by tomorrow

EDUCATION AND TREATMENT OF CHILDREN Vol. 40, No. 3, 2017

Pages 327–352

Using a Multicomponent Multimedia Shared Story Intervention with an iPad to Teach Content

Picture Vocabulary to Students with Developmental Disabilities

Christopher!J. Rivera

Melissa!E. Hudson

Stacy!L. Weiss

Alana Zambone

East Carolina University

Abstract

With the increased use of iPads in classrooms, special education teachers need methods for preparing students with developmental disabilities to ac- cess and use this technology for a variety of academic purposes. This study used a multiple probe design to examine a multicomponent multimedia shared story (MSS) intervention via an iPad to teach science vocabulary to three elementary students with developmental disabilities. The shared sto- ries, delivered via an iPad, included photo graphs, text, and videos to pur- posefully support generalization of vocabulary. Furthermore, pre and post mea sures were taken to determine student gains in digital literacy skills through modeling without explicit instructions. Results demonstrated that all three students met the criterion for identifying picture vocabulary and maintained and generalized their vocabulary knowledge across other stim- uli. Students also showed mastery of digital literacy skills. Implications for future research are discussed.

Keywords: developmental disability, technology, iPad, vocabulary, multimedia shared story

Mobile devices such as iPads are often used to enhance instruction for students with developmental disabilities. Researchers have reported that these devices can be highly engaging, promote atten- tiveness, and are easily adapted to differentiate instruction. In addi- tion, mobile devices are less stigmatizing compared to other forms of

Author Note: No research funding was involved and there was no con"ict of interest. Address correspondence to: Christopher! J. Rivera, Department of Special Education, Foundations and Research East Carolina University, 104 Rivers Building East Carolina University, Greenville, NC 27858. E- mail: riv erac@ecu . edu.

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assistive technology, and provide easy access due to their portability and features (Doenyas, Simdi, Ozcan, Cataltepe, & Birkan, 2014; Kago- hara et!al., 2013, O’Malley, Lewis, & Donehower, 2013). The increased use of mobile devices for both instruction and assessment highlights the need for all students to attain digital literacy skills. Standards set forth by the Partnership for 21st! Century Skills (2014) suggest that stu- dents should be able to use technology to collaborate with peers, solve prob lems, and select appropriate technologies for suitable applications. In addition, many students with developmental disabilities who par- ticipate in national alternate assessments (e.g., Dynamic Learning Maps, 2014; National Center and State Collaborative, 2014) will need to be competent with technology to demonstrate their knowledge and un- derstanding through the assessments’ online components.

Research has demonstrated that students with developmental disabilities can be taught to use mobile devices, though much of the focus has been on teaching functional content (e.g., communication, employment, leisure, transition skills; Kagohara et!al., 2013). More re- cent studies have evaluated mobile technology as a part of academic instruction for similar populations. Smith, Spooner, and Wood (2013) examined the effects of computer- assisted instruction (CAI) in combi- nation with explicit instruction on the acquisition of science terms for students with autism and intellectual disability. The researchers used a single subject multiple probe design across participants to evaluate the effects of the intervention, which utilized Keynote, an iOS slide software, to pres ent interactive instructional slides to teach selected science terms with an iPad. Results demonstrated a functional relation between the CAI and an increase in correct responses for all partici- pants. In another study, Creech- Galloway, Collins, Knight, and Bausch (2013) used a multiple probe design across participants to evaluate the ef"cacy of a simultaneous prompting (SP) procedure to teach the Py- thagorean Theorem, via a video pre sen ta tion on an iPad. Four stu- dents with intellectual disability participated in the study. Of the four participants, three were able to successfully meet criteria (i.e., 100% across three consecutive sessions), illustrating the effectiveness of the intervention. Fi nally, Rivera, Mason, Moser, and Ahlgrim- Delzell (2014) used a multimedia shared story (MSS) iPad intervention to help a young En glish language learner increase expressive picture vocab- ulary in both En glish and Spanish. A single subject alternating treat- ments design was used to evaluate the effects of the MSS intervention on vocabulary acquisition. In this study, the researchers paired vocab- ulary with pictures illustrating the target word (e.g., a picture of a butter#y and the word butter!y). Additionally, themed stories incorpo-

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rating photos and short videos were developed to create an interactive story that was read using an iPad. The multicomponent intervention used a shared story method (Hudson & Test, 2011) and an embedded model- lead- test (MLT) procedure (Wolery, Ault, Doyle, & Gast, 1986) to teach vocabulary and further engage the student in the instructional pro cess. Results showed a functional relation between the MSS iPad intervention and En glish and Spanish vocabulary acquisition.

With the use of technology, such as iPads, becoming readily available in special education classrooms it is impor tant to determine best practices for using mobile devices to enhance academic instruc- tion for students with developmental disabilities. Research has dem- onstrated the positive effects technology has on literacy skills, such as vocabulary acquisition, (Mechling, 2004; Rivera, Spooner, Wood, & Hicks, 2013; Stockwell, 2007) and has shown that technology can be used with prompting procedures to provide effective multicomponent interventions (Creech- Galloway et!al., 2013; Kagohara, 2011; O’Malley et!al., 2013).

An MSS is a multicomponent approach for teaching multiple skills to students with developmental disabilities (see Rivera, 2013). The basis of an MSS is an extension from traditional shared story interven- tions (Hudson & Test, 2011), wherein an adult reads a book to a child and engages that child in discussion about what is being read (Rivera, 2013). During these read- alouds, targeted skills can range from learn- ing print concepts, vocabulary, or acquiring listening comprehension skills. Unlike traditional shared story interventions, an MSS is essen- tially a digital version of the shared story experience that can incorpo- rate music, photo graphs, videos, and other interactive features to increase engagement and provide added content/context to what is be- ing read to a student. An MSS can be an adapted version of an existing book or can be written to meet the individualized needs of a student (Rivera, 2013). Moreover, MSS interventions can incorporate prompting strategies that can be used to explic itly teach targeted skills.

Rivera et!al. (2013) demonstrated the effective use of an MSS in- tervention using constant time delay (CTD; Snell & Gast 1981) and Rivera et!al. (2014) used an MSS intervention with MLT to teach vo- cabulary to culturally and linguistically diverse students with devel- opmental disabilities. Although both studies helped students acquire targeted vocabulary, there were several limitations (speci"cally from Rivera et!al. [2014]) that should be addressed. The "rst limitation was the exclusion of generalization and maintenance data. Additionally, the intervention was only conducted with one student limiting the ability to generalize its ef"cacy across diverse learners.

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Another area of concern was the need to investigate the extent to which students with developmental disabilities require instruction to acquire digital literacy skills such as manipulating technological devices (e.g., turning on an iPad, navigating to an application, power- ing down a device, adjusting the volume). To date, there are a few studies illustrating effective methods for teaching students with de- velopmental disabilities to use mobile devices. For instance, Kelley, Test, and Cooke (2013) taught students to use a video iPod as a means for teaching pedestrian skills; however, the authors stated that only a training script was used when teaching students to operate the device. On the other hand, Kagohara (2011) used video modeling with a sys- tem of least- to- most prompts to teach three adolescents to operate an iPod to access entertainment videos. The extent to which students with developmental disabilities require explicit and systematic in- struction, or whether they can simply observe a speci!ed be hav ior and repeat that be hav ior without explicit instruction (e.g., in vivo model- ing, Charlop- Christy, Le, & Freeman, 2000) to acquire digital literacy skills, warrants additional research.

In response to previous research limitations, there is also a need to determine the ef!cacy and ef!ciency of MSS interventions for students with developmental disabilities. The use of a SP compared to CTD and a MLT procedure may enhance instructional ef!ciency. SP, a near error- less prompting procedure that provides the controlling prompt imme- diately after the pre sen ta tion of a discriminative stimulus, can be an effective instructional procedure when teaching discrete or chained skills to students with disabilities (Morse & Schuster, 2004; Waugh, Al- berto, & Fredrick, 2011). There are several bene!ts of using SP. First, teacher be hav ior does not change as it does with other prompting procedures. Instructional sessions are conducted in the same format, leading to fewer procedural errors by an interventionist. Next, there is no need to teach students to wait to respond after the pre sen ta tion of a stimulus, since the stimulus and controlling prompt are concurrently presented. Fi nally, since only one correct response is reinforced there is no need for differential reinforcement, and SP can be conducted using an intermittent probe (probes or assessments conducted every two- three sessions); allowing students fewer opportunities to respond in de- pen dently, which may reduce the number of errors made during probes (Reichow & Wolery, 2009; Tekin- Iftar, Kurt, & Acar, 2008).

The purpose of this current study was to systematically replicate and extend Rivera et" al. (2014). Speci!cally, this study sought to in- crease the number of participants, mea sure generalization and main- tenance, and embed a SP procedure. This study addressed the following research questions:

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1. What are the effects of a multicomponent iPad- delivered MSS intervention, with an embedded SP procedure on oral expres- sive (i.e., picture) science content vocabulary acquisition for elementary students with developmental disabilities?

2. To what extent were students able to generalize and maintain skills taught?

3. To what extent were students able to acquire digital literacy skills by observing modeled be hav ior without explicit instructions?

4. What are educators’ perceptions of using technology for teaching vocabulary and other science standards to students with disabilities?

5. What are student perceptions of using the MSS via an iPad to learn new vocabulary?

Method

Participants

The participants were three elementary- aged students identi!ed as having a developmental delay or intellectual disability. Identi!ca- tion of disability for two of the participants was determined with the use of the Reynolds Intellectual Assessment Scales (Reynolds & Kam- phaus, 2003). The third participant was not formally evaluated by his Individualized Education Program (IEP) Team, but was identi!ed as having a cognitive age of 17 months according to the Transdisciplinary Play Based Assessment (Linder et" al., 2008). Information provided in each student’s IEP indicated that each had some dif!culties with ex- pressive and receptive language and performing daily living skills (e.g., dressing, tooth brushing). Students were enrolled in the same K-5 self- contained adapted curriculum classroom where they received the majority of their daily instruction. They also attended some inclusive classes with their non- disabled peers such as physical education, art, and music. A summary of additional participant characteristics is found in Table"1.

Experimenter. The !rst author, who had 10"years of experience working with students with developmental disabilities and special education preser vice teachers, served as the primary interventionist and implemented instruction. An undergraduate assistant in her se- nior year was trained by the !rst author and assisted in data collec- tion throughout the intervention. Training consisted of role- playing simulations to practice gathering procedural !delity and interobserver

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agreement for the study. A criterion of 80% reliability was achieved prior to beginning data collection.

Setting

The study took place in a rural elementary public school in the eastern United States. The school served approximately 800 students, of which over 60% received free or reduced- price lunch. At the time of the study, the school was considered a Title I Focus School due to the large gap between low achieving and high achieving subgroups of students.

All baseline, instruction, maintenance, and generalization ses- sions took place in the students’ separate special education classroom. In this classroom, three additional students also received ser vices for a total of six students in the classroom. There were four instructors in the class, the lead special education teacher, two paraprofessionals, and one university student- teacher intern. These sessions were con- ducted in vari ous locations in the classroom, using a one- on- one for- mat. During all sessions, the interventionist sat beside a participant facing away from the rest of the classroom at a small table, while other students received their daily lessons from the lead teacher and para-

Table!1 Participant Demographics

Characteristics Martha Pablo George

Gender Female Male Male

Race Eu ro pean American

Latino American African American

Age 6 6 8

IQ 66 RIAS N/A 57 RIAS

Disability Developmental Delay

Developmental Delay Moderate Intellectual Disability

Reading Ability*

20 Sight Words Repeat Sight Words When Prompted

20 Sight Words

Language Monolingual (En glish)

Bilingual (En glish and Spanish)

Monolingual (En glish)

Health Prob lems

None Cystic Fibrosis, Chronic Ear Infections

Motor Impairments Right Arm and Left Leg

Note: RIAS—Reynolds Intellectual Assessment Scales (Reynolds & Kamphaus, 2003). *Reading ability was gathered from current level of per for mance and academic achievement from student IEPs.

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professionals. Both the primary interventionist and student partici- pants had their own iPads® during instructional sessions.

Materials

MSS materials and development. Two 10- inch iPads (Wi- Fi 16- gigabyte models, iOS 7.2) were utilized for the intervention. The ap- plication iBooks Author (Apple Inc., 2014b) was used to create MSS through an Apple Macbook Pro using Apple’s operating system of 10.9.2. iBooks Author is a software platform used to create digital books that are published in Apple’s iTunes store to be downloaded and read on an iPad. With the iBooks Author program, an author can create rich multimedia books by inserting text and widgets (e.g., video, music, pictures, web addresses, charts, tables) that are easily manipu- lated by the user. Google Images and YouTube were used to gather photo graphs and videos that were embedded in the MSS. To down- load videos from YouTube, an add-on tool called Download YouTube Videos as MP4 (Mozilla Firefox, 2014) was used. This web browser plu- gin enables YouTube videos from FireFox’s Internet browser to be downloaded into an MP4 format. When videos were selected and downloaded, they were edited for length using iMovies (Apple Inc., 2014c) and embedded into the MSS through the iBooks Author (Ap- ple, Inc., 2014b). The length of selected videos was 30s to 45s.

Two digital books, 18 to 19 pages long, were created. Books were comprised of two pre- teaching pages with target vocabulary, the story (approximately 14–15 pages), and two review pages at the conclusion of the story (i.e., same as pre- teaching pages). Stories were written using suggested practices for shared stories by Justice and Kaderavek (2002) and Rivera (2013). For example, books had designated areas for the in- structor to stop and engage students in discussion. Text for the story consisted of one or two sentences and a repeated story line, a story line that summed up the main idea. Each book was designed to teach the same target vocabulary (10 in total), but was written using dif fer ent themes and dif fer ent photo graphs to represent the target stimulus in multiple ways to improve generalization of vocabulary to other content. Moreover, to ensure the intervention would be conducted within a rea- sonable time, videos created of the target vocabulary (10 in total) were divided so that each book would contain !ve videos. Completed books were then transferred to the participants’ iPads using iTunes, Apple’s device management system. Once transferred, the digital books were accessed on the iPad via the iBooks (Apple, 2014a) application.

Other materials. With the assistance of the lead special educa- tion teacher, a district curriculum- pacing guide in science and the Common Core Extend State Standards in En glish Language Arts

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(North Carolina State Board of Education, n.d.) were used to ensure that the intervention was appropriately aligned and at grade level for students. In the month prior to the intervention, students were working on speci!c extended content science skills that included (a) learning essential vocabulary such as dif fer ent parts of plants and animals, (b) identifying and understanding living organisms, (c) identifying dif fer ent environments (e.g., ocean, lake, mountain), and (d) determin- ing the differences between plants and animals. In addition to these materials, a MSS task analy sis (see Figure" 1; Rivera et" al., 2014) and data sheets for probe, intervention, generalization, and maintenance sessions were developed.

Data Collection Procedures

Dependent variables. The dependent variables for this study consisted of the percentage of correct responses on vocabulary probes and the digital literacy assessment. A discrete trial data collection sheet was used during vocabulary probe sessions and digital literacy assess- ments to rec ord participant responses. Two responses were pos si ble: a correct (+) was recorded when participants provided a correct response within 6 s after the pre sen ta tion of a stimulus, or an incorrect (-) was recorded if students were unable to provide a correct response within 6 s. Correct responses during vocabulary probes were de!ned as a stu- dent stating the vocabulary word identi!ed in the targeted picture. For example, if the target vocabulary was stem, the correct expected re- sponse was the vocal response “stem.” In like manner, correct responses during the digital literacy assessment was de!ned as the student com- pleting each step of a digital literacy task analy sis in de pen dently.

Interobserver agreement. The primary interventionist and an undergraduate assistant served as the primary and secondary data collectors. Interobserver agreement (IOA) was calculated using a trial- by- trial agreement approach in which the total number of agreements was divided by the total number of agreements plus disagreements and then multiplied by 100 to yield a percentage score (Kennedy, 2005). IOA was collected for all student responses across both phases. IOA percentage scores were 100% for both baseline and intervention phases for Martha, and George. IOA percentage scores for Pablo were 96% in baseline and 100% during intervention. For generalization and main- tenance phases, a mean of 50% of sessions were observed with 100% agreement for all student responses.

Procedural !delity. The primary interventionist and undergrad- uate assistant collected procedural !delity using a 27- step task analy- sis. During !delity, the primary interventionist and undergraduate assistant checked off the number of steps completed during instruc-

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tion using the task analy sis data form. Fidelity was calculated as the total number of observed steps completed correctly divided by the number of total steps and multiplied by 100. Procedural !delity was collected for a mean of 40% of intervention sessions across all partici- pants with a score of 100% of completed steps.

Social validity. At the end of the study the lead teacher and paraprofessionals were administered a social validity questionnaire, developed by the research team, to determine the appropriateness and feasibility of the intervention for students with developmental disabil- ities. The questionnaire included eight items using a !ve- point Likert scale (i.e., 1 = Strongly Disagree; 5 = Strongly Agree) and one open- ended question. Students were also given a social validity questionnaire, which was read to them to determine their opinions of the interven- tion. Their questionnaire included three questions: one closed item (i.e., yes/no response) and two open- ended.

Experimental Design

A single- subject multiple- probe design across participants (Horner & Baer, 1978) was used to determine the effects of the MSS intervention on expressive science picture vocabulary acquisition for participants. A minimum of !ve baseline probes were administered for each participant, as recommended by Kratochwill et" al. (2010). When the !rst participant’s baseline data were low and stable, the par- ticipant began receiving the intervention and all other participants remained in the baseline phase. When the !rst student’s data indi- cated that she was approaching mastery of the targeted vocabulary, another baseline probe was administered to each student to monitor for treatment diffusion and the second participant began the interven- tion phase. This staggered approach continued until all students re- ceived the intervention.

Procedures

General procedures. Prior to the study, the lead special education teacher and primary interventionist reviewed the district special edu- cation curriculum guide (i.e., science extended content standards) and developed a 100- picture pre- assessment. This assessment was then ad- ministered to participants using Power Point (Microsoft Corporation, 2011) on a MacBook Pro laptop. Each slide consisted of two photo graphs of the same stimulus (e.g., soil) with the name of the photo graph writ- ten at the bottom of the slide in size 20 Times New Roman font. Before the administration of the vocabulary pretest, participants were given an attentional cue (e.g., Are you ready?) and scripted instructions (i.e., I will point to a picture and I want you to tell me what you see. If you do

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not know the word, it’s okay. I want you to try your best). Participants were given 6 s to provide a correct response. From this assessment, the primary interventionist and lead special educator identi!ed 10 vocabu- lary words (i.e., soil, roots, seed, bean, farm, spring [the season], cotton, petal, farm, calf) that participants commonly were unable to verbally identify. This list was then used to develop two thematic MSS books (i.e., Spring time at the Farm, Shopping at the Market).

A 9- step task analy sis using the iPad was developed by the pri- mary interventionist and validated by the lead special education teacher. During the pre- assessment, students were given an iPad, turned off, and were asked to complete steps of the task analy sis. Stu- dents were asked to (a) turn the iPad on; (b) unlock the device; (c) open the iBook application; (d) locate and open a mock MSS, that had been created for the pre- assessment; and (e) once in the book the primary interventionist would turn the iPad upside down and ask if students could orient the book in the correct manner. As the interventionist continued reading through the story, students were asked to complete the remaining steps in the task analy sis (see Table"2). During the as- sessment, correct in de pen dent responses were recorded and reinforce- ment was not provided. If a student performed a step incorrectly the interventionist would move onto the next step or complete the step for the student, keeping the student from viewing the correction. After this pre- assessment and baseline data were collected, participants were then presented the MSS intervention, which was implemented using the MSS task analy sis protocol (see Figure"1). Instructional ses- sions and vocabulary probes ranged from 10 to 12 min in duration and were conducted on a daily basis for 2 to 3 weeks in the morning. Both MSS books were read to participants in an alternating fashion through- out instructional sessions. When participants met the criterion set for the intervention, generalization and maintenance probes were then administered. At the conclusion of the !nal intervention probe, the digital literacy posttest was administered.

Vocabulary probes. Each probe was conducted in a similar manner as was done during the picture vocabulary pretest. Partici- pants were shown a total of 10 Power Point (Microsoft Corporation, 2011) slides, one at a time, that contained two dif fer ent photo graphs (i.e., training stimuli) of the target vocabulary with the word typed in the center, under neath the photo graphs. At the beginning of each probe session, the interventionist provided explicit instructions to participants (e.g., “I’m going to point to a picture and I want you to tell me what it is. If you do not know what it is that’s okay. Try your best”). Participants were given 6 s to respond. Throughout probe ses- sions, general verbal praise was given for participant work be hav ior

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(e.g., “Good job— you are working hard!”) and slides were shuf!ed prior to every new probe session. All vocabulary probe sessions were conducted intermittently, two to three days out the week, depending on student attendance.

Intervention. A 27- step task analy sis protocol (Figure" 1) em- ployed for Rivera et" al. (2014) was used for this study. The protocol included teaching early literacy skills (e.g., text awareness, vocabulary) while giving participants an opportunity to practice digital literacy skills (e.g., turning on the iPad, accessing the appropriate application among other applications, locating the book within the iBook applica- tion). In addition, a SP procedure with intermittent probes delivered every other day (Reichow & Wolery, 2009; Tekin- Iftar et"al., 2008) was used for this study.

Pre- teaching. At the beginning of instructional sessions, the in- terventionist used an anticipatory set (i.e., an activity or stimulus) de- signed to engage a participant in the activity. For example, before reading a story that discussed the vari ous parts of a !ower, the inter- ventionist showed dif fer ent !owers to the participant and encouraged him to smell, touch, and look at the vari ous parts of the !ower. Next, the interventionist and participant began the MSS (see steps 1–5, Figure"1). Prior to reading the story, a pre- teaching phase was implemented. This portion of instruction included two pages containing #ve photo graphs each of all targeted vocabulary, for a total of 10 picture vocabulary pre- sen ta tions. It is impor tant to note that each MSS presented the same target vocabulary; however, each book displayed dif fer ent photo graphs of the vocabulary for a total of 20 photo graphs (i.e., training stimuli). A SP procedure was used during pre- teaching and for subsequent system- atic instructional trials. During pre- teaching, the interventionist #rst secured the learners attention by providing instructions for the task (e.g., Today we are going to review our new vocabulary words. I’m going to point to a picture [discriminative stimulus] and I want you to repeat after me). After task instructions, the interventionist pointed to a pic- ture accompanied by the controlling prompt (i.e., model of the correct verbal response). Verbal praise (e.g., “Good saying ___”) was provided for correct responses. If participants failed to respond the correct verbal response was repeated. At the end of the pre- teaching phase, a praise statement was given to participants in regards to good work be hav- iors (e.g., “I liked the way you listened”).

Readings. Next, the interventionist began reading the story (see steps 6–18, Figure" 1) stopping at speci#c locations to systematically teach targeted picture vocabulary (e.g., Rivera et"al., 2014). Each target vocabulary was presented in the same format within each MSS. For example, when a target vocabulary appeared, two photo graphs, one

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Multimedia Shared Story: Steps Steps Observational Notes

Text Awareness 1. Anticipatory set/Attention grabber: Sensory stimulation

Description:

(Auditory, visual, tactile, kinesthetic, gustatory (taste), olfactory) 2. Gives the student an opportunity to turn on and unlock iPad 3. Gives the student an opportunity to find and open the iBook application 4. Gives student(s) an opportunity to open own book (1) without being told, then (2) prompts as necessary 5. Pre-teaching: Prior to the story teacher will identify target picture vocabulary/object that will appear in the story through an instructional slide (Simultaneous prompting, I will point to a word and say it then I want you to repeat after me) 6. Teacher reads title 7. Gives student(s) an opportunity to point to/say title on iPad or checks for student to respond 8. Teacher reads author's name 9. Gives student(s) an opportunity to say/point to author's name on iPad or checks for student to respond 10. Teacher asks prediction question. (What do you think this story will be about?) 11. Gives student(s) an opportunity to answer prediction question 12. Teacher models turning page on iPad

Simultaneous Prompting Procedures During Reading 13. Teacher reads bold target vocabulary and references the picture within the story (pointing to or drawing attention to) 14. Teacher provides 1 round Simultaneous Prompting (1X, I say and you say after me)

Figure!1. MSS task analy sis protocol.

from the original training stimuli and an additional photo graph dif- fer ent from training stimuli, were displayed to aid in generalization (e.g., yellow !ower, red !ower). Photo graphs were presented in these pages and the vocabulary word was used within a sentence. In total, participants were exposed to four dif fer ent photo graphs for each tar-

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get vocabulary word throughout the entire intervention, which equated to 40 photo graph repre sen ta tions (20 training stimuli, 20 gen- eralization photo graphs). After the sentence was read, the interven- tionist would conduct another SP trial, telling the participant to repeat after him, pointing to the picture accompanied by the controlling prompt. As is customary with shared stories, the primary interven- tionist used interactive be hav iors (Justice & Pullen, 2003) such as ex- panding on concepts or answering questions participants had during the lesson, to further engage them in discussion about what was be- ing read or seen in photo graphs (see Figure!2).

15. Provides reinforcement for correct answers only

16. Provides the student with a definition of the target picture vocabulary or uses the word in a different sentence 17. Follows steps 12-16 for remaining target picture vocabulary 18. If student response is incorrect no reinforcement is given, teacher provides an additional simultaneous prompting procedure

Text Awareness Continues 19. Teacher points to each word in chosen sentence while reading aloud on "text point page" 20. Gives student(s) an opportunity to point to chosen line on "text point page" on the iPad 21. Gives student(s) an opportunity to imitate a repeated story line (underlined in story) 22. Gives student(s) an opportunity to anticipate turning page without being told. 23. Gives student(s) an opportunity to interact with multimedia features of the story 24. At the end of the story teacher asks student(s) if initial predication was correct 25. Review slide is presented and Simultaneous Prompting (SP) round is conducted (final 3rd round) 26. Provides reinforcement for correct answer 27. If incorrect provides no reinforcement and provides an additional SP round

Key: N/A (Not applicable) - Not completed

Completed

Figure!1. (continued)

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Figure!2. MSS example.

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Multimedia. Following preselected instructional trials during the reading, speci!c pages in the story included a video of the target vocabulary (see steps 19–24, Figure"1). For instance, if in the previous SP trial the vocabulary was petal, a video displaying several #owers with dif fer ent petals would play. During this phase of instruction, the interventionist engaged the participant in discussion about what he or she was viewing and further contextualized the vocabulary (e.g., “Pet- als come in dif fer ent colors. They can provide nectar or food to in- sects and help with pollination, which can help plants reproduce”). At the end of the story, the pre- teaching phase was presented again as a !nal review (see steps 25–27, Figure"1).

Digital literacy skills. During intervention sessions, the pri- mary interventionist purposefully withheld explicit instructions from participants on how to use the iPad. Throughout instruction, the interventionist and a participant each had an iPad and when the ses- sion began, the interventionist slowly modeled the steps in the digital literacy skills task analy sis while the student participant followed along on his or her own iPad. If a participant was unable to complete a step in the task analy sis, the interventionist completed the step for him or her and continued through the remaining steps. The digital literacy skills posttest was administered to each participant once each student demonstrated mastery of the primary dependent mea sure.

Generalization and maintenance. Generalization and mainte- nance vocabulary probe sessions were conducted two times after each participant met the mastery criterion (i.e., 80% of words correct across three consecutive sessions). Generalization and maintenance phases were completed in an alternating fashion for four weeks. For example, during week one, a generalization vocabulary probe was

Table!2 Digital Literacy Skills Task Analy sis

1. Turn on iPad.

2. Unlock iPad.

3. Open iBook application.

4. Find and open digital book (within the iBook application).

5. Orient book.

6. Swipe screen to turn page.

7. Access media content (play video).

8. Zoom in on video.

9. Once book is complete, exit out of application (pressing home button).

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conducted and then, during week two, a maintenance vocabulary probe was conducted, and so on. Both generalization and maintenance probes were administered in the same manner as vocabulary probes during baseline and intervention phases. Unlike maintenance probes, generalization probes utilized photo graphs that were dif fer ent from those used during intervention.

Results

Figure! 3 represents the percentage of correct participant re- sponses during vocabulary probe sessions. Martha’s baseline data were stable with a range of 0 to 10% of words correct. During intervention, there was both a therapeutic change in level and trend. Intervention scores ranged from 60 to 100% with a mean of 87%. Martha met crite- rion in 10 instructional sessions. For Pablo, baseline data were also sta- ble with a range of 0 to 10%. During intervention, a therapeutic change in trend was achieved; however, the immediate change in level was not as con spic u ous as Martha’s level. Pablo’s per for mance had a range of 20 to 90% of words correct with a mean of 54% of words when in the inter- vention phase. He reached mastery in 17 instructional sessions. Fi nally, similar to Martha, George demonstrated positive changes in both level and trend from baseline to intervention. When in baseline, George’s per for mance ranged from 0 to 10% of words correct. During interven- tion he scored an average of 70 to 100% of words correct with a mean of 84%. George reached mastery in nine instructional sessions.

Figure!3 also displays participants’ abilities to maintain and gen- eralize vocabulary over a 4- week period after the study was completed. Martha was able to generalize and retain all targeted vocabulary during these phases. Pablo’s initial generalization and maintenance scores were 80 and 90%, respectively. In the "nal 2 weeks, these scores declined to 60 and 70%. Fi nally, George had a 100% score for generalization data and scored 90% and 100% for maintenance.

Figure!4 represents the percentage of digital literacy skills par- ticipants demonstrated before and after the study. Martha’s pretest showed she was only able to complete four out of nine steps (44%); Pablo, three out of nine steps (33%); and George, "ve out of nine steps (55%). At the end of the study, all participants completed 100% of the steps in de pen dently on the digital literacy task analy sis posttest.

Social Validity

The lead teacher and paraprofessionals completed a social valid- ity questionnaire about the intervention to determine the appropriate-

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ness and feasibility of the intervention. Responses ranged from 4.33 to 4.66. Generally educators agreed that (a) vocabulary acquisition was an essential skill and that technology used was appropriate for stu- dents (m= 4.33, m= 4.66); (b) students can bene!t from multicomponent interventions and that students with disabilities should learn digital literacy skills (m= 4.66, 4.66); (c) materials used in the study could be easily incorporated in the the school day to teach a lesson (m= 4.33);

Figure!3. Percentage of correct responses on vocabulary probes. Closed circles represent probes, open circles represent generalization, and closed squares represent maintenance data.

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(d) students were using the new vocabulary in class and outside of the classroom (m= 4); and (e) given the opportunity they would use simi- lar technology to facilitate instruction in the future (m= 4.66). The open- ended question asked educators to describe obstacles they faced when trying to teach similar skills to students with developmental disabilities and how a MSS intervention may or may not help. One re- spondent indicated, “The hardest thing about trying to teach content vocabulary to students with signi!cant disabilities is trying to keep their attention. With the technology we have, it helps keep the students interested in what they are learning.” Another respondent mentioned, “Interventions such as this help to increase generalization skills as they provide students with multiple means of repre sen ta tion . . . allowing students to gain a deeper understanding.” All students expressed that they enjoyed learning new science vocabulary on the iPad, that music and videos were their favorite aspects of the lesson, and they would not change anything about the lessons.

Discussion

A visual analy sis of the graph (see Figure"3) reveals a functional relation between the introduction of the MSS intervention and the per- centage of correct responses from vocabulary probes. All three par- ticipants met the criteria for acquiring the science picture vocabulary through the MSS intervention; however, there were differences in

Figure! 4. Pretest and posttest results of digital literacy steps correctly com- pleted by participants.

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their per for mances. Martha and George were able to learn, general- ize, and maintain words in fewer instructional sessions compared to Pablo (i.e., !ve and six probe sessions for George and Martha com- pared to 17 probe sessions for Pablo). Pablo’s per for mance might have been impacted by several factors. Pablo displayed more prob lem be- hav iors (e.g., !dgeting, dif!culty concentrating) during instructional sessions, and he was absent from several instructional sessions due to illness. Despite these issues, Pablo met the criterion for mastery and maintained his knowledge of words at the criterion level. He did dem- onstrate some dif!culties with generalization and overall had a slight decrease in per for mance in the second maintenance and generaliza- tion probes. A third probe would have been advantageous to develop a trend and determine if the second probe was only a temporary de- crease in per for mance. Such data would be useful in verifying whether or not he would have bene!ted from additional instruction to main- tain and generalize vocabulary at a higher level.

All three participants demonstrated mea sur able improvements in digital literacy skills in the absence of explicit instructional program- ing. Although participants had some prior knowledge of how to use an iPad, none were able to successfully complete all steps of the digital literacy skills task analy sis before the intervention. For example, George could not unlock the iPad, and Pablo and Martha were not able to exit out of the iBook application. Over the course of the intervention, par- ticipants acquired the steps needed to operate iPads through observing modeled be hav ior. This study demonstrates that some students with developmental disabilities can acquire digital literacy skills through observation and repetition, without applying systematic instructional techniques (e.g., Kagohara, 2011). Considering that mobile devices are an impor tant component of students’ educational experience (Partner- ship for 21st" Century Skills, 2014) it becomes impor tant to evaluate mul- tiple methods for providing instruction in digital literacy skills.

The !ndings of this study support and extend previous research in several ways. First, this study corroborates the extant lit er a ture that iPads can be used as a way to promote both academic and functional skills (Creech- Galloway et"al., 2013; Kagohara et"al., 2013; Rivera et"al., 2014; Smith et"al., 2013). More speci!cally, the !ndings add to the few studies on teaching vocabulary to students with developmental dis- abilities (e.g., Rivera et"al., 2014). Understanding how to use iPads and other mobile devices as a means to promote academic skills is increas- ingly impor tant considering that special education teachers must teach grade level standards.

Next, this study supports the use of a shared story format in con- junction with systematic instruction, speci!cally SP, as a way to teach

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vocabulary to students with developmental disabilities. Previous studies using MSS interventions have successfully taught En glish and Spanish vocabulary to young En glish learners with a moderate intel- lectual disability using either a CTD or MLT procedure (Rivera et!al., 2013; Rivera et!al., 2014). This study extends the lit er a ture on the use of MSS by utilizing a SP procedure while demonstrating positive changes in skill acquisition during probes, generalization, and maintenance phases for monolingual participants with disabilities.

Fi nally, this study supports and extends the "ndings of Rivera et!al. (2014) by demonstrating the bene"ts of combining multimedia theory (Mayer, 2005), and evidence- based strategies such as shared stories (Hudson & Test, 2011) and SP (Waugh et!al., 2011) within a mul- ticomponent intervention for students with disabilities. By providing multicomponent interventions that utilize best practices, participants with varying disabilities, as those represented in this study, may be better equipped for learning.

Limitations and Implications for Future Research

The study results should be interpreted in light of several limi- tations and recommendations for future research. First, this study was a multicomponent intervention including many best practices. The extent to which individual components (SP, iPad use, multimedia features) had the most impact on student learning is unknown. How- ever, developing multifaceted interventions could help meet the edu- cational needs of diverse learners (e.g., Rivera et!al., 2014). A bene"t of a MSS is that multiple skills can be taught in a lesson in a short amount of time. The primary focus of this research was on teaching picture vocabulary within the context of a science MSS lesson. Although pic- ture vocabulary was taught successfully, and this study adds to the emerging body of research for students with developmental disabili- ties learning science concepts (Spooner, Knight, Browder, Jimenez, & DiBiase, 2011), additional research is needed for more meaningful evaluation of a MSS intervention. For instance, additional mea sure- ments of other skills such as students’ abilities to de"ne content vo- cabulary taught, or teaching more complex science concepts should be investigated (e.g., how the soil’s nutrients and water retention sup- ports the growth of plants; North Carolina State Board of Education, n.d.). Future research should examine how multicomponent interven- tions can thoroughly teach multiple skills by gathering additional data that can further verify the ef"cacy of such interventions.

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Since there were no baseline mea sures for generalization, the extent to which changes in be hav ior can be attributed to the multi- component intervention are also limited. A better mea sure of general- ization would have been to provide a pretest consisting of dif fer ent target photo graphs at the commencement of the study and then test- ing students at the end of intervention. Future research should ensure pretesting to strengthen generalization results. In like manner, although students demonstrated improvements in their digital literacy, without an experimental control for the pre- intervention and post- intervention assessment of digital literacy skills, it is not pos si ble to determine if modeling alone was responsible for the increase in skills. In spite of the fact that students were able to master digital literacy skills through observation, it is impor tant for future researchers to evaluate how such skills should be taught to students with developmental disabili- ties, and whether or not more systematic instructional methods should be employed.

Next, an outside interventionist, the !rst author, rather than a member of the classroom staff delivered the intervention. While this was useful for the initial evaluation of the intervention, and the class- room’s educators indicated the intervention would be feasible to use, additional research is needed on the use of a MSS intervention by classroom staff (see Rivera et"al., 2014 for the MSS intervention con- ducted by a classroom teacher). It is necessary for classroom staff to take the lead when conceptualizing and implementing an intervention to better ensure continued use of that intervention (Coburn, 2003) and to determine what kind of supports and training might be needed in the future. All classroom staff can and should be involved in intervention implementation. In addition to the classroom teacher, paraprofessionals have effectively provided instruction for students (e.g., McDonnell, Johnson, Polychronis, & Risen, 2002; Spooner, Rivera, Browder, Baker, & Salas, 2009). Investigating paraprofessionals’ use of the MSS could also ensure the generalization of student knowledge across individuals. Fur- thermore, paraprofessionals could be involved in the development of the MSS by locating relevant pictures and videos. Additional research is needed to understand how educators can continue to develop and use MSS without extensive researcher support.

Moreover, this intervention was delivered individually to stu- dents; however, the use of higher student- teacher ratios with SP pro- cedures can allow for more ef!cient instructional situations, and students with developmental disabilities can gain additional knowl- edge and skills through peer observation (Morse & Schuster, 2004). Future research should examine if a small group instructional setting

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is a more ef!cient, but still effective, method for students gaining tech- nology skills, compared to the deliberate modeling of the interven- tionist in this study.

Fi nally, this study was unique as it employed an intermittent probe format during data collection (Reichow & Wolery, 2009; Tekin- Iftar et"al., 2008). Waugh et"al. (2011) argue that intermittent probes, rather than the traditional daily assessment probes used during a SP strategy, help to reduce student errors by providing students more practice before having to respond in de pen dently. Despite the use of intermittent probes, in this study, there is no way to truly determine the effects of this assessment strategy on student data due to the use of the multicomponent intervention. Future research should directly compare traditional daily assessment probes and intermittent probes when using SP and closely monitor the rate of skill acquisition and students’ errors to determine each technique’s ef!ciency.

Implications for Practice

There are several implications for practice that can be garnered from this study. First, the use of the iPad paired with the MSS provided students with opportunities to engage in an interactive lesson, which incorporated components of universal design for learning (UDL; Cen- ter for Applied Special Technology, 2013). For instance, the use of the MSS intervention was engaging. Stories can be adapted and multimedia functions embedded to represent information in multiple ways, and stu- dent expression can be altered to match in de pen dent response modes. As indicated by Rivera et" al. (2014), a MSS multicomponent platform can be used to teach skills to a wide range of diverse learners.

A second implication for practice is that the use of the iBooks Author (Apple, Inc., 2014b) application and additional software al- lowed for the creation of personalized text and gave the intervention- ist the ability to hand- select multimedia functions that could be most bene!cial to students. A third bene!t to using the MSS intervention is the ability to edit !les and load them onto multiple Apple mobile de- vices (iPod, iPad, iPad mini, iPhone), thus increasing portability and !le sharing between users (e.g., parents and prac ti tion ers). Instruc- tional sessions were short, lasting for approximately 10 min, and could be easily conducted in vari ous locations.

Despite the bene!ts of a MSS and simplicity in implementing the intervention in a classroom, one drawback can be the time and skill it takes to develop a MSS. Making materials can be a tedious pro cess (e.g., laminating, adapting physical books, creating schedules). In the case of developing a MSS, familiarity and access to iPads® and the neces- sary software is needed. The learning curve in using software, such

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as iBooks Author (Apple, Inc., 2014b), will vary among prac ti tion ers, but once the necessary skills are acquired the time spent creating a MSS will depend on the content and amount of information that will be included. Rivera (2013) provides guidelines on how to create a MSS using more readily available software (i.e., Power Point).

Though development can be time consuming, depending on an educator’s skill set, MSS interventions can act as a bene!cial supple- ment to current literacy instruction employed in the classroom. The combination of evidence- based practices, multimedia theory, and UDL can ensure lessons that meet the varying needs of students with developmental disabilities. In today’s twenty- !rst- century classrooms, educators and other prac ti tion ers need to utilize technology in appro- priate ways while also ensuring students can access those same technologies to improve their academic outcomes.

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