to slay, unless for a just cause. Whoever will be slain wrongfully, to his heir we have given power; but let him not overstep proper bounds in putting the manslayer to death, for he too, in turn, will be assisted and avenged.be assisted and avenged: Blood feuds could easily get out of control; this is an effort to limit their scope.

Do not touch the property of the orphan,orphan: These guidelines are for those who serve as guard- ians of orphans. unless in an upright way, until he is an adult. Perform your agreements; your covenants will be examined.

Give full measure when you measure, and weigh with just balance… How you hear and look and intend will be examined. Do not walk proudly on the earth, for you cannot cleave the earth, nor can you reach to the mountains in height.

From Robert E. Van Voorst, Anthology of World Scriptures, 8th ed. (Boston: Wadsworth, 2013). Copyright © 2013, Wadsworth, Cengage Learning. Used by permission of Cengage Learning.From Robert E. Van Voorst, Anthology of World Scriptures, 8th ed. (Boston: Wadsworth, 2013). Copyright © 2013, Wadsworth, Cengage Learning. Used by permission of Cengage Learning. from Qur’an 17:23–38From John M. Rodwell, The Koran (London: B. Quarich, 1876).From John M. Rodwell, The Koran (London: B. Quarich, 1876).

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The Different Dimensions of Struggle (Jihad) The Qur’an urges jihad, “struggle” or “striving” against unbelief of all sorts to spread the faith. Jihad is often called “struggle in the way of Allah.” This struggle includes prayer, study, “war” against evil in oneself, and military conflict to spread and defend the faith. God commends those who struggle in his way. In the first passage (48:11–21), a problem arose for Muhammad about what to do with those who refuse to fight in the military aspects of jihad. The answer came by revelation that those who will not fight should have no share in the war “booty” (captured objects and people) or in eternal life. In the second passage (2:190–194, 216–218), Muhammad is preparing to sponsor a holy war against Mecca, from which he had fled for his life. These instructions give the basic guidelines for all holy wars in Islam. In particular, it is obligatory for all who can participate, and its aim is to spread the faith and crush opposition to Islam.

[48:11] The Arabs who did not take the field with youAr- abs who did not take the field: Muslim tribes who refused to participate in a military campaign led by Muhammad against unbelieving opponents. will say, “We were busy with our property and our families, so ask pardon for us.” They speak with their tongues what is not in their hearts.

Say, “Who can have any power over God in your behalf, whether He wants you to suffer some loss or whether He wants to give you an advantage? God is acquainted with your doings. But you thought that the Apostle and the faithful would never come back to their families. Your hearts were pleased at this evil thought about this expedition, and you became undone.”…

God’s is the kingdom of the heavens and the earth. He forgives whom he wills, and whom He wills He pun- ishes. God is Gracious, Merciful!

They who did not take the field with you will say to you when you go to take the spoil, “Let us follow you.” They would gladly change the word of God. Say: “You will by no means follow us; God has said this already.”

They will say, “You are jealous of us.” No! They are men of little understanding. Say to those Arabs of the desert, who did not take the field, “You will be called forth against a people of mighty valor. You will do battle with them, or they will profess Islam. If you obey, God will give you a goodly recompense; but if you turn back, as you turned back before, He will chastise you strongly.”

It is no crime for the blind, the lame, or the sick not to go to the fight. Whoever obeys God and His Apostle, God will bring him into the gardens beneath which the rivers flow. But whoever turns back [from fighting], He will pun- ish with a strong punishment.

God has been well pleased with the believers when they pledged loyalty to you under the tree. He knew what was in their hearts: therefore He sent down upon them a spirit of secure repose, and rewarded them with a speedy victory and with rich booty; for God is mighty and wise!

God promised you rich booty and sped it to you. He withheld men’s hands from you, for a sign to the faithful, and that He might guide you along the right way. Other booty [will come to you]. God has purposed them for you; for God is powerful over all things.

[2:190] Fight for the cause of God against those who fight against you, but do not attack them first; God does not love such injustice.

Kill them wherever you find them, and eject them from whatever place they have ejected you. Idolatry is worse than bloodshed. But do not at tack them at the Sacred Mosque [of Mecca], unless they attack you there; if they attack you, slay them. Such is the reward of the infidels. But if they desist, then God is truly gracious and merciful. Fight against them until there is no more idolatry, and the only worship is that of God. But if they desist, then let there be no more hostility, except against the wicked.

War is commanded to you, even if you are averse to it. Perhaps you are averse to something although it is good for you, and perhaps you love something although it is bad for you. God knows, but you do not.

They will ask you concerning war in the Sacred Month. Say: “To war in it is bad, but to turn aside from the cause of God, and to have no faith in Him, and in the Sacred Temple, and to drive out its people, is worse in the sight of God. Idolatry is worse than bloodshed.”

They will not stop warring against you until they turn you from your religion, if they can. If any of you turns from his religion and dies an infidel, his works will be fruitless in this world and the next. He will be consigned to the fire, to abide there forever.

But those who believed and fled their homeland those who believed and fled their homeland: Those who moved from Mecca to Medina with Muhammad. and now fight in the cause of God may hope for God’s mercy. God is gracious and merciful.

From Robert E. Van Voorst, Anthology of World Scriptures, 8th ed. (Boston: Wadsworth, 2013). Copyright © 2013, Wadsworth, Cengage Learning. Used by permission of Cengage Learning.From Robert E. Van Voorst, Anthology of World Scriptures, 8th ed. (Boston: Wadsworth, 2013). Copyright © 2013, Wadsworth, Cengage Learning. Used by permission of Cengage Learning. from Qur’an 48:11–21; 2:190–194, 216–218From John M. Rodwell, The Koran (London: B. Quarich, 1876).From John M. Rodwell, The Koran (London: B. Quarich, 1876).

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The Fast As the beginning of this passage indicates, fasting was a pre-lslamic custom among the Arabs. Muhammad adapts it with his own regulations to Islam. The transition between pre-Islamic and Islamic fasting is easily discern- ible here.

O believers! A fast is prescribed to you as it was prescribed to those before you, that you may fear God. Fast on certain days, but those among you who are sick or on a journey should fast on other days. As for those who are able to keep it and yet break it, the substitution- substitution: Substitute of feeding a poor person during the month of fasting. for this will be the maintenance of a poor man….

In the month of Ramadan the Qur’an was sent down…. As soon as any one of you observes the moon [beginning that month], begin the fast. But those who are sick or upon a journey must fast a similar number of days

at another time. God wishes you ease, not discomfort, and that you fulfill the number of days. Glorify God for his guidance, and be thankful….

You are now allowed on the nights of the fast to lie with your wives.lie with your wives: Have sexual inter- course with them, at first forbidden during the whole month of fasting. They are your garment and you are their garment. God knows that you deceived yourselves about this, so He turns to you and forgives you. Therefore, go to them now with full desire for that which God ordained for you.

From Robert E. Van Voorst, Anthology of World Scriptures, 8th ed. (Boston: Wadsworth, 2013). Copyright © 2013, Wadsworth, Cengage Learning. Used by permission of Cengage Learning.From Robert E. Van Voorst, Anthology of World Scriptures, 8th ed. (Boston: Wadsworth, 2013). Copyright © 2013, Wad- sworth, Cengage Learning. Used by permission of Cengage Learning. from Qur’an 2:183–186From John M. Rodwell, The Koran (London: B. Quarich, 1876).From John M. Rodwell, The Koran (London: B. Quarich, 1876).

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The Flight to Medina When he was driven out of Mecca by his opponents, Muhammad hid in a cave for three days with his only companion, Abu Bakr. The Meccan authorities were hunt- ing for him, but God kept them away from Muhammad. God’s deliverance of the Prophet from this threat to his life made a deep impression on him, giving him a sense of confidence that would transform his life.

Assist the Prophet [as] God assisted him out with only one companion. When they were once before, when the unbelievers drove him into the cave, the Prophet said to his companion, “Do not be distressed; God is with us.”

God sent down His tranquility upon him, and strength- ened him with invisible angels. God made the word of those who do not believe humiliated, and the word of God was exalted. God is Mighty, Wise.

From Robert E. Van Voorst, Anthology of World Scriptures, 8th ed. (Boston: Wadsworth, 2013). Copyright © 2013, Wadsworth, Cengage Learning. Used by permission of Cengage Learning.From Robert E. Van Voorst, Anthology of World Scriptures, 8th ed. (Boston: Wadsworth, 2013). Copyright © 2013, Wad- sworth, Cengage Learning. Used by permission of Cengage Learning. from Qur’an 9:40From John M. Rodwell, The Koran (London: B. Quarich, 1876). From John M. Rodwell, The Koran (London: B. Quarich, 1876).

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The Holy Qur’an The revelations to Muhammad, which later formed the written Qur’an, took several forms. The first passage (Qur’an 42:50–53) refers to direct, audible speech and to the less direct inspiration that comes “from behind a veil.” Whatever the form, Muslims believe that all revelations came from God by way of his angel Gabriel. The second passage (46:1–13) recounts the qualities of the Qur’an: its origin as a revelation from God, its miraculous nature, its connection to the faith of Islam, and its Arabic character. A recurrent theme of this surah is the defense of the Qur’an against the charge that it is false. In the third passage (2:87–91), the Qur’an claims to be the capstone of the prior scriptures of Judaism and Christianity. It con- firms the Bibles of these faiths and shares much the same content, but the peoples of these latter books mostly reject Islam.

[42:50] God speaks to men only by a vision, or from behind a veil. Or He sends a messenger to reveal, by His permission, what He wills. He is Exalted and Wise!

Thus we have sent the angel Gabriel to youyou: Muhammad. with a revelation, by our command. You did not know what the Book was, or the faith. But we have ordained it for a light; by it we will guide whom we please of our servants. You will surely guide men into the right way, the way of God. All that the heaven and the earth contain belong to God; will not all things return to Him?

[46:1] Ha. Mim. The revelation of this Book is from the Mighty, the Wise!

We have created the heavens and the earth and all in them only in truth, and for a set term. But those who do not believe turn away from Our warnings.

Say, “What do you think? As for those whom you invoke beside God, show me what part of the earth they have created! Had they a share in the heavens? Bring me a Book sent down by them before this Qur’an, or traces of their knowledge, if you are truthful.”

Who errs more than he who calls upon idols that will not answer him, even at the Day of Resurrection? Yes, they never hear their prayers. [5] When mankind will be assembled together [on that Day], their idols will become their enemies, and ungratefully disown their worship.

When our clear signs are recited to them, those who do not believe say about the truth that comes to them, “This is plain sorcery.”

Do they say, “He has invented it”? Say to them, “If I have invented the Qur’an, you will not obtain one single thing from God! He knows what you say about it! He is the witness between me and you! He is gracious and merciful.”

Say, “I am no apostle of new doctrines, nor do I know what will be done with me or you. I only follow what is revealed to me, and I am only charged to warn openly.” Then say, “What do you think? This Book is from God, and you do not believe it. An Israelitean Israelite: A Jew who converted to Islam, traditionally identified as Abdullah bin Salam. witnesses to its conformity with his Law and believes, while you proudly disdain it. God does not guide people guilty of such a wrong!

[2:87] We gave the Book to Moses, and we raised up apostlesthe Book of Moses: To judge from the context, this probably refers to the entire Jewish body of scripture. after him. To Jesus, son of Mary, we gave clear proofs of his mission, and we strengthened him by the Holy Spirit. Whenever an apostle comes to you with what your souls do not desire, you swell with pride, and treat some as impostors and slay others.

They say, “Our hearts are sealed.” No! God has cursed them in their infidelity; few are those who believe! When a Book came to them from God, confirming what they had received already…they knew it but did not recognize it. The curse of God be on the infidels! For a vile price they have sold themselves by not believing what God has sent down. They are envious of God’s sending down his grace on his servants as he pleases; they have brought on themselves wrath upon wrath. For unbelievers there will be a disgraceful punishment.

When they are told, “Believe in what God has sent down,” they say, “We believe in what was sent down to us.” But they do not believe in what has been sent down since, although it is the truth that confirms their own scriptures.

From Robert E. Van Voorst, Anthology of World Scriptures, 8th ed. (Boston: Wadsworth, 2013). Copyright © 2013, Wadsworth, Cengage Learning. Used by permission of Cengage Learning.From Robert E. Van Voorst, Anthology of World Scriptures, 8th ed. (Boston: Wadsworth, 2013). Copyright © 2013, Wadsworth, Cengage Learning. Used by permission of Cengage Learning. from Qur’an 42:50–53; 46:1–13; 2:87–91From John M. Rodwell, The Koran (London: B. Quarich, 1876).From John M. Rodwell, The Koran (London: B. Quarich, 1876).

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The Mission of Muhammad Surah 11 describes the tasks of Muhammad as God’s prophet. He is a messenger who is to proclaim, “Serve none but God.” Submission (in Arabic, islam) to God is the only way to serve him faithfully. Muhammad also warns of the terrors of hell that await those who refuse his message and promises rich rewards to those who obey. Muhammad brings no signs, treasures, or angels; his message itself is the miracle. This surah features the first instance we have seen of the “challenge verses,” which call upon Muhammad’s opponents to produce anything like the recitations if they can.

In the name of God, the Compassionate, the Merciful. Elif. Lam. Ra.Elif. Ram. Lah: Letters of the Arabic

alphabet like these sometimes immediately follow the Bismillah. Their meaning and significance are debated. [This is] a book whose verses are established in wisdom and set forth clearly from the Wise, the All-knowing [God].

So that you worship no one beside God, I come to you charged with warnings and announcements from Him. Seek pardon from your Lord, and turn to Him! Good enjoyments will He give you until a destined time, and He will bestow favors on everyone who deserves his favors. But if you turn away, I fear for you the punishment of the great day.great day: The day of judgment at the end of time. Unto God will you return, and He is powerful over all things.

Do they not conceal their breasts, to hide them- selves from Him? But when they enshroud themselves in their garments, does He not know what they conceal and what they show? He knows their inmost [thoughts]. There is no moving thing on earth whose nourishment does not depend on God; He knows its haunts and final resting place. All is in a clear book.in a clear book: Not the Qur’an, but other books in which the thoughts and deeds

of humans are recorded, to be used at the last judgment of the world at the end of time. He made the heavens and the earth in six days. His throne stood eternally upon the waters, that He might prove which of you would excel in His works.

If youyou: Muhammad. say, “After death you will be raised again,” the unbelievers will certainly exclaim, “This is nothing but pure sorcery.” If we defer their punishment to some definite time, they will exclaim, “What is keeping it back?” Will it not come upon them on a day when noth- ing can avert it? What they scoffed at will surround them on every side….

Perhaps you will suppress a part of what has been revealed to you, and will be distressed when they say, “Why has a treasure not been sent down to him, or an angel come with him?”be distressed … with him: This sentence implies that Muhammad was likely distressed by the lack of objective confirmations such as treasure, the presence of an angel, or the power to work miraculous signs that Jewish and Christian prophets before him had done. But you are only to warn them, and God has all things in His charge. If they say, “The Qur’an is his own invention,” say to them, “Then invent ten surahs like it. Call whatever [god] you can to help you beside God, if you are truthful. But if they do not answer you, know that [the Qur’an] has been revealed to you in the wisdom of God, and that He is the only God. Will you then become Muslims?”

From Robert E. Van Voorst, Anthology of World Scriptures, 8th ed. (Boston: Wadsworth, 2013). Copyright © 2013, Wadsworth, Cengage Learning. Used by permission of Cengage Learning.From Robert E. Van Voorst, Anthology of World Scriptures, 8th ed. (Boston: Wadsworth, 2013). Copyright © 2013, Wadsworth, Cengage Learning. Used by permission of Cengage Learning. from Qur’an 11:1–16From John M. Rodwell, The Koran (London: B. Quarich, 1876).From John M. Rodwell, The Koran (London: B. Quarich, 1876).

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The Night Journey in the Qur’an The story of Muhammad’s night journey from Mecca to Jerusalem, and subsequent visit to heaven from there, looms large in Islam. Besides the receiving of the Qur’an, it is one of the main supernatural experiences that Muhammad had. It has inspired much Islamic art and imagination.

▪▪ In the name of God, the merciful and the compassionate.

▪▪ Glory be to God, who carried His servant by night from the Sacred Place of worship to the farthest place of worship, the area which We have blessed, so that We might show him Our signs!

▪▪ He alone hears and sees all things.

▪▪ —Qur’an 17:1-2

From E. H. Palmer, The Koran (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1880)From E. H. Palmer, The Koran (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1880)

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The Qur’an on God’s Oneness No doctrine is as important in the Qur’an and throughout Islam as the teaching that God is one. It lays the foun- dation for the Muslim universal mission, as it does for Christianity; it also brings “ethical monotheism” to Islam, for God is completely good. At first this was directed against Arabian polytheism; over time it was directed against Christianity (with its teaching that the one God exists in Three Persons—Father, Son, and Holy Spirit) and against other religions with many gods, who often relate these gods in a family structure.

They [Muhammad’s opponents] call the jinn partners of God, although He created them. They also impute falsely, without knowledge, sons and daughters unto Him.

Glorified be He, highly exalted above (all) that they say about Him!

[He is] the Originator of the heavens and the earth! How can God have a child, when He has no consort, when He created all things and is aware of all things?

Such is God, your Lord. There is no God but God, the Creator of all things, so worship Him. Remember that He takes care of all things.

[Human] vision comprehends Him not, but He com- prehends (all) vision. He is the Subtle, the Aware.

—Qur’an 6:100-103

From E. H. Palmer, The Koran (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1880)From E. H. Palmer, The Koran (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1880)

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The Qur’an on Jews and Christians The Qur’an largely puts Jews and Christians in the same category: those “Peoples of the Book” who received prophets to call them to serve God. At first Muhammad was positive to Judaism and Christianity, but when rela- tions with Jews in Medinah soured, this attitude became negative. He charged that both religions have introduced corruptions into their books: the Jews that they are the only chosen people, the Christians that Jesus claimed to be God’s Son. Both religions rejected Muhammad’s claim that his new religion superseded theirs.

They say, “None shall enter Paradise except Jews or Christians;” that is their faith. Say, “Bring your proofs, if you are speaking truth.”

He who turns his face to God, and who is kind, he shall have his reward from his Lord, and no fear shall be on them, and they shall not grieve.

The Jews say, “The Christians rest on nothing”, and the Christians say, “The Jews rest on nothings,” and yet they both read the Book. God shall judge between them on the resurrection day concerning their dispute.

But who is more unjust than he who prohibits God’s mosques, that His name should not be mentioned there, and who strives to ruin them? These may not enter into them except in fear, for disgrace is theirs in this world, and in the future mighty woe.

God’s is the east and the west, and wherever ye turn there is God’s face; verily, God comprehends and knows.

[110] They say, “God takes unto Himself a son.” Glory be to Him! No, His is what is in the heavens and the earth, and Him all things obey. The Originator of the heavens and the earth, when He decrees a matter He doth but say unto it, Be!, and it is.

And those who do not know (the Scriptures) say, “God speak to us only when there comes a [miraculous] sign.’ So spake those before them like unto their speech. Their hearts are all alike. We have made manifest the signs unto a people that are sure.

We have sent thee with the truth, a bearer of good tidings and of warning, and thou shalt not be questioned as to the fellows of hell.

The Jews will not be satisfied with thee, nor yet the Christians, until you follow their creed. Say, “God’s guid- ance is the guidance;” and if you follow their lusts after the knowledge that has come to thee, thou hast not then from God a patron or a help.

—Qur’an 2:111-137

From E. H. Palmer, The Koran (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1880)From E. H. Palmer, The Koran (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1880)

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The Qur’an on the Qur’an The Qur’an has many references to the Qur’an as a written book. This may be confusing to beginning students of Islam, because they have learned that the Qur’an was dur- ing Muhammad’s lifetime (when all of it was revealed) an oral recitation only. It was after the death of Muhammad that the Caliph Abu Bakr made these individual recita- tions, some of them written down in an ad-hoc manner, into a book. The recitations seem to know about this human book, but they also refer to a heavenly Qur’an that is a model on which the Qur’an on earth is exactly patterned. That the Qur’an is in Arabic is a confirmation of the truth of Islam.

The revelation of the Scripture is from God the Mighty, the Wise.

We created the heavens and the earth and all that is between them, and for a term We appointed. But those who disbelieve turn away from what they are warned about.

Say: Have you thought about all the “beings” that you invoke beside God? Show me what they have created on the earth. Have they created any portion in the heav- ens? Bring me a scripture better than this Book, or some vestige of knowledge (in support of what you say), if you are truthful.

[5] Who is further astray than those who, instead of God, pray to those who do not hear not their prayer until the Day of Resurrection, and are unconscious of their prayer….

And when Our clear revelations are recited unto them, those who disbelieve say of the Truth when it reaches them: “This is mere magic.”

Or say they: “He has invented it.” Say: If I have invented it, you still have no power to

support me against God. He is aware of what you say among yourselves concerning it. He suffices for a wit- ness between me and you. And He is the Forgiving, the Merciful. Say: I am no new thing among the messengers (of God), nor know I what will be done with me or with you. I do but follow that which is inspired in me, and I am only a warner.

[10] Think: If it is from God and you disbelieve it, and a witness of the People of Israel has already testified to it and has believed, and you are too proud, what punish- ment will be yours! God does not guide wrong-doers.

And those who disbelieve say of those who believe: If it had been (any) good, we would have believed before they did.” Since they will not be guided by it, they say: “This is an old lie.”

Before it there was the Scripture of Moses, an example and a mercy; and this is a confirming Scripture in the Arabic language, that it may warn those who do wrong and bring good tidings for the righteous.

—Qur’an 46:1-12

From E. H. Palmer, The Koran (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1880)From E. H. Palmer, The Koran (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1880)

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Thinking through Western Questions about Islam and Women: A Discussion for North American Students Aside from the issue of Islam and violence, the issue of Islam’s views of women is the most controversial in the Western world. It plays into political and social struggles over how Muslim women should dress, their rights in marriage, how much access to schooling they should have, even issues like how much freedom they should have (in Saudi Arabia) to drive automobiles.

Muslims who are familiar with Western objections to traditional Muslim gender roles usually respond that these roles come from divine revelation to Muhammad, and must not be changed. They also say that the origins of Muslim gender roles should be understood in their historical context. At the time when Islam issued its standards, the status espoused for women significantly improved their social status in Arabia. What’s more, they gained higher rights than Christian and Jewish women had in Europe at the time. Muslim women owned prop- erty, received inheritances, and controlled their dowry.

You might respond: That was good for the past, but is this still right today? The Western world now recognizes women as equal under the law, and gives them the free- dom to choose their own career and husband, but in most Islamic countries women continue to live under the gen- eral control of first their fathers and then their husbands. Their access to the rights enjoyed by men is limited.

Here we must distinguish between what is uni- versally Islamic and what are regional cultural customs taken up by Muslims. In some Muslim areas and cultures, women have more freedom than in the areas of the Middle East that we often hear about. It is also necessary to distinguish between religious practices and cultural practices, for example the cultural practice of female geni- tal mutilation (in the past and sometimes today wrongly called “female circumcision”), in which a girl’s genitalia are altered in order to greatly reduce her pleasure in future sexual intercourse and thus presumably make her less

likely to be unfaithful to her future husband. Nothing in the Qur’an or Muslim tradition sanctions this.

Another non-Muslim practice is the so- called “honor punishment” of women, in which the male leaders of a family use violence on a female relative to restore the honor of a family that she supposedly tarnished by inappropriate conduct. (In 2007 there were an estimated 17,000 “honor” crimes against women by members of various religious cultures, not only Muslim, in Great Britain.) These practices are more cultural than religious in origin and contemporary use, and they are found in sev- eral religions other than Islam. Some Muslims maintain that total veiling is excessive and does not comply with the Qur’an. Many Muslims also reject traditional practices like “temporary marriages” in Shi’a and closed harems (collections of wives) in Sunni royal palaces.

Despite the fact that early Islam significantly and per- manently improved the status of women, it is still true to say that the place of women in Islam was basically estab- lished in its first few centuries and has not evolved much over time. Some Muslims respond to this by criticizing the West. Greater equality there for women has resulted, they argue, in growing sexual immorality among both men and women, in rising rates of divorce, and in children not raised as well as they should be. They argue that by recognizing that God has given men charge over women, Islam liberates women to be what God wants them to be. Some Muslim women, but certainly not most, yearn to be released from such ideas and the restrictions they bring without giving up the essentials of Islam. Theirs is not an easy struggle.

Thinking through Western Questions about Islam and Women: A Discussion for North American Students Bob Van Voorst, Cengage Learning. RELG: World, 2nd edition, © 2013Thinking through Western Questions about Islam and Women: A Discussion for North American Students Bob Van Voorst, Cengage Learning. RELG: World, 2nd edition, © 2013

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Women In the Semitic culture of ancient Arabia, society was strongly patriarchal; it continues to be so today. This is reflected in the first passage (Qur’an 4:19–22, 34–39), on the general relations between the sexes, and in the sec- ond (2:220–223,227–233), on marriage, sexual relations, and divorce. Despite this patriarchal structure, women did have some rights, as the beginning of the first reading indicates. Both readings, like most legal material in the Qur’an, come from the later, Medinan phase.

[4:19] Believers, you cannot be heirs of your wives against their will. Do not hinder them from remarrying in order to take back part of the dowry you had given them, unless they are guilty of undoubted lewdness. Associate kindly with them, for if you are estranged from them, you may be estranged from someone in whom God has placed abundant good.

If you desire to exchange one wife for another, and have given your wife a large sum of money, make no deduction from it. Would you take it by slandering her, and in a manifestly wrong way? Moreover, how could you take it when you have had sexual relations with her, and she has received from you a strict bond of union?

Men are superior to women because the qualities God has given them are above those He gave women, and because they spend from their substance for women. Virtuous women are obedient, and careful when their husband is absent, because God has been careful for them. Rebuke those whose disobedience you have cause to fear. Send them to beds apart from you and beat them. If they become obedient to you, do not act against them. Truly, God is High and Great!

If you fear a breach between a man and wife, then send a judge chosen from his family and a judge chosen from her family. If they desire agreement, God will recon- cile them. Truly, God knows and is apprised of all things!

[2:220] Do not marry an idolatress until she believes. A slave woman who believes is better than an idolatress, even if the latter pleases you more. Do not wed your daughters to idolaters until they believe. Slaves who are believers are better than idolaters, though he may please you. They invite to the Fire, but God invites to Paradise and to pardon, if he so desires. He makes his signs clear so that men may remember.

They question you about menstruation. Say, “It is a [ritual] pollution. Separate yourselves from women and do not approach them until they are clean. When they are clean, approach them as God has ordained for you. God

loves those who turn to Him, and loves those who seek to be clean.”

Your wives are your fields: go into your fields as you want. But do first some act for your soul’s good. Fear God, and know that you must meet Him. Bear this good news to the faithful….

[227] Those who intend to divorce their wives must wait four months; but if they go back from their purpose, God is Gracious, Merciful. If they resolve on a divorce, then God hears and knows. Divorced women must wait until they have had their menstrual courses three times. They ought not to conceal what God has created in their wombs, if they believe in God and the last day. It will be just if their husbands bring them back when in this state. The women must act as their husbands act by them, in all fairness; but men are still above them. God is Mighty, Wise.

You may pronounce divorce to your wives twice,pronounce divorce twice: The husband must pronounce divorce on three separate occasions, in front of witnesses. Only on the third pronouncement does it become effective. and then keep them honorably, or divorce them with kindness. But you must not take any- thing of what you have given to them, unless both fear that they cannot keep within the bounds set up by God. If you fear that they cannot observe the ordinances of God, no blame will attach to either of you for what the wife freely gives for her redemption. These are the bounds of God; whoever oversteps the bounds of God is an evildoer.

[230] If the husband pronounces divorce a third time, it is not lawful for him to take her again until she has first married another husband; and if the [second] husband also divorces her, then will no blame attach to them if they return to each other. These are the bounds of God; He makes them clear to those who have knowledge.

When you divorce women, and the time for sending them away comes, either retain them with generosity or send them away with generosity. Do not retain them by constraint and be unjust to them. He who does so injures himself.

From Robert E. Van Voorst, Anthology of World Scriptures, 8th ed. (Boston: Wadsworth, 2013). Copyright © 2013, Wadsworth, Cengage Learning. Used by permission of Cengage Learning.From Robert E. Van Voorst, Anthology of World Scriptures, 8th ed. (Boston: Wadsworth, 2013). Copyright © 2013, Wadsworth, Cengage Learning. Used by permission of Cengage Learning. from Qur’an 4:19–22, 34–39; 2:220–223, 227–233From John M. Rodwell, The Koran (London: B. Quarich, 1876).From John M. Rodwell, The Koran (London: B. Quarich, 1876).

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