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Sociology: A Brief Introduction, 13th edition

Richard T. Schaefer

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Chapter 11

Stratification by Gender and Sexuality

No reproduction or further distribution permitted without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill.

Because learning changes everything.®

Inside

Social Construction of Gender

Labeling and Human Sexuality

Sociological Perspectives on Gender

Women: The Oppressed Majority

The Workforce of the United States

Emergence of a Collective Consciousness

Social Policy and Gender Stratification: Workplace Sexual Harassment

A Look Ahead

How do gender roles differ from one culture to another?

Are women in the United States still oppressed because of their gender?

Have men’s and women’s positions in society changed?

Social Construction of Gender 1

Gender is a routine part of our everyday activities.

Typically take notice only when someone deviates from conventional behaviors and expectations.

Sociologists are interested in the gender-role socialization that leads females and males to behave differently.

Gender roles: defined as expectations regarding the proper behaviors, attitudes, and activities of males and females

Social Construction of Gender 2

Social behavior does not mirror the mutual exclusivity suggested by gender roles.

Gender roles are not independent.

One gender’s behavior influences the other gender’s behavior.

Society still focuses on “masculine” and “feminine” qualities.

Roles influence how we react to others.

Gender Roles in the United States 1

Gender-Role Socialization

Boys must be masculine

Active.

Aggressive.

Tough.

Daring.

Dominant.

Girls must be feminine

Soft.

Emotional.

Sweet.

Submissive.

Gender Roles in the United States 2

Gender-Role Socialization

Homophobia: the fear of and prejudice against homosexuality

Contributes to rigid gender-role socialization.

Men and women who deviate from traditional expectations about gender are often presumed to be gay.

Adults, older siblings, mass media, religious institutions, and educational institutions exert important influence.

Gender Roles in the United States 3

Table 11-1: An Experiment in Gender Norm Violation by College Students

Norm Violations by Women	Norm Violations by Men
Send men flowers	Wear fingernail polish
Spit in public	Do needlepoint in public
Use men’s bathrooms	Throw housewares party
Buy jock strap	Cry in public
Buy/chew tobacco	Have pedicure
Talk knowledgeably about cars	Apply to babysit
Open doors for men	Shave body hair

Source: Adapted by author from Kunkel 2016 and Nielsen et al. 2000:287.

Gender Roles in the United States 4

Women’s Gender Roles

Girls develop feminine self-image by identifying with females and males in their families and neighborhoods and in the media.

Studies of children’s books published in the United States in the 19 40s, 19 50s, and 19 60s found females significantly underrepresented

Traditional gender roles have restricted females more than males.

Gender Roles in the United States 5

Men’s Gender Roles

Attitudes toward parenting changing, but little change in traditional male gender role

Male gender role includes proving one’s masculinity at work and sports

Many men find that traditional masculinity does not serve them well in the job market.

Service economy has created a demand for skills, attitudes, and behaviors opposite of traditional masculinity.

Sociology in the Global Community 1

Women in Combat Worldwide

Have you or a woman you know experienced combat? If so, describe the challenges and opportunities women faced on or near the battlefield. Do you agree that women should be allowed to serve in combat without restrictions? Explain your reasoning.

What do you think will be the military effect of women’s presence in combat roles? Will the Army be stronger or weaker as a result of the new policy? Justify your position.

Cross-Cultural Perspective

Anthropologists have documented highly diverse constructions of gender.

Gender stratification requires

Individual socialization into traditional gender roles within family.

Promotion and support of traditional roles by other social institutions.

Every society has those who oppose stereotypes.

Social construction of gender roles is seen in process in societies strained by war and social upheaval.

Sociology in the Global Community 2

No Gender, Please: It’s Preschool!

Think back to your early educational experiences (day care, preschool, and kindergarten). Did they reinforce or help eliminate societal gender-role stereotypes?

To what extent do you think preschool or education in general can change gender-role stereotypes?

Labeling and Human Sexuality

The relationship between gender roles and self-identity is complex.

Gender roles involve cultural expectations learned through social interaction.

Gender and Human Sexuality 1

Gender identity: refers to how people see themselves, as male or female or something else

Most, but not all, develop gender identity that conforms to biological sex at birth.

Sexual identity: is the self-awareness of being romantically or sexually attracted to a defined group of people

Also referred to as sexual orientation.

A strong sexual identity may not emerge until well into adolescence.

Gender and Human Sexuality 2

Society’s recognition that gender is not necessarily fixed at birth has emerged only in the last generation.

Online dating sites routinely include or solicit descriptions of almost any kind of human sexuality.

Increasing numbers of jurisdictions around the world accept same-sex marriage on equal footing as heterosexual marriage.

Labeling and Identity 1

Identification of “deviant” varies significantly over time and in different cultures.

Social stigma associated with “homosexuality” label still exists.

More positive terms of “gay” and “lesbian” are preferred by many.

Many people find the categories “male” and “female” too restrictive or as inaccurate descriptions of how they identify.

Many people see themselves between the two traditional categories.

Transgendered and transsexual individuals.

Labeling and Identity 2

Destigmatization of labels tends to reflect the influence of the socially privileged.

What constitutes sexual deviance changes with different generations.

Research Today

Measuring Discrimination Based on Sexual Identity

What other types of discrimination could audit studies help to illuminate? Describe a proposed experiment.

How do you think the incidence of anti-gay discrimination will change over time? What social forces will be responsible for the change?

Sociological Perspectives on Gender

Societies dominated by men much more common than those dominated by women

Sociological approaches focus on culture rather than biology as primary determinant of gender differences.

Functionalist Perspective 1

Gender differentiation has contributed to overall social stability.

Traditional gender roles arose from a need to establish a division of labor between marital partners.

Expressiveness: denotes concern for the maintenance of harmony and the internal emotional affairs of the family

Instrumentality: refers to an emphasis on tasks, a focus on more distant goals, and a concern for the external relationship between one’s family and other social institutions

Functionalist Perspective 2

Individuals who do not fit into the prescribed gender roles could be harmed.

This approach does not convincingly explain why men should be assigned to the instrumental role and women to the expressive role.

Conflict Perspective

Sees gender differences as a reflection of the subjugation of one group by another

Males are like the bourgeoisie and females are like the proletariat.

The relationship between females and males has been one of unequal power.

Feminist Perspective

Friedrich Engels argued that women’s subjugation coincided with the rise of private property during industrialization.

Many contemporary feminists view women’s subordination as part of the exploitation and injustice inherent in capitalist societies.

Feminist sociologists draw attention to the need for greater progress.

Intersections with Race, Class, and Other Social Factors 1

Intersectionality: refers to the overlapping and interdependent system of advantage and disadvantage that positions people in society

Matrix of domination: convergence of social forces that contribute to subordinate status of poor, non-white women

Feminists have addressed needs of minority women, but these women oppressed more by race and ethnicity.

Historically, Native Americans stand out as exception to patriarchal tradition in North America.

Intersections with Race, Class, and Other Social Factors 2

Figure 11-1: Intersectionality: The Matrix of Domination

Intersectionality illustrates how several social factors—including gender, social class, and race and ethnicity—intersect and overlap to create a matrix of domination with a cumulative impact on a person’s social standing.

Source: Developed by author.

Intersections with Race, Class, and Other Social Factors 3

Discussion of gender roles among African Americans has provoked controversy

Advocates of black nationalism say feminism distracts women from fully participating in the African American struggle.

Black feminists argue that little is to be gained by accepting the gender-role divisions of the dominant society.

Intersections with Race, Class, and Other Social Factors 4

Historically, Native Americans stand out as an exception to the patriarchal tradition in North America.

Latinas have been excluded from decision making in the family and the church.

Interactionist Perspective

Interactionists study gender stratification on micro level of everyday behavior.

People “do gender” by reinforcing traditionally masculine and feminine actions.

Continuing investigation of role of gender in cross-sex conversations (“crosstalk”)

Research does not support the notion that men interrupt women more than reverse.

Sociological Perspectives Summary

Table 11-2: Sociological Perspectives on Gender

Theoretical Perspective	Emphasis
Functionalist	Gender differentiation contributes to social stability
Conflict	Gender inequality is rooted in the female–male power relationship
Feminist	Women’s subjugation is integral to society and social structure
Interactionist	Gender distinctions and “doing gender” are reflected in people’s everyday behavior

Women: The Oppressed Majority

Women are noticeably underrepresented in the U.S. political structure.

Only 6 of the nation’s 50 states had a female governor at the start of 2018.

By mid-2018, 84 women were members of the House of Representatives and 23 were members of the Senate.

Three women were on the U.S. Supreme Court as of 2018.

Sexism and Sex Discrimination

Sexism: the ideology that one sex is superior to the other

Generally used to refer to male prejudice and discrimination against women.

Institutional discrimination: the denial of opportunities and equal rights as result of normal operations of society

All major institutions of U.S. society controlled by men

Men have higher rates of mental illness.

Men have a greater likelihood of dying from a heart attack or stroke.

Pressure for men to succeed can be intense.

The Status of Women Worldwide 1

In many parts of the world, women still lag far behind men in earnings and ability to speak out politically

Women everywhere suffer from second-class status.

Women grow half the world’s food but rarely own land.

Women constitute one-third of the world’s paid labor force but generally have the lowest-paying jobs.

Feminization of poverty.

The Status of Women Worldwide 2

In industrialized countries, unequal status can be seen in

The division of housework.

The jobs women hold.

The pay women earn.

The Status of Women Worldwide 3

Figure 11-2: Gender Inequality in Housework

Note: Housework includes laundry, grocery shopping, dinner preparation, and care for sick family members.

Access the text alternative for this image.

Source: Heisig, Jan Paul. “Who Does More Housework: Rich or Poor? A Comparison of 33 Countries.” American Sociological Review 76 (1):74 to 99, 2011. Flags: ©admin_design/Shutterstock

Sociology in the Global Community 3

The Head Scarf and the Veil: Complex Symbols

Consider life in a society in which women wear veils. Can you see any advantages, from the woman’s point of view? From the man’s?

Do you find the Western emphasis on physical beauty oppressive? If so, in what ways?

The Workforce of the United States

Gender bias limits women’s opportunities for employment outside of home and forces them to carry a disproportionate burden inside the home.

Labor Force Participation 1

Women in paid labor force increased steadily throughout 20th and 21st centuries.

Women underrepresented in “men’s jobs”

Those jobs that often carry greater financial rewards and prestige.

Women make up only 11 percent of civil engineers, 36 percent of computer systems analysts, and 38 percent of physicians.

Labor Force Participation 2

Glass ceiling: refers to an invisible barrier that blocks promotion of a qualified individual in a work environment because of gender, race, or ethnicity

In 2016, women barely made up 20 percent of the seats on the boards of directors for the largest Fortune 500 companies.

Worldwide, women hold less than 1 percent of corporate managerial positions.

Labor Force Participation 3

Figure 11-3: Women’s Labor Force Participation Rates, Selected Countries, 19 70 to 2012

Access the text alternative for this image.

Source: Bureau of Labor Statistics 2011:13; 2013e:Table 14.

Labor Force Participation 4

Table 11-3: U.S. Women in Selected Occupations: Women as a Percentage of all Workers in the Occupation

Underrepresented	Percentage	Overrepresented	Percentage
Firefighters	4%	High school teachers	61%
Aircraft pilots and engineers	5%	Flight attendants	76%
Civil engineers	11%	Event planners	78%
Police officers	14%	Elementary school teachers	79%
Chefs and head cooks	21%	Social workers	82%
Computer programmers	23%	Tellers	82%
Dentists	34%	Librarians	84%
Athletes, coaches, and umpires	34%	Registered nurses	90%
Lawyers	36%	Receptionists	90%
Computer systems analysts	36%	Medical assistants	93%
Physicians	38%	Dental assistants	93%
Postal service mail carriers	39%	Child care workers	94%

Note: Women constitute 47 percent of the labor force age 16 and over.

Source: Bureau of Labor Statistics 2017a

Compensation

Substantial gender gap in median earnings of full-time workers

No convincing evidence that the wage gap is narrowing.

Women earn 83 cents for every dollar men earn.

Glass escalator: the advantage men experience in occupations dominated by women

Social Consequences of Women’s Employment 1

Many women face the challenge of juggling work and family.

Second shift: work outside home followed by child care and housework

A 2017 study found that when women are the primary breadwinners, 43 percent still have the primary responsibility for child care and housework.

Same study found that when men are the primary breadwinners, only 12 percent have the primarily responsibility for child care and housework.

Greater amounts of time women put into caring for children and into housework take toll on women pursuing careers.

Social Consequences of Women’s Employment 2

Figure 11-4: Why Leave Work?

Note: Based on a representative Harris Interactive survey of “highly qualified” workers, defined as those with a graduate degree, a professional degree, or a high honors undergraduate degree.

Access the text alternative for this image.

Source: Hewlett, Sylvia Ann, and Luce Carolyn Buck. “Off-Ramps and On-Ramps: Keeping Talented Women on the Road to Success.” Harvard Business Review, March, 2005, 43 to 53.

Emergence of a Collective Consciousness

Feminism: the belief in social, economic, and political equality for women

Feminist movement in the United States born in 1848.

Second wave of feminism emerged in the 19 60s and came to full force in the 19 70s.

Influence began to diminish in the 19 80s.

In 2017, 17 percent of women and 10 percent of men consider themselves a “strong feminist.”

Social Policy and Gender Stratification: Workplace Sexual Harassment 1

Looking at the Issue

Sexual harassment is recognized as unwanted and unwelcome sexual advances that interfere with a person’s ability to perform a job and enjoy the benefits of a job.

Increased national attention to this issue occurred in the 19 90s.

National interest dramatically rose in 2017 because of the number of high profile people accused of harassment.

A 2016 study found 34 percent of incidents involved unwanted touching, pinching, or direct sexual propositions.

Social Policy and Gender Stratification: Workplace Sexual Harassment 2

Applying Sociology

Functionalists acknowledge that gender roles may make it more likely for men to take advantage of women sexually.

Conflict theorists and feminists see sexual harassment as a product of unequal power.

Men wield authority over women, and bosses over employees.

Social Policy and Gender Stratification: Workplace Sexual Harassment 3

Applying Sociology

Interactionists note that “sexual harassment” is a useful label for a broad range of unacceptable workplace behavior.

Remains a vicious behavior.

Commonplace use in conversation should not ignore its viciousness.

Online activity can be a tool for harassment.

Online activity can also help victims mobilize support and make contact with other victims.

Social Policy and Gender Stratification: Workplace Sexual Harassment 4

Initiating Policy

Civil Rights Act of 19 64 makes sexual harassment a form of discrimination.

Applies to federal government and private employers with 15 or more employees.

About $40 million is paid monthly to victims of sexual harassment lawsuits.

A 2013 Supreme Court case made it difficult to win a sexual harassment judgment against an employer unless the perpetrator is a supervisor with the ability to hire and fire.

Social Policy and Gender Stratification: Workplace Sexual Harassment 5

Initiating Policy

Private and public sectors have begun to reexamine anti-harassment programs because of the recent accusations against public figures.

Employers must encourage reporting of incidents.

A 2016 study found that 75 percent of people who experience harassment never talk to a supervisor, manager, or union representative about the conduct.

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Accessibility Content: Text Alternatives for Images

The Status of Women Worldwide 3 – Text Alternative

In Norway, New Zealand, the United States, Germany, the Philippines, Ireland, and Chile, both the poorest and richest tenth of women do more housework than men. Chile has the most significant discrepancy and the Philippines has the least discrepancy.

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Labor Force Participation 3 – Text Alternative

In 19 70, 26.4 percent of women in Italy were in the labor force. This increased to 39.2 percent by 2012.

In 19 70, 28.5 percent of women in the Netherlands were in the labor force. This increased to 58.9 percent by 2012.

In 19 70, 38.3 percent of women in Germany were in the labor force. This increased to 53.2 percent by 2012.

In 19 70, 38.4 percent of women in Canada were in the labor force. This increased to 66.7 percent by 2012.

In 19 70, 43.3 percent of women in the United States were in the labor force. This increased to 63.7 percent by 2012.

In 19 70, 48.7 percent of women in Japan were in the labor force. This decreased to 47.7 percent by 2012.

In 19 70, 50 percent of women in Sweden were in the labor force. This increased to 61.3 percent by 2012.

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Social Consequences of Women’s Employment 2 – Text Alternative

44 percent of women left work because of family time.

16 percent of women left work because of a change in career.

23 percent of women left work to earn a degree or participate in other training.

17 percent of women left work because it was not enjoyable or satisfying.

17 percent of women left work because they moved away.

12 percent of men left work because of family time.

29 percent of men left work because of a change in career.

25 percent of men left work to earn a degree or participate in other training.

24 percent of men left work because it was not enjoyable or satisfying.

18 percent of men left work because they were not interested in the field.

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