Sanitation: Waste Transfer Station

Literature Review 1.

First Nation Entrepreneurship: Organization, Process, Environment and Individual Motivation

Preface. Chapter Three reviews the literature regarding First Nation entrepreneurship with a focus on First Nation small business entrepreneurs and their goal-setting motivations to engage in entrepreneurial processes of new venture creation in First Nation communities. Framed by definitions and conceptual models confirmed in Chapter Two, existing First Nation literature is examined to determine what information exists and where there may be gaps in knowledge. The literature review in Chapter Three is presented and guided through the lens of entrepreneurship terms and elements (organization; process; environment; individual entrepreneur) constituent to the key conceptual model “Four-Variable Framework for Describing New Venture Creation” (Gartner, 1985, 2016; Gartner, Mitchell, & Vesper, 1989; Katz & Gartner, 1988). A paucity of research literature in the field is found (Roness, 2016), gaps in knowledge determined, and a recommendation for collateral information from two new literature review topics is recommended to be undertaken in the subsequent chapter.

Variables One and Two: Organization and Process.

We begin with the question of “what is First Nation on-reserve entrepreneurship, and what can we learn from the literature about First Nation small business organizations, and the process of their creation and development in First Nation communities?” While there is relatively limited research available towards answering these questions, there continues to be a small but growing and developing literature concerned directly with First Nation entrepreneurship (Corfield, 2019; Canadian Council on Aboriginal Business, 2016b; Lashley and Olfert, 2013; Missens, Dana, & Yule, 2010) as the number of First Nation entrepreneurs increases (Calihoo & Bruno, 2016).

Any comprehension of First Nation entrepreneurship needs to ensure: (a) an acknowledgement of the social and economic conditions experienced throughout the First Nations, which typically includes distressing socio-economic circumstances, including poverty and shortages of employment opportunities (Foley, 2003); (b) a recognition of history, including the legacy of poverty, dependence and bitter feelings resulting from colonialism, loss of resources, paternalism, racism, residential school, and cultural suppression (Cornell, 2007) experienced by First Nation peoples; (c) knowledge of the continuing, extensive present day political and social debate, unrest and controversy over not only health and social issues but Indigenous land claims across the country of Canada to have their rights and Aboriginal titles respected, recognized and affirmed by Canadian authorities. These serious matters have deep significant implications; this researcher acknowledges, recognizes and affirms knowledge of these issues in the commencement and process of First Nation entrepreneurship study.

An appropriate starting point for this research is an awareness of entrepreneurial activities historically undertaken by First Nations. Indigenous peoples across North America have a long history of productive trade, entrepreneurship and commerce stretching back well before the arrival of Europeans to the continent (Harrington, 2017). Individual enterprise, along with a wide variety of other private economic activities, has been commonplace in Indigenous nations of North America for thousands of years (Miller, 2012). Distinct from hunter-gatherer processes, the commercial endeavors included manufacturing, trade, plus a range of organized individual, family and group specialized labour. These activities offered numerous benefits: improved the quality of life; helped in survival; contributed to the development and growth of existing property rights systems; ensured the continuation of communities. The commercial pursuits were planned and purposeful, were driven partially by economic incentives, and have been at work on the North American continent since it was populated (Barrington, 1999). The concepts of marketing and profits were inherent in business practices, as were the practices of loans and credit (Miller, 2012). There is nothing foreign about business practices, business ownership and entrepreneurship to First Nations through the annals of both oral and written history through to and including modern times. Although there is evidence of mercantile attitudes and commercial processes through the millennia, present day Aboriginal entrepreneurship is now underutilized on-reserve. If more small business ventures were created, they would be a vital and essential element for the economic development and the establishment of functioning reservation economies (Miller, 2012).

From an Indigenous standpoint the experience of new business venture creation is a dramatic change process for many Indigenous individuals (Knight, 1997). Cornell, Jorgensen, Record and Timeche (2007) explain the Indigenous term citizen entrepreneurship as business organizations started and owned by the community citizens rather than owned by First Nation or native nation governments. Calihoo and Bruno (2016) refer to Indigenous entrepreneurship as a process requiring initiative, tenacity, and risk-willingness to innovate and create solutions to problems that develop into viable businesses. Hindle and Landsdowne (2005) characterize Indigenous entrepreneurship through four variables: (a) behaviors and actions including creating, developing and operating new ventures; (b) benefits for Indigenous people by Indigenous people; (c) sector type encompassing private public and/or non-profit; (d) range of advantage and economic profit from a sole individual to multiple people, groups or community. Indigenous entrepreneurship is seen as more holistic than non-Indigenous entrepreneurship, as it focuses on both non-economic and economic goals, including the desire for self-determination, entrepreneurial strategies, the understanding of environmental dynamics, and the preservation of heritage (Lindsay, 2005). Gallagher and Selman (2015) used the term “warrior entrepreneurship” to describe a portion of Indigenous entrepreneurship that seeks to (a) emphasize culture and tradition to combat colonial institutions, precepts, and attitudes; (b) increase community self-sufficiency; (c) revitalize economic activity that was in place prior to European contact. Newhouse (2000, 2001) emphasized traditional Aboriginal values as a critical element for altering capitalism and entrepreneurship, an outcome and process he termed “capitalism with a red face”, the opposite of what he described as the “Borg of capitalism” where capitalism is absorbed by Aboriginal cultures. Atleo (2015) felt that for Indigenous people to make capitalism work for them, that it would not be without compromise and consequences. Weir (2007) indicated that First Nation entrepreneurship and small business was essential for the survival and growth of Aboriginal communities and their culture. He linked and described First Nation small business and entrepreneurship as having much in common and being often used interchangeably. Regardless of the form taken, entrepreneurial enterprise is seen as remaining at the heart of economic development for Indigenous people (Peredo, Anderson, Galbraith, Honig, & Dana, 2004).

The Government of Canada (Innovation, Science and Economic Development Canada, 2011) has categorized small and medium businesses (SMEs) as: (a) micro (1 to 4 employees); (b) small (5 to 99 employees); (c) medium (100 to 499). In Canada, small businesses have also been delineated through the following terms: (a) one to one hundred personnel; (b) being independently owned and operated; (c) not dominating their particular sector or field; (d) meeting a specified set of standards by either employee numbers or annual revenue (Nickels, McHugh, McHugh, Berman, & Cossa, 2005).

First Nation entrepreneurship is nevertheless a challenging concept to specifically define. Weir (2007) suggests that a better and more inclusive definition of First Nation entrepreneurship would be “a human, creative act that builds something of value from practically nothing. It is the pursuit of opportunity regardless of the resources, or lack of resources, at hand. It requires a vision and the passion and commitment to lead others in the pursuit of that vision. It also requires a willingness to take calculated risks.”

To some extent, the variations around defining entrepreneurship can be attributed to the specific contexts, frameworks, and purposes utilized throughout the literature. This thesis takes a wider, holistic approach to the definition whereby there are many aspects of First Nation entrepreneurship that could have or result in different meaning or emphases dependent upon the specific community, particular business organization, and the type of entrepreneur operating it. There is no one perfect definition. Many local differences among First Nation on-reserve businesses are expected to exist. For example, in some communities it may or may not be common for family members to work together in small businesses throughout the entire year, or to set up their operations seasonally, or to close and reopen dependent on the availability or arrival of other family members, community activities, or at the request of past or returning clients. Some small business organizations may be very formal, and others very informal, operating by trade, cash, credit or service exchange. Some may have a defined hierarchy, some less, or some may have non-hierarchical working arrangements. As there are many differences in community governance, traditions, cultures, history, community size, location and business process practices, it would be a challenge to create a generic definition encompassing the many types of small business organizations created in First Nations. It may be equally challenging to determine an appropriate taxonomy of entrepreneurial processes that can capture the breadth, differences and richness across the hundreds of First Nations. Examples of First Nation entrepreneurship and businesses will be many and varied: large and small sizes, seasonal and year-round operations, micro-enterprises in crafts and artistry, marketing and sales by convenience stores, offering service as mechanics or small engine repair, shuttle, taxiing and hauling services, bed and breakfast offerings, petrol stations and body shops, games and entertainment outlets, tow-truck and construction services, guiding and tourism initiatives, renovation and equipment repair services, janitorial and smoke shops, part-time or full-time consulting and health care services and sales, marketing, web design, technology and research, environmental assessment, resource industry support, and much more (James, 2017). Although it is not the goal of this work to gather and classify the vast assortment of First Nation entrepreneurial business organizations types or their many differing aspects, the great variety is noted.

For the remainder of the thesis, a broader more compatible definition of First Nation on-reserve entrepreneurship is proposed. The definition combines Gartner’s new venture emergence model and terminologies with First Nation entrepreneurial aspects: First Nation citizen member individuals engaged in new venture creation of small business organizations or entities of a variety of types, often with one to four employees, operating independent from government ownership, active in commercial processes while in the pursuit of specific goals, purposes and motivations, existing within a context or set of environment conditions including whatever formalized or not formalized community, institutional, governance, traditional or cultural oversight forms, norms or practices may be locally in effect.

Research specific to First Nation on-reserve small business entrepreneurial processes is lacking. The Canadian Council for Aboriginal Business (CCAB) calculated the percentage of Aboriginal businesses in three process stages: (a) “start-up” being in the process of starting up a new venture: 11% on-reserve; (b) “established with the goal of growth & expansion”- 22% on-reserve); (c) “established with the goal of stability and profitability” (representing 66% on-reserve) (Canadian Council for Aboriginal Business, 2016b). Altman (2001) stressed the importance of a differentiated framework of Indigenous enterprises by way of: (a) scale (micro, small and medium); (b) target objectives (commercial, socio-cultural, or public good); (c) ownership (individuals or family, native title parties, or communities and regions). Beyond this, it is challenging to locate research specific to First Nation on-reserve small business entrepreneurship development processes. But have we been looking in all the right places? Calihoo and Bruno (2016) speculate that there are thousands of Aboriginal-owned ventures spread out across Canada spanning every industry across the spectrum of traditional enterprises to new and modern ventures.

Inferred Entrepreneurship? First Nation on-reserve entrepreneurship appears far from forgotten in broader community initiative processes and strategies addressing economic development, but it is possible, in those larger scale initiatives, entrepreneurship may sometimes be inferred, or even perhaps understated compared to larger corporate or First Nation administration initiatives. First Nation small business entrepreneurship may in fact be well embedded in broader community economic initiatives and processes. From the literature, First Nation entrepreneurial small business creation appears in varying degrees throughout the overall economic development planning, strategies and activities of First Nation communities. They may or may not always be readily separable from the larger economic development ambitions and strategies of communities. If on-reserve entrepreneurship exists in the broader community economic development initiatives, but has less, little or virtually no space in much of this literature, perhaps it can be inferred, and can be found to appear in emergent, implied, assumed, or subsumed forms, as opposed to explicitly indicated in some cases. Five examples in the literature, drawn from different regions of Canada, are reviewed for this possibility: Membertou First Nation (MFN); Meadow Lake Tribal Council (MLTC); Tahltan Nation (TN); Essipit Innu First Nation (EIFN); Westbank First Nation (WFN).

Membertou First Nation (MFN): Emergent On-Reserve Entrepreneurship . Membertou First Nation is an urban reserve in Nova Scotia, Canada, a “First Nations progression model” based on business approaches to government, management, and economic development for the purpose of achieving social objectives was created. MFN foundational principles included establishment of operational processes, policies, corporate branding, partnership and joint ventures, infrastructure development, training and human capital development, and grounding in community culture. The overall model has proved successful with MFN ultimately eliminating a $1 million deficit, generating significant corporate asset bases, increasing employment, generating 75% of their own revenue, and garnering awards such as Cando Economic Developer of the Year. Along the journey, a growing need for entrepreneurship education was identified, and an “Entrepreneur Centre” opened to permit MFN members to train aspiring entrepreneurs and aid in developing small businesses as one aspect of overall community economic development. Although specific business types, developmental processes, and motivational data is not available regarding these small businesses, there has been a “growing number” of emergent new Aboriginal businesses operating out of their Business Centre (Brown, Finney, Doucette, Tulk, Bernard, & Yuan, 2012), and their contribution to MFN’s economic development, while not an initial pillar of the Progression Model, has become a part of community economic development.

Meadow Lake Tribal Council (MLTC): Implied On-Reserve Entrepreneurship . MLTC, a political, service and corporate organization consisting of nine First Nations located in Saskatchewan, Canada, began operation in 1986. A twenty year plan was undertaken to “stimulate economic growth for First Nations and to encourage an entrepreneurial spirit among our people” (MLTC, 1991). The specific objectives included greater control over their traditional lands, economic self-sufficiency, strengthen traditional values and their application in business development, and to improve socio-economic circumstances for community members. MLTC defined entrepreneurship to include all business, corporate and venture developments, including the non-profit and government MLTC sectors, to go along with small business. The outcomes of the initiative have been striking: employment increased 70%, average family income grew by 49%, and logging and reforestation corporate activities successful. The MLTC economic development initiative and objectives were extended well into the 21st century. The role of small business entrepreneurship in the MLTC economic development initiative, while not at the forefront of promotion, was nevertheless implied, and indeed several ventures and “indirect” jobs were created, and an overall spirit of entrepreneurship developed (Anderson, 2002). In little more than a decade, eighteen successful small business start-ups were generated, including tazi operations, rice harvesting, and convenience stores (Cornell, Jorgensen, Record and Timeche, 2007).

Tahltan Nation (TN): Assumed On-Reserve Entrepreneurship . Tahltan Nation is a First Nations people with approximately 5,000 members located in north western British Columbia, 800 kilometers from the nearest city. TN is located geographically at the same latitude as Juneau, Alaska. In 1985 TN set up the Tahltan Nation Development Corporation (TNDC) with the goals of widespread economic and social change. The development corporation, based largely on natural resources (mining), flourished, and what began as an idea became a corporation worth over $50 million, with 29 joint Venture Partnerships, 8 business divisions, $35 million of equipment, and $23.7 million in annual revenue (Asp, Moldecky, & Hemmat, 2016). The work and contracts were leveraged to develop training programs, which in turn developed a skilled workforce. Unemployment fell from 98% to 0%. TNDC developed a “Nation Building” model for sustainable Indigenous led economic growth, supported by a community economic governance structure and model. Although the term entrepreneurship is not included in referencing the models (the governance structure does include the phrase “individual community enterprise”), it is safe to assume small business entrepreneurs are a relevant aspect and outcome of the overall initiative, since in fact, available TN contracting services now include construction, rentals, communication, drilling, explosives, explorations, environmental services, hauling, transport, medical, road maintenance, and more (British Columbia Indigenous Business and Investment Council, 2016).

Essipit Innu First Nation (EIFN): Subsumed On-Reserve Entrepreneurship . Essipit is one of nine Innu communities in the province of Quebec, Canada, with a population of 673 of whom 204 live on the reserve. Their traditional territory covers over 8,000 square kilometers, with forestry, outfitting and tourism being the primary industries for employment opportunities for community members. Much of the work is seasonal, and full employment is the norm for summer months. In the early 2000’s EIFN changed their economic development goals from job creation to: training and up-skilling; income source diversification; increased access to business opportunities. EIFN followed a community-based entrepreneurship (CBE) where the community acted corporately to set up and run enterprises in pursuit of the common community good. They succeeded both socially and economically (St-Georges, 2009; Proulx & Gathier, 2012). Today the Essipit business portfolio consist of approximately 30 businesses operating in four economic sectors: (a) public goods and services; (b) forest-based development; (c) tourism; (d) fisheries. All the businesses are either community-owned (i.e. fully owned by the Band Council), or joint ventures with non-Aboriginal enterprises. Revenues and profits have been used for a variety of community purposes including improving work facilities, reinvesting between businesses for expansion purposes, allow opportunities for youth and elders to partake in traditional cultural land-based activities, and generate access to new contract opportunities (Beaudoin et al, 2015). Individual entrepreneurship (and consequently the individual profit motive) do not appear in the model. In effect, they are not directly named in the initiative as they have been essentially subsumed within the corporate community-based enterprise model of EIFN.

Westbank First Nation (WFN)\; Explicit On-Reserve Entrepreneurship . Westbank First Nation, with 840 members, two-thirds of whom live on-reserve, is a self-governing First Nation located in the south central interior of British Columbia. WFN implemented self-government in 2005. Membership created and ratified a Community Economic Development Plan, a WFN constitution, and a Comprehensive Community Plan to provide guidance and protection for growth and development, resource management, and community planning for reserve lands and traditional WFN territory. The Band Council shifted the focus from simply “job creation” to “building an economy”. Entrepreneurship was made a key element of the economic development plan: environmental, social, and cultural factors supportive of small business entrepreneurship were identified and openly promoted, including: establishment of property rights; policy for WFN to not compete with member owned businesses; multiple infrastructure improvements; actively pursued relationship with banks; created leadership and entrepreneurial training programs; improved housing; strengthened governance and conflict resolution institutions; improved financial access for entrepreneurs. Between 2004 and 2014 the number of WFN member business licenses tripled. Between 2005 and 2015 nearly $450 million in building permits was issued. Today WFN: has the largest residential and commercial development of any reserve in Canada; has a gross Domestic Product that has grown five-fold to $500 million; has a dozen banks and financial institutions on WFN lands. The decision to encourage and support entrepreneurship was explicit, as evidenced by a statement released by the Comprehensive Community Plan of WFN, “The success of Westbank First Nation is a result of those individuals who have educated themselves, either formally or traditionally, and have returned or chosen to stay to give back to their community as elected officials, community leaders, employees, entrepreneurs and avid community activists. Their hard work and perseverance has created the platform on which future generations can stand” (Derickson & Selman, 2017).

Reality of First Nation On-reserve Entrepreneurship . Despite successful community economic development examples such as MFN, MLTC, TN, EIFN, and WFN, small business entrepreneurship development, whether understated or not, remains overall meager and limited for the vast majority of First Nations in Canada. The situation is similar for Indigenous populations in United States, and the experiences in American and Canadian Indigenous communities, including the issues, challenges and barrier to success, have been described as shared (Satsan [Herb George], 2007). Of all ethnic and racial groups in United States the lowest per capita rate of privately owned businesses belongs to the Aboriginal sector (Miller, 2012). The Aboriginal independent business sector has been described by researchers as "small” (Cornell, Jorgensen, Record and Timeche, 2007), and the state of individual entrepreneurship in American tribal communities represented as “experimenting” (Champagne, 2015). In Canada, First Nation entrepreneurships are primarily micro-businesses made up of one to four employees and typically servicing just small, local markets (Weir, 2007), however they are a largely untapped and growing resource for on-reserve economic development (Derickson & Selman, 2017). 72% of First Nation businesses are located on-reserve (Roness, 2016). Four Canadian Aboriginal business surveys have been conducted between 2002 and 2016, one from Statistics Canada, and three from the Canadian Council for Aboriginal Business. They provide some information and reference points towards First Nation communities, although most of the data gathered is for the overall Aboriginal population, and for both off-reserve and on-reserve.

2002 Aboriginal Entrepreneurs Survey. The Aboriginal Entrepreneurs Survey (Statistics Canada, 2002) determined that self-employed Aboriginal individuals, compiled together for both on-reserve and off-reserve entrepreneurs (the data was not separated into the two groups), make up 3% of their population, significantly less when compared to Canadian mainstream statistics of 25% of the population. Of the 3%, only one out of every seven First Nation entrepreneurs were located on-reserve, making on-reserve entrepreneurs more than thirty times less in comparison to mainstream society numbers. Canada is known for entrepreneurship, made evident by the fact entrepreneurship levels are higher than most G7 countries, and ranked second in the world according to the Center for Innovation Studies based out of Calgary, Alberta (Langford, C. & Josty, P., 2015), but this reputation and reality does not extend into First Nation country.

Other findings included:

· 67% were sole proprietorships;

· 83% used personal savings for start-up;

· 67% had been in operation for five or more years;

· 50% of primary industries (agriculture; forestry; fishing and hunting; mining, quarrying and oil and gas extraction), construction, manufacturing, transportation and warehousing businesses had been in operation for ten plus years, compared to 30% of professional and technical service businesses;

· 20% had a written business plan;

· 85% operated full-time;

· 72% reported profits in the previous one-year period;

· 37% did not expect their business to grow

2011 and 2016 Aboriginal Business Surveys. The 2016 Aboriginal Business survey is an update of the 2011 survey. The 2016 Business Survey determined:

· Aboriginal businesses are represented across a full range of industry types including construction, manufacturing, natural resources, retail and service sectors;

· 66% of Aboriginal businesses are home-based (unchanged from 2011);

· 6.3% of the Aboriginal labour force were self-employed in 2016, versus 10.7 of the rest of the Canadian labour force;

· 27% of all Aboriginal business owners are under 45 years of age, but 45% of all start-ups by owners under 45 years of age;

· 65% of business owners used personal savings for start-up, the same as in 2011;

· While the overall total of self-employed Aboriginal peoples had been growing at a rate of 37.6% between 2001 and 2006, and 15.6% between 2006 and 2011, over the five year period between 2006 and 2011 the proportion of First Nation on-reserve businesses also experienced a decrease, from 72% of the Aboriginal total in 2006 to 56% in 2011 (the population of self-employed Canadians overall declined 4.4% during the same period);

· 43,305 Aboriginal businesses existed in 2011, but in 2016 the data was not determined for Aboriginal businesses;

· 64% of Aboriginal businesses are individual operations without employees (63% in 2011), and 73% are unincorporated (74% in 2011). This profile is similar to Canadian mainstream businesses.

· 75% of Aboriginal business owners reported a net profit, up from 61% in 2011;

· Aboriginal businesses focus primarily on local markets;

· On-reserve businesses are more likely to do business with Aboriginal governments than off-reserve businesses;

· 70% reported it was very likely they would still be in business in 5 years (same as 2011);

· 63% of business owners reported they introduced new products, services or processes within the previous three years, up from 49% in 2011;

· 30% had a written business plan, the same as in 2011;

· 46% used Facebook for business purposes and 24% had a business website, but 40% had no internet or internet connection issues;

The 2011 Aboriginal Business Survey also summarized Aboriginal entrepreneurs by industry:

· Professional: 27%;

· Construction: 18%;

· Primary (agriculture, forestry, fishing, hunting, mining, oil and gas): 13%;

· Arts, entertainment, accommodation and cultural: 12%;

· Manufacturing, transportation and warehousing: 10%;

· Wholesale and retail: 9%;

· Other: 11%.

The wide range of Aboriginal self-employment, including within traditional hunting, fishing and trapping, the exploitation of natural resources, tourism and other mainstream industries is identified by numerous researchers (Calihoo & Bruno, 2016; Roness, 2016; Caine & Krogman, 2010; Kutzner & Wright, 2010; McGregor, 2009; Whiteman & Cooper, 2000; Stabler, 1989).

However, the 2011 and 2016 Aboriginal Business Surveys reported that an overall knowledge gap continues to exist for Aboriginal business data. Using available profile data at their disposal for the twenty year period from1996 to 2006, the surveys indicated Aboriginal self-employment had increased through that span of time by 85% and speculated it would continue to rise. Similarly, when we look over to other Indigenous literature, it is noted that in a the ten year period (2006 to 2016) one of the most significant developments in Australian Indigenous economy has been the increasing growth and importance of Indigenous entrepreneurs (Collins, Morrison, Krivokapic-Skoko, Butler, & Basu, 2016). The number of self-employed Indigenous entrepreneurs had tripled in Australia through the years 1991 – 2011 (Hunter, 2013).

2014 Ontario Aboriginal Business Survey. Highlights from the smaller one province (Ontario) 2014 survey include:

· 65% of First Nation businesses were located on-reserve;

· 62% were in the service industry;

· 71% used personal savings for start-up

· Business objectives in order of priority included: stability, profit, growth, community service, personal/family employment, community employment.

Summary. Process. No research exists to indicate whether First Nation small business new creation processes, or stages, are similar or different than those of mainstream Canadian business development. The Canadian Council on Aboriginal Business looked at the percentages of Aboriginal business ventures in each of three arbitrary business stages: “start-up”; “established” with self-reported goals of stability and profitability; and “established” with self-reported goals of growth and expansion (Canadian Council on Aboriginal Business, 2016b). The present work uses Gartner’s organizational emergence model processes of emergence-newness-transformation, and prelaunch and postlaunch stages of new venture creation as the paradigm for First Nation entrepreneurship.

Variable Three: Environment and Context

Gartner (1985) termed the conditions, context and surrounding factors of new venture creation as the environment, describing it as the set of “characteristics that are relatively fixed conditions imposed on the new venture from without”. Included in his list of characteristics are: population attitudes towards entrepreneurship; availability of financial resources; skilled labour force and access to education; market accessibility, transportation, infrastructure, and supportive services; governance and institutional support; land and lease challenges. The thesis now examines the literature on these characteristics, both in terms of challenges and perceived benefits, as they relate to First Nation communities.

(a) Challenges to First Nation Entrepreneurship. Different attitudes and views exist on Indigenous economic activity’s effect on traditional culture, and vice versa. There are First Nation leaders who view the creation of reserve economies as incapable of remedying financial and social issues, and who recommend a return to more traditional economies and ways of life (Raybould, 2006). Some see market-driven, capitalistic, skill-driven, individually owned and motivated entrepreneurship and wealth accumulation as disempowering, not unlike the captivity of an “iron cage” (Champagne, 2015), and recommend Indigenous communities focus and rely more on traditional values of cultural resources, economic redistribution, and collective stewardship. Others suggest that economic development would, in fact, not require the stoppage of being traditional or cultural (Cornell & Kalt, 1992a). One study determined that entrepreneurship had no eroding effect on Indigenous identities, but provided a platform strengthening Indigenous identities by: (a) creating self-sufficient attitudes to combat colonial constructs and government dependency; (b) promoting positive social and self-identities; (c) operating business ventures ways that give back to First Nations in community-oriented processes (Gallagher, 2012). Another author presented the perspective that reservation economies are essential for the support of Aboriginal culture, and stated, “Indian people do face diverse social and cultural issues in making business decisions. In addition to cultural issues, the history of economic activities on reservations and federal Indian policies have left many tribal communities leery of the businessperson and development schemes that are supposed to “save” the reservation. A long history of having their lands and assets exploited by the majority society has understandably made many tribal governments and Indians cautious about business and development. In fact, the very word “capitalism” causes visceral reactions in some Indian people. In these kinds of situations, Indian entrepreneurs do stand out” (Miller, 2012). It may be that individual financial success and commercialism are tolerated or accepted in varying degrees depending on the specific tribal culture, since the fit is not always easy for Indigenous cultures (Cornell, 2006). Hart (2010) expressed a more cautious, moderating, ‘world-view” perspective on the cultural-capitalist issue by stating “I recognize that worldviews are not binary consisting of Indigenous and non-Indigenous, but more fluid between various peoples of the world with strong overlaps and great chasms. However, without working to reflect Indigenous peoples’ understandings, we may be unconsciously, perhaps consciously in some cases, leading other Indigenous peoples down the path of internalized oppression”. Nevertheless, while there exists an attitude and belief among some First Nation leaders that entrepreneurship can only serve to promote individualism which in turn erodes Aboriginal culture and identity (Miller, 2012), a contention is made that capitalistic participation by First Nations is a valid and realistic option, particularly when adapted to fit Indigenous values, and that it will also aid in sovereignty (Sommers, 2017).

Financial Access Challenges. To start and operate a business, financial capital is required. Entrepreneurs typically initiate and develop their small businesses via money from sources such as: (a) business loans; (b) the use of home equity to secure loans; (c) family resources; (d) personal savings or other sources of credit accessible to them. However, First Nation members, owing to reasons and factors such as poverty, low or reduced employment, lack of home ownership, collateral and home equity resources, plus less access to financial institutions and activities that will build credit, often inevitably face limited or unavailable financing. While there are grants, programs, funding and support programs through

Canadian Banking institutions, non-profit societies and other organizations, there remains a continuing pattern of significant barriers to obtaining capital for Aboriginal businesses (Caldwell & Hunt, 2002; Weir, 2007; Canadian Council for Aboriginal Business, 2011; Cooper, 2016). As well, in some cases, the funding opportunities that do exist are found to be not sustainable (Munning, 2015). The 2011 Aboriginal Business Survey indicated that only 29% have used any government programs in starting up or in the maintenance of their businesses. Reasons for not using the programs included a lack of perceived value for their business, limited awareness about what is available, and deterrence resulting from “red tape” concerns. As well, the survey indicated that 43% reported access to financing was an obstacle, and 38% reported equity problems as an issue. Banks and financial institutions normally require conventional business plans to approve commercial funding, but many Aboriginal people didn’t feel capable of creating or prepare a business plan, and often paid to have a third party create one (Canadian Council for Aboriginal Business, 2011). The Aboriginal Business Survey conducted five years later found that almost half of the Aboriginal businesses had encountered funding qualifications issues. Financing for start-ups was cited as particularly challenging for those ventures, and three in ten Aboriginal businesses felt growth was hindered by access to funds. The survey also noted greater growth of off-reserve businesses over on-reserve businesses by 33%, which they attributed to the increased difficulties faced by on-reserve businesses in accessing finances (Canadian Council for Aboriginal Business, 2016b).

Human Capital, Skills and Education Challenges. Business success for Aboriginal entrepreneurship depends upon understanding business planning, being able to identify and assess potential opportunities, transforming business concepts into a financial reality, and after start-up, managing day-to-day business aspects (Roness, 2016). Serious challenges for on-reserve entrepreneurs include limited business skills and entrepreneurial education (Miller, 2012). With a lack of employment opportunities on-reserve there is also less commercial mentorship, economic knowledge transfer, and succession planning available. It is challenging for human capital to gain momentum and develop a critical mass when under-experienced and untrained entrepreneurs struggle to take advantage of arising business opportunities without knowledge acquisition that role-models would provide. This can lead to skill exit, as individuals with talent, energy and ideas or entrepreneurship simply decide to take their chances elsewhere and move away from their communities (Cornell, 2006). There is a dearth of small business training programs designed for First Nation operators desiring to conduct business in their own legal, cultural, and constitutional contexts. Even if training and education may be available, the shortage of financing to cover educational programs and institutional costs can further prevent the development of entrepreneurial savvy and financial management skills (Weir, 2007). The Canadian Council for Aboriginal Business advised Many Aboriginal entrepreneurs attempt to navigate or grow their businesses without outside support or advice. It is estimated that less than four out of ten have had an individual or an organization provide them with business advice or guidance, and that most are not able to envision the guidance they would most like to have (Canadian Council for Aboriginal Business, 2011). Seven out of ten Aboriginal businesses in Canada do not have a formal business plan, and either did not see the value in having one or did not have the resources to create one (Canadian Council for Aboriginal Business, 2016b).

Remoteness and Infrastructure Challenges. The remote and rural locations of many First Nation communities exposes numerous entrepreneurs hoping to start-up or develop their businesses to try to deal with infrastructure issues such as limited access via high quality grade roads, inadequate housing and commercial buildings, poor water quality, increased distances from business resources they may require, plus shortages of services for electrical and communication needs. Water conditions in Canadian First Nations, including numerous water advisories, have been described as often “third world” (Levasseur, 2015). Only one out of three First Nation communities have not had a drinking water advisory in the ten year period leading up to 2014. During this time span 400 First Nation communities experienced some variety of problematic water issues, including more than 90% of Saskatchewan and New Brunswick First Nation communities. One community in the province of Ontario, the Neskantaga First Nation, had been under a boil water advisory twenty plus years. Less than seven in ten Aboriginal businesses across Canada regard their internet services as very reliable (Canadian Council for Aboriginal Business, 2016b). Northern Canadian internet access, above the 60th parallel, typically lags the rest of Canada in terms of high speed internet availability (National Aboriginal Health Organization, 2008). Housing on reserves is of substandard, overcrowded, or dilapidated. Portable structures versus buildings, are not uncommon for schoolchildren in many First Nations. Remote reserves will often depend on ice roads, with only a limited window of time for ground support and supply flow. Infrastructure problems, bringing with them a host of social and physical problems and ills, often with little or no improvement over decades. Former Assembly of First Nations Chief Shawn Atleo, in reference to these infrastructure issues, succinctly stated in an interview with the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation “'the gap between First Nations and Canadians has, seemingly, over the last few generations just grown so deep.” (Stastna, 2011). Among all Canadian Aboriginal businesses, combining Metis, Inuit, First Nation off-reserve and on-reserve enterprises, reported infrastructure concerns affected their businesses (Canadian Council for Aboriginal Business, 2016b). The percentage will be significantly higher just for on-reserve businesses.

In summary, given that numerous Aboriginal communities are situated in remote or rural areas, and therefore far from consumer markets, their economic activities are constrained. Infrastructure challenges are seen as a unique inhibiting, problematic obstacle to these entrepreneurs (Miller, 2012).

First Nation Governance Challenges. Another significant problem for Aboriginal businesses are obstacles and issues related to the governance environment (Calihoo & Bruno, 2016). Most entrepreneurs going into business in mainstream society assume, expect or take for granted the existence of: (a) fair and comprehensible regulatory regimes with local bureaucracies that are manageable; (b) independent and unbiased dispute resolution systems for legal resolutions of business conflicts or issues; (c) clear commercial codes for businesses to follow; (c) systems that protect them from political interference. Regrettably for on-reserve businesses, these same expectations do not hold consistently. Rather, their experience too often is one of: (a) regulatory regimes that are overly complex, do not exist, or are not enforced; (b) dispute resolution systems or courts that answer to politicians and councils, or are ineffective or unavailable; (c) non-existent commercial codes; (d) political interference or influences that is widely present, and may depend upon how one voted or who one is related to (Cornell, Jorgensen, Record and Timeche, 2007). Elected First Nation leaders have been known to become politically involved to the detriment of privately owned small businesses (Weir, 2007). Conditions limiting day-to-day political interference is important in order to support private business development to be successful, including appropriate governance models (Cornell and Kalt, 1992b).

The tribal governance environment presents similar concerns. American native entrepreneurs face: (a) political leadership meddling in business affairs; (b) challenging bureaucracies that may impose costs; (c) lack of business standards or inconsistent commercial codes; (d) court systems, and an absence of protection against impairment of business contracts; (c) dearth of business standards and uniformity of commercial codes; (d) an absence of protection through court systems for business contract issues (Miller, 2012). On the Navajo reservation, an examination of the underdeveloped business sector (Yonk, Hoffer and Stein, 2017) concluded that the primary barriers discouraging entrepreneurship were overly complicated and bureaucratic business licensing, access difficulties to land development, as well as a lack of capital and lending opportunities. Governance is an essential aspect for the economic development of Indian Tribes in the United States, including the local entrepreneurship and small business sectors (The Harvard Project on American Indian Economic Development, 2016). While the various governance problems and challenges do not exist in all Aboriginal communities, where they do exist, the results can be devastating for citizen entrepreneurs by way of instability, unpredictability, wasted time trying to negotiate problematic bureaucracies, and higher business costs (Cornell, 2006). A path for Canadian First Nations to achieve increased levels of prosperity is the development of property rights and stable governing institutions that will encourage economic participation (Flanagan, T. & Beauregard, K., 2013).

Economic Leakage. Economic leakage occurs when money leaves from an economy sooner than expected, consequently being of less than optimal utility for that locality. Ideally, the money should circulate and flow through local economies five to seven times before leaving or spinning out of communities. A lack of on-reserve small businesses on reservations where community consumers would be able to purchase goods and services is a prime factor in leakage, and subsequently contributes to poverty (Clarkson, 2017; Miller, 2012). In an American Indigenous example, 71% of Navajo dollars were found to be spent off-reservation (Choudhary, 2003). Leakage discourages economic self-sufficiency and reduces employment. A study in economic leakage was conducted by MNP’s Consulting and Research Economic team in 2014 for the Mohawk Council of Akwesasne, a First Nation bordering the Canadian provinces of Ontario and Quebec. By analyzing community resident’s spending outside of their geographic areas, it was found that just over three-quarters of their combined incomes were spent outside of the community (Seymour, 2014). The findings also noted that government sources provided approximately 60% of community incomes, further emphasizing the importance of local economy development and pursuing economic strategies, including in the case of Akwesasne, a recommendation for specific entrepreneurship development in beverage, food, repair, and maintenance services.

Lease Challenges. First Nation entrepreneurs need to lease buildings and commercial spaces in order to conduct business on-reserve. Land leasing is another challenge for Aboriginal entrepreneurs. The process of confirming leases can take considerable time, and dependent upon the lease type, risk. Any of three on-reserve land lease designations are usually of interest to potential on-reserve entrepreneurs, but each has their own issues (Munnings, 2015): (a) Designated Land Leases. Once Indian Reserve lands are legally designated for leasing purposes, the Federal Government of Canada may lease them out on behalf of the First Nation under the Indian Act (see Appendix: Indian Act). Generally, for large development projects, these lands are leased to the First Nation’s development corporation, then in turn subleased to third parties. Unfortunately, entrepreneurs then face expensive, drawn out challenges to successfully obtain this type of lease, as they require an environmental assessment, an appraisal, and a community membership referendum (Gailus, 2009); (b) Certificate of Possession Leases. In this situation, a First Nation member may purchase a Certificate of Possession from a current lease holder, or be allotted a certificate by Chief and Council, but again the process is often costly and complicated; (c) Buckshee Leases. These are the most common leases, available for varying lengths of time, relatively quick and less expensive to secure. While the process avoids the process complexities of the Indian Act, Buckshee Leases are particularly risky, as the lessee holds no rights of possession should the holder of the lease choose to evict the business owner, and the courts are unable to prevent or protect parties being evicted.

Beyond lease issues, new Aboriginal businesses and entrepreneurs face challenges simply in finding adequate facilities, space and building locations specific to their business needs. Furthermore, even before these challenges, it is not uncommon that there is very limited business space available on-reserve to begin with in communities where economic activities would be like to be situated (Miller, 2012).

Living Conditions in First Nation Communities. First Nation citizens residing on-reserve too often experience distressing living conditions. While the total population of First Nations is rapidly growing, the on-reserve percentage versus off-reserve showed a progressive decline in a 35 year period (71% in 1982; 56% in 2005; 45% in 2011), and there is not much doubt that living conditions are a contributing factor to these relative decreases (Indigenous and Northern Affairs Canada, 2012). In 2011 there were 637,660 registered or treaty Indians from a total of 1,400,685 individuals in the Aboriginal identity population of 1,400,685 (Roness, 2016). From this latter group 313,880 lived on-reserve (Statistics Canada, 2011). For these residents the problematic and difficult living conditions on-reserve is markedly evident. They lag significantly in socio-economic indicators such as employment, education, health and incarceration rates, and income when compared to mainstream Canadian society (Manuel & Derrickson, 2017; Indigenous and Northern Affairs Canada, 2015): The proportion of high school drop-out is three times more than the national Canadian average. Unemployment rates reach more than twice as high; median income is more than 40% lower; life expectancies are shorter by 10%; infant mortality rates are two to three times greater; incarceration rates are often tenfold or more (Gilmore, 2015). In United States of America, where one-third of the Native American population lives on reserve, the living conditions are similar (Champagne, 2015),

Aboriginal Affairs and Northern Development Canada uses the Community Well Being Index (CBW) to measure and quantify the quality of life of First Nations in comparison to other Canadian communities. The scores, derived from census data, are based on four variables: (a) level of employment; (b) income; (c) labor force employment; (d) housing quantity and quality. CBW scores are much lower for First Nation communities in comparison to other Canadian communities, and a significant gap continues (Indigenous and Northern Affairs Canada, 2011). Table 1 shows the lower quality of life index and continuing disparity experienced by First Nation communities. First Nation communities average close to twenty points less than non-Aboriginal communities for a thirty year period from 1981 to 2011. Table 2 shows the average 2011 component score[footnoteRef:2] comparison of First Nations versus Non-Aboriginal communities. First Nations are lower on every variable: (a) education by 32%; (b) income by 30%; (c) labour force activity by 20%; (d) housing by 25%. Poverty is a significant factor regularly referenced regarding on-reserve living conditions (Indigenous and Northern Affairs Canada, 2015). Shortages of economic opportunities lead to and contribute to poverty in many of the First Nations, and contribute abundantly to socio-economic issues (Backhouse, 1999). Aboriginal health determinants have been categorized (Loppie-Reading & Wien, 2009) as: [2: This is the latest available data. Canadian Census gathering is conducted every five years. Income data for Non-Aboriginal communities was not gathered in 2016. The next Canadian Census will be in 2021.]

(a) Proximal. These are the direct and more obvious influencers including income, poverty, employment, literacy and early childhood development, discrimination, culture, social support networks, gender, and education;

(b) Intermediate. These influencers are more “connective”, such as labour markets, private enterprise, health promotion and care, care and promotion, governance, and justice;

(c) Distal. These health determinants are deeply embedded, foundational influencers such as historical, economical, ideological, political and social factors.

Indigenous health determinants have also been described by metaphor and paradigm as parts of a tree (Reading, 2015):

(a) Proximal or visible crown of the tree (foliage and branches);

(b) Intermediate or trunk and core of a growing tree;

(c) Distal or roots of a tree, where existing problems with the tree’s health compound over time, resulting in long-term, detrimental effects.

Reading comments, “Like the roots of a tree, these deeply embedded determinants represent the historical, political, ideological, economical, and social foundations (which includes Indigenous world views, spirituality, and self-determination) from which all other determinants evolve. Just

as maladies observed in the leaves are generally not the proximal, intermediate and distal determinants of health. Similarly, within each of these strata of determinants, elements of influence combine to create synergies of advantage and/or disadvantage”.

Where to Take Action? Several researchers have posited recommendations to overcome the challenging business environment affecting First Nation entrepreneurs in their communities.

There is no shortage of suggestions for action steps to take against these conditions. Cooper (2016) recommends that mainstream banks increasingly recognize the need for more broadened, diversified financial services and products for Aboriginal entrepreneurs, and that there is a growing need for “angel investors” and other sources of access to finance their ventures.

Cornell, Jorgenson, Record and Timeche (2007) enumerated four community predispositions that would positively impact Aboriginal community venture creation, namely where: (a) Indigenous culture supports the initiative, growth and success of individual and family business efforts; (b) sufficient land exists so businesses are able to undertake operations; (c) internal market populations (ideally both residents and/or visitors) being large enough to support entrepreneurship; (d) available external, export markets that are conducive to independent business development.

Miller (2012) recommended that: (a) communities determine ways for diverse work groups such as economic planners, individual entrepreneurs, and tribal government officials to strategize together to renew and grow the entrepreneurial spirit displayed by Indigenous people throughout their history; (b) engage and encourage behaviors that lead to community families purchasing and becoming ongoing consumers within their own communities; (c) promote the certification of small businesses; (d) educate potential entrepreneurs on business start-up and development, and promote the value of economic principles in communities; (e) establish strong institutions to develop and aide businesses in setting up; (f) ensure compatible matches between the planning of economic activity planning and the prevailing tribal culture.

Champagne (2015) specified the importance of gaining market access, as well as tribal control over lands, as prerequisite conditions for entrepreneurial development. He also recognized kinship innovation as an important factor since Indigenous nations, often still based on kinship, exist as part of the modern world and are expected to remain so indefinitely. They can be expected to utilize innovative ways to manage economic and political relation in the future.

Weir (2007) proposed: (a) increase financial support for independent small businesses; (b) locate corporations that would support Aboriginal entrepreneurship; (c) increase research on Aboriginal entrepreneurship and include the interaction between business and culture; (d) highlight and profile Aboriginal business and entrepreneurial success stories; (e) make easier access to programs that support and promote small business owners; (f) improve educational programs for small business development with proper training on how to manage, supervise and comprehend macro-environment factors. One example of an innovative small business training program for Aboriginal youth was the Professional Readiness Employee Preparation Program for Youth (PREPPY) that ran for three years (2001-2003) at White Bear First Nation in the Province of Saskatchewan. Students received financial support, life skills, personal, and career counselling, along with modules that included business start-up, entrepreneurship, money management, culture, and governance topics. Financed by the Oil and Gas division of the Economic Development Department, there was an 80% graduation rate. A similar program ran successfully in the Province of Alberta from 2005-2009 at the Lethbridge Aboriginal Career and Employment Centre and included mentorship placements with successful entrepreneurs.

Cornell, Jorgensen, Record and Timeche (2007) detailed environmental factors needed for on-reserve new venture creation and development as: (a) independent tribal courts for conflict resolution so as to encourage citizens to feel secure and set up businesses; (b) commercial codes to govern business transactions including financing, transportation, and sale of goods so legal recourse exists via jurisdictional courts; (c) a tribal bureaucracy able to effectively, fairly and efficiently manage business and business related processes; (d) seed money and other investments to help entrepreneurs begin and develop their businesses, assist with financial literacy, and help improve management skills.

Wien (1999) recommended three steps to build and grow Aboriginal businesses: (a) improve and expand market access; (b) support entrepreneurship via improvement of business advisory services; (c) increase access to on-reserve capital with the establishment of community-level banking institutions, as well as micro-lending circles, and the availability of revolving loan funds.

Helin (2006) stressed the psychological importance of overcoming “dependency mindsets” existing in communities through a combination of self-reliance, policy change and cultural awareness processes.

Begay, Cornell, Jorgensen and Kalt (2007) state that a balance of culture, governance and business development will be able to overcome business environment challenges.

Cornell (2006) suggested a threefold package of changes were needed: (a) attitudinal changes by both citizens and their governments towards entrepreneurship; (b) investment changes that permit better targeting of financial resources to be able to support business activities; (c) institutional changes so First Nation governments create environments more favorable to small business development.

Skeena Native Development Society (2003) strategized that First Nation entrepreneurship could be advanced through three “cornerstone” actions: (a) ensure a functional market systems are empowered through governance and jurisdiction processes; (b) increase First Nation peoples’ ability to control and develop land for capital formation purposes; (c) encourage and develop understanding by First Nations people towards entrepreneurial thinking and economic models.

The Canadian Council for Aboriginal Business (2011) listed the eight areas where assistance might be directed for improving Aboriginal business: (a) innovation; (b) financial aspects; (c) planning for business success; (d) competing for federal government contracts; (e) social media communication and marketing; (f) utilization of institutional supports; (g) government programs; (h) business and entrepreneurial training.

Munnings (2015) suggested the creation of several tools to promote the development of Indigenous entrepreneurship: (a) program support and related funding benefits such as scholarships, training, and employment programs derived from Impact Benefit Agreements (IBA). IBAs are agreements by project proponents with First Nations that exchange such benefits in order to receive a First Nations’ support for project work based in their traditional territory; (b) institutional and service changes that would support small business. The development of these tools would be supported and informed by Indigenous knowledge, laws, traditions, and culture.

Summary: Environmental Challenges. From the literature review, twenty characteristics of Gartner’s overall environment list were found in relation to First Nation entrepreneurs. These characteristics were then rated according to their condition of influence and impact described in the research on new venture creation in First Nation communities (see Table 3). The outcome reads like an inventory of significant challenges and barriers to business start-up: ”limited” venture capital and supportive services; “few” mentors; “low”, “lower”, “often low”, “usually not”; “often not” for skilled labour, supply and market access, governance

Table 3. Environmental Characteristics and Conditions for First Nation Entrepreneurship

Table 4. Westbank First Nation Environmental Characteristics and Conditions

land regime development; (c) referendum activities where First Nation members can empower governance structure changes; (d) leadership by Chief and Council to enact support, immigration, occupational differentiation; large industrial base; large urban area. Added to this are poverty and distressful living conditions, high overall barriers to entry, and competition and product pressures. Not one of the twenty characteristics can be shown to be a supportive environment characteristic for First Nation on-reserve entrepreneurship. Conversely stated, twenty of twenty environment characteristics are not conducive to new venture creation on-reserve. When we compare Gartner’s characteristics from a First Nation that has had exceptional economic success and strong entrepreneurship development, such as Westbank First Nation (see Table 4), versus the typical First Nation conditions as per Table 3, the differences are readily evident. Most, if not all, of the conditions for entrepreneurship are much better in Westbank First Nation than the typical Canadian First Nation community.

Given the sum of challenging conditions and barriers to entrepreneurship presented in the literature, with only a limited number of community exceptions, it is concluded that the existing environment characteristics in First Nation communities are overall poorly supportive of new venture creation and small business entrepreneurship.

(b) Benefits of First Nation Entrepreneurship . Recognizing that the environment conditions are very challenging for entrepreneurial development in First Nation communities, and the number of small businesses operating in these communities has been relatively small, we ask the question: exactly what makes it so important to see new entrepreneurial ventures start-up, develop and hopefully flourish in communities against such difficult odds? We look again to the literature to understand what the significance and importance of First Nation entrepreneurship to these communities. Twelve aspects, or factors, of importance were identified:

i. Community Employment. Employment on-reserve will be boosted by an increase in small business opportunities. Citizen-owned enterprises are important contributors to employment generation (Cornell, Record, Jorgensen, & Timeche, 2007). For example, approximately 50% of job creation in the United States is from firms with less than 20 employees and are described as veritable “job generators” (Cornell, 2006). This is particularly important since American Indians unemployment rates range from 20% to 80% (Miller, 2012), while in Canada, First Nations living on-reserve have an unemployment rate of 51.8% (Canadian Council for Aboriginal Business, 2016). Small business is a robust job performer in mainstream Canadian society and would be a significant contributor to Aboriginal employment. In 2011 15.4% of all workers employed in Canada’s economy were self-employed, totaling 2.6 million individuals. During this same period, self-employed worker numbers grew 13.3 % more than the overall labor force grew (Innovation, Science and Economic Development, 2012). Assuming this growth differential continues as a trend with First Nations, small business will increasingly impact their economic development by adding further employment and increasing community empowerment.

ii. Quality of life; and iii. Increased Choices. Increasing entrepreneurship will add to the quality of life on-reserve for individuals and families. Additional employment, economic opportunity, and income growth will mean greater resource access and comfort for on-reserve families. Augmentation of life choices, healthy activities, and consumer options through entrepreneurship will reduce travel expense (Cornell, Jorgensen, Record & Timeche, 2007), help to alleviate poverty, and improve and support psychological well-being, hope, and confidence into the future with the knowledge that more livelihood choices, opportunities, and options exist. The Registered Indian and Inuit Human Development Index (HDI) is an example of an available tool that could quantify and capture life quality improvements. A counterpart to the Community Well-Being Index (CWB), the HDI is calculated by Indian and Northern Affairs Canada (INAC) and serves to provide a comparison rate of the well-being averages of Inuit and Registered Indians with other Canadians (Cooke, 2013). The HDI is formulated and based on the United Nations Human Development Index, and scores and measures quality of life for more than 170 countries permitting statistical international comparisons (Indigenous and Northern Affairs Canada, 2016). With increased entrepreneurship and economic activity comes the opportunity to produce more “living wages”. Living wage refers to the minimum income required for a worker to meet their basic needs (Living Wage Action Coalition, 2016). Living Wage Canada, an Non-Government Organization (NGO) outlines the benefits of living wages: the promotion of social inclusion; increased assurance that families will not experience severe financial stress; promotion and support of principles for healthy child development; engenderment of a wide range of community supports (Living Wage Canada, 2016). These desirable outcomes resulting from First Nation entrepreneurship are in line with First Nation principles of provision and reinforcement of support for children, families, community and society.

iv. Economic “Multiplier Effect”: The multiplier effect refers to an increasing economic impact that takes place as a result of new net expenditures introduced into a given economy. The effect, originally conceptualized, systemized and documented by Quesnay (Quesnay, 1758) likely existed further back in time, including in Indigenous economies. Later economists further developed the concept, including Samuelson in his seminal works (Samuelson, 1939, 1962). He coined the phrase “multiplier-accelerator model” which came to be reduced to “multiplier effect”. In the context of American reservations, the model was described by Miller (2012) as when money “circulates and recirculates throughout a local economy and community many times before it is spent elsewhere. Economists call it leakage when money is spent outside the local economy. The multiplier effect and the re-spending of the same dollar in the local community can only occur if there are a sufficient number of businesses available locally where money can be spent on the necessities and luxuries of life.” The creation and growth of First Nation entrepreneurship is one way to initiate and produce the momentum for multiplier effects on-reserve. Successful small business private entrepreneurship start-ups encourage the multiple circulation of money, and limited the loss associated by financial “leakage” from communities. Overall, multiplier effects will also be an element contributing towards increases in reservation wealth.

v. Reservation Wealth: Growth in overall reservation wealth is connected to economic diversification (Cornell, Jorgensen, Record & Timeche, 2007; Miller, 2012). Miller cites two noteworthy examples. First, the Eastern Shawnee Tribe of Oklahama who successfully developed a diverse economy of over $100 million in investments by 2009 after beginning, over twenty years earlier, with only $4,564 in total tribal funds. Second, the Hoopa Valley Tribe of northern California doubled their budget in 2009 from ten years previously with the growth of tribal businesses into a private business economy of farming, fishing, cafes, cleaning, supply stores, nurseries, banking institutions, and a smoke shop. Cornell, Jorgensen, Record & Timeche explained that wages and profits typically stay on-reservation as the private businesses started up are usually community members, and the same entrepreneurs can be expected to re-invest profits to maintain and expand their enterprises.

vi. Economic Diversification: The importance and value of future opportunities for First Nation economic diversification was explained by Weir (Weir, 2007): “There is plenty of room for growth and diversification of Aboriginal small business initiatives and activities. This is especially true for those entrepreneurs that have experienced success in their small business activities, and have developed connections to finance, capital, and government/corporate support and programs. Many Aboriginal entrepreneurs are beginning to look at new markets and opportunities that exist outside of their local communities.” Weir recommended: (a) there be increasing support for Aboriginal entrepreneurs, especially women, youth and individuals in remote settings; (b) more creative diversification for Aboriginal businesses to find and take advantage of opportunities in sectors and areas where corporate and governmental initiatives are typically not found, one example being correction and other penitentiary services.

The importance of economic diversification for Canadian First Nations is becoming increasingly evident (Tulk, 2013). In 2010 Membertou First Nation in Nova Scotia opened their Membertou Business Centre, which soon after provided one hundred jobs, and established a business facility with six incubator units to encourage First Nation start-ups. A key objective of the Centre was to support community-led economic diversification in the rural Mi’kmaq First Nation communities. (Nova Scotia Canada, 2010). The Membertou First Nation and other First Nation community experiences are discussed in more detail later in the thesis. A second example is the Saskatchewan First Nations Economic Development Network set in motion, beginning in 2012, by several First Nations in that Canadian province. In the spring of 2016, the Network hosted a forum titled “Economic Diversification: Innovation, Sustainability and Growth” (Saskatchewan First Nations Economic Development Network, 2016). Federation of Saskatchewan Vice Chief Robert Merasty indicated that the diversification forum was initiated and developed for the purpose of job creation, wealth, and improvement of quality of life for First Nation communities (Willick, 2016).

vii. Potential Tax Base; and viii. Self-reliance: Indigenous tax base propositions have been recommended in North America. In United States, tribal-small business entrepreneurship could provide revenue sources for government operations and community infrastructure via a taxation mandate (Cornell, 2006; Cornell, Jorgensen, Record & Timeche, 2007). American reservation businesses make use of community roads, services, and various utilities provided by education, social, justice and other departments, therefore a modest sales or gross-receipt tax formula would be a worthwhile consideration and help to increase community self-reliance. As well, if Tribal governments were to support and encourage small business entrepreneurship a win-win-win situation would develop: communities would gain better infrastructure and greater goods and services options; families and individuals would gain increased employment and economic opportunities; local government revenues would improve.

In Canada, First Nation on-reserve citizen-owned businesses could contribute revenues directly to benefit First Nation communities via leasing, taxation, and user fees (Gallagher & Selman, 2015). Regarding the taxation powers of First Nation governments, Indigenous and Northern Affairs Canada stated: “Taxation is a characteristic feature of modern governments and the exercise of tax powers enhances Aboriginal self-government. Constituents of Aboriginal governments tend to be more interested in the expenditure decisions of their governments when expenditures involve locally generated revenues like tax rather than transfer revenues from other levels of government. Taxing governments tend to be more concerned about making the best possible expenditure decisions on behalf of their constituents. The exercise of tax powers is also an important means for Aboriginal governments to generate their own, independent, revenues. Aboriginal government tax revenues are not federal transfer funds or "Indian monies" under the Indian Act. Accordingly, Aboriginal governments have wide discretion to apply tax revenues to their own priorities.” (Indigenous and Northern Affairs, 2014).

While the percentage of First Nations instituting taxation mandates in their communities is relatively few, for more than twenty years laws capable of imposing direct taxes have been enacted by some First Nation governments in Canada, both within and outside of reserves and settlement lands. The First Nations Fiscal Management Act (Justice Laws Website, 2015) and Indian Act (Justice Laws Website, 2016) have provisions for real property taxation bylaws. Other examples of taxation-enabling legislation include the First Nation Goods and Services Tax Act, and legislation from self-government agreements, lands claims, and modern treaties. Six types of taxes are available to Canadian First Nations. Out of 634 First Nations, numbers accessing each taxation type are:

· Real Property Tax (58 First Nations, or 9.1%);

· First Nations Goods and Services Tax (25 First Nations, or 4.0%);

· Self-Governing Agreements (22 First Nations, or 3.5%)

· Provincial-type Taxes (19 First Nations, or 3.0%);

· First Nations Personal Income Tax (14 First Nations, or 2.2%);

· First Nations Sales Tax (8 First Nations, or 1.3%)

((Indigenous and Northern Affairs Canada, 2014; Indigenous and Northern Affairs Canada, 2016).

ix. Population Retention; x. Skill/Human Capital Growth: Nearly two-thirds of American Indians do not reside on reservations (Miller, 2012). In Canada, a smaller proportion of First Nations

Table 5. Aspects Important to On-Reserve First Nation Entrepreneurship

people live on reserve than off reserve; From 1996 through to 2016, less than 50% of the total First Nation population in Canada lived on reserve (Statistics Canada, 2006; Roness, 2016). In United States nearly two-thirds of American Indians live outside of reservations. The flow of population from communities to off-reserve living can be attributed to several factors, including a lack of jobs, issues of affordability and resource options in order to build or purchase adequate housing. Private entrepreneurship has the capacity to fill both lower populations as well as the existing void in human capital in these communities; Members become be less likely to move off-reserve, and the push or draw to leave to live in larger centers in search of employment, financial opportunities, and greater consumer resources would lessen. Entrepreneurship growth, by increasing employment and job opportunities could be expected to encourage on-reserve population retention and add to First Nation on-reserve population bases. As well, community members who are skilled workers and have advanced education, university degrees, or specialized training could expect to find more job opportunities, including small business start-up, and other economic alternatives on-reserve. The retention of these skill bases would reduce the “brain drain” of human capital, which in turn would produce a growing momentum of business creativity and commercial possibilities in First Nation communities.

xi. Dependence Reduction and xii. First Nation sovereignty: Business growth, through entrepreneurship, would be beneficial to First Nations by way of: (a) dependency reduction on outside decision funders and decision makers; (b) serving more adequately the best interests of the communities, (c) strengthening sovereignty (Roness & Collier, 2010; Cornell, 2006; Cornell,

Jorgensen, Record & Timeche, 2007). Self-determination outcomes would result from economic activities such as entrepreneurship, overcoming the social vacuum issues that result from dependency related economic behaviors; Economic development is an important mechanism to attain Indigenous sovereignty and self-determination (Miller, 2012). The Harvard Project on American Indian Economic Development advocates small business tribal member ownership as a significant, emerging pillar of economic development, emphasizing the strong connection between these developments and self-governance (The Harvard Project on American Indian Economic Development, 2008). Munnings (2015) agrees that governance is an essential element for the economic development of First Nations’ people, and explains the differences between Canadian First Nations and American Indian Tribes, in this regard, as follows: “the rights of

First Nations comes in the form of self-government and is diminished by the legislation and case law of Canada. It is something that cannot fully exist, but it is something First Nations will continue to fight for, and which is reflected in decisions of the Supreme Court of Canada, including the most recent Tsilhqot’in Nation v. British Columbia (“Tsilhqot’in”) decision. He adds that despite these restrictions on sovereignty in Canada, First Nations still have the power to support their members to become entrepreneurs through opportunity creation and make laws that influence the private business operators to start-up, remain within or move onto First Nation land. The 1985 Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples (RCAP) linked political self-governance to Aboriginal business development and included the support and development and of Aboriginal-owned enterprises within their recommendations (Indigenous and Northern Affairs Canada, 1991). Other researchers agree that increasing First Nation small business

development is one of the important strategies and methods available to elevate community economic self-reliance and political self-governance (Weir, 2007; Calihoo & Bruno, 2016).

Summary: Benefits of First Nation Entrepreneurship . In Table 5 the thesis provides a summary of the twelve benefits of on-reserve entrepreneurship for First Nation communities with the corresponding literature sources, followed by Table 6 which sorts and realigns the twelve benefits into three broader categories. The categories are: (a) direct citizen benefit (employment, quality of life, increased choices, strengthened human skills/capital); (b) community prosperity (economic diversification, economic multiplier; population growth and retention, reservation wealth); (c) Nation building (dependence reduction, strengthened institutions, tax base and self-reliance, sovereignty). Table 5 helps distinguish the three interdependent, and mutually supporting and building, categories of beneficial results derived from First Nation entrepreneurship: individual – community – Nation. Each of these interconnected segments return later in the thesis, linked or related to aspects of the research processes to be undertaken. In conclusion, entrepreneurship is found to be of significance to First Nation communities for

reasons of benefits derived directly for citizens, increased community prosperity, and contributions and propensity towards Nation building.

Variable Four: Individual Motivations

There are many differences, characteristics and aspects among individual entrepreneurs, and no one type (Gartner, 2016). Since entrepreneurs are creators of new organizations, a primary question is, “how do organizations come into existence? (Gartner, 1988). The origins of the organizing process begin with the intentions, purposefulness and goals that entrepreneurial individual or individuals have in mind (Reynolds, 2007). Stated another way, the organization intentionality of entrepreneurial venture creation reflects the goals, purposes and motivations of the founding individuals (Katz & Gartner, 1988).

The concept of motivation is a key aspect of entrepreneurship. Researchers (Gartner, Bird and Starr, 1992) reviewed theories and concepts of motivation as they related to entrepreneurship and concluded that the motivations individuals hold for new venture creation are equivocal, just as the “nature” of organizational emergence itself is equivocal. They also surmised that the motivations for individuals to become entrepreneurs may differ from the reasons and motivations they continue as entrepreneurs.

Gartner’s (1985) A list of entrepreneurs’ individual traits and factors included the need for achievement, risk taking, job satisfaction, locus of control, plus the effects of an entrepreneur’s history, parental background, and work experience. There can be numerous other factors that influence entrepreneurs including financial security, a better quality of life, increasing self-esteem, dependence reduction, ending intergenerational family poverty, and benefiting community. Individual entrepreneur aspects, as Gartner explains, interact with other venture creation variables, such as the existing business environment, and the various processes used by different types of business organizations. Entrepreneurs’ goals and motivations are an important aspect of emerging and existing business organizations (Gartner, Bird, & Starr, 1992).

What goals motivate First Nation on-reserve entrepreneurs? Scarce research literature is found on Canadian First Nation small business entrepreneurs, including their goal-setting motivations. Aboriginal entrepreneurs are motivated by a desire for their businesses to expand, innovate and achieve profit (Canadian Council for Aboriginal Business, 2016b). Those whom saw their businesses as being very successful give credit to characteristics and aspects such as: hard work – 34%; a steady client base -19%; strong reputation - 16%; quality of work - 13%; demand for their product or service - 11% (Canadian Council for Aboriginal Business, 2016b); Success in First Nation country is not primarily profit based, but is also viewed in terms of legal and political jurisdiction derived from business enterprises, as well as the number of community members receiving employment (Smith, 2006). A greater emphasis may be placed on sharing among kin, and social value, as opposed to shareholder value and growth being the main goal of business (Wuttenee, 2004). In Australia, success in Indigenous entrepreneurship included the need for achievement, and the desire to provide for family (Foley, 2000). In United States a study on Wisconsin Indian entrepreneurs’ perceptions of success in establishing businesses looked for, and found, motivational factors such as the presence of entrepreneurial ideals, knowledge of business concepts, self-confidence, education, and positive family relationships (Erdmann, 2016). Studies on the effect of embeddedness values on motivations of social entrepreneurs in societies, groups, or cultures with higher embeddedness value levels were more oriented to group rewards and entrepreneurial activity for social outcomes (Arthaud-Day, Pathak, & Muralidharan, 2016; Schwartz, 2006; Morris, Avila, & Allen, 1993). Nikolaskis (2009) looked at Indigenous Australian meanings of business success and explained enterprise development as both a process and objective for a range of socio-economic outcomes where success varied from providing for family to looking after one’s community. The study also pointed out that tensions exist between commercial and social outcomes in Indigenous enterprises. Foley (2000) found that there was a range of broad mixed Indigenous social and commercial objectives that could be financed through enterprise revenues.

In order to further understand and contemplate the goals and motivations of First Nation on-reserve entrepreneurs, the thesis recommends undertaking a second literature review on two population segments from similar challenging environments as First Nations’ entrepreneurs: (a) economically disadvantaged communities that have initiated poverty alleviation models based on entrepreneurship since economic disadvantage is an experience common to First Nation communities; (b) other Indigenous entrepreneurs from differing regions of the world that have engaged entrepreneurship initiatives since this may provide clues, or transferable knowledge regarding First Nations who are also one of Indigenous Peoples. The hope is that these reviews will lead to themes furthering the understanding of the motivations of Canadian First Nation entrepreneurs, as well as contribute towards the research design of this study.

Conclusions.

1. There is very little information available regarding First Nation entrepreneurship, and no question that an overall void exists in the research literature on Indigenous entrepreneurship, business and economic development (Kennedy, Harrington, Verbos, Stewart, Gladstone and Clarkson, 2017). An overall knowledge gap continues to exist for Aboriginal business data (Canadian Council for Aboriginal Business, 2011, 2016b).

2. First Nation entrepreneurial ventures are increasing rapidly (Canadian Council for Aboriginal Business, 2016b; Clarkson, 2017). While these ventures may be assumed or found embedded in, connected to, and derived from larger scale economic development initiatives of specific First Nation communities, their presence, role and importance has not been widely evident in the literature.

3. Little or no research exists regarding First Nation small business new venture creation processes, or business development stages.

4. First Nation entrepreneurs experience an especially difficult and challenging business environment, and much of the literature that does exist focuses on this aspect.

5. In the face of these challenges, First Nation entrepreneurship remains an important element and opportunity for Indigenous community economic development by way of direct citizen benefit, community wealth generation, and Nation building.

6. It remains unclear what the goals and motivations for First Nation new venture creation are. The various aspects and characteristics of First Nation entrepreneurship are difficult to analyze and understand using traditional system of metrics and definition (Canadian Council for Aboriginal Business, 2016b)

7. A second literature review is recommended on two population segments from similar challenging environments as First Nations’ entrepreneurs: (a) economically disadvantaged communities that have initiated poverty alleviation models based on entrepreneurship; (b) other Indigenous entrepreneurs from differing regions of the world that have engaged entrepreneurship initiatives.

Postface.

1. Gartner’s paradigms and terminology: (a) “Four Variable Framework for Describing New Venture Emergence” (Gartner, 1985, 2016; Gartner, Mitchell, & Vesper, 1989; Katz & Gartner, 1988); (b) “Organizational Emergence Model” (Gartner, Bird, & Starr, 1992; Gartner, 1993; Gartner & Brush, 2007); (c) “Cycles of Entrepreneurial Activity” (Gartner, 1993) were found to be effective tools for the review and explication of First Nation entrepreneurship (Literature Review One). Likewise, “Goal Setting Theory of Motivation” (Locke & Latham, 1984, 1990, 1991) was also an effective model in understanding aspects of First Nation entrepreneurship. The models and their terminologies will continue to be used in this thesis.

2. Having determined a paucity of literature available on First Nation entrepreneurship and identified gaps in research (Literature Review 1), further literature reviews in related areas are recommended for potential collateral, transferable information to add to what knowledge is available. Reviews of entrepreneurial motivations with two population subsets that have business context and background similarities with First Nation entrepreneurs (i.e. “challenged environments”) will be undertaken in Chapter Four (Literature Review 2): (a) entrepreneurial based poverty alleviation models (Subset 1); (b) other Indigenous (outside of Canada) entrepreneurship approaches (Subset 2).

Literature Review 2.

Entrepreneurial Motivation in Challenged Environments

Subset 1. Entrepreneurship & Poverty Alleviation Motivations

Ten studies on community entrepreneurial poverty alleviation models are first summarized, and then compared in terms of goal-setting motivations.

The CBE model generates several questions in relation to First Nations. Did successful on-reserve entrepreneurs begin their enterprises under the umbrellas of CBE? Do CBEs in First Nation communities motivate small business on-reserve entrepreneurs to create their start-ups? Do they influence attitudes and perceptions about entrepreneurship? Was infrastructure improved as a result of CBE creation, and did this in turn elevate the motivation of entrepreneurs towards start-up? .What effect does the desire for social change and economic community development have on First Nation entrepreneurs?

Hjorth placed a greater emphasis on the desire for social change, and a reduced focus on economic ends for community entrepreneurs. In this way, the model is differentiated from “social entrepreneurship” as it intensifies the sociality creating aspect and is moved further away from what was described as “entrepreneurial discourse” (i.e. managerial expertise, economic efficiency, competition) to a more balanced approach of the two perspectives. Hjorth was concerned that the social aspect has been pushed back to a minimum owing to the increasing focus on individual entrepreneurial achievement in society being “managerialized” and made governable, and a consequent “crumbling relational ethics, a withering sociality and a more vague connection between belonging and becoming”. Entrepreneurship should not be reduced to value only in an economic sense but be a creative social force energized by affect, desire and intensification of relations among community individuals whose combined actions lead to positive public change. The public entrepreneurship framework presents the desire for social change and new forms of positive community sociality that come with entrepreneurial initiatives for economic ends.

Public entrepreneurship, with its increased emphasis on social change while achieving economic development, may serve as inspiration or motivation for First Nation entrepreneurs. This leads to the question, what is the desire and the motivation for social change and economic community development among First Nation entrepreneurs?

Self-employment opportunities, such as those in poverty conditions supported through micro-financing, arise in response to competitive imperfections but have a reduced impact on economic growth owing to limited community market supply, replication issues (easily duplicated small businesses), and being nonscalable. Discovery opportunities, on the other hand, are created from exogenous impacts and shocks (i.e. changes in technology, demographics, or policies) to a market or an industry, and are scalable. Entrepreneurs engaged in discovery opportunities become aware or “discover” the opportunity before others exploit it. They respond rapidly before competitive imitation sets in to eat away profitable gains, erect barriers to reduce duplication, and maintain sustainable advantages wherever possible. However, in poor communities discovery opportunity success is very difficult and costly, then ultimately easily replicated. Creation opportunities are “evolutionary”; the entrepreneurial process is one of experimenting and learning, and as knowledge is gained business opportunities emerge or develop, resulting in new knowledge, which in turn creates new opportunities. Co-creation of opportunities takes place when the entrepreneur, consumers and other stakeholders process and determine opportunities and markets together, and then the entrepreneur captures as much of the value as possible. While entrepreneurial discovery and creation opportunities hold the greatest potential for materially disadvantaged communities (including many First Nations) as opposed to the easily replicated self-employment opportunities, they require the elements that are largely missing- human capital (productive knowledge, skills and ability), financial capital (funds for business start-up and development), and property rights (institutional protection).

An understanding of opportunity typology regarding successful First Nation community entrepreneurs could be valuable towards future on-reserve small business development. It would also be interesting to know, (a) how successful any self-employment micro-financing programs have fared in comparison to entrepreneurial start-ups engaged in discovery, creation or co-creation opportunities; (b) Do successful First Nation entrepreneurs engage in self-employment (micro-financing), discovery, creation, or co-creation opportunities, and what motivates them to do so?

i. Social Enterprise was defined as the “process of identifying, evaluating and exploiting opportunities aiming as social value creation by means of commercial market-based activities and of the use of a wider range of resources”. The social entrepreneur was explained as “a visionary individual, who main objective is to create social value, able at one and the same time to detect and exploit opportunities, to leverage resources necessary to his/her social mission and to find innovative solutions to social problems of his/her community that are not properly met by the local system. This will make him/her adopt an entrepreneurial behavior”.

ii. Social Innovation. Bacq and Janssen also refer to social entrepreneurs as social value creators, who in the process of undertaking social missions and community problem solving adopt entrepreneurial behaviors. The most challenging definition was social entrepreneurship organization; Bacq and Janssen suggested instead a replacement term “social entrepreneurial venture (SEV)” in order to better distinguish social enterprises from social entrepreneurship organizations. To be an SEV, three criteria had to be met: (a) an explicit and central social mission initiated by citizens either in groups or individually; (b) the commercial orientation must be consistent with the social mission, and have continuous productivity generating earned income; (c) are not defined by their legal framework (i.e. social entrepreneurship can be found in both private for-profit and public sectors.

iii. Emergence of Social Enterprises in Europe. Bacq and Janssen concluded that the central definitional concern was the tension existing between market requirements and the social mission. Given that there is considerable overlap between social entrepreneurs and their commercial counterparts, there is concern about how this “double line” could be managed. They suggested that the role of governance structures should be researched in managing these tensions, a topic particularly relevant to Indigenous people. The definitions offered in this study would appear to be helpful towards future research on social entrepreneurship’s influence on First Nation entrepreneurs.

Founder identity can serve as an applicable platform for First Nation entrepreneurial research: are on-reserve First Nation entrepreneurs motivated by economic self-interest, communitarian aspects, or political causes? At this point, however, it is important to point out that there exists discourse and terms within the founder model that would be inappropriate to First Nations. For example, “Darwinian” is obviously incompatible with the commonly used cultural term of “creator”, while “missionary” regrettably harkens back to colonization, Residential School and the abuses often suffered by First Nation people from missionaries. A more appropriate typology for Indigenous people, specifically First Nation, might be “Business Founder”, “Social Founder”; “Nation Builder”. The Western world’s need to isolate variables in research through typologies is

Table 7. Community Poverty Alleviation Model and Entrepreneurship Goals/Processes

also a challenge to the “holistic” concept extant in First Nation country. First Nation elder and author E. Richard Atleo (2004) states “the need to focus on isolated variables automatically obscures any assumption about the general nature of inter-relationships and connections”. So, from this perspective it is appropriate to First Nations research that Fauchart and Gruber include, as an extra typology, “hybrid” identity, characterized by a combination of founder meanings. Consequently, a suggestion may be to add a fourth founder identity term to support the inter-relational aspects into the typology, such as “Combination Founder”.

The founder identity model also leads us to inquire: how do First Nation on-reserve entrepreneurs see themselves? What is their self-concept? What is their founder identities? What are their beliefs, values, thoughts, feelings, motivations and actions in relation to small firm creation? How is their social identity linked to entrepreneurship desires, decisions, and actions?

Outcomes. Ten studies of community models for entrepreneurship and poverty alleviation in economically disadvantaged communities were reviewed. The specific goals for each model of entrepreneurship and poverty alleviation were identified. In economically disadvantaged communities the goals were found not to be solely financially orientated: a total of four goal-setting motivations were identified: autonomous profit-based goals (financial); social mission-communitarian goals; political-institutional change motives; collective entrepreneurship purposes. The four goals were then individually described within each of the ten poverty alleviation models by assigning a level of importance relative to the study’s perspective: very important; important; less important; not important (see table 7).

It was determined that:

(a) Six of the ten poverty alleviation models had profit-based goals as either important or very important.

(b) Ten of ten poverty alleviation models had social mission goals as important or very important.

Figure 1 Importance value comparison: Combined scores of goal-setting motivations of ten

economically disadvantaged community initiatives (importance score out of 30 )

(c) Three of nine (plus one unknown) poverty alleviation models had political-institutional goals as important or very important.

(d) Five of ten poverty alleviation models had collective entrepreneurship as important or very important to the poverty alleviation process.

Two new themes result: (a) political institutional change appears as the least important aspect from the poverty alleviation models; (b) while there is a variety of different poverty alleviation models, and regardless of the model’s framework, the communitarian social mission, doing social good, is the most important aspect, and the only aspect common to all paradigms for poverty alleviation.

Figure 1 provides an alternative perspective on the goals of entrepreneurship in economically disadvantaged communities. The four goals (profit; social mission; political/institutional change, collective entrepreneurship) were allotted quantitative values in this thesis according to the importance described within each model, then each goal totaled from all models combined. A higher number represents a higher importance for each entrepreneurship goal. The maximum score possible is 27 (9 models x 3). Scoring was allotted from 0 to 3 (Very Important = 3; Important = 2; Less important = 1; Not Important = 0). The bar graph in Table 5 illustrates the results and demonstrates that community social good (achieving social mission- communitarian) is the most important goal (28 out of 30) for economically disadvantaged communities, then autonomous profit-based (18 out of 30), followed closely by collective entrepreneurship (16 out of 30), then political-institutional change (14 out of 30). This quantitative comparison produces the same outcome as per Table 4: achieving community social good (social mission) is seen as the most important goal for poverty alleviation models in economically disadvantaged communities.

What does this section of the literature review on poverty alleviation models tell us about the individual motivations of First Nation entrepreneurs? Returning to our definition of motivation, “an individual’s inner or social stimulus for an action”, the findings suggest the four ranked goals and purposes for poverty alleviation models may also serve as stimuli motivating entrepreneurial actions in First Nation communities. Since First Nation communities, like the models that were reviewed, are often economically disadvantaged these four goals and motivations will be considered as potential goal-setting motivations in this thesis for First Nation small business.

Subset 2: Indigenous Entrepreneurial Approaches

We now examine research on five Indigenous entrepreneurial approaches initiated in eight different parts of the world outside of Canada. This literature review will provide a second perspective to go with the poverty alleviation findings on individual goal-setting motivations towards adding further insight into understanding First Nation entrepreneurs.

a. Indigenous Australian Entrepreneurs: Examining Success . Foley (2003) researched eighteen successful Indigenous urban Australian Entrepreneurs in order to understand their paradigm of success, their attributes and commonalities, and their differences from mainstream Australian entrepreneurs. He stressed the importance of acknowledging the Indigenous Australian entrepreneur’s social and economic conditions in defining who they are: “The Indigenous Australian entrepreneur alters traditional patterns of behavior, by utilizing resources in the pursuit of self-determination and economic sustainability via entry into self-employment, forcing social change in the pursuit of opportunity beyond the cultural norms of initial economic resources”. The study also recognized the general poverty levels Indigenous communities experienced, and the limited access to resources for enterprise start-ups.

The research found that “success” for Indigenous entrepreneurs had less to do with motivation for financial achievement than that of non-Indigenous entrepreneurs. Not one interviewee measured success in terms of dollars or asset accumulation; In fact, a reluctance to discuss financial gains was a consequence of cultural values that would put them “above” their community peers. Success was not seen in the non-Indigenous context of what one has in profits at the end of the day as this would be seen a loss of Aboriginal values. They felt guilt about not sharing the business profits with family and community when it needed to be reinvested in the business, as it conflicted with their cultural beliefs of sharing wealth. A dominating motivational factor for the Indigenous entrepreneur was the desire to correct negative social perceptions and social stratification as a result of race. Foley determined seven common attributes of the Indigenous Australian entrepreneur: positivity (to business, family and life); face (projected image of both their business accountability and their cultural role modeling towards the wider community); chaos (market conditions and resource mobilization factors seen as opportunities); education and industry experience; networking (community ties and connections); immediate family (need to provide); discrimination (outside and inside of their own community). Social and cultural capital were regarded as partners for the promotion of Indigenous entrepreneurship, particularly given the communities were often locked out of external, mainstream society network. Foley also noted that care should be taken when considering the generalization of research results to other Indigenous populations “as Indigenous groups differ not only from country to country (race to race), they may also differ within their own country due to a plethora of reasons”.

c. Indigenous Entrepreneurship, Culture and Micro-enterprise. Like many Canadian First Nation communities, Samoan people, particularly in rural areas, have insufficient, little or no employment opportunities, and the small business sector is underdeveloped and very small. As well, both experience conditions of poverty, and have limited fina6ncial access and are unable to utilize land as security given their respective land ownership systems. The economic activities of these and other Indigenous societies are imbedded in social and cultural aspects, typically community-oriented. Cahn (2008) studied Pacific Island Samoan micro-entrepreneurial operations (fine mat weavers and cooperatives of coconut oil producers) and their interwovenness with the Samoan way of life and culture (fa’aSamoa); Fa’aSamoa incorporates aspects of social embeddedness, including the importance of personal relationships, reciprocity

Table 8. Motivations of Indigenous Entrepreneurs

and exchange. In her study, the small businesses (five or less employees) were supported by urban based (non-local) external structures (NGOs). Cahn (2008) defined micro-enterprise broadly as “small income earning ventures that are managed and operated by the owner, often with the help of his or her family. Micro-enterprise is a livelihood strategy that, if successful and sustainable, can achieve the livelihood outcomes of the micro-entrepreneurs and their families”. Cahn’s research demonstrated that fa’aSamoa was a motivating factor, and an important asset, enhancing entrepreneurial activity. Furthermore, financial success and sustainability of the micro-enterprises was significantly affected by how well the entrepreneurial operations blended with social and cultural aspects. While financial outcomes were important to all the entrepreneurs, equal importance was given to the development of social and cultural capital,

through the active engagement and expression of fa’aSamoa values. This brings us to again inquire how social and cultural capital may influence small business entrepreneurship in First Nation communities.

d. Social Capital, Networking and Indigenous Entrepreneurs. Foley and O’Connor (2013) investigated the social capital and networking practices of three different Indigenous entrepreneur groups (Australian Aboriginal, Māori, and native Hawaiians) operating in business as minorities within dominant, urban, mainstream cultural settings. They found that: (a) Australian Aboriginal entrepreneurs had reduced social capital and needed to use “bridging” (networking to dominant culture) forms to facilitate business; (b) Native Hawaiians had distinct separations between social and business networks, and a predominately bonding (networking within their own culture group) form; (c) Māori networking was diverse with a solid cultural and social capital base engaged in both bonding and bridging activities. Although the context of the study was urban, mainstream non-

Indigenous settings, and not local Indigenous communities, there appears to be transferable knowledge. First, the researchers point out that there is a relatively low number of Indigenous entrepreneurs (as with Canadian First Nations) and that a specialized methodology was required to identify and confirm participation, so recommended and followed a qualitative approach. Second, they provide a useful definition of social capital for Indigenous people as, “the actual and potential resources embedded both within and available through their own socio-cultural networks that to a large degree are determined by their experience of colonization and the contemporary socio-cultural environment within the dominant society, as well as their ability to function outside of or within structures of cultural oppression often born of negative stereotypes”. Foley and O’Connor note the definition contrasts with the more scholarly definitions of social capital as “investment in social relations with expected returns in the marketplace” (Lin, 2001), and “the stock of resources for entrepreneurship perceived available to an individual through the strength of normative and structural ties within a group”.

e. Australian Indigenous Entrepreneurship: Motivations and Constraints . Shoebridge and Buultjens (2012) found similar promoters and barriers for Australian Indigenous Entrepreneurs as those identified for Indigenous North America. Constraints included poor education, restricted land access, limited financial resources, and geographical remoteness. Although there is a long history of commercial activity with Australian Indigenous people, the differences between Western capitalist values and strong Indigenous cultural values could pose obstacles, although Dockery (2010) suggested that traditional Indigenous culture should be regarded a contributor and influencing factor to overcoming economic disadvantage, rather than a problem. Employing

Figure 2 Importance value comparison: Combined scores of goal-setting motivations of

Indigenous community entrepreneurial initiatives (importance score out of 24 )

other Indigenous persons was as important to Indigenous entrepreneurs as business success. Other motivators noted by Shoebridge and Peterson included providing for family, being a role model, empowerment and self-determination of Indigenous people, the influence of mentors, strong leadership, development of social capital, and good corporate governance. Other factors that facilitated Indigenous entrepreneurship included the motivation to learn, hard work, desire to provide for family, personal drive and positivity. It is noted that the entrepreneurs in this study were from relatively privileged backgrounds, with high levels of education, strong family support and exposure to business experienced role models.

The researchers concluded that the profit motive for these entrepreneurs was as strong as, if not stronger then, the motive to generate employment opportunities for other Indigenous people. Shoebridge and Buultejens also pointed out that government assistance programs were important

to promote Indigenous small business and entrepreneurship but needed to be simplified and more accessible. Finally, they pointed to the importance of access to mentoring, and the value of Indigenous business hubs to permit sharing of management, legal, and financial services. Do similar motivations and effects exist with First Nation entrepreneurs?

Community Contributions of Indigenous Small Businesses in Australia. Collins, Morrison, Krivokapic-Skoko, Butler and Basu (2016) researched Indigenous private and community-owned enterprises in primarily micro and small businesses across Australia. (urban, regional and remote areas). While the study did not specifically target motivators for small business start-up and development, it does provide clues on entrepreneurs social behavior when we examine the community engagement and network activities of privately owned enterprises: it strongly suggests the importance of social networking to the entrepreneurs: 54% sponsored a local sports team or cultural event; 56% frequently provided free advice or support to others; 62% sought to employ Indigenous people; 67% volunteered for community services; 89% acted as a positive role model for young people in the community. The researchers also found that “customary obligations and practices (i.e. hunting, gathering and fishing) had only a marginal impact on their businesses…the market was the major factor shaping enterprise activity and success. This is not to say that Indigenous culture is not relevant to the dynamics of Indigenous private enterprises or to the lives of Indigenous entrepreneurs”.

Outcomes. The literature reviewed on Indigenous entrepreneurship presented four primary individual motivators: (a) the impetus and employment of social networking capital; (b) the effect and role of traditional cultural capital; (c) the desire for financial achievement; (d) the calling or aspiration to accomplish community social good or social mission. How important, by way of relative ranking, are each of these motivators to Indigenous entrepreneurs? In Table 8, results are shown for each of the four variables in terms of qualitative values (very important, important, less important, not important) according to the importance value assessed in each of the different studies. If qualitative data is not available or discernable, then the table shows “unknown”. Figure 2 then summarizes each of these variables quantitatively in terms of “very important” (value of 3), “important” (value of 2), “less important” (value of 1), “not important” (value of 0), or “unknown” (no value assignable), and provides totals for comparison.

Financial achievement ranks first in importance (17 out of 24), followed by traditional cultural value (16 out of 24), then Social Networking Capital at 13 out of 24). Social Mission-Community Good was not ranked relative to the other variables as only one value out of eight was determinable, scoring 3 out of 3, since there was only one study targeting this aspect.

The motivators for Indigenous entrepreneurs outside of Canada may be like the motivators for First Nation entrepreneurs: social networking capital; traditional cultural capital; financial gain. The social mission purpose and motivator was less studied, so remains unknown for Indigenous entrepreneurs, including First Nations.

Conclusions

Findings. The two literature reviews of this chapter indicate:

(a) Poverty alleviation models in economically disadvantaged communities are driven by four purposes, goals and motivations, listed in order of importance: i. accomplishment of community social good; ii. attainment of autonomous profit-based ends; iii. assemblage of collective entrepreneurship; iv. achievement of political change. Some, none, or all, of these goals are potential motivators of First Nation entrepreneurs, given that First Nation entrepreneurs also create, organize and operate businesses in economically disadvantaged communities.

(b) Indigenous entrepreneurs outside of Canada are motivated by, in order of importance, the advancement of: i. financial gain; ii. traditional cultural capital; iii. social networking capital. A fourth aspect was identified, accomplishing social mission and doing community good, but only one study was available on this aspect, although it did identify the element as important. Some, none, or all these entrepreneurial motivations may be the same or similar for the Indigenous group examined in this thesis- First Nation entrepreneurs.

(c) When combining poverty alleviation models and Indigenous entrepreneur research from outside of Canada, six different entrepreneurship motivators result. Two motivators were common to each literature review, financial gain and social entrepreneurship (although the latter was more limited in Indigenous research). The four remaining motivators were: (a) increasing traditional cultural capital; (b) increasing social networking capital; (c) achieving political change; (d) entering and accomplishing collective entrepreneurship.

Chapter Four Collateral Information: Filling the Knowledge Gap from Chapter Three

In Chapter Three (Literature Review 1) we determined a knowledge gap exists regarding First Nation entrepreneurship (i.e. what are the motivators of First Nation entrepreneurs in new venture creation?). In Chapter Four (Literature Review 2) collateral information was found from poverty alleviation models and Indigenous entrepreneurship paradigms to fill in the knowledge gap by identifying potential motivators applicable to the individual motivations of First Nation entrepreneurs undertaking new venture creation, including the relative importance of six possible goal-setting motivations: (i) financial gain; (ii) social mission and social good ends; (iii) participation in collective entrepreneurship; (iv) political change, including Nation building; (v) traditional cultural capital; (vi) social networking capital. As well Chapter also determined another knowledge gap exists in terms of understanding social entrepreneurship as a business model in First Nation entrepreneurship.

Thesis Progress.

Through the first four chapters the thesis has: (a) determined pragmatic models and terms for the study of entrepreneurship (Chapter Two); (b) found these paradigms and terms to be effective in describing and understanding First Nation entrepreneurship (Chapter Three); (c) reviewed the literature on First Nation entrepreneurship and found it lacking and with an identifiable gap in knowledge regarding motivations of First Nation entrepreneurs (Chapter Three); (d) identified collateral information (motivators) providing information to fill in this identified gap (Chapter Four) that subsequently generates four research questions (see beneath) for research in Chapter Five.

Research Questions and Next Steps.

Chapter Four generates four research questions for the thesis’s next steps: Chapter Five’s study (Research 1) on First Nation entrepreneurial motivations for new venture creation:

1. What are the individual goal-setting motivations among First Nation entrepreneurs and what are the motivation differences in new venture creation phases: (a) prelaunch (emergence); (b) postlaunch (newness, less than 24 months of business operation); (c) postlaunch (newness, 24 months or more of business operation)?

2. How do First Nation on-reserve entrepreneurs prioritize individual goal-setting motivations in each of the creation phases?

3. What can we learn about the role of social entrepreneurship as a goal-setting motivation for First Nation on-reserve entrepreneurs?

4. To what extent are on-reserve First Nation entrepreneurs’ perceptions of their goal-setting motivations differ from their perceptions of mainstream Canadian dominant society entrepreneurs’ motivations?

CHAPTER FIVE

Research 1:

Motivational Drivers of First Nation Entrepreneurs.

Preface. Chapter Five researches First Nation entrepreneurship as a follow-up to findings, knowledge gaps and results from the two literature reviews of Chapter Three and Four. In Chapter Four, six entrepreneurial motivations and drivers were found rooted in community poverty alleviation models and Indigenous entrepreneurship from outside of Canada. This finding provided collateral information for the thesis research given that First Nations are also Indigenous peoples and similarly their First Nation communities experience economic disadvantages. The six potential goal-setting motivations of First Nation entrepreneurs are examined in the present chapter’s research on new venture creation, as is the role of social entrepreneurship. The research questions determined at the end of Chapter Four are now tested in a mixed method study in Chapter Five to see: (a) if they apply to First Nation entrepreneurs, and how they are ranked; (b) how First Nation entrepreneur motivations may change through three business stages (Prelaunch; Postlaunch < 2 Years; Postlaunch > 2 Years); (c) the role of social entrepreneurship in First Nation communities; (d) a comparison, as perceived by First Nation entrepreneurs, of their own motivations and mainstream society entrepreneurial motivations.

Research Development and Design:

Foundation. The research design employs on Gartner’s Four Variable Framework, his Model of Organizational Emergence, and literature reviews of (a) First Nation on-reserve entrepreneurship; (c) entrepreneurship and goal motivations in community poverty alleviation models; (d) individual motivations of Indigenous entrepreneurs outside of Canada. Gartner’s frameworks were selected as they furnish appropriate schemas and terminology for usage and framing of the literature reviews, as well as discourse for the aspects of the research methodology. The literature review of Canadian First Nation on-reserve entrepreneurs showed that although there is limited research available, it is evident many First Nations are economically disadvantaged, and small business growth, despite very challenging environments, is an important player for community economic development. The reviews of entrepreneurial motivations in the contexts of ten poverty alleviation models, as well as eight Indigenous communities, was undertaken in the search for comparative and transferable knowledge to First Nation entrepreneurs, as these entrepreneurs typically also operate in economically disadvantaged communities, and likewise are Indigenous people.

Six conclusions, two research gaps, and four research questions resulted from the literature reviews. These will guide the research design and development, including the formulation of research propositions and research variables.

Theoretical Propositions. The initial research propositions are:

Proposition One: The goal-setting motivations of First Nation on-reserve entrepreneurs in each new venture creation stage will be:

(a) “prelaunch”: i. financial gain, ii. traditional cultural capital, iii. social networking capital, iv. membership in collective entrepreneurship;

(b) “postlaunch less than 24 months”:i. social mission, ii. financial gain, iii. traditional cultural capital, iv. social networking capital, v. membership in collective entrepreneurship;

(c) “postlaunch 24 months or greater”: i. nation building; ii. social mission. Iii. financial gain, iv. traditional cultural capital, v. social networking capital, vi. membership in collective entrepreneurship.

Proposition Two: Each goal-setting motivation will be most important in the following new venture creation stages:

(a) financial gain: prelaunch stage;

(b) social networking capital: prelaunch stage;

(c) traditional cultural capital: postlaunch less than 24 months;

(d) membership in collective entrepreneurship: postlaunch less than 24 months

(e) social mission: postlaunch 24 months or greater;

(f) nation building: postlaunch 24 months or greater.

Research Variables. In Propositions One and Two the dependent variables are six motivations of First Nation individual entrepreneurs: (a) financial pursuits; (b) achieving social and community good (social mission; social entrepreneurship); (c) traditional cultural capital; (d) political change (i.e. (governance and institution creating; Nation building); (e) social networking capital; (f) participation in collective entrepreneurship.

The independent variable in Propositions One and Two is the Stage of New Venture Creation. Three modalities exist in the independent variable (i.e. “prelaunch”; “postlaunch less than 24 months”; “postlaunch 24 months or greater”).

Dependent and Independent Variables .

The research variables (see Table 9) are summarized as:

Dependent Variables (entrepreneurs’ goals and motivations):

(a) Financial Gain: motivation, desire, intent or purpose to achieve financial or economic profit goals (for benefit of self/family/business organization).

(b) Achieve Collective Entrepreneurship: motivation, desire, intent or purpose with a goal to become a participant or stakeholder in a collective community business venture.

(c) Politically oriented (Nation Building): motivation, desire, intent, or purpose to create, develop or grow First Nation sovereignty, governance or political goals.

(d) Social Mission (doing social good): motivation, desire, intent, or purpose to create, develop, grow or derive community benefits goals

(e) Relationality and Social Networking Capital: motivation, desire, intent or purpose for relations, whether for strictly personal, social reasons and/or business relation purposes.

(f) Traditional Cultural Capital: motivation, desire, intent, or purpose to create, develop or grow traditional cultural capital in keeping with community norms, practices, history, and expectations.

Independent Variable (new venture creation stage). The independent variable has three modalities:

(a) Prelaunch: the period of time or process stage prior to the startup, birth, or founding of a small business venture;

(b) Postlaunch to 24 months: the period of time or process stage following the startup, birth, or founding of a small business venture;

(c) Postlaunch 24 months or more: the period of time or process stage following the startup, birth, or founding of a small business venture.

Table 9. Independent and Dependent Variables

Research Methodology

Research Population. The population sector to be studied is First Nation on-reserve entrepreneurs. For the purposes of this work, First Nation on-reserve entrepreneurs are regarded as individuals who are First Nation members identifying as prelaunch or postlaunch on-reserve micro-enterprise or small business entrepreneurs. A goal of the research methodology is to ensure the research processes capture understanding and new knowledge on the topic of individual motivations specific to these three phases of First Nation entrepreneurs.

Overall Approach and Philosophical Perspective. The overall approach to theory development in this research is abductive. From the philosophical perspective, this dissertation proposal follows an interpretivist philosophy as: (a) it undertakes study with a research population which creates, develops, and experiences their own social and cultural realities; (b) it collects information that has meaning specific to the research population.

Purpose. The research is a combined study with multiple purposes: (a) exploratory; (b) descriptive; (c) evaluative; (d) explanatory. It is exploratory as it seeks to gain insight into the individual motivations of First Nation entrepreneurs, including learning about the role and effect of social entrepreneurship for these entrepreneurs. It is descriptive since it is interested in gaining an accurate determination of what the individual motivations of First Nations entrepreneurs are. It is evaluative in the sense that it hopes to create a priority ranking of individual motivations for

Diagram 8. Mean Tendency Framework for Methodological Fit

the researched population sub-groups (prelaunch, postlaunch to 24 months, postlaunch 24 the researched population sub-groups (prelaunch, postlaunch to 24 months, postlaunch 24 months or greater). Finally, it is explanatory given that it searches to understand if there is a causal relationship between individual motivations and an individual entrepreneur’s stage (prelaunch, postlaunch to 24 months, postlaunch 24 months or greater) in new venture creation.

Methodological Fit and Methodological Choice.

Methodological Fit. To determine the most suitable research methodology for this study , the “mean tendency” framework of methodological fit for business management field work was utilized (Edmonston & McManus, 2007). In the model, (a) management field research is defined as systematic research relying on original data, either qualitative or quantitative, in real organizations; (b) methodological fit refers to the internal consistency among four elements of a research project: research questions, stage of prior theory on the subject matter, research design, and theoretical contribution; (c) the conditions under which hybrid models mix qualitative and quantitative data are an important focus. The framework offers a continuum of theory in management research (see Diagram 8) from nascent theory (answering novel research questions), to intermediate theory (presenting provisional explanations of phenomenon, including introducing new constructs in relation to established constructs), to mature theory (precise models with extensive research on questions in the field). Based on the theoretical continuum, the most suitable research methodology can be allotted.

Where in the “mean tendency” model does this research’s theoretical platform place? Since the research (a) offers some novel goal-setting explanations based upon mature research theories of entrepreneurship, poverty alleviation and Indigenous examples, it would be centrally placed between the two ends of the continuum in the “intermediate” zone of the “mean tendency” framework. Consequently, the best methodological fit would be a hybrid design, combining both qualitative and quantitative strategies. If only qualitative data (one end of the continuum) was to be collected, the risk would be a lost opportunity for preliminary statistical support of hypotheses and implicit claims of a new construct. If only quantitative data (the other end of the continuum) was to be collected, the potential risk would be a lack of credibility without qualitative illustration and triangulation, thus creating an uneven status of empirical measures.

Methodological Choice. Following the “mean tendency” framework, the research process in this study will incorporate a multiple method design; The methodological choice is a sequential exploratory mixed method (simple) in two phases, combining the use of qualitative and quantitative collection techniques and analytical procedures. Phase One will be qualitative, and Phase Two will be quantitative. A sequential exploratory mixed method beginning with a qualitative strategy will: (a) help provide contextual background, and better understand the research problems. Since there is scant research available on First Nation entrepreneurship the qualitative case study strategy (interviews) expects to generate more information and a better understanding about the individual motivations of First Nation entrepreneurs; (b) contribute to determining and defining the nature of the following quantitative research in Phase Two. The increased understanding of First Nation entrepreneurs from the Phase One case study will guide the redevelopment and planning of Phase Two; (c) aid in the redrafting or formulation of questionnaire items for the quantitative strategy in Phase Two, thereby improving the questionnaire’s reliability.

Summary:

Phase One (Qualitative): i. A Pilot focus group with four First Nation entrepreneur participants

will be held in order to: (a) check and refine the initial theoretical propositions; (b) test and refine

the Case Study interview questions (see Appendix: Pilot Instrument). The focus group session will be approximately 90 minutes.

ii. The Case Study interviews will begin once the theoretical propositions and Case Study instrument are finalized. Eighteen potential participants have been identified and will be asked to participate in the Case Study; the goal is to complete a minimum of twelve interviews. Each interview will be approximately 40 to 60 minutes in duration.

Phase Two (Quantitative): Phase Two will utilize a survey (questionnaire) strategy. The survey instrument will be developed dependent on what is learned from Phase One. The goal is to complete a minimum of 50 questionnaires from qualifying participants.

Indigenous Research Methodology. Indigenous research should encompass Indigenous world views, be guided in communities ethically and credibly, and ensure Indigenous voices are heard and honored. When constructing knowledge regarding Indigenous peoples it is important to have Indigenous interests, experiences and knowledge at the heart of research methodologies (Atkinson, C., 2008; Anderson & Kukutai, 2017). Shawn Wilson (2008) represents the Indigenous ontology-epistemology-axiology-methodology paradigm in a circle (see Diagram 9). He emphasizes accountability, reciprocity, rights, and responsibility are key elements in Indigenous research.

The following principles and functions are respected and followed in the thesis research processes:

i. knowledge and consideration of community: community is regarded as an essential aspect of this research.

ii. the approval of the research proposal and methods by Indigenous peoples: the use of

Indigenous focus groups and qualitative feedback processes and tools is utilized.

iii. ways of relating and acting within community, including the principles of sharing/reciprocity and fidelity/responsibility: research results will be shared with participants and interested Indigenous stakeholders.

iv. ensuring participants feel safe and confidentiality is respected: all participants will need to provide their permission for participation and are to be provided with confidentiality/anonymity information.

Diagram 9. Indigenous Research Paradigm

Ontology

Epistemology Axiology

Methodology

v. listening and observing the self, and the self in relationship to others: relational aspects, including the importance of respectful listening and sharing, are key aspects of this study.

vi. a connection and awareness between the mind (logic) and the heart (feelings): an important element of this research is a holistic approach to understanding First Nation entrepreneurs and their intentions, thoughts, experiences, feelings and actions regarding their organizations, environmental contexts and processes.

vii. acknowledgement that the researcher brings to the research their subjective self, non-judgmental and reflective considerations of what is seen and heard: the researcher acknowledges these requirements and abides by them.

viii. a purposeful plan based on lessons learnt from listening: the outcomes of this research are based on lessons learned from feedback and listening to First Nation entrepreneurs.

ix. responsibility for accuracy and fidelity in regarding what has been heard, observed and learnt: the researcher affirms responsibility and adherence to these important principles.

Secondary Data: There appears to be little data available for analysis regarding goal-setting motivation of on-reserve First Nation entrepreneurs by way of Federal Canadian government documents, First Nation archival records, organizational databases, industry statistics, institutional or labor market surveys, and related sources. An option for secondary data that will be explored is Aboriginal employment and training service centers in Canada. Four centers, one each in the provinces of British Columbia, Alberta, and Saskatchewan, plus three Territories, Yukon, Nunuvut, and North-West will be contacted to determine if they have entrepreneurial or self-employment data resulting from their educational programs that is pertinent to this study.

Sampling.

(a) Pilot Study: the focus group participants (n = 4) will be First Nation entrepreneurs who are members of any one of the 13 First Nations in Yukon Territory. The focus group will be held in a Board Room in Whitehorse, Yukon Territory.

(b) Phase One (qualitative): the case study interviews (n = 12) will be with First Nation members from a variety of First Nation communities in Canada. Eighteen potential interviewees have been identified. The interviews will be held in-person or via skype

(c) Phase Three (quantitative): the questionnaires (n = 50 to 100) will be administered in two or three groups of approximately 30 to 35 participants in Vancouver, British Columbia at the Beedie School of Business, Simon Fraser University. The qualifying participants will be First Nation members from different parts of Canada who are enrolled in the Executive Master of Administration Aboriginal Business and Leadership program who presently are, or hoping to become, entrepreneurs.

Schedule/Timeline: The proposed timeline and schedule for research activities is:

(a) Pilot (Focus Group): April 20, 2018;

(b) Case Study (12 Interviewees): May 20 – July 20, 2018;

(c) Questionnaire (3 groups; face-to-face): September 15 to December 15, 2018

Data Analysis

Research Questions

1. What are the differences in individual goal-setting motivations among First Nation on-reserve entrepreneurs in the following new venture creation phases: (a) prelaunch (emergence) (b) postlaunch (newness, less than 24 months of business operation) (c) postlaunch (newness, 24 months or more of business operation)?

2. How do First Nation on-reserve entrepreneurs prioritize individual goal-setting motivations in each of the creation phases?

3. What can we learn about the role of social entrepreneurship as a goal-setting motivation for First Nation on-reserve entrepreneurs?

4. To what extent are on-reserve First Nation entrepreneurs’ perceptions of their goal-setting motivations differ from their perceptions of mainstream Canadian dominant society entrepreneurs’ motivations?

Population Samples.

Twelve First Nation community entrepreneurs, either active or former business owners, were interviewed to provide information on business motivations based on their entrepreneurial experiences. These entrepreneurs came from twelve different communities located in the Canadian provinces of British Columbia, Alberta, Saskatchewan, Manitoba, and Ontario. As well, sixty-four Executive MBA First Nation students/program participants completed questionnaires regarding entrepreneurial motivations. All questionnaire respondents were either previously or presently active in entrepreneurship or interested and intending to startup a business venture. They also came from a variety of Canadian First Nation communities located in Yukon Territory, and provinces of British Columbia, Alberta, Saskatchewan, Manitoba, and Ontario.

(a) Primary Motivators

Six primary motivators of Canadian First Nation community entrepreneurs for new venture creation are proposed: contributing to social good; financial gain; cultural and

Figure 3 New venture creation motivators: questionnaires

traditional support; Nation Building (institutional, governance and sovereignty development); joining a collective business enterprise; increasing social networking. This sextet of potential motivators emerged from examinations of international poverty alleviation and Indigenous community entrepreneurship models: Peredo and Chrisman (2006); Hjorth (2013); Alvarez and Barney (2014); Spilling (2011); McKeever, Jack & Anderson (2015); Bacq and Janssen; Fauchart and Gruber (2011); Fuller, Howard & Cummings (2002); Light and Dana (2013); Foley and O’Connor (2013); Cahn (2008);

Figure 5 Questionnaire totals per motivator

Foley (2000, 2003, 2006); Shoebridge and Buultjens ; Collins, Morrison, Krivokapic-Skoko, Butler & Basu (2016).

Quantitative Results (Questionnaires). Figure 3 provides the list of all motivators identified by the questionnaire respondents, along with the totals for each motivator out of a maximum score of 64. Figure 4 indicates that 88% of questionnaire respondents feel that the primary motivators are from the six hypothesized motivators, while 12% feel that

there were other significant motivators than the primary six.

Qualitative Results (Interviews). Figure 5 provides the list of all motivators identified by the interview respondents, along with the totals for each motivator out of a maximum score of 12. Figure 6 indicates that 81% of interview respondents feel that the primary

Figure 6 Interview percentages of primary motivators versus other motivators

motivators are from the six hypothesized motivators, while 19% feel that there were other significant motivators than the primary six.

Representative quotes from the interviewees regarding primary business creation motivators included:

“Although we for sure want our businesses and enterprises to survive and make profits, what good are they if they don’t succeed? We think regularly, and absolutely take into consideration, how the business can help others. We also care about cultural beliefs and traditional aspects like environmental or ecological protection when conducting business practices. That has always been a part of who we are”

“Financial gain for business survival is important in planning a business, early start up (first two years) and sustaining the undertaking afterwards but doing social good is there from the beginning of planning as one of the motivators. Social networking and relations are also necessarily part of the early planning and thinking and remain throughout the business’s lifetime. Traditional practices as well.”

(b) Ranking of Motivators

Three of six First Nation primary motivators were hypothesized to be of greater overall importance and priority to First Nation entrepreneurs and thereby ranked the highest: achieving social good; financial profit; supporting traditional/cultural aspects. The remaining three primary motivators were conjectured to be of a lesser importance and a lower priority to First Nation entrepreneurs: Nation Building; joining a collective enterprise; social networking. The separation into two motivator ranking groups eventuated from the review of international poverty alleviation and Indigenous community entrepreneurship approaches, where the same division was discovered.

Figure 7 shows the questionnaire (n = 64) ranking of First Nation Entrepreneurs’ six main motivators in decreasing importance from left to right. A Likert scale scoring First

Nation entrepreneurs’ motivations from 1 to 5 (5 being the highest score in importance)

Figure 7 Questionnaire ranking of First Nation entrepreneur motivations

Figure 8 Interview rankings of First Nation entrepreneur motivations

was completed by the questionnaire respondents in order to determine a mean score for each of the six primary motivations. Scores for all stages of new venture creation (prelaunch; postlaunch < 2 years; postlaunch > 2years) were combined to derive the mean scores.

Figure 8 shows the means scores from interviewees of First Nation entrepreneurs’ motivations ranked from left to right in decreasing importance. The interviewees

provided information on the six primary motivators for both: (a) their own direct experience as business owners (12 of 12); (b) what they saw and experienced that were important motivators for other First Nation entrepreneurs (11 of 12). A total of 23 rankings was determined from the interviews. Each set of the six primary motivators

With the highest score in importance, and zero lowest. If a motivator was not included in the interview, it was automatically given a score of zero, and the remaining primary motivators scored starting with most important being 5 followed by the next most

important scored 4 and so on in decreasing importance until all motivators were enumerated. If all six motivators were confirmed in the interview, the lowest ranked motivator was scored zero. The highest possible score for any one motivator was 115 (23 rankings x 5 = 115).

Representative quotes from interviewees regarding rankings of primary business creation motivators included:

“In my fishing business you sold your catches for money and profit, but you always gave fish to your extended family, and others in the community. This was normal and expected.”

“When I opened my consulting business, like most of our community entrepreneurs, I

was motivated initially by survival and self-preservation of the business, but at the same time from the beginning I also had the goal to be able to help the community be better.”

(c) Motivation and New Venture Creation Stages

Presently no research exists on individual motivations of First Nation entrepreneurs as their start-ups move through new venture creation stages (Gartner, 1985, 1996, 2016). Advancing social good, financial gain, and cultural traditional community aspects are hypothesized to be the most important motivators throughout each of the three stages (prelaunch; postlaunch < 2 years; post-launch > 2 years). Motivations of Nation Building, social networking, and joining a collective enterprise are hypothesized to each be increasingly important through the stages of business development stages.

Table 10 Importance Values by Business Stage: First Nation Entrepreneurs

Table 10 and Figure 9 indicates changes in each of the six primary motivators through each of the business stages.

This research indicates that: (a) each of the six motivators change in importance to First Nation entrepreneurs during the three stages from pre-launch through post-launch < two years to post-launch > 2 years; (b) the four most important motivators (see figures 10, 11, 12 and 13) throughout new venture creation (social good; financial gain; Nation building; supporting cultural traditional practices) undergo decreases in importance during post-launch < 2 years, and then increase in importance during post-launch > 2 years; (c) the two least important motivators (see figures 14 and 15) throughout the new venture creation process (social networking; joining a business collective) only change during post-launch > 2 years, when they increase in importance.

Figure10 Importance-value of social good through business stages

Figure 11 Importance-value of financial gain through business stages

Figure 12 Importance-value of cultural support through business stages

Figure 13 Importance-value of Nation Building through business stages

Figure 14 Importance-value of joining business collective through business stages

Figure 15 Importance-value of social networking through business stages

Representative quotes from interviewees regarding motivational changes through business stages included:

“I can say that after two years some of the motivations definitely changed for me. For example, others began looking at the business success I was having and questioning the money being made. My motivation increasingly moved to less about profit and being able to show the positive impact it had on community and community members”.

“When I think about the different motivations and goals I had in running a business, I can say that they were linked in that through them all I was doing something that had a social pay-off for the community as well as my business.”

(d) First Nation Entrepreneur Business Models

Social Entrepreneurship. Social Entrepreneurship was identified as a model of relevance for community poverty alleviation models (Bacq and Janssen, 2011), but there has been no research on this in relation to First Nation on-reserve community entrepreneurship. A survey by the Canadian Council for Aboriginal Business (Canadian Council for Aboriginal Business, 2016b) examined all Canadian Aboriginal businesses- Metis, Inuit, First Nation, urban, and rural, determining that six in ten were sole proprietorships, one in ten were partnerships, and three in ten were incorporated under a provincial or federal charter. Overall two out of three aboriginal businesses in Canada were home-based. Of the total number of aboriginal businesses 56% were on-reserve, however there was no breakdown of business type on-reserve.

The present study explores social entrepreneurship through both questionnaire (n = 64) and interview (n = 12) methods.

Social Entrepreneurship versus Sole Proprietorship and Business Collective Models. In this study, data from 64 questionnaire First Nation entrepreneur respondents is seen in Figure 16 and indicates that nearly one in four who are interested in starting a business would create a social entrepreneurship enterprise. Six of ten first-time First Nation on-

Figure 16 Start-up business types of First Nation on-reserve entrepreneurs

reserve entrepreneurs would open their own business, while approximately one in seven would undertake a new venture as part of a business collective.

Past Exposure to Business Models. No First Nation research is available on entrepreneurs exposed to different business backgrounds and modalities and whether they have a propensity towards similar business models in new venture creation. This study investigates what business type First Nation entrepreneurs had been exposed to and what type of business model (social entrepreneurship; sole proprietorship; business collective) they themselves would open. 62 of the 64 questionnaire respondents knew one or more entrepreneurs in their community. As indicated in Figures 17, 18 and 19, this study finds:

i. Know Sole Proprietors. Nearly nine of ten First Nation on-reserve entrepreneurs who know a First Nation sole proprietor would open a sole proprietorship; Six in ten who

Figure 17 Business model intent of First Nation entrepreneurs who know of sole proprietorship

know a First Nation business collective would open a sole proprietorship; Four in ten who know of a First Nation social entrepreneurship would open a sole proprietorship.

ii. Know Business Collectives. Just over six of ten First Nation on-reserve entrepreneurs who know a First Nation sole proprietor would open a venture in a business

collective; two in ten who know a First Nation business collective would open a business

Figure 18 Business model intent of First Nation entrepreneurs who know of business collective

collective. Two of ten who know of a First Nation social entrepreneurship would open a business collective.

iii. Know Social Entrepreneurs. Two of ten First Nation on-reserve entrepreneurs who know of a social entrepreneurship would also open a social entrepreneurship. Three of ten who know of a business collective would open a social entrepreneurship. Four of ten who know sole proprietors would open a social entrepreneurship.

See Figure 20 for a percentage comparison of intent to open a social entrepreneurship by

nascent First Nation entrepreneurs. There are no differences in intent to use this model

See Figure 21 for a percentage comparison to open a sole proprietorship by nascent First Nation entrepreneurs. Nearly nine of ten who know sole proprietors will also open a sole proprietorship. Six of ten who know of business collectives will open a sole

Figure 19 Business model intent of First Nation entrepreneurs who know of social

entrepreneurship

Figure 20 Intent to open social entrepreneurship

Figure 21 Intent to open sole proprietorship

Figure 22 Intent to open in business collective

proprietorship. Four of ten who know social entrepreneurs will open a sole proprietorship.

See Figure 22 for a percentage comparison to open a business collective by nascent First Nation entrepreneurs. Two of ten who know business collectives will also join a business collective. Three of ten who know social entrepreneurs will join a business collective. Just over one in ten who know sole proprietors will join a business collective.

Thinking like Social Entrepreneurs. Interviewees provided information on social entrepreneurship vis-à-vis First Nation entrepreneurs. From this qualitative research a common theme emerges: First Nation entrepreneurs are predisposed to think like social entrepreneurs. Representative quotes from interviewees regarding social entrepreneurship included:

“There is an element of social entrepreneurship within each First Nation businessperson from the perspective that it is important to help the broader community”;

“First Nation businesspeople understand the concept, even if not practicing it”;

“My first business wasn’t a social enterprise, but I thought like a social entrepreneur”;

“I have seen social entrepreneurship in my community- it is very important because it allows our people to see, feel, and recognize community accomplishments”;

“I think probably all, or almost all, successful First Nation business have a social aspect, but they usually aren’t social enterprises nor being operated by social entrepreneurs”

(e) First Nation Perception of Mainstream Entrepreneur Motivation

Data was collected from First Nation entrepreneurs through twelve interviews and 64 questionnaires to determine their perceptions of mainstream entrepreneurs’ motivations. No research has been conducted on this topic to date. Based on qualitative data (interviews), financial profit is hypothesized to be the most important mainstream motivator as perceived by First Nation entrepreneurs. To capture this information, a

Figure 23 Ranking of mainstream business motivators by First Nation entrepreneurs

Likert five-point scale measurement was used in the questionnaires.

Figure 23 shows the motivation rankings of Canadian mainstream entrepreneurs as

perceived by First Nation entrepreneurs, ranked in highest importance of motivators from left to right with mean scores from the questionnaires.

Figure 24 Comparison of primary motivators: First Nation and mainstream entrepreneurs

Figure 24 shows the side-by-side comparison between each of the six primary motivators for First Nation and mainstream entrepreneurs as identified b First Nation entrepreneurs.

Representative quotes from the First Nation entrepreneurs regarding mainstream business motivations include:

“First Nation people- small business operators included, see entrepreneurship as much different and bigger in meaning to our community than mainstream society sees it for their own. I don’t think mainstream society knows or understands this”.

“I have been in meetings with mainstream entrepreneurs and heard comments like “well, we aren’t here to lose money” which represents their business attitude and business goals- make money, make profit. They just don’t seem to understand the concepts, and importance, of social good and social entrepreneurship”.

“Mainstream believes in capitalism and is motivated by it, while First Nations are thinking- I mean really thinking- about community when planning, starting and establishing a business”.

“It always seems non-native society focuses on making money as their only priority”.

Discussion

Introduction

This section demonstrates how the findings of this study address the research questions and build on the previous literature. It also discusses the implications of the findings, as well as the limitations of this research. The section begins with a restatement of the research questions, then addresses each research question in order.

(a) Primary Motivators

The study confirms the hypothesized six primary goal-setting motivators of First Nation on-reserve entrepreneurs are: creation of social good; Nation building, financial gain; social networking; cultural-traditional support; joining a business collective. This is consistent with the motivational driver findings for entrepreneur-based poverty alleviation models as well as Indigenous entrepreneurship in other parts of the world.

Motivational goals are important as they improve business results (Tracey, Locke, and Renard, 1998) and encourage firm growth (Baum, Locke, and Smith, 2001). Since First Nation on-reserve small business entrepreneurship is critical to job creation and community economic growth (Halkias and Thurman, 2012; Miller, 2012; Weir, 2007; Canadian Council or Aboriginal Business, 2016), the recognition of accurate new venture creation motivators will permit better targeting of relevant First Nation community training programs and funding for programs supporting entrepreneurial growth. While noting the importance of this finding, it remains germane to recognize that 634 First Nation communities exist across Canada, and the finding is limited in the sense that it does not identify differences among entrepreneurship training needs depending on existing levels of economic development, size of population, and location of First Nation communities.

(b) Ranking of First Nation Entrepreneur Primary Motivators

In order of highest importance to First Nation on-reserve entrepreneurs, the primary goal-setting motivators are ranked: (a) social good; (b) financial gain and Nation building and cultural support (equally important); (c) joining a business collective; (d) social networking.

i. Social Good. This research confirms that the hypothesized most important of the six primary motivators for First Nation community-based entrepreneurs is the creation of social good. This is uniform with the preeminent motivator found earlier in this research in Indigenous entrepreneurship and poverty alleviation models from other parts of the world.

With achieving social good as the foremost important entrepreneurial motivator, how can First Nation on-reserve entrepreneurship flourish, let alone exist, after more than a century within the dominant and much larger economic mainstream society focused on a persistent profit-based ethos of business competition? The answer is that while it exists, in most cases First Nation economies do not flourish. They exist, or perhaps subsist, within the confines of economic disadvantage and poverty (already impacted by factors of racial stigmatism, lack of financial resources, and limitations imposed by the Indian Act), unable to compete as effectively as dominant society but still motivated to the daunting task of creating social good, their traditional ethos, in an effort to achieve economic balance and fairly distributed resources and benefits among citizens, something dominant society does not hold as an important motivator. First Nation and other Indigenous communities are entrepreneurial, but they have been traditionally, and continue to be, entrepreneurs with a strong social conscience, predisposed to values of community sharing while simultaneously operating with the drive and capacity for business success. Awareness of the most important motivator of new venture creation for the researched population along with the above dilemma can serve as a fresh starting place for positive change in policy by dominant society towards First Nation business interests and community economic development. Monetary achievement and financial success alone are not enough to sustain new venture creation in First Nation communities. The recognition and generation of entrepreneurial models inclusive of social good creation is critical to First Nation communities: First Nation entrepreneurship cannot properly be understood and supported without recognition that the creation of social good is a paramount goal and the preeminent motivator of new venture creation in First Nation communities.

ii.Financial Gain, Cultural Support, and Nation Building. The study hypothesized that three of the six primary motivators (doing social good; financial gain; cultural support) would be of a greater importance to First Nation on-reserve entrepreneurs than the remaining three primary motivators (Nation building, social networking, joining a business collective). The hypothesis was based upon international poverty alleviation models and Indigenous entrepreneurial findings and is not confirmed. Instead, the study finds that four motivators (creation of social good; financial gain; cultural support; Nation building) are of greater importance than the remaining two motivators.

Social good is addressed in (a) above. The other three of four motivators are equal in importance to First Nation on-reserve entrepreneurs: financial gain; Nation building; cultural support. Of these three, firstly, financial gain as motivation for business survival is easily understood to be a key business requirement motivating First Nation entrepreneurs, since a new venture requires sales and financial viability to survive and become sustainable. Secondly, cultural support as a business motivator may be expected in First Nations as it is often a common aspect of those communities (Gallagher and Selman, 2015; Atleo, 2015; Newhouse, 2000, 2001), and is found in other areas and cultures of the world (Thai and Anh, 2016; Patel and Selvaraj, 2015). However, this does not mean it is fully accepted or recognized as a business motivator in every First Nation community. There remains contrarian attitudes regarding the association of culture with business development (Champagne, 2015). Thirdly, Nation building, the final member of the three motivators after social good was not expected. The importance of nation Building principles of sovereignty, improved governance systems and institutions, along with the development of effective dispute resolution methods both supports and is supported by community entrepreneurs. It supports entrepreneurship by providing systems conducive to entrepreneurship development and protection. It is supported by entrepreneurship because it reduces dependency through increased employment, income, and opportunities; it also can provide a community tax base, and help to retain a dwindling on-reserve populations (Willick, 2016; Miller, 2012; Ferasso and Saldanha, 2011; Cornell, 2006, 2007, 2015; Cornell, Jorgenson, Record & Timeche, 2007).

The First Nation entrepreneur has a lot to think about, a lot to consider in planning, and consequently perhaps much to do. The complex intertwining and interplay between and among these motivators may be considerable. On the one hand, the entrepreneur not only needs to balance financial gain versus the preeminent goal of social good but keep in consideration how to support cultural aspects and contribute directly to a higher good of Nation building. It may that these motivators are strongly linked, require one another for support and development concomitantly. In this way, one might think of Nation building as both a motivator and a result or consequence, linked to the other key motivators. Two alternate theories as to why Nation Building is found to be an important motivator may be: (a) the research population is taught business, and their program includes elements of Nation building in their MBA program. Perhaps they are more inclined to be motivated by this aspect; (b) notwithstanding (a) above, Nation building and sovereignty are getting increasing significant discussion and media in Canada in relation to natural resources and human rights, and this increased dialogue and exposure could be a contributor to importance. An international example of the connection between entrepreneurship and successful Nation building is found the Alpine micro-state of Liechenstein (Schuessler, Schaper and Kraus, 2014).

iii.Joining a Business Collective and Social Networking. The study identifies that the two least important of the six primary motivators are: joining a business collective; social networking. Why are they lower in importance?

Productive social capital is conceived as a collective good, and there is considerable evidence that it contributes to poverty alleviation, entrepreneurship and economic development (Seferiadis, Cummings, Zweekhorts and Bunders, 2015). As an important aspect of social networking and business collectivity, social capital would appear relevant to First Nation community entrepreneurship. Then why are they the least important of the primary First Nation motivators? Perhaps social networking is seen by First Nations as (a) mainly a mainstream business activity and not a common historical practice of First Nations; (b) a practice that would be “taking advantage of your community contacts” (i.e. friends, family and community members). In other words, “using” your social network to make money may be cultural mores and seen as exploitive of communal good (as opposed to contributing to “social good”- First Nations’ primary motivator for entrepreneurship.

(c) Motivation and New Venture Creation Stages

No research presently exists for changes in motivation through new venture creation stages of pre-launch and post-launch (Gartner and Brush, 2007) and changes in goal-setting motivation (Latham and Locke, 2002) for First Nation entrepreneurs.

The directional change in importance-values (i.e. decrease; increase; remain static) for each of the six primary motivators of First Nation community entrepreneurs was

Table 11. Hypotheses: change in motivation (static/increase/decrease)

hypothesized (see Table 11) < 2 to postlaunch > 2.

The hypothesized motivational importance-value changes were:

i.Social good hypothesis: the importance-value of social good motivation after prelaunch remains static in postlaunch < 2 and remains static in postlaunch > 2. A consideration towards the hypotheses was that social good motivation may perhaps generally be a constant value in First Nation communities and unaffected by business stages. Both hypotheses were not supported. Research indicates the importance of doing social good decreases after prelaunch during the first two years following start-up, and then increases after two years. See Figure 25.

ii. Financial gain hypothesis: the importance-value of financial gain motivation after prelaunch remains static in postlaunch < 2 and decreases in postlaunch > 2. A consideration towards the hypotheses was that an aegis and foundation of business survival would be financial success, and thus remain constant and likely not be subject to motivational decreases or increases. Both hypotheses are not confirmed. Research

Figure 25 Social gain: actual versus hypothesized importance-value changes

through business stages

Figure 26 Financial Gain: actual versus hypothesized importance-value

changes through business stages

indicates the importance of financial gain as a motivator decreases after prelaunch during the first two years following venture start-up, and then increases after two years. See Figure 26.

iii.Nation building hypothesis: the importance-value of Nation building motivation after prelaunch increases in postlaunch < 2 and increases in postlaunch > 2. A

Figure 27 Nation Building: actual versus hypothesized importance-value

changes through business stages

consideration towards the hypotheses was that Nation Building as a goal-setting motivation is perhaps a long-term end, and therefore may increase in importance to entrepreneurs through the two postlaunch phases as their ventures develop through time. The first hypothesis is not confirmed. The second hypothesis is confirmed. Nation building decreases during the first two years following venture start-up, and then increases after two years. See Figure 27.

iv.Cultural support hypothesis: the importance-value of cultural support motivation after prelaunch remains static in postlaunch < 2 and remains static in postlaunch > 2. A consideration towards the hypotheses was that perhaps cultural and traditional

Figure 28 Cultural support: actual versus hypothesized importance-value

changes through business stages

Figure 29 Social networking: actual versus hypothesized importance-value

changes through business stages

practices may remain relatively constant as an element within First Nation communities. The hypotheses are not confirmed. Research indicates the importance of cultural support decreases after prelaunch during the first two years following venture start-up, and then increases after two years. See Figure 28.

v.Social Networking hypothesis: the importance-value of social networking as motivation after prelaunch increases in postlaunch < 2 and remains static in postlaunch > 2. A consideration towards the hypotheses was that social networking might be a significant contributor to new venture creation in the early stages of postlaunch to help with financial successes. The first hypothesis is supported. Research indicates the importance of social networking does increase as hypothesized after prelaunch during the first two years following venture start-up. The second hypothesis is not supported: motivation increases after two years. See Figure 29.

vi.Join business collective hypothesis: the importance-value of joining a business collective as motivation after prelaunch remains static in postlaunch < 2 and decreases in postlaunch > 2. The first hypothesis is confirmed. Research indicates the importance of joining a business collective does increase as hypothesized after prelaunch during the first two years following start-up. The second hypothesis is not confirmed. The motivation increases after two years. See Figure 30.

Interpretation of the results is aided by Figure 31, Figure 32, and Figure 33. Figure 31 compares changes through business stages of the two highest ranked motivators in importance. Figure 32 compares the changes through business stages of the third and fourth highest ranked motivators. Figure 33 compares the changes through business stages of the fifth and sixth ranked motivators. Note that the four highest importance-value motivators in Figures 31 and 32 all have the same v-shaped configuration

Figure 30 Joining business collective: actual versus hypothesized

importance-value changes through new venture creation stages

Figure 31 Social good - financial gain: comparative importance-value changes through business stages

indicating that for each of them importance values decrease during postlaunch < 2 and then increase during postlaunch > 2. In Figure 33 the two lowest importance-value motivators have the same increasing value configuration through postlaunch business stages, increasing slightly in postlaunch < 2 and then more significantly in postlaunch > 2 Years. Why do the four most important motivators undergo similar changes in importance through time and postlaunch stages, while the two least important motivators also match each other’s angles through time and postlaunch stages?

Figure 32 Nation Building - cultural support: comparative importance-value changes through business stages

focus in prelaunch strategizing, then followed increasingly by the two least important motivators during the postlaunch stages (hence their increase in importance). This in turn would account for the four highest motivators temporarily decreasing in importance in the earlier stages of business launching (postlaunch < 2) in compensation for the now increasing entrepreneurial energy diverted to the two lowest motivators. Later (postlaunch > 2) all six motivators increase in importance in tandem.

Figure 33 Social networking - joining business collective: comparative

importance-value changes through business stages

Another way of understanding these patterns is that social networking may be seen initially as less important to First Nation entrepreneurs, due to concerns that it would be perceived as “taking advantage of your community members for financial gain”- an unwanted black mark. Social networking may only be appropriate as a motivator later, once the reputation and sustainability of the new venture is already in place. Similarly, joining a business collective may be a “Plan B” option in the event the new venture is not successful on its own accord, so increases in importance to potentially ensure a back-up plan exists to sustain the venture. Another alternative for the business collective increase in importance would be that once the owner-operator venture was successful (had survived to postlaunch > 2) the entrepreneur may wish to aid other entrepreneurs, or perhaps simply feels more comfortable joining a business collective in the later business stage once their business is more firmly established and in their control.

In summary, research suggests a harmonic movement among the six primary motivators, particularly with the four most important motivators changing in importance together in an interactive function with the two lesser important motivators. Regardless, it would appear remiss to fully separate and disconnect the six primary motivators from each other in First Nation entrepreneurship, for reasons including that entrepreneurial processes necessarily interact and effect one another (Gartner, 1985, 2007, 2016), perhaps even more so with First Nation entrepreneurs. First Nation entrepreneurs operating individual businesses are consistent and well organized in their cognitions around motivational strategizing for new venture creation processes in the face of especially challenging entrepreneurial environments.

The consequences of this knowledge are inviting. Since First Nation entrepreneurs have the requisite capacity, and know their motivating goals, the prognosis for business success is good (Latham and Locke, 2002), especially with appropriately targeted training and mentorship programs designed to understand, accommodate, develop and support all their six primary motivators.

(d) First Nation Business Models

Three First Nation business models were studied and compared: social entrepreneurship; sole proprietorship; business collective. In the literature social entrepreneurship was identified as a potential model and motivator for communities experiencing economic disadvantages and poverty (Bacq and Janssen 2011), but little is researched or known in this regard vis-à-vis First Nation new venture creation. This research gathered both quantitative (questionnaires) and qualitative (interviews) data.

Quantitative. A trio of aspects are explored: (a) which of three entrepreneurship models (social entrepreneurship; sole proprietorship; business collective) do First Nation on-reserve individuals prefer to select for new venture creation?; (b) does knowing community business owners and their business models affect First Nations entrepreneurs’ choice of new venture creation models?; (c) How often do First Nation entrepreneurs start up social entrepreneurship ventures?

Startup Model Preferences. 23% of nascent First Nation entrepreneurs would like to start up a social entrepreneurship versus 63% for sole proprietorship, and 14% for a business collective. While sole proprietorship is the most selected model for First Nation startups, nearly one in four would opt for a social entrepreneurship, however only one in twelve First Nation entrepreneurs eventually open a social entrepreneurship venture.

Awareness of Business Models and Startup Model Preferences.

i. Social Entrepreneurship. 24% of First Nation entrepreneurs who know sole proprietors would start up a social entrepreneurship. 21% who know social entrepreneurs would start up a social entrepreneurship. 21% who know business collective entrepreneurs would start up a social entrepreneurship. Whatever business model a First Nation entrepreneur has been exposed to, whether a sole proprietorship operation, part of a business collective, or a social entrepreneurship undertaking, will create no change on whether that entrepreneur will open a social entrepreneurship venture. Regardless of the business model they are aware of through other First Nation entrepreneurs, the intent to open a social entrepreneurship start-up remains consistent at nearly one in four First Nation entrepreneurs.

ii. Sole Proprietorship. The results also indicate that no matter what business model the entrepreneur is exposed to the most probable start-up will be a sole proprietorship. However, the percentage of sole proprietorship start-ups decreases when the entrepreneurs knows a First Nation businessperson other than a sole proprietor: Nearly nine in ten First Nation entrepreneurs who know at least one sole proprietor First Nation entrepreneur would in turn open a sole proprietorship. If they know a businessperson who is a member of a business collective, they will start a sole proprietorship only six times out of ten. If they know a businessperson who owns a social entrepreneurship enterprise, then the number drops even further to four times out of ten.

iii. Business Collective. Three out of ten First Nation on-reserve entrepreneurs who know a businessperson who owns a social entrepreneurship, and two out of ten who know a business collective entrepreneur, and two out of ten who know a business collective entrepreneur would open a business as part of a business collective. However, the percentage drops by half to one out of ten, if the entrepreneur knows someone who has a sole proprietorship. This phenomenon may be explained as weak social capital assists solo entrepreneurs in new venture creation, while for team start-ups social capital has no direct effect (Cantner and Stützer, 2010).

Overall, this research finds that while First Nation on-reserve entrepreneurs are most likely to create business start-ups in sole proprietorship, they are less likely to do so if they know either social entrepreneurs or business collective entrepreneurs.

Qualitative. Twelve First Nation entrepreneurs were interviewed on social entrepreneurship. Based on their own experiences regarding on-reserve entrepreneurship 58% (7) indicated that First Nations think like social entrepreneurs. Since First Nation entrepreneurs think like social entrepreneurs, and nearly one in four would like to start up a social entrepreneurship business, and one in five know someone who has started a social entrepreneurship venture, then why so only one in approximately twelve actually startup new ventures with social entrepreneurship as their model of choice? One possibility is that training programs and funding focus on the mainstream perspective that training should concentrate on financial success and profit motive versus social aspects.

Another possibility is that historically First Nation peoples have long been traders and entrepreneurs (Miller, 2012; Harrington, 2017). This combined with the need to subsist and survive in an economically challenged environment may prompt or encourage First Nation people to tend to engage in private ownership entrepreneurial activities in order to first self-sustain, rather than initially create social entrepreneurship and business collectives.

Social entrepreneurship is a prominent form of entrepreneurial activity, with a main goal of creating social value through processes that seek out innovative solutions to outstanding social issues and problems. As well, three drivers of social entrepreneurship- social capital through training and education, wealth distribution with income growth, and institutional-governance improvements (Méndez-Picazo, Ribeiro-Soriano & Galinda-Martin, 2015) speak to the needs and issues in First Nations. While only 8% of First Nation community entrepreneurs presently create new ventures through the social entrepreneurship model, nearly three times as many express an intent to create new businesses under this model. Social entrepreneurship is an important, but untapped, new venture creation model and opportunity for economic development and poverty alleviation in First Nation communities.

(e) First Nation Perception of Mainstream Entrepreneurial Motivation

Canadian First Nations exist within a larger mainstream society and economic framework across the ten provincial and three territorial regions of the country. They often interact with mainstream population economically and socially, and generally have the same access to media and communication systems. They are also impacted by decades of colonialism, racism and inter-generational residential school issues.

It was hypothesized that First Nation entrepreneurs perceive mainstream society entrepreneurs as motivated: (a) more by financial gain, and less by the remaining five primary motivators of First Nation entrepreneurs- achieving social good, Nation building, supporting culture, joining a business collective, and social networking. The hypothesis is shown to be correct.

The only motivator of equal importance to mainstream and First Nation entrepreneurs is the desire to join a business collective. However, for both groups joining a business collective is lower in importance among the primary motivators.

Except for joining a business collective, First Nation entrepreneurs’ perception of mainstream society entrepreneurs’ goal setting motivations are dissimilar to their own business motivations. First Nation entrepreneurs identify financial profit as the most important driver for mainstream entrepreneurs followed by social networking, whereas their own preeminent entrepreneurial motivator is the achievement of social good. Mainstream Canadian society exists within a capitalist economy, whereas First Nation historically through to present times is regarded as having more of a collective and communal approach in their communities (Miller, 2012). Furthermore, from this research, First Nation people often feel they have been financially taken advantage of by mainstream entrepreneurs which may in turn affect their perceptions of mainstream society being more materialistic, profit oriented and comfortable using social networking towards commercial success compared to their own goal-setting business motivations.

Conclusions

1. There are six primary goal-setting motivators for First Nation on-reserve entrepreneurs. Ranked in order, beginning with the highest importance to entrepreneurs, they are: (a) social good; (b) financial gain and Nation building and cultural support (equally important); (c) joining a business collective; (d) social networking.

2. First Nation entrepreneurship cannot properly be understood and supported without recognition that (a) the creation of social good is a paramount goal and the preeminent motivator of new venture creation in First Nation communities; (b) Nation building and cultural support are equally important goal-setting motivators as financial profit to First Nation on-reserve entrepreneurs.

3. First Nation entrepreneurs start and operate businesses in the face of especially challenging entrepreneurial environments.

4. First Nation on-reserve entrepreneurs are most likely to create business start-ups in sole proprietorship, but they are less likely to do so if they know either social entrepreneurs or business collective entrepreneurs.

5. Social entrepreneurship is a largely untapped business model and opportunity for the support of new venture creation, economic development, and poverty alleviation in First Nation communities.

6. First Nation entrepreneurs’ business perceptions of mainstream entrepreneurs are vastly different from their self-perceptions as entrepreneurs: First Nation entrepreneurs identify financial profit as the most important driver for mainstream entrepreneurs, whereas their own preeminent entrepreneurial motivator is the achievement of social good.

7. Training and funding programs for First Nation business and economic community development should be designed with consideration given to conclusions i. through vi.

Postface.

Limitations.

(a) There are 364 First Nations in Canada. Although this research includes entrepreneurs from more than 30 different communities, it does not take community differences (cultural, population density, remoteness of locations) into account.

(b) The research did not explore and examine the meanings of social good and nation building.

Future Research.

(a) Research and compare the business motivators of off-reserve to on-reserve First Nation entrepreneurs to see differences and similarities. Communities with similar entrepreneurial needs and motivations could learn from one another, or work in tandem for business development.

(b) Research and identify the numbers of on-reserve entrepreneurs and their business types in order to provide data for future training programs.

(c) Research, identify and learn more about the specific meanings of social good to First Nation communities. Since social good is the preeminent entrepreneurial motivator, this becomes an important finding towards encouraging entrepreneurship development and poverty alleviation in First Nation communities.

(d) Research mainstream perceptions of First Nation entrepreneurship motivations, particularly Canadian, provincial and territorial government and non-government organizations that fund or provide entrepreneurial education to First Nation communities, in order to determine if their models are appropriate, or can be improved, for the communities being served.

(e) Conduct further research regarding the changes in motivations and business decisions effected by First Nation entrepreneurs through new venture creation stages in order to better understand the processes at play with these individuals and their organizations in startup and early development.

Recommendation (e) above will be undertaken by this thesis in Chapter Six (Research 2). Where Chapter Five (Research 1) studied and determined drivers and motivational changes in First Nation entrepreneurs engaged in entrepreneurial startup, Chapter Six will further examine the entrepreneurial business changes, decisions and motivational drivers in a qualitative research methodology utilizing Business Model Canvas through the three stages of new venture creation.

Research 2:

Business Model Canvas and First Nation Entrepreneurs

Research Methodology

Conceptual Framework. Business Model Canvas (Osterwalder & Pigneur, 2011) is used as the conceptual framework in this research. Business Model Canvas (BMC) is a strategic management tool, visual business chart, and organized template to help develop new or existing business models. It can quickly and easily describe, define and communicate business concepts and ideas in coherent ways. BMC breaks the business into nine interconnected elements: value proposition; key partners; key activities; key resources; customer relationships; customer segments; channels; cost structure; revenue streams. When presented visually as a one-page template (see Diagram 10), the rectangular model of connected boxes is designed to help clarify, work through and inter-relate the fundamental aspects and elements of a business or product for the entrepreneur in start-up, growth or re-development. In qualitative research such visual material can serve as an adjunct to one-to-one interview processes, working in tandem with words, questions, and exploratory dialogue (Butler-Kisber, & Poldma, 2010; Glaw, Inder, Kable & Hazleton, 2017; Pole, 2004).

Diagram 10. Business Model Canvas (BMC)

The Business Model Canvas template may also be a potentially valuable tool and framework for research involving First Nation people. Indigenous researcher Shawn Wilson (Wilson, 2008) describes Indigenous research methods in terms of Indigenous paradigm where knowledge is relational and includes “viewing objects as the relationships we share with them- on how we see concepts and ideas” (Wilson, 2008, p. 74). In a similar way, relationality is a precept taken up by other Indigenous scholars in describing Indigenous research in a holistic conception of inter-connectiveness between and among parts that can be seen, heard, felt or touched (Moreton-Robinson, 2009; Weber-Pillwax, 2001).-

In a study of Native American communities, the Medicine Wheel was a visual framework used during interviews and focus groups to illustrate the four essential elements of context, body, mind and spirit (Cross, Earle, Solie,& Manness, 2000). E. Richard Atleo, in his book on development of an Indigenous theory (Atleo, 2004), uses several visual illustrations as an additional means to deliver his treatise.

Perhaps the value of visual tools and models was explained best by Black Elk in John Neihardt’s Black Elk Speaks: “It was the pictures I remembered and the words that went with them; for nothing I have ever seen with my eyes was so clear and bright as what my vision showed me….the meanings came clearer and clearer out of the pictures….” (Neilhardt, 1972, p. 49).

Theoretical Propositions. Given that there can be a huge difference between intention, realization and performance in establishing a Business Model Canvas, it is hypothesized:

(a) The utilization of Business Model Canvas will deliver valuable research information on the dynamics involved with, and deepen the understanding of, First Nation entrepreneurs.

(b) By learning how Business Model Canvas evolves through First Nation business stages we shall better understand the thoughts, actions and drivers of First Nation entrepreneurs.

(c) Through use of Business Model Canvas with First Nation entrepreneurs we shall suggest an alternative model of Business Model Canvas for First Nation entrepreneurs.

Research Questions. The study undertakes the following research inquiries:

(a) What can we learn from changes made (or not made) to Business Model Canvas by First Nation entrepreneurs in their new ventures through different business stages?

(b) What can we learn about First Nation entrepreneurs from themes that emerge via Business Model Canvas?

(c) How could Business Model Canvas be modified to the benefit First Nation entrepreneurs?

Research Population. The population group is twelve First Nation members who are small business owners delivering services or products from First Nation reserves or territory. They have a minimum of 3.5 to 4 years continual success in their enterprises. All twelve entrepreneurs were operating businesses within the boundaries of the Canadian province of British Columbia.

Research Design. The study is qualitative and abductive. Over a seen week period twelve First Nation entrepreneurs were interviewed once each for 90 to 120 minutes using the Business Model Canvas (BMC) as a visual reference guide. Notes were made during the interviews, and then completed and compiled into summarized written form within twenty-four hours of completion of each interview (see Appendix: Interview Records). Interviewees were explained the purpose of the research and provided with a copy of the BMC template for their reference during the interviews. Each of the seven BMC elements to be explored were explained to the interviewees. They were then asked for feedback on the elements. Value proposition was explained inclusive of the terms “products and services”. Key partners, key activities and key resources were explained and included as a grouping within the pillar “management of infrastructure”. Customer relationships, customer segments and channels were explained and included as a grouping within the pillar “client interface”. Following the introduction, when each interviewee acknowledged understanding Business Model Canvas, they were asked to provide feedback and information on the seven elements for each of three business stages: (a) prelaunch; (b) postlaunch < 2 years; (c) postlaunch > 2 years.

Each interview was conducted in the following order:

(a) Prelaunch feedback: (i) value proposition; (ii) management of infrastructure; (iii) client interface”.

(b) Postlaunch < 2 feedback: (i) value proposition; (ii) management of infrastructure; (iii) client interface”.

(c) Postlaunch > 2 feedback: (i) value proposition; (ii) management of infrastructure; (iii) client interface”.

The visual template of BMC was used throughout the duration of each interview.

Analysis Steps. Analysis includes:

(a) Determine BMC element changes. Postlaunch < 2 Years and Postlaunch > 2 Years stage changes are calculated for each of the seven BMC elements are assessed from the First Nation entrepreneur interviews. Prelaunch BMC elements are compared with Postlaunch < 2 Year BMC elements, and Postlaunch < 2 Year BMC elements are compared with Postlaunch > 2 Year BMC elements. The number of element changes are tabulated for each business stage and BMC element.

(b) Determine BMC pillar changes (Value Proposition/Products and Services; Infrastructure; Client Interface). A comparison between Postlaunch stages is undertaken.

(c) Determine themes. BMC First Nation entrepreneur interviews are coded, and emerging themes determined for each of the three business development stages. The coding follows an inductive process to determine what categories or themes emerge.

Data Analysis

(a) Business Model Canvas: Element Changes

All changes for each of the seven BMC elements from each of the twelve interviewees (marked A to L) are shown in Table 12 for Postlaunch < 2 Years and Postlaunch > 2 Year stages along with totals. All twelve entrepreneurs interviewed (see Appendix: Chapter 6 Interview Records) had businesses that continued into the fourth year (a requirement for the study to match the business stages under study). Four of the entrepreneurs closed their ventures just prior to the start of the fifth year (interviews C, G, I, and K marked with asterisks), whereas eight remained open.

Table 12 Business Model Changes per BMC Element and Business Stage

* business closed during fourth year of Postlaunch

ii. Every First Nation entrepreneur interviewed (n = 12; marked A to L) effected changes in BMC elements during the postlaunch stages, ranging from 1 to 11 changes. See Figure 34. Note that three of the four closed businesses (C, G, I) had some of the lowest totals (C = 2; G = 4; I = 2) of BMC element Postlaunch stage changes. Twelve out of twelve Postlaunch > 2 Years had --element changes. Eight of twelve Postlaunch < 2 Years had element changes, while four did not:

Figure 34 Total BMC changes per First Nation entrepreneur

of the four that did not have element changes in Postlaunch < 2 Years, three were ultimately closed later in Postlaunch > 2 Years.

Figure 35 Total BMC changes per Postlaunch stage by First Nation entrepreneurs

iii. Of the 61 changes in BMC elements recorded from the twelve First Nation entrepreneurs 16 element changes took place in Postlaunch < 2 Years and 45 element changes occurred in Postlaunch > 2 Years. See Figure 35.

iv.The mean changes per First Nation entrepreneur during both Postlaunch < 2 + Postlaunch > 2 = 5.08 element changes. The mean changes for each of the two Postlaunch stages were: Postlaunch < 2 Years = 1.33; Postlaunch > 2 Years = 3.75 (see Figure 36).

Figure 36 Mean BMC changes in each business stage by First Nation entrepreneurs

BMC element changes increase by nearly three-fold (281%) from Postlaunch < 2 Years to Postlaunch > 2 Years. (For an annual statistical comparison, when the BMC Postlaunch changes are broken into annual mean scores the element changes are .67 per year for Postlaunch < 2 Years, and 1.88 per year for Postlaunch > 2 Years. The mean combined Postlaunch stages element changes are 1.27 per year per entrepreneur).

iv. The total number of changes for the seven BMC elements from First Nation entrepreneurs in

combined Postlaunch < 2 + Postlaunch > 2 stages are shown in Figure 37: the element with the

most changes is Key Resources (12), while the element with the least changes is Channels (4).

Figure 37 BMC element changes Postlaunch < 2 Years + > 2 Years by First Nation Entrepreneurs

Figure 38 BMC element changes Postlaunch < 2 Years of First Nation entrepreneurs

Figure 38 shows the seven BMC element changes for Postlaunch < 2 Years: the elements with the most changes are Key Resources (4) and Client Segments (4), while the element with the least changes is Client Relations (0). Figure 39 shows the elements’ change for Postlaunch > 2 Years.

Figure 39 BMC element changes Postlaunch > 2 Years of First Nation entrepreneurs

Figure 40 Comparison of BMC element changes per Postlaunch stage (bar graph)

As shows in Figure 40, each of the seven BMC elements increased in number of changes from Postlaunch < 2 Years to Postlaunch > 2 Years for First Nation entrepreneurs. The greatest increases were with Client Relations (0 to 9 changes) and Value Proposition (1 to 8 changes).

Figure 41 Comparison of BMC element changes per Postlaunch stage (line graph)

The lowest increases were found in Key Activities (3 to 4 changes), and Key Partners (3 to 5 changes).

In Figure 41 the line graphs show the changes in BMC elements from Postlaunch < 2 Years to Postlaunch > 2 Years. While the lines do not meet and intersect given that all BMC elements increase in Postlaunch > 2 Years, the graph does delineate (a) the three most significant BMC changes through time- one from each of the three Pillars studies: i. Client Interface Pillar (Client Relations); Value Proposition Pillar (Products and Services); Infrastructure Pillar (Key Resources); (b) the nearest intersection points where two of the BMC elements come the closest to being equal for each Postlaunch stage (Key Partners and Key Activities).

(c) Four of twelve First Nation entrepreneurs “closed” their business by the end of the fourth year in Postlaunch > 2 while eight of twelve entrepreneurs remained “open” by the end of the fourth year from start-up. Figure 42 compares the mean number of BMC element changes combining both Postlaunch < 2 and Postlaunch > 2 for “closed” versus “open” First Nation entrepreneurs. Businesses remaining open averaged 6 element changes through the Postlaunch stages while those that closed just prior to the end of postlaunch stages averaged 3.25. Figure 43 separates Postlaunch stages into mean changes for both closed and open businesses.

Figure 42 Closed vs open businesses: mean both postlaunch stage BMC changes

Figure 43 Closed vs open businesses: separated postlaunch stages mean BMC changes

v. Background Experience of First Nation Entrepreneurs

Business Model Canvas interviewing provided information on the background, history and experience of the First Nation entrepreneurs interviewed. Eight First Nation entrepreneurs had a background (from previous employment and/or direct personal/family exposure) in the business sector in which they had created a new venture. Seven of these eight businesses remain-ned open beyond the postlaunch > 2 (i.e. past four years). Four First Nation entrepreneurs opened new businesses in sectors in which they did not have background. One of four remained open beyond 4 years. Figure 44 shows the number of First Nation new ventures remaining open after four years for entrepreneurs with and without backgrounds in those sectors. See Figure 45 which shows the percentage of First Nation entrepreneurs with backgrounds and experience in their new venture business sector.

Figure 45 Percentages of First Nation entrepreneurs with backgrounds in their new venture sectors

First Nation entrepreneurs provided information on three of the four BMC pillars: infrastructure; client interface; value proposition (products and services). For each pillar, the total number of changes by First Nation entrepreneurs after Prelaunch from combined Postlaunch < 2 Years plus Postlaunch > 2 Years are shown in Figure 46. The highest number of changes was with the infrastructure pillar (27) followed closely by client interface (25); the lowest pillar changes took place with value proposition (9), for a total of 61 Postlaunch changes. From a different perspective, Figure 47 shows the combined Postlaunch BMC changes for each pillar in percentages: infrastructure (44%); client interface (41%); value proposition (15%).

The changes per pillar for all First Nation entrepreneurs are shown in percentages relative to each other for Postlaunch < 2 Years plus Postlaunch > 2 Years combined (Figure 14); Postlaunch < 2 Years (Figure 15); Postlaunch > 2 Years (Figure 16).

Figure 46 Combined postlaunch BMC changes per pillar (totals)

Figure 47 Postlaunch BMC changes per pillar: percentages

Figure 48 drills down further into the data from Figures 46 and 47 to show the total element changes for each BMC pillar from Postlaunch < 2 Years to Postlaunch > 2 Years: value proposition increases eightfold; client interface increases fourfold; infrastructure increases nearly twofold.

For a different perspective, Figures 49 and 50 show the changes indicated from Figure 48 between Postlaunch stages by percentages for each pillar in each of the two postlaunch stages. Client interface and value proposition changes increased the most, almost equally,

Figure 49 Open First Nation businesses: Changes per pillar < 2 Years

at 12% and 13% percentage points respectively from Postlaunch < 2 Years to Postlaunch > 2 Years. Infrastructure lost 25 percentage points from Postlaunch < 2 Years to Postlaunch > 2 Years.

c. Business Model Canvas: Themes

The interviews were coded and a total of four themes emerged. Two themes were found in each business stage (i.e. “triple stage themes”). One theme was found in two of the business stages (i.e. “double stage theme”). One theme was found in only one of the business stages (i.e. “single stage theme”).

“Triple stage” themes:

Two themes emerged from each of the three business stages: “Help my First Nation Community” (97 total references); “Financial Concerns/Actions” (56 total references).

“Double stage” theme:

One theme emerged in two of the three business stages: “Knowledge: bringing / growing / using-focusing” (35 total references from Prelaunch < 2 Years plus Postlaunch > 2 Years).

“Single stage” themes:

One theme emerged in only one business stage. “Busy with business” emerged from Postlaunch < 2 (25 references);

The BMC reference totals from all three business stages are shown for each theme in Figure 51.

Figure 51 Total references per BMC theme

Prelaunch Primary Themes:

(a) “Help my community” (i.e. advance or support community social mission/culture/Nation Building). Score of 24 references.

(b) “Financial concerns/actions”. Score of 19 references.

Postlaunch < 2 Years Primary Themes:

(a) “Busy with business”. Score of 25 references.

(b) “Financial concerns/actions”. Score of 19.

(c) “Help my community”. Score of 11 references.

Postlaunch >2 years Primary Themes:

Primary themes:

(a) “Help my community”. Score of 39 references.

(b) “Financial concerns/actions”. Score of 18 references.

(c) “Knowledge: growing”. Score of 10 references.

(d) “Knowledge: using/focusing. Score of 10 references.

For a different perspective, the reference counts for each of the three business stages are shown as “reverse pyramids” (highest theme counts at the top descending to the least) in Figures 52, 53, and 54.

Figure 52 Number of BMC references during Prelaunch stage

Figure 52 (Prelaunch) shows the “help my community” theme perched at the top at 24, then descending to the bottom level in Figure 53 (Postlaunch < 2 Years) with 11 references but rising again to the top level in Figure 54 (Postlaunch > 2 Years) with 34 references.

The “financial concerns/action” theme never changes its position through Figures 52, 53 and 54; it stays consistent through the business stages with references counts of 19, 18, and 19 respectively). The “busy with business” theme is seen to emerge only in Figure 53 (Postlaunch < 2 Years) with 25 reference counts which takes it to the top level.

The “two stage theme” of knowledge emerges in Figure 52 (Prelaunch) with 15 references, and then reappears after Postlaunch < 2 in Figure 54 (Postlaunch > 2 Years) with 20 total references broken down into two aspects of 10 references each (“knowledge growing” and “knowledge using/focusing”).

An alternative perspective is provided through independent line graphs for each of the two “three business stage themes”. In Figure 55 the “help my community” theme tracks changes in

Figure 55 “Help my community” theme: References per business stage

reference totals through the three business stages from 24 during Prelaunch, decreasing to 11 in Postlaunch < 2 Years, then increasing to 38 in Postlaunch > 2 Years. In Figure 56 “financial concerns/action” theme reference totals are shown through the three businesses stages with 19 for both Prelaunch and Postlaunch < 2 Years, and 18 references during Postlaunch > 2 Years.

Figure 56 “Financial concerns/action” theme: References per business stage

Discussion

a. What can we learn from changes made to Business Model Canvas elements and pillars by First Nation entrepreneurs during stages of new venture creation?

(i) BMC and First Nation Business Planning (Prelaunch).

All First Nation entrepreneurs changed Business Model Canvas (BMC) from the planning stage (prelaunch) through the postlaunch new venture creation stages. Among the twelve entrepreneurs there were 61 BMC changes. Why so many changes? One of the potential reasons is lack of formal business planning. Through all three business stages three of twelve (25%) set out a formal written business plan- with only one of these having prepared a business plan in the prelaunch stage. Two other entrepreneurs had also prepared a written business plan but waited until the end of year two from venture startup, the time at which they decided doing so could benefit their business. This number compares to approximately 35% with combined Canadian Indigenous- First Nations on-reserve and off-reserve, Metis, and Inuit (Canadian Council for Aboriginal Business 2011, 2016b). Without a detailed and well-developed business plan the entrepreneurs may find themselves in business position requiring more reactions, changes or

Key Resource: Entrepreneurs Own Skill/Knowledge Base

Interview B Postlaunch > 2 Years:

“I had now added a new intellectual resource which was business know-how and business development skills.”

Interview D Postlaunch > 2 Years:

“…technology changed the industry…I followed through all of these changes….”

Interview E Postlaunch < 2 Years:

“There were no real changes other than I had to tweak my models….”

Interview F Postlaunch >2 Years:

“To enhance my skill and be accredited I took the appropriate courses….”

Interview J Postlaunch < 2 Years:

“To keep my knowledge base up-to-date, and to advance it or improve it, I enrolled in a post-secondary program….”

Interview L Postlaunch < 2 Years:

“I also expanded my skill set and ability to be a problem solver”

pivots in the early postlaunch phase. Being less prepared for arising business problems would mean they would need to react to circumstances they did not initially anticipate or expect.

(ii) BMC and Business Development.

All BMC elements had changes within the interviewee group through the three business stages as the First Nation entrepreneurs developed their new ventures. The BMC elements

that changed the most for the entrepreneurs were: “key resources” (12 changes) and “client segments” (11 changes); the least changes were with the element “channels” (5 changes). The remaining four elements were changed between 7 and 9 times.

Why did the most changes occur with key resources? The answer is that 50 % of the key resource changes (6 of the 12 key resource changes) were due to the entrepreneur’s own business knowledge growth (i.e. being their own business resource), whether by formal education or experiential learning. This is indicated in interviews C, D, E, F, J and L (see Table 13).

First Nation entrepreneurs rely on the growth of knowledge as one of their most important resources; knowledge growth and use is a significant and important change for them in the operation and survival of their businesses. “Knowledge” emerges as an important theme in this research and is discussed in more detail further down in this section.

Looking further into the BMC change numbers, it is noted that First Nation entrepreneurs had considerably more Business Model Canvas changes overall in years three and four of business startup than years one and two: 46 changes versus 15 changes. The average change in years three and four were 3.83 per entrepreneur versus 1.25 per entrepreneur in year one and two. An increase in BMC changes from Postlaunch < 2 Years to Postlaunch > 2 Years can be an indication that the business founder is learning and adapting. This could include finding new markets; adding resources; confirming partnerships; adjusting services and/or products. It may also be due to the need to “take action” in order to ensure business survival. Second, as seen previously in Figures 40 and 41, the greatest gap in BMC elements from Postlaunch < 2 Years to Postlaunch > 2 Years is for “client relations” (increase of 9 changes, from 0 to 9) and “value

Table 14 Quotations: Entrepreneurs’ Busy with Growth Combined Postlaunch

Interview B Postlaunch < 2 Years:

“My planning and expectations were fairly accurate for my customer base. I picked up quite a few high-end clients, as well as the public overall in general. The client segments matched what I had speculated they would be early on, and my business was picking up and began doing well at both store fronts I had set up”.

Followed by:

Postlaunch > 2 Years:

“While I continued my main products and businesses of selling art in my stores, there now was a significant addition to my business products/services after a couple of years went by”.

Interview K Postlaunch < 2 Years:

“Our value proposition remained the same. All the parties involved in our business and service chain were happy with the process and results that came from using the product. Our service end was strong and had a growing reputation ”,

“the client segments we expected to access came through and began purchasing our products and services”.

Followed by:

Postlaunch > 2 Years

“after two years the business was ready to expand and scale up”, and “it was time to expand our client base”.

Interview J Postlaunch < 2 Years

“My value proposition hit the mark for the first two years”.

proposition” (increase of 7 changes from 1 to 8). On the one hand, the large gaps between these elements may speak to the readiness to enact change: perhaps at startup First Nation entrepreneurs were less prepared for change (caught off guard and reacting), or conversely that they were more prepared to make changes (ready and waiting to respond). However, the large increase in these elements from Postlaunch < 2 Years to Postlaunch > 2 Years may be due to increasing business growth and expansion requiring pivoting. Growth and opportunity in very active product and service sales seems the probable cause when one compares interview quotations from entrepreneurs’ Postlaunch < 2 Years (being busy with sales and service) and Postlaunch > 2 Years (responding to the growth and opportunity). See Table 14.

It appears that First Nation entrepreneurs were busy making changes to BMC elements in response to increasing business opportunity, growth and development.

(iii) BMC Pillars.

There was little difference in element change totals between the two BMC pillars consisting of three segments each: (a) BMC Infrastructure: key resources; key activities; key partners. (b) Client Interface: client segments; channels; client relations. Over the four-year startup period, both BMC pillars had almost the same number of changes for First Nation entrepreneurs. BMC infrastructure had 25 changes (mean of 2.08 per entrepreneur) while BMC client interface had 27 (mean of 2.25 per entrepreneur). The most changed BMC infrastructure element was key resources, and the least was key activities. The most changed BMC client interface element was client segments, and the least was channels. Value Proposition was regarded as a one element pillar (i.e. Value Proposition is both an element and a pillar in this study).

While the data shows the least pillar of change was value proposition, a new perspective results if we take the mean changes per entrepreneur divided by the number of elements within each pillar. Then, we note almost no difference (see Figure 57). While this does not change the conclusion that the Infrastructure and Client Interface pillars are more active pillars of change for First Nation entrepreneurs compared to value proposition, it does point out the importance of recognizing the contents of each pillar as part of any comparison.

Figure 57 Mean entrepreneur BMC pillar changes per element

Numerically: i. Infrastructure Pillar (27 changes divided by 3 elements divided by 12 interviewees equals 0.75 changes per entrepreneur); ii. Client Interface Pillar (25 changes divided by 3 elements divided by 12 interviewees equals 0.70 changes per entrepreneur); iii. Value Proposition Pillar (9 changes divided by 1 element divided by 12 interviewees equals .75 changes per entrepreneur).

Overall there were no remarkable differences between the BMC Client Interface and Infrastructure pillars in terms of total change differences, nor noteworthy aspects or themes from overall interviewee comments by way of entrepreneurial perspectives between the two.

(iv) First Nation Business Survival: Closed versus Open Businesses

i. BMC Elements. First Nation businesses that “closed” before the end of their fourth year had less Business Model Canvas element changes than First Nation businesses that were “open” at the end of their fourth year. Closed businesses averaged 3.25 Business Model Canvas element changes versus 6.0 changes for business remaining open. The differences for each two-year period from startup are also of note. First Nation businesses that remained open at the end of year four had seven times as many Business Model Canvas element changes in their first two years than businesses that closed in year four. As well, First Nation businesses remaining open at the end of year four had 40% more Business Model Canvas element changes in years three and four than First Nation businesses that closed by the end of year four. This suggests a connection may exist between BMC changes in elements and business survival for First Nation entrepreneurs.

Table 15 Quotations: Entrepreneurs with Businesses Closed

Interview C (closed business):

“I had kept the same training services and was starting to focus on how I could keep the same value propositions ”

“I hadn’t diversified enough”

Interview G (closed business):

“My key physical resources and activities remained the same: location, signs and so forth. I still marketed and promoted as before and had the same menu and equipment. I tried really hard to stay the course ”

Interview I (closed business):

“I continued with my store location and the plan to have walk-in traffic and customers. I still spoke with other businesses and shared information”

“My client channels….didn’t shift…”

Comments from the interviewees (note the phrases in bold) who closed their business (see Table 15) attest to this.

Based on the wording in the quotations from three separate entrepreneurs who ended their ventures, it appears that the continuation of the same business model, without pivoting and making changes to the BMC elements, was a contributing factor to business closure.

ii. Sector Experience. During the BMC interviews all First Nation entrepreneurs provided their backgrounds in relation to the sector in which they opened their business. Of the eight First Nation entrepreneurs who had background in their business sector, seven were still open for

Table 16 Quotations: Entrepreneurs with Businesses Open

Interview A:

“I had worked several years at a branch of a large Canadian Bank and planned and then opened my own business as a financial consultant”

Interview F:

“From a young age I lived near a big lake in British Columbia, and spent a lot of time fishing, rafting and boating there, so I knew the water, shorelines and area very well. I had very good local knowledge that I could utilize in talking to my potential customers and making their water trip fun and interesting”

Interview D:

“ After working several years in the media business , including news editing, I decided to open my own small business in the film and television industry”

Interview E:

“I also have been a First Nation Band Manager, so my business ideas evolved from my knowledge and experiences ”

Interview H:

“I worked for several years for my First Nation. From this experience, as the years went by, I eventually came to the decision to open up my own event planning business”.

business at the end of four years. Of the four entrepreneurs who did not have backgrounds in the sectors which they opened their business, only one was still open at the end of the fourth year. Note example quotations (see Table 16) from First Nation entrepreneurs who opened businesses related to their background and experiences. These statements support the position that First Nation entrepreneurs having a background and experience in the business.

sector they open their new venture increases the probability of business survival beyond four years

b. Business Model Canvas: Themes

Emerging Themes.

Two themes emerge from within each of the three business stages through Business Model Canvas: “helping my community” and “financial concerns/actions”; These themes are congruous with the four primary First Nation motivators from the previous chapter. “Helping my community” is synonymous with the three motivator “bundle” of: achieving social mission; supporting community culture; advancing Nation Building” outlined in Chapter Five. Also, financial concerns/action is analogously linked to “financial gain” from Chapter Five.

Theme 1: “Helping My Community ”. The number of references for “helping my community changed dramatically through business stages:

i. Prelaunch: 24 references

ii. Postlaunch < 2 years: 11 references

iii. Postlaunch > 2 years: 38 references

The changes decrease remarkably from Prelaunch expectations during the first two years of business operation, declining by more than 50%. Then, in years three and four “helping my community” increase dramatically by just over 300% compared to the first two years; the increase is also greater than the references of intent to help community in the prelaunch stage- by 42%. The significant changes in this theme suggest that the intent to help community through the new venture during prelaunch planning decreases when it turns into achieving the desired result during the opening stages (i.e. first two years). However, in years three and four of business operation, “helping my community” then increases considerably. Why? What is happening in the first two years of startup that reduces the number of references and appears to limit First Nation entrepreneurs from their initial prelaunch intentions to achieve social mission? A clue exists from a one business stage theme arising in years one and two after startup- “busy with business”. First Nation entrepreneurs had 25 references to this category- the only stage in which “busy with business” appears as a theme. This suggests the realities of new venture creation and being caught up in the many tasks of doing business (i.e. being “busy with business”) in the first two years hindered the entrepreneurs from engaging more social mission “activity” as they had intended during the prelaunch stage. Subsequently, in years three and four we see a very large increase in “helping my community” references (and presumably an increase in intent, motivation, and action). This would answer a question remaining from Chapter Five: why does “helping my community” (i.e. achieve social mission; support community cultural aspects; improve Nation Building) decrease from the Prelaunch stage during Postlaunch < 2 years, and then increase in Postlaunch > 2 years? During the first two years of startup First Nation entrepreneurs are very busy creating and developing their new venture- “doing the business of business” (including business survival). Consequently, they would seem less able to dedicate the energy required to deliver as much help into the community as they had hoped from their planning stage. Not until years three and four would they be able to devote the time and activity needed for accomplishing social missions’ tasks for their community. The changing BMC statistics reflect this: as “helping my community” references decrease from Prelaunch (24 references) to Postlaunch < 2 Years (11 references), the “busy with business” theme emerges dramatically in Postlaunch < 2 Years (25 references) and supplants “helping my community” in that phase by more than two to one. Following this, in Postlaunch > 2 Years we see a resurgence of “helping my community” (39 references) while “busy with business” declines and disappears off the theme list in Postlaunch > 2 Years.

Quotations from First Nation entrepreneurs in each of the three business stages (see Tables 17, 18, and 19) who were interviewed using Business Model Canvas support this conjecture.

Interview A Prelaunch:

“I wanted to help First Nation people and First Nation communities”

Interview G Prelaunch:

“You see, one of my purposes in opening the business included to be able to hire and support other First Nation women- to help them not only financially but to become confident and independent”

Interview E Prelaunch:

“Overall my business had two main goals in the planning stage: to make money and to create social benefits to First Nations through education”

Interview J Prelaunch:

“I wanted to focus on organizations, primarily First Nations, that want to do positive social change and whom I could move down the path of self-determination, stronger governance, and Nation Building”

Interview K Prelaunch:

….to help as many First Nation people as possible…”

In Table 17 (Prelaunch), note the intent expressed by First Nation entrepreneurs to help community. Then, in Table 18 (Postlaunch < 2 Years), the quotations shift focus to the amount of work and dedication required during this business phase.

Table 18 Quotations: Entrepreneurs Postlaunch < 2 Years “help my community”

Interview A Postlaunch < 2 Years:

“ I was kept busy trying to meet everyone’s needs and request while still doing substantial networking that took quite a bit of my time”

Interview B Postlaunch < 2 Years:

“Something that happened was that early on, after I launched my business, reality really hit home when the bills started coming in”

Interview C Postlaunch < 2 Years:

“I launched my business, and everything happened really fast ”

Interview D Postlaunch < 2 Years:

“The first year or two took all my energy. It was a huge amount of work even though I had good contacts and began fairly soon”

Interview J Postlaunch < 2 Years:

“I wasn’t able to spend time with the non-profits or organizations that worked towards “social accomplishments” since I was so busy working ”

Interview F Postlaunch < 2 Years

“I worked hard and often long hours”

Interview L Postlaunch < 2 Years:

“I was away travelling so much”

And then finally, in Postlaunch > 2 Years (Table 19) the focus returns stronger than ever to “helping my community”.

Table 19 Quotations: Entrepreneurs Postlaunch > 2 Years “help my community”

Interview A Postlaunch > 2 Years:

“I could now more effectively give back to my community and help in this way (this was something that was always on my mind and I wanted to do but couldn’t do as well as I wanted to in the early stages of my business). I was also able to devote more time and energy to supporting cultural events in our community”

Interview B Postlaunch > 2 Years:

“They would come and talk to me about their idea and dreams for business; I wanted to help them get ahead. Now I could ”

Interview D Postlaunch > 2 Years:

“I am also happy about and proud that I was increasingly able to hire more and more First Nation people- about 50% of my contractual hires were First Nation, so this was a benefit to my people. I also contributed over 600 hours of relevant cultural and/or First Nation based programming that was authentic”

Interview F Postlaunch > 2 Years:

“As well, after those early years I found more time to give back to the community ”

Interview H Postlaunch > 2 Years:

“ Now that I had more time and had settled into my business processes and had met continued success, I was able to help other First Nation community members even more ”

Interview J Postlaunch > 2 Years:

“ I haven’t given up. I still want to be able to help them with self-determination, governance, community empowerment and Nation Building. I haven’t stopped trying- it is important to me”.

Figure 58 “Help my community” theme: References and comments per business stage

Note Figure 58 where the “help my community” graph line shows not only the number of references for the three business stages but now has interviewee quotations transposed onto each of the business stages: The Prelaunch stage has quotes from “helping my community” taken from the Prelaunch interviews; The Postlaunch < 2 Years stage has quotes from “busy with business” taken from the Postlaunch < 2 Years interviews; The Postlaunch > 2 Years stage has quotes from “helping my community” taken from the Postlaunch > 2 Years interviews. This combination of quantitative and qualitative indicators works together to help explain the changes in references to “help my community”. Being “busy with business” is seen as the greater focus (most reference points) of First Nation entrepreneurs in Postlaunch < 2 Years, reducing the focus on “helping my community” in Postlaunch < 2 Years from the original intentions (reference points) of the Prelaunch stage. Then when the “busy with business” declines in Postlaunch > 2 Years we see the First Nation entrepreneurs resume their focus (increase references) on “helping my community”.

This answers a question remaining from Chapter Six: why did three primary First Nation entrepreneur motivators (“social mission”; “support culture”; “advance Nation Building”) decrease in importance from the Prelaunch business stage to the Postlaunch < 2 Years stage, only to then increase in Postlaunch > 2 Years? The answer is because the entrepreneurs, who fully intended in the Prelaunch stage to “help my community”, became very active (“busy with business”) during Postlaunch < 2 Years with the tasks of opening and developing their new ventures, and it wasn’t until Postlaunch > 2 Years that they were able to turn their attention back to more effectively “help my community” through an increasing focus on achieving community missions, supporting cultural and traditional activities, and advancing Nation Building initiatives.

In short, First Nation entrepreneurs from the early stage of business planning have as an important goal and full intention to see their new business ventures contribute to achieving social good in their communities, but due to the myriad of other business activities required in the first two years of startup to establish the new ventures, then are able to increasingly engage community social mission activities in years three and four, and beyond. Having established their businesses in the early years, they are now better positioned to work towards their original goals and intentions from their planning stages. The motivation to do social good in their community is not seen to decrease in the first two years- rather it is the very difficult to find time and energy for the social mission activities early on since they are extremely busy with the numerous, challenging tasks entrepreneurs face in the earlier startup years of creating, launching, and establishing business. First Nation entrepreneurs do not waver from their original goal-setting motivations in the planning stages to ensure their new business ventures help community through social mission, cultural support, and Nation Building activities; this is particularly evident once they have started up and established their businesses.

Theme 2: “Knowledge”.

“Knowledge” emerges as an important theme for First Nation entrepreneurs. It was found in the planning stage and in years three and four from startup. Three aspects of knowledge were indicated: bringing knowledge into the business; growing knowledge from and for the

Table 20 Quotations: Entrepreneurs Bringing Knowledge Prelaunch

Bringing Knowledge (Prelaunch):

Interview A Prelaunch

“My key resources included….my own knowledge…”

Interview E Prelaunch:

“My key resources were to be the model- the intellectual property- that I designed”

Interview J Prelaunch:

“My relatively deep and broad experience in this business sector gave me a knowledge base to be able to work with”

Interview H Prelaunch:

“My knowledge base was my most important resource”

Interview L Prelaunch:

“I had an education background related to Treaty negotiation, and I noticed at that time from my own first-hand experiences in First Nations that no one was doing much of any community planning”

“I had my education background, and some street smarts”

Table 21 Entrepreneurs Increasing Knowledge Postlaunch < 2 Years

Interview F Postlaunch < 2 Years:

“To enhance my skill and be accredited I took the appropriate courses”

Interview H Postlaunch < 2 Years:

“I learned a lot about Business”

Interview J Postlaunch < 2 Years:

“To keep my knowledge base up-to-date, and to advance it or improve it, I enrolled in a post-secondary program for Indigenous people”

Interview L Postlaunch < 2 Years:

“I expanded my skill set and ability to be a problem solver”

Table 22 Quotations: Entrepreneurs Using Knowledge Postlaunch > 2 Years

Using Knowledge (Postlaunch > 2 Years):

Interview E Postlaunch > 2 Years:

“Another thing that I did as my business continued through several years was to add to and build a business model and governance model based on both traditional and modern concepts”

Interview J Postlaunch > 2 Years:

“I was able to apply some of my cross-sectorial expertise, and my ability to both solve and prevent problems as I had hoped”

Interview D Postlaunch > 2 Years:

“The one thing I noticed with equipment was how technology changed the industry. I followed through all of these changes”

Interview F Postlaunch > 2 Years:

“I had very good local knowledge that I could utilize in talking to my potential customers”

business; using the knowledge in the development and growth of the business.

Note the interviewee quotations based on knowledge: “bringing knowledge”

into the business during Prelaunch (Table 20); “increasing knowledge in Postlaunch < 2 Years (Table 21); using knowledge in Postlaunch > 2 Years (Table 22).

Theme 3: Financial Actions/Concerns. The number of references for “financial concerns/action” did not change through business stages, but remained static:

i.Prelaunch: 19 references

ii.Postlaunch < 2 years: 19 references

iii.Postlaunch > 2 years: 18 references

There were no theme indicators showing noteworthy differences among the financial concerns/action theme through the three stages. Financial matters remained equally referenced by First Nation entrepreneurs across three business stages as shown earlier in Figure 56. As well, although finances are shown to be one of the important themes for First Nation entrepreneurs, at no time through the three business stages did finances become the predominant aspect for First Nation entrepreneurs. This is consistent with the research in Chapter Five where financial gain and profits were found not to be the main goal-setting motivators in First Nation new venture creation, and overall were positioned secondary in importance to the intention and actions of doing community social good.

c. A New Model for First Nation Entrepreneurs: Business Model Circle (BMCI)

(i) Benefits and Challenges of the BMC Model to First Nation Entrepreneurs.

Benefits. First Nation entrepreneurs appeared to respond readily and with clarity through most of Business Model Canvas interviews, often referring to and looking at the visual BMC template. Following the introduction, explanation and visual review of the model, there were relatively few questions, concerns or confusion from interviewees in recognizing and understanding the seven elements under study within the BMC template. (An exception, noted later, was confusion over the BMC term “pillar” and how and why it connected to the BMC diagram). While financial aspects did come up during the interviews, none of the entrepreneurs questioned the non-inclusion of the BMC Financial elements/pillar (cost structure; revenue stream).

First Nation entrepreneurs also were adept at separating the business stages (Prelaunch; Postlaunch < 2 Years; Postlaunch > 2 Years) throughout the BMC interview process. During the interviews they often referred to Prelaunch as “planning” or “getting ready”; Postlaunch < 2 Years as “the first couple of years” or “the early years”; Postlaunch > 2 Years as “after two years” or “the later years”.

Challenges. What was difficult to place within the existing model for First Nation entrepreneurs were the concepts of community contributions to doing social good, supporting First Nation cultural and traditional practices, and advancing governance and sovereignty (Nation Building). All these concepts were identified as themes (bundled together for the purposes of this thesis into “help my community”) of importance to First Nation entrepreneurs in the undertaking and development of their new business ventures. They gave this theme voice even though it was not recognized nor categorized in BMC. “Help my community” was the only theme referenced, along with “financial concerns/action”, through all three business stages, and the theme with them most total references.

It was also challenging for First Nation entrepreneurs, within the existing BMC model and template, “to find space” where the theme and “voice” of “knowledge” could be represented. For the interviewees, “knowledge” had important value and could be carried, shared, utilized and accumulated. It also had origins and sources. In this sense knowledge was regarded not only as a form of accumulating gain or wealth, but as a form of prosperity. Similarly, the support of cultural and traditional community aspects also had value, as did business contributions that helped advance sovereignty and Nation Building. These important goals and motivations were also seen as having business value, wealth generation and prosperity importance towards helping their community. Indeed, the purpose of First Nation businesses, in terms of prosperity is seen as the growing and improvement of community good through social mission, cultural support, and Nation Building hand-in-hand with financial sustainability and gain. Given this, a modified Business Model Canvas schema is recommended- one ideally inclusive of those aspects critical to First Nation entrepreneurs.

A modified framework should include the “help my community” aspects: achieving community good; doing social mission; supporting cultural aspects; Nation Building. It should also incorporate the theme of “knowledge”, which was also given important space and voice in First Nation entrepreneurship. Such a model would more fully represent and capture the elements shown to be relevant to First Nation entrepreneurs in new venture creation from the course of this research.

(ii) BMC Design versus BMCI Design

BMC. The existing BMC template is organized in a set of boxes framed within a rectangular “canvas”. For First Nation entrepreneurs, one consideration may be to change the design to a circular format, a framework design similar as that used by some Indigenous researchers (Wilson, 2004; Walter & Anderson, 2013) and seen in the Medicine Wheel (Cross et al., 2000). It was noted during this research that some First Nation interviewees lifted the BMC template diagram and turned it clockwise then counterclockwise (or vice versa) when reviewing it. Although this is only anecdotal, and not an intended part of the study, it appeared almost as if an effort was being made to view the BMC template circuitously.

The typical mainstream society design tends to be square or rectangular, commonly with connecting or intersecting lines, or adjacent boxes pulling or joining together constituent parts for some purpose or goal. A hierarchy layout from top to bottom is also not unusual. Business Model Canvas places financial elements (cost structure; revenue streams) at the lower, foundational section of the diagram, giving the impression that they are the “support” of the structure, and everything else “grows” or “arises” from that location. This visual presentation, whether by purposeful design or not, does not readily align with First Nation entrepreneur new venture creation goals and values found in this study. Likewise, BMC refers to “three pillars”, which was one of the design elements that did create uncertainty during the interviews. From the BMC diagram it is not readily apparent how the elements (boxes) link, support, or interactively operate. One example is the pillars- where are their linkages to the other pillars and the various elements, what are the pillars supporting (and how), and what is their relative role to the overall design and operation? While many of the parcels of information that answer these questions can be pieced together in reading through the texts accompanying the BMC diagram, it still remains that BMC is a mainstream model for new venture creation, and the design, terminology and presentation is not ideally suited to First Nation entrepreneurs. There is no question that the BMC model is purposeful and valuable, however the mainstream business discourse, psychology, intentions, motivations and profit-based goals behind the design ultimately do not fully nor accurately represent those of First Nation entrepreneurs.

(iii) Business Model Circle (BMCI).

Visual Model of BMCI. Utilizing visual representation of information and ideas is important to the sharing and analysis of indigenous knowledge, life experiences and conditions (Chilisa, 2012). An adapted visual model of Business Model Canvas unique for First Nation entrepreneurs (Business Model Circle) is shown in Diagram 11. The suggested adaptations to Business Model Canvas in the creation of Business Model Circle include:

i. There are eight elements rather than nine: value proposition, key resources, key partners, key activities, customer segments, client relations, channels, and cost structure. The ninth element, revenue streams, has been moved into the centre of the BMCI to take its place along with the other three sources of wealth as one of the four prosperity streams found to be important drivers of First Nation entrepreneurs.

ii. The elements are arranged circularly rather than in a box, rectangle or pillar design.

iii. There are four prosperity streams rather than one revenue stream: social mission, cultural support, Nation Building, and revenue sources. At the core or heart of the model is “knowledge” which is surrounded, supported and stabilized by the four prosperity streams.

iv. The eight elements and the four prosperity streams combine to make a total of 12 aspects: this is relevant as Native people are governed on numerous occasions where the number of 12 may be appropriate, for example in Diné (Navajo) culture where 12 kernels represent the origin and growth of language, and 12 leaders would manage arising crises (Claw, Verbos & Rosile, 2017).

v. Encircling the prosperity streams and knowledge situated in the centre of the circle are the eight elements.

Dynamics of BMCI. BMCI is a dynamic, interactive entrepreneurship model more suited to the First Nation entrepreneurs’ intentions, motivations and business stage processes in new venture creation within their own environments. The adaptive, multidimensional, dynamic and interdependent systems of all entities is well known to Indigenous peoples (Claw, Verbos &

Diagram 11. Business Model Circle (BMCI)

Rosile, 2017; Cajete, 2000). It is readily discernable (note terms marked in bold) within W.B Gartner’s classic four-variable models of entrepreneurship ((Gartner, 1985, 2016; Gartner, Mitchell, & Vesper, 1989; Katz & Gartner, 1988). BMCI recognizes the robust, unique and transformable motivations of the First Nation entrepreneur, identifies key interactive aspects and supportive elements needed for their organizations to be brought to startup life and development, sources the critical streams of prosperity as knowledge and activity processes, and incorporates a more holistic design and approach required to move adeptly through their specific business environments. It provides a model, language and active discourse for the First Nation entrepreneur engaged and in motion through the stages of new venture creation. BMCI still contains much of the original BMC model, but with adaptive changes more suitable to First Nation entrepreneurs.

The constituent parts of BMCI are supportive of one another, and critical for balance. The inner circle is represented by the four primary motivators and goals of First Nation entrepreneurs. Each is a stream and source of prosperity generated by the business venture. In turn, the four streams flow into and build a knowledge base at the very core of the enterprise, strengthening sustainability, enhancing business adaptability, and providing potential reference bases and guidance for future First Nation entrepreneurs. The outer circle includes crucial components and aspects required to move the venture into the four prosperity streams. Each one is seen as equally important. Metaphorically, if we envision the circle as a wheel in motion moving, should one of the outer circle parts be missing- then the wheel will have trouble moving forward and may “become stuck”, or “drag”. Every one of the parts of Business Model Circle is important to the whole model, just as every citizen member would be an important constituent of the community; the two are inseparable.

Business Model Circle is also transmutative. The parts within not only support one another but they affect and influence one another. For example, do the channel elements being selected align with the goal and motivator of cultural support? Do the key activities have an impact on potential Nation Building opportunities? Are potential key partners onstream with social mission initiatives? Do key activities reflect the inner circle goals, and vice versa? How can the value proposition best reflect the desired prosperity streams? What sources would add more knowledge? What knowledge is needed, and where should it flow from? How do various elements of the outer wheel ultimately affect knowledge growth and use? Every part of BMCI will have some affect, greater or less, on other parts. Every part is important, not just independently, but dependently to the whole.

Business Model Circle represents a new path in business discourse for First Nation entrepreneurs. The value of Business Model Canvas is certainly not erased, rather it is molded and augmented into a design more reflective of the needs, values and processes of First Nation entrepreneurship. BMCI presents both a comprehensible visual model and a dynamic design to further aid the growth and development of new venture creation with First Nation entrepreneurs. BMCI offers a new model, modality and opportunity in economic progress and development for First Nation communities looking to further engage entrepreneurial creation and support.

Postface.

Limitations.

(a) Business Model Circle is neither a challenge to the schema nor the rationality of Business Model Canvas, rather it is an outcome and model based on an analysis of the needs of First Nation entrepreneurs to change parts of the framework according to their desire and motivation to serve various purposes, whether socially, culturally, Nation building, or financially oriented.

(b) The results of closed versus open businesses after four years compares only four

closures with eight openings. It would be helpful to have had more entrepreneurs in both groups in order to make more reliable comparisons. One Business Model Canvas pillar (financial aspects) was not explored in the study, although it was referenced consistently by the interviewees.

Future Research.

It would be interesting to deepen the understanding of First Nation entrepreneurs by studying: (a) business ventures that continue beyond the fourth year; (b) what “knowledge” means to this population group in planning, starting up and developing business; (c) the effectiveness of Business Model Circle.

SECTION IV. CONCLUSIONS

Thesis Conclusions

Preface. Chapter Seven concludes the thesis. It begins with a summated account of the research questions on First Nation entrepreneurship generated from Chapters one through Six, and then provides the key findings in response to the set of inquiries. It finishes with statements on the limitations of the study and offers research recommendations into the future.

Research Inquiries.

1. What does the literature inform us about First Nation entrepreneurship?

3. What are the motivations of First Nation entrepreneurs, and how do these drivers change through new venture creation stages?

4. How do First Nation entrepreneurs change their business elements through stages of new venture creation?

5. What can we learn about survivability of First Nation entrepreneurial business ventures?

6. What terms, conceptual frameworks and business paradigms are suitable for conducting research on First Nation entrepreneurship?

Key Findings

1. What does the literature inform us about First Nation entrepreneurship?

Research Paucity. There had been scant information available regarding First Nation entrepreneurship, and no question that a void exists in the research literature on Indigenous entrepreneurship, business and economic development. An overall knowledge gap is evident with little or no research regarding First Nation small business creation processes and business development stages. It had remained unclear what the goals and motivations for First Nation new venture creation were. The various aspects and characteristics of First Nation entrepreneurship have been difficult to analyze and understand using traditional system of metrics and definition.

Benefit and Value. First Nation entrepreneurship is an important element and opportunity for Indigenous community economic development by way of direct citizen benefit, community wealth generation, and Nation building. First Nation entrepreneurial ventures are increasing despite not being widely evident in the literature. For example, the entrepreneurial ventures are often assumed or found embedded in, connected to, and derived from larger scale economic development initiatives of specific First Nation communities, however their presence, role and importance often goes understated in comparison to large scale economic projects. More awareness of existing First Nation entrepreneurs and promotion of opportunities that exist for Indigenous peoples in the field is recommended.

Successes and Challenges. Two out of three First Nation new venture creations were still in business operation at the start of their fifth year. First Nation entrepreneurs are successful businesspersons: although they are exposed to especially difficult and challenging business environment in many regions and communities, they continue to startup and operate businesses in the face of what are often significant challenges such as access to capital, locations that are remote or rural, market availability, poor infrastructure, and numerous other barriers to entry. Successful First Nation entrepreneurs should be profiled and celebrated as success examples to other potential Indigenous business operators.

2. What types of business models do First Nation entrepreneurs utilize in new venture creation?

Sole Proprietorships. First Nation entrepreneurs are most likely to create business start-ups in sole proprietorship as opposed to collective entrepreneurship initiatives or social entrepreneurship enterprises. However, if First Nation entrepreneurs know other entrepreneurs who are operating in a collective business or social entrepreneurship enterprise, they tend towards opening one of the two latter business types.

Social entrepreneurship. Social entrepreneurship is a largely untapped business model and opportunity for the support of new venture creation, economic development, and poverty alleviation in First Nation communities. Twenty-three percent of First Nation entrepreneurs express interest in opening a social enterprise, but ultimately only eight percent actually do so. Policy development and funding streams could be developed or reconfigured to encourage First Nation social entrepreneurship.

Formal Business Planning. Regardless of the type of business model utilized in startup, three out of four First Nation entrepreneurs do not draw up formal business plans either during Prelaunch or Postlaunch business phases. More awareness of the importance of business planning and more training opportunities is recommended for First Nation community members. As well, BMCI is suggested as a framework more appropriate for Indigenous business planning that could be incorporated into education and training.

3. What are the motivations of First Nation entrepreneurs, and how do these drivers change through new venture creation stages?

Primary Motivators. There are six primary goal-setting motivators for First Nation on-reserve entrepreneurs. Ranked in order, beginning with the highest importance to entrepreneurs, they are: (a) social mission; (b) financial gain and Nation building and cultural support (equally important); (c) joining a business collective; (d) social networking.

Achieving Social Mission. The creation of social good, the preeminent driver of First Nation entrepreneurs, is critical to First Nation new venture creation and entrepreneurship. Achieving social mission through the business startup and development is a paramount goal of new venture creation entrepreneurs in First Nation communities. Secondary to contributing to social good, Nation building and cultural support are found equally important as goal-setting motivators along with financial profit to First Nation on-reserve entrepreneurs.

During the early new venture creation stages (Prelaunch; first two years; years three and four) First Nation entrepreneurs remain committed to helping their community and doing social good as the key motivation. The ability and drive to achieve social mission is found to have a temporary reduction in the first two years after startup due to entrepreneurs being very busy with venture launch and the many pressing early business requirements of early startup. However, this driver then increases significantly as a goal-setting motivation in the third and fourth years following startup once the venture becomes more established.

Motivation Comparison to Other Entrepreneurial Subsets. The goal-setting motivations of First Nation entrepreneurs is consistent with those found with other Indigenous entrepreneurs across the world, as well as international poverty alleviation models. As well, First Nation entrepreneurs’ perceptions of mainstream entrepreneurs’ motivations are vastly different from their self-perceptions as entrepreneurs: First Nation entrepreneurs identify financial profit as the most important driver for mainstream entrepreneurs, whereas their own preeminent entrepreneurial motivator is the achievement of social good, with profit being secondary.

Motivators of new venture creation and business stage adjustments that happen through business stages are important aspects for inclusion in training protocols and development of First Nation business education programs. As well, entrepreneurial training programs that mix Indigenous and non-Indigenous students should be aware of the different goals and drivers of these two groups and adjust training protocols to accommodate or blend differences.

4. How do First Nation entrepreneurs change their Business Model Canvas elements through stages of new venture creation?

Frequency.

(a) First Nation entrepreneurs change their business model an average of five times in the first four years of business startup.

(b) First Nation entrepreneurs change their business models three times as often in the third and fourth year of business compared to the first two years of business.

(c) The key resource changed most often by First Nation entrepreneurs is the augmentation of their own knowledge base in new venture creation.

(d) First Nation entrepreneur business model elements that change the least in the first two years of startup (client channels and value propositions) are also the business elements they changed the most in the third and fourth year.

(e) BMC pillars that change most often for First Nation entrepreneurs during the first four years of business startup are infrastructure and client interface.

Business education specific too First Nation peoples should incorporate aspects (a) to (e) in their training curriculum to ensure the most appropriate content possible.

5. What can we learn about survivability of First Nation entrepreneurial business ventures?

Background of First Nation Entrepreneurs. First Nation entrepreneurs are more likely to have new ventures remaining open at the end of the fourth year if they have backgrounds in the business sector which they open their enterprise.

Business Model Changes. First Nation entrepreneurs making lower than average business model changes in the first two years are more likely to have businesses close at the end of four years than those entrepreneurs with higher than average business model changes in both the first two years and in years three and four.

These knowledge points are important for the new entrepreneur starting up business and may help with decisions on business type and the importance of pivoting in business design in the early stages of development.

6. What terms, concepts and business paradigms are congruous with First Nation entrepreneurship research?

Terms and Definitions. Given the wide variance in terminology and definitions in the overall field the following terms and their definitions are recommended for First Nation entrepreneurship research:

i. Entrepreneurship: Entrepreneurship is defined as the broad field, endeavor and journey of entrepreneuring process, which includes the intent, motivation, volition and action to create, launch and operate a business organization as a new venture offering services or products in order to achieve some goal(s) within a given context or environment. Important aspects of entrepreneurship include: the entrepreneur; the new venture creation process; the role of motivation.

ii. Entrepreneur: An entrepreneur is defined as an individual engaged in the broad field, endeavor, and journey of entrepreneuring process, which includes the intent, motivation, volition and action to create, launch and operate a business organization as a new venture offering services or products in order to achieve some goal(s) within a given context or environment. The term entrepreneur is positioned and operates within the model “Four Variable Framework for Describing New Venture Creation” (Gartner, 1985, 2016; Gartner, Mitchell, & Vesper, 1989; Katz & Gartner, 1988).

Conceptual Terms. The term “knowledge” is a key aspect of business development identified by First Nation entrepreneurs in their quest to achieve the goals of new venture creation. As such, “knowledge” should be considered an important aspect for inclusion in research with this population group. “Knowledge” is an important, dynamic concept to First Nation entrepreneurs in their business; identified by First Nation entrepreneurs as encompassing the skills, learnings and experiences they bring to the venture, their ongoing growth and development, and when and how they make use of them.

Existing Conceptual Frameworks. The following existing conceptual frameworks and schemas are recommended for use in designing First Nation research:

i. “Four Variable Framework for Describing New Venture Creation” (Gartner, 1985, 2016; Gartner, Mitchell, & Vesper, 1989; Katz & Gartner, 1988).

ii. “Organizational Emergence Model” (Gartner, Bird, & Starr, 1992; Gartner, 1993; Gartner & Brush, 2007).

iii. “Goal-setting Theory” (Latham and Locke, 1984, 1990, 1991).

New Conceptual Framework.

iv.“Business Model Circle” (BMCI).

Business Model Circle, developed from this research, is a new business design and model adapted from Business Model Canvas (BMC). It is more suited to First Nation entrepreneurs’ intentions, drivers and business stage processes in new venture creation. It takes into account the goal-setting motivations crucial to Indigenous business startup and development within their own community environments and contexts. BMCI recognizes the robust, unique and transformable motivations of the First Nation entrepreneur, identifies key interactive aspects and supportive elements needed for their organizations to be brought to startup life and development, sources the critical streams of Indigenous prosperity as knowledge and activity processes, and incorporates a more holistic design and approach required to move adeptly through their specific business environments. It provides a model, language and active discourse for the First Nation entrepreneur engaged and in motion through the stages of new venture creation. BMCI would be a good tool for increasing First Nation business planning; presently only one in four First Nation entrepreneurs draw up business plans during new venture creation stages (i.e. prelaunch and first four years of postlaunch).

BMCI is recommended for consideration and use by: (a) First Nation entrepreneurship and economic development researchers; (b) Indigenous entrepreneurs looking to startup and/or develop their ventures; (c) educators and trainers in Indigenous business, both academic and practical; (d) policy and fund developers establishing or reviewing Indigenous economic development and educational initiatives

Postface.

Limitation s.

The research in this study is limited by three factors: sample size; generalizability to population studied; time and funding resources.

Sample Size. There were 92 First Nation entrepreneur research participants. Four participated in the focus group; twenty-four participants were interviewed; sixty-four participants completed the questionnaire. A greater number of qualitative (interviews) and quantitative (questionnaire) participants would be desirable. The research was limited by difficulties in accessing First Nation entrepreneurs due to several factors: (a) First Nation entrepreneurs numbers remain low compared to mainstream Canadian entrepreneurs despite recent growth in venture startups by Indigenous peoples; (b) the rural and often remote locations, including long distances from larger centers and between communities where First Nation on-reserve entrepreneurs can be found operating their businesses; (c) periodic mistrust or concerns by some Indigenous community members and leadership over data gathering in First Nation communities “from the outside”. While by-and-large individual First Nation entrepreneurs were willing to share their business stories, it is challenging to find “clusters” or “groups” of entrepreneurs whom are available for research participation.

Generalizability to Population Studied. The participants in this research came from more than forty First Nations, with the majority being within the British Columbia borders. However, there are 364 First Nations in Canada, and although they are all part of Indigenous peoples, there are many different languages, dialects, customs, practices, environments and social/economic conditions. Consequently, a broad generalization and application from the research findings may not apply to every First Nation.

Time and Funding Resources. The time, travel and costs involved in completing research with the widely separated First Nation communities and businesses operations can be challenging, especially in doctorate study. It is important to learn, follow and respect community protocols in accessing First Nation communities, members and information. As well, honoria costs for participants can be significant when gathering quantitative data, so this requires advance planning and budgeting.

Future Research.

(a) Business Model Circle (BMCI).

Further exploration and continuing development of the Business Model Circle paradigm is recommended:

Exploration. Business Model Circle is based on the research findings from First Nation entrepreneurs. It pulls together the intentions, desires, motivations, actions and results of these individual entrepreneurs, who is many cases persevered and successfully overcame significant business challenges. An opportunity exists to utilize BMCI to explore not only First Nation communities, regions and territories but other Indigenous peoples, and beyond into various Non-Indigenous minority groups.

First Nation research could compare community differences and similarities in each of the twelve BMCI components, how they are linked to and what they mean to knowledge accumulation and usage. BMCI can help determine business elements and drivers more favorable or specific to various First Nations.

Likewise, BMCI could explore and compare entrepreneurship with Indigenous peoples from

different parts of the world. Commonalities could lead to mutual sharing of ideas, information,

knowledge and skills. Differences could be recognized to reduce any potential misunderstandings or misapplications.

Non-Indigenous minority groups in different parts of the world may find value in BMCI research as it takes cultural, community and governance aspects into consideration within the framework of the model. Minority groups can better recognize the most relevant aspects of their needs, motivations and goals beyond but not excluding financial aspects. Social mission can support, cultural aspects which can support financial aspects which can support community and Nation Building aspects, and on and on between and among the prosperity streams emerging from the BMCI model.

BMCI could serve as a training tool for Indigenous entrepreneurs as it would be more reflective of the goals, values and desires of participants hoping to open businesses in their communities. It could serve as a guide for business planning thereby increasing the likelihood of funding approval needed for startup.

Mainstream Canadian society may have something to learn from BMCI as well. With the renewed focus on corporate social responsibility (CSR), BMCI may be an opportunity for exploration of goals beyond financial profit and further into mission and improving governance and management infrastructure.

The feasibility of BMCI for conducting research and exploration into entrepreneurship with First Nations, other Indigenous peoples, minority groups and even mainstream society business, appears propitious. The model and template is transportable, applicable, more comprehensive, and conveniently structured and readily comprehensible by both its holistic design and constituent circles and elements. As well, with its crucial prosperity flows supported by the interacting, recognizable elements of origin form Business Model Canvas, Business Model Circle appears fluid and broad enough for further development.

Development. How can Business Model Circle be further developed? BMCI, like entrepreneurs and entrepreneurship, should always be progressive, future and forward thinking, and relevant to the goals and needs of individuals, communities and nations. Further research can provide not only nuances within each section of the model for specific entrepreneurial groups, but may indicate specific broader categories, motivators, and prosperity streams for inclusion.

Some specific areas for development though further research include: BMCI and business stages; BMCI and business types.

i. BMCI and Business Stages. Business Model Canvas was an effective framework for gathering data on business stages in Chapter 6. It remains for future research to determine how effective Business Model Circle may be with Indigenous and other entrepreneurial groups. Studies using the BMCI framework to analyze entrepreneurship would aid in determining the research efficacy of BMCI across business stages and time. This would also help to see how BMCI may be of benefit in the planning/prelaunch activities of entrepreneurs.

ii. BMCI and Business Types. Future research should use and test BMCI across different business model types: sole proprietorship; business collectives; social entrepreneurship to determine if any adjustments in the model would be beneficial to the study of each of the groups.

(b) Other Recommendations.

Knowledge. Future research on new venture creation knowledge management by First Nation entrepreneurs is also advisable. Presently, no data is available in the literature on the important theme of knowledge identified in this dissertation by the entrepreneurs. With a better understanding of the role of knowledge in new venture creation and development, policies and training strategies could be adjusted or built to help First Nation entrepreneurs achieve business goals.

Primary Motivators. The key motivators and their respective importance rankings may vary from entrepreneur group to group depending on location, background, nationality and culture. BMCI may be a proficient tool for measuring the motivational differences among Indigenous communities given the broader scope of prosperity streams in the framework. Further BCMI research with different entrepreneurial regions, nationalities and cultures would help to assess differences. Once any differences are determined, startup and early new venture creation support can be better targeted and directed to increase and enhance small business development with those population groups.

Social Entrepreneurship. Social entrepreneurship is indicated as an area of interest for First Nation entrepreneurs, and as the BMCI multi-dimensional focus includes achieving social mission, research using BMCI would serve as a good platform for learning more about this business design.

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(April 11, 2019): opened a business in financial consulting

Pre-Launch

I had worked several years at a branch of a large Canadian Bank and planned and then opened my own business as a financial consultant. It was a successful undertaking.

Products/Services:

My value proposition was to reduce the cost of banking services paid by clients in order to free up capital and cash flow for them. Examples included interest fees, mortgage rates, carrying costs, and so forth. I saw the costs many of them paid and realized they could be lessened- in some cases significantly.

Interface clients:

My client segments were any and all First Nation businesses and First Nation community/administrative organizations regardless of size, service, background, private or NGO. I wanted to help First Nation people and First Nation communities. And I wanted to have a financially successful business. My customer channels were planned to be in acquisition- meaning to find and secure them in contracts. I planned to connect with them and maintain relationships through direct personal contact- meet with key individuals of various organizations in person or by phone and explain my service and the value it offered. For all client types/groups I intended to provide direct face-to-face personalized service by myself.

Management of Infrastructure:

My key resources included data banks on First Nation businesses, my own knowledge of the financial industry related to banking and banking services, and a home office space and office equipment. I was the only employee.

Key partners were other consultants who offered connected services to banking in which I didn’t have background. This included trustees and business managers. Some of them were competitors and some weren’t- if I needed to I could either draw on their expertise (consult with them) and/or refer clients to them if circumstances required.

My key activities were problem solving and providing new solutions/recommendations/improvements in their financial/banking activities that would most effectively reduce costs and free up cash for them.

Post-launch < 2 years

I discovered in my earlier start-up stages that my service products were catching on and being

successful. I was gaining more business knowledge and increasing clients.

I was kept busy trying to meet everyone’s needs and requests while still doing substantial networking that took quite a bit of my time. I could see the networking was having the desired effect, but it took a lot of time and energy.

Interface clients:

My client segments continued to be any and all First Nation businesses and First Nation community/administrative organizations no matter their service, size or needs; it felt sometimes like juggling. My client relationships were focused on acquisition: I felt a need to build and secure contracts and so I networked as much as I could- basically anywhere and with any opportunity to present my business and myself possible. I learned that my best networking was on the golf course with potential clients, so I spent a fair bit of time networking this way. There was a lot happening and a lot of what I call “noise” going on out there and it was sometimes hard to figure out what and where was important to attend in networking, so I usually tried to do any and all I could in the early couple of years. I often went to any or every event I possibly could to meet people- this was my “shotgun” approach to find work and work leads. Once a client was “interested” I still connected to them through personal contact- and meet with key individuals of various organizations and then when some business or contract was “secured”, whether larger or smaller, I would follow through to meet their needs myself. Through time in this stage I build my credibility, and also learned how to better deliver my services including how to walk my clients through the processes of my service delivery.

Management of Infrastructure:

My key resources now were events of all types- not always be business related. I wanted to meet people, get my name “out there and spread the news” of my business and it’s offerings.

The key activity I increased was my networking activities- gathering lists and data on events where I could meet people and hand out business cards or just get to know them and increase my overall networking that could hopefully lead to increased work for my business. Otherwise my key resources were pretty much the same. I was the only employee and becoming very busy. I still retained some key partners (consultants in related financial services) for making referrals when necessary, if a topic/issue was outside of my scope of knowledge.

My key activities remained the same, including problem solving, and providing new solutions/recommendations/improvements in their financial/banking activities that would lower costs and free up their cash.

Post-launch > 2 years

Products/Services:

I continued with my key service delivery/products and made additions- for example, I now

cash management lending, further cost analyses, and some other services. I was being asked to take on more work and contracts of varying sizes, amounts and time.

I was kept very busy trying to meet everyone’s needs and requests that were now arrived, so I felt it was time to refocus and make some decisions about my networking, my clients, and my use of time.

Interface clients:

I made changes to my client groups. I had been spreading myself too thin. I decided now to take on only two types of clients, instead of everyone who came to me: (a) the largest clients with longer-term needs that provided security for my business; (b) community based organizations, including smaller NGOs, so I could now more effectively give back to my community and help in this way (this was something that was always on my mind and I wanted to do, but couldn’t do as well as I wanted to in the early stages of my business launch). I was also able to devote more time and energy to supporting cultural events in our community.

My client relation methods remained the same. I provided the direct service/consulting for my clients and didn’t hire any staff.

Client channels were focused much less on acquisition and more on adding within those contract and clients I already had. I would make an exception to small community organizations and make new contract acquisitions, even if it didn’t pay much, in order to help the community.

I also changed my networking strategy. Instead of my “shotgun” approach and “golf course” networking I refocused on community boards and committees. While this was networking that could help or add to my business when needed, more importantly it was giving back to the community. I felt I could now devote more time to do this as my business was more mature, and well established.

Management of Infrastructure:

My key resources were narrowed down: continue to grow my own knowledge and experience in the financial business world; community boards and committees; physically, my home office. By sitting on Board and Committees I could help and strengthen my First Nation regarding governance and leadership decisions.

My key consulting activities remained the same, although I always tried to add to my knowledge in the field.

My key partners received more referrals from me, as I was taking on less work to focus on primary clients and community needs related to my business now were events of all types- they didn’t have to always be business related.

Business Model Canvas Interview # 2

(April 11, 2019): opened a retail shop

Pre-Launch

Although I wasn’t an artist myself, I wanted to sell art, and make First Nation arts and crafts the focus of my business.

Products/Services:

My value proposition was to sell customers native art that was “authentic”- mostly hand crafted and not mass produced. It had to be done by Indigenous artists, not non-Indigenous people. The art was to be high quality and reasonably priced to be accessible for purchasers.

Interface clients:

For my business the client segments were to be quite broad to include any one who could afford art and was interested especially in native artistry. I was thinking mostly they would be customers who wanted to buy art as gifts. However, I had an inkling that “well-off or high-end” (by that I mean well-off financially) non-native people interested in native culture could be a primary customer group. I had noticed this group of people through my younger years, and I saw first hand that they weren’t always buying authentic native goods- too often they had been made and painted in China or somewhere outside of Canada. They may have looked “stereotypically” native with native motifs of animals, drums, carved images, etc., but they weren’t authentic. I didn’t have any ready-made clients, so my customer relationship focus was planned to be “acquiring” customers. My selling channels were to be direct by face-to-face, with one or two store fronts.

I also regarded the native artists themselves as customers in the sense that they were often struggling to make ends meet, and I wanted to be able to help them. The way I would do this was by buying their artwork and goods at prices fair to them. That would be contributing to my community, and to my culture.

Management of Infrastructure:

My key resources were to be physical and human- the stores themselves, and the equipment (shelves, etc.) in the locations, as well as some in-store sales people for retail selling during business hours. Financially, I had enough resources to be able to get myself started.

My key partners were to be suppliers- the artists themselves directly and not through some third party, “middle-man”, or warehouse supplier. I had met artists through the years, and had some relationships built up I hoped to be able to follow-through on to be able to purchase goods from these artists for resale to the public.

My key activities in the planning stage was to focus on finding store locations I could afford and that were not close to any competitors. I had to figure out a good store size- not too big and not too small. Also, I had to locate the suppliers, and promote my business.

Post-launch < 2 years

Products/Services:

My products and services stayed relatively consistent in the first year or two of business. My focus remained selling only authentic native art and goods. I decided to initially open two store-fronts in locations that had no competitors nearby. I continued to use only native artists.

Something that happened was that early on, after I launched my business, reality really hit home when the bills started coming in. I had been quite passionate about both keeping suppliers paid fairly and keeping my cost to the public low, but suddenly I had no choice but to make sure I kept focused enough on the tasks at hand to be sure to keep operational and survive. It was a wake-up call, and a very busy time, so I needed to concentrate on doing “first things first”. I had focus on what was right in front of me day-to-day: suppliers, training staff, customers, lease costs, other bills, staffing, payroll, etc.

Interface clients:

My planning and expectations were fairly accurate for my customer base. I picked up quite a few high-end clients, as well as the public overall in general. The client segments matched what I had speculated they would be early on, and my business was picking up and began doing well at both store fronts I had set up.

I continued to acquire clients (word of mouth brought new customers, along with newspaper ads), but there were now repeat buyers and I wanted to also focus on retaining them. I learned that my non-Indigenous customers really liked the “’story behind” the art. This became an important part of my relations with customers- the “history or story” was a key part of the sale, and something they were very interested in learning and knowing about to go along with the native artwork they purchased.

Management of Infrastructure:

My key resources and partners types continued through the first couple of years of business. The artists I purchased from grew in numbers, as did my customers and sales. Both of my stores continued to stay open and be successful. I was very busy myself managing the stores, and able to staff them.

One of my newer marketing activities during this period was to be sure to find fund-raising events I could donate art to. This helped get my business name out into the public. I spent quite a bit of time meeting people and looking for ways to promote my business and get the word out there.

Post-launch > 2 years

Products/Services:

While I continued with my main products and business of selling art in my stores, there now was a significant addition to my business products/services after a couple of years went by. My business had become quite successful, and I found that I was being asked by other First Nation people to help them build their own businesses. They had seen my stores survive and do well. They asked for help. I absolutely wanted to help them, and now I had the time to be able to do so. By helping them, I could help my people, and support culture and community even more!

I became a business advisor to go along with an artist storefront entrepreneur. I need to explain that while I did charge for the business advice, my fees were actually very low. I was more interested in helping the new First Nation entrepreneurs than I was in making money from them. My stores were most of my income, but now I had time to help other First Nation people and I was able to charge them quite low fees so as not to impinge on their start-up costs.

Specifically, I usually helped them with designing and drawing up business plans, as well as finding sources of funds through grants and other means so they could get their businesses off the ground. I helped eight First Nation businesses take off- they included a bakery, charters for fishing trips, a mall, a grocery store, consulting business, etc.

Interface clients:

I had a new client group – First Nation people desiring to be entrepreneurs.

For this group, I didn’t really need to do any marketing- they would come and find me. I think because my retail stores were so successful, when they heard about it- and knowing of me personally as well- they would come and talk with me about their idea and dreams for business; I wanted to help them get ahead. Now I could.

My client relation methods otherwise remained pretty-well the same. I gave direct store-front service to the other customer groups and still had store staff I managed.

Client channels for my stores continued to focus on new acquisitions, and retention. I didn’t market my business support services as there was only so much time I could devote to it, and I didn’t want it to become full-time or take any more time away from the stores- but it was very important for me to help the budding First Nation business people whenever I could.

Management of Infrastructure:

My key resources remained for my stores as did my key suppliers, but I had now added a new intellectual resource which was business know-how and business development skills. This came primarily from my own experience, and eventually I would add to it with courses and further education. I also added an activity which was regularly attending trade shows, conferences and events related to my store operations.

Business Model Canvas Interview # 3

(April 16, 2019): opened an employment training business

Pre-Launch

Products/Services:

Many First Nation communities live in remote or difficult to access areas, and there are differences between each community and differences in needs. So, my thinking and idea with value proposition in the planning period was to design and offer employment training programs directly into the communities instead of them having to travel out to bigger centres for the courses they would take. Since each community has some differences I would offer “custom-designed” courses that matched the needs and interests of each community. Examples of training courses and workshops were to be office assistants, foundation programming for the trades, or literacy training so they could take entry-level jobs (for example, at MacDonalds, etc.).

Interface clients:

My clients were to be rural First Nation communities in the interior and north of the province. They would pay for the training programs to come to their communities and teach interested community members. So, my clients were both the community leadership (for example Chief and Council or First Nation economic development departments who made decisions and would probably pay most of the costs), and the students (community members themselves) who would receive the training. The students might have to pay something as well, but hopefully the community leadership would find or secure the funds to cover educational costs.

I would need to find clients (interested communities) so I would initially be looking to acquire customers to support the program, and following this, if successful, I would need to find and secure the students for the courses as well- although the community would probably be expected help a lot with determining this. My sales channels were to be direct contact and to have one or two sales people to start out who would pitch the ideas and assess what the needs were in specific communities. Then I could design the training programs and find the person or people who would deliver the courses.

Management of Infrastructure:

I would need key partners: post-secondary institutions that could provide courses, as well as educators who would be able and willing to travel and deliver the trainings. My key resources would be human- staff to sell and to do training; physical- an office space for us to operate out of; financial- enough of a slush or start-up fund to cover initial costs and travel. The main activities would be researching what First Nation communities would be interested and want to have training projects delivered. I made a five-year plan.

Post-launch < 2 years

Products/Services:

I launched my business, and everything happened very fast and successfully. The training services were desired by communities as I had hoped when I was planning, and two rural First Nations signed up for substantial programs early on. I was surprised at how quickly everything came together- work, marketing, selling, contracts, service and payments. The services delivered were as planned.

Interface clients:

Marketing quickly became word-of-mouth and there was so much interest and activity I had to concentrate on the two large clients. It turned out that corporations, for example corporation involved in the extraction of natural resources on First Nation land, were financing the education programs as part of their extraction agreements- so they became clients as well as they were part of the dialogue, and ultimately provided the funding to First Nations to pay my business.

I focused more on retaining the clients I had as the programs they wanted were so large and the contracts were significant. Therefore, I wasn’t thinking so much in the first year or two to find new clients. Face-to-face and regular contact and ongoing relationship maintenance with the clients was important.

Management of Infrastructure:

My key partners remained (post secondary schools, teachers/trainers, sales person). Corporate contacts were now partners as they needed updates and deliverable results from the training programs which were soon up and running. Most of the activity was delivering programs, following through and problem solving with students and adding trainers, concentrating on ensuring payroll and expense reimbursements. I continued to use the same office space. It was a very busy and exciting time, and everything seemed to happen so fast, and almost seamlessly. My sales person also did assessments of community needs and helped with the relationship building and maintenance, and program set-up on-site.

Post-launch > 2 years

Products/Services:

I now had just started to expand my services: I did an evaluation of an existing educational

program a community was utilizing-entrepreneurship incubation. I interviewed the students to write an assessment report.

Unfortunately, as quickly as my business was successful in landing contracts, I was surprised after a couple of years how quickly the business dried up. Other than this one evaluation, I had kept the same training services and was starting to focus on how I could keep the same value propositions but improve on them, based on what I had learned the first couple of years (remote custom-designed delivery; face-to-face services). Two things happened that changed things. One was that the corporate funding dried up very quickly and unexpectedly as natural resource extraction issues and politics (outside of my control) took place. Secondly, I hadn’t diversified my services enough (except for the one evaluation) nor looked for other contracts but focused on just those two contracts/clients/communities. Now education training funding was virtually zero in remote communities who had relied on corporate funding. I had no other clients.

My business was struggling.

Interface clients:

I wound down and finished up the service delivery and contracts using the same staff and client contact and relationship methods. I was unable to acquire any more clients for the service- there were no longer funds for the training programs.

Management of Infrastructure:

I had to eventually lay off staff- both sales and trainers/educators. I eventually closed my office, having wound down my partnerships with the post secondary institutions, and finished the last elements of the existing contracts.

I am now doing other work and continuing some of my own educational upgrading.

Looking back at this experience as a First Nation entrepreneur, there was something that really affected me when I had such financial success in the first one to two years- I really felt “guilty”. I felt guilty selling to First Nation communities because I was always asking myself if what I was doing was being seen as a colonial mechanism (make money and take advantage of First Nations), or if it was really helping them. I struggled with trying to figure out if education was a colonial mechanism or a way out of poverty. I really felt conflicted about these two aspects. And I always felt under so much pressure to provide a good and consistent service. All these feeling while I was doing the work during the successful period really affected me, in fact it would bring me down, and even kill my motivation. It was like trying to live within two world views at the same time- really burdensome and stressful, and I think ultimately for my business actually had some devasting effects.

Business Model Canvas Interview # 4

(May 6, 2019): media business

Pre-Launch

After working for several years in the media business, including news editing, I decided to open my own small business in the film and television industry. As an indigenous woman, I was a rarity in this industry when I started, as I was in business later in the field. My business has been up and running for twenty plus years.

Products/Services:

For my business, the value proposition was to design and produce film and television documentaries that focused on “true stories” of First Nation people, their life experiences, and their businesses. From my salaried work in the field I often saw skewed, inaccurate representations of First Nation people. I believed I could bring a better, more realistic product into the public.

Interface clients:

My client segments were specific as it was a narrow client base available for the industry in Canada at the time: CRTC (Canadian Radio-television and Telecommunication Corporation CRTC would put out calls for proposals from their broadcaster base looking for programs. I had good background information and history with CRTC, so they were my client base. I knew they would continue to put out requests for cultural programs and language (including First Nations). I didn’t have any client contracts when I started, so I had to acquire them through the request for proposal process. I had good contacts from my salaried job with the CRTC so I didn’t need to advertise or set up a store front. I wanted to coordinate and produce the programs and would be the contact and face for proposals/projects. I also wrote all the proposals.

Management of Infrastructure:

My key activities would be proposal writing, design of the program, and overall project management throughout start to finish. This would include obtaining equipment and personal necessary through contracts, as well as arranging locations and following through with the personnel I hired. This involved ongoing problem solving to go along with good planning and foresight.

Post-launch < 2 years

The first year or two took all my energy. It was a huge amount of work even though I had good contacts and began fairly soon with my first project. All of my work was project- so when one finished I would be looking right away for another. It was a continuous cycle this way, but I loved the work.

What happened with my business was that as soon as a project of a specific size was complete I would look for another – but bigger – project. My desire and motivation never dropped; I stayed with it project after project. Often there wasn’t a lot of money being made for me in my business, but I kept going. In thinking about money, you know for me in my business it was that the social value was way more important than the dollars. By this I mean that from the get-go I was doing cultural programming and “real” programming and this was helping promote my people. As well, I was hiring more and more First Nation people.

I had quite few person-to-person agreements that were handshake deals- these worked out well as there was a lot of trust built up in my services and in myself in the field.

Products/Services:

My business model and services remained the same as planned from start-up and through the first couple of years. Proposal writing, responding to requests for proposals, overseeing program delivery all continued.

Interface clients:

I still had to acquire new customers as I went, plus there were repeat customers. I didn’t need to do advertising or set-up a website.My client segments continued to be any and all First Nation businesses and First Nation community/administrative organizations no matter their service, size or needs; it felt sometimes like juggling. My client relationships were focused on acquisition: I felt a need to build and secure contracts and so I networked as much as I could- basically anywhere and with any opportunity to present my business and myself possible. I learned that my best networking was on the golf course with potential clients, so I spent a fair bit of time networking this way. There was a lot happening and a lot of what I call “noise” going on out there and it was sometimes hard to figure out what and where was important to attend in networking, so I usually tried to do any and all I could in the early couple of years. I often went to any or every event I possibly could to meet people- this was my “shotgun” approach to find work and work leads. Once a client was “interested” I still connected to them through personal contact- and meet with key individuals of various organizations and then when some business or contract was “secured”, whether larger or smaller, I would follow through to meet their needs myself. Through time in this stage I build my credibility, and also learned how to better deliver my services including how to walk my clients through the processes of my service delivery.

Management of Infrastructure:

My key resources remained contract people, both “up-level” (directors, narrators, etc.) and “down-level” (boom operators, camera-people, etc.), and equipment rental for each and every project.

My key activities remained the same: proposal writing, design of the program, and overall project management and problem solving that needs to be done through the life of the project.

Post-launch > 2 years

Products/Services:

One thing that became more and more, and which was an add-on to my service was mentoring. I began doing more and more mentoring to the point that I mentored and helped over 200 people in the industry over twenty years- about ten or more per year. This included broadcasters, film production, coordinating, and post-production services.

cash management lending, further cost analyses, and some other services. I was being asked to take on more work and contracts of varying sizes, amounts and time.

I was kept very busy trying to meet everyone’s needs and requests that were now arrived, so I felt it was time to refocus and make some decisions about my networking, my clients, and my use of time.

Interface clients:

I am also happy about and proud that I was increasingly able to hire more and more First Nation people- about 50% of my contractual hires were First Nation, so this was a benefit to my people. I also contributed over 600 hours of relevant cultural and/or First Nation based programming that was authentic. My business model never changed much other than the mentoring that became an add-on. I never felt a need to change my business channels. I was always looking to add new clients- but many of my original clients were retained.

Management of Infrastructure:

My key resources continued as before. The one thing I noticed with equipment was how technology changed the industry, and also cut into profits that could be left over. The industry went from splicing to Beta tapes to digital. I followed through all of these changes, but while it drove up my production costs, there was decreased profits as it also led to decreased business funds as more competition was arriving with access to the technology. Things have really changed this way in the past few years.

My key partners received more referrals from me, as I was taking on less work to focus on primary clients and community needs related to my business now were events of all types- they didn’t have to always be business related.

Business Model Canvas Interview # 5

(May 6, 2019): opened a business in human resource consulting

Pre-Launch

I worked quite a few years in First Nation administration/government helping design/redesign economic development programs as well as problem solving for reducing band debt. I also have been a First Nation Band Manager, so my business ideas evolved from my knowledge and experiences.

Products/Services:

I saw that there was a gap in qualified human resource services in First Nation, and given my background I believed I could offer better quality human resource consultation, problem solving and program design than what was currently out there. In short, I felt I could do it properly- in line with First Nation needs. For example, I also recognized that in First Nation world we had a lot of unresolved trauma and addictions that needed to be taken into consideration with human resource work. These were realities that impacted our population and our businesses and our families. Furthermore, given the lack of academic standing in the communities in the human resources, First Nation often hired non-Indigenous human resource consultants, so I wanted to fill the cultural knowledge gap from my First Nation experience and background. and the background. Lastly, I had negotiated for Chief and Council and wanted to provide disruptive and effective models for First Nations based upon traditional knowledge and aspects.

My focus was to be on educational and governance training and education. Examples include school and education upgrading, learning and accreditation of trades, and management/leadership skill sets.

Overall my business had two main goals in the planning stage: to make money and to create social benefits to First Nations through education.

Interface clients:

I planned my client segments to be corporations that would fund human resource related programs – both education and governance/leadership. They would provide the funds and the participants for programming that I would design, and either deliver myself or contract out.

Management of Infrastructure:

My key resources were to be the models- the intellectual property- that I designed. This included assessment tools for First Nation community members, and then strategizing the design specific to participant needs and corporate model compliance factors. I had available, from my past work, a list or data base of prospective corporate clients.

I was to be the key human resource. I planned a sole proprietorship.

I didn’t need or plan to have any key partners or suppliers.

Post-launch < 2 years

Products/Services:

My services sold quickly and I had never changed any of my products or services in the first two years. My model that included cultural material related to or directly part of the training needs sold right from the start. I had 18 corporate clients in the first two years requesting programs. My business began as I had hoped and planned.

I was very busy.

Interface clients:

My client types remained as per my planning stage. My channels of communication and dialogue were through my reaching out to previous contacts and presenting my ideas if they had corporate funds to offer education to communities as a result of mineral extraction, hydro, or whatever resource was being utilized by the corporation form a First Nation community.

Management of Infrastructure:

My key activities and resources remained as per my plan. There were no real changes other than I had to tweak my models for a given community or corporate training requirement or need.

Post-launch > 2 years

Products/Services:

The only change I made was to focus my training and human resource programming on long-term career strategies for communities. For example, career paths of the participants/students/community members. By that I also mean that the programs were meant to be not short-term, but longer-term learning to make sustainable.

Interface clients:

I had too many clients and found that I needed to be more selective of what contracts to take. The corporations weren’t as reliable as I had hoped for budget and funding follow-thorugh. I reduced my client base of services provided down to four main ones from eighteen. These would be retained clients. To have long-term learning (or life long learning programs) I would need to not just acquire clients but need to retain clients for ongoing contracts/services.

Also I eventually began promoting my business to global clients, as there are Indigenous communities all over the world that I could potentially do work with.

I opened a website to reach out and beyond into other territories and countries.

Management of Infrastructure:

My key resources remained the same- models and assessment tools with the exception that I added a family member as a business partner.

Another thing that I did as my business continued through several years was to add to and build a business model and governance model based on both traditional and modern concepts. I am still working on this, and hope to use it in upcoming projects.

(May 7, 2019): opened a water taxi business

Pre-Launch

From a young age I lived near a big lake in British Columbia, and spent a lot of time fishing, rafting, swimming and boating there, so I knew the water, shorelines and area very well. There were also some historic traditional areas that I would visit; this included some ancient pictographs- almost twenty different spots of drawings.

Products/Services:

This is what I would be able to offer with my business idea- readily available, low-cost water transportation anywhere on or around the lake and lakeshore. As well, I could offer enjoyment for customers just interested in leisure, having fun and learning more about First Nations people in our territory. I could give information and tell stories about the lake, it’s history, and explain the role it played in our culture to anyone who wanted to know more about that. I had very good local knowledge that I could utilize in talking to my potential customers and making their water trip fun and interesting. I was an outgoing, respectful and considerate person who wanted my future clients to feel good about the experience.

Interface clients:

I didn’t have a marketing plan, other than to promote by talking to people and relying on word of mouth, so that was to be my client channels.

I would have to find clients as soon as possible, because at that point it was only an idea, and there weren’t any certain customers waiting for water transport, and I still didn’t even have my own boat.

Management of Infrastructure:

Since I didn’t have money or the required boat and equipment, I went looking for a partner and started with the Tribal Council who I had heard could offer grants and financial support to First Nation would-be entrepreneurs. They liked my idea and after a summary business plan presentation they gave me the funds to make all my equipment purchases. The boat and truck I purchased were sufficient and safe for my purpose and business, though not as big as I had hoped initially. Nevertheless, it was great to be able to get my business off the ground and going.

My key activities were in preparing my water routes and activities for any customers, and getting the word out there. They would either have somewhere they wanted to go and make inquires with me, or I could make suggestions if they just wanted a tour, so I wanted to have some options available. Also, I had to plan thoughtfully about the weather and water conditions for purposes of safety. Furthermore, there would be ice coming onto the lake for the winter season, so I had to be watching for start and finish dates seasonally, even though in my location the winter period to be off the lake wasn’t overly long. I would also had to be very knowledgeable about the weather and safety issues

Post-launch < 2 years

Products/Services:

Interface clients:

Word of mouth and a set of events (development of natural resources, regional infrastructure improvements, environmentalists becoming more active) worked together to further help my business in those first two years. My customer groups expanded to include a wide range of different needs: ecological specialists (for example, spotted own observers); development protestors; Hydro development slashers; sight seers of all kinds; loggers; international visitors including many Americans and Germans. The pictograph sites were of great interest to the tourists and I would usually take them to each of the sites. They loved to take pictures and I would usually charge them by the hour.

My business continued to be all by word of mouth, and the news traveled through the region and beyond for anyone who needed to cross or travel down or around the lake whether for commercial, personal, or sight-seeing purposes that they should in touch with me and that I was reliable and readily available. I was paid now very well for my services, and I was really, really busy sometimes going from early in the morning to late at night often day after day. I kept going as my business was doing well and I didn’t want to miss the opportunities or let the clients down- there were many requests. Some were planned ahead of time, and others would arise depending on circumstances or occasionally an emergency.

More and more groups requested transport. Another one that came to me that I added were blasters who cleared rocks for the railway tracks.

Management of Infrastructure:

I needed a bigger boat as the commercial requirements kept growing.

I obtained a new partner to help me buy larger and better equipment, including a boat. I needed this as the loggers had material and equipment for moving. My new partner was the Community Futures Corporation.

I didn’t hire any staff, although my young daughter would ride along with me and often provided support and bits of help.

Post-launch > 2 years

Products/Services:

My business continued to be in demand, and it was doing well financially. After about two years there were some people in my First Nation community who became jealous at the success. They would say things like “don’t be like a shama (like a white person)”. To counteract this I finally went to a band meeting where there were many of my community members present and I explained how my business worked, and how it had developed, and how hard I was working. This helped that I was able to be listened to, and I think better understood.

My original services remained the same- there was a lot of corporate development requests. I made three changes to my tourist services. The first was that I noticed that tourist groups would schedule for five-hour tours, but there were invariably some people in the group who became fatigued so I changed the length to three hours. Secondly, I noticed some pictographs were being chipped away and parts removed, so after consulting with the band administration we agreed that tourists would only be allowed to go to four pictographs and not all twenty. We needed to protect and preserve them from damage, defacing or theft of pieces. Third, I added increased cultural aspects to my tourist trips- without harming or effecting the locations I would show them sites such as where many of the eagles were, including their habitats and nesting sites, and on occasion where they could safely spot bears

Interface clients:

I added corporate customers. Telus Corporation was one important one- they were laying fibre for technology. I also now had surveyors as a customer group.

I began to promote my business more, beyond word of mouth. The band helped me develop a website. I also began trading a free day of boating for advertising (brochure or newspaper ads).

As well, after those early years I found more time to give back to the community. I did this in two ways. First, I began hiring and employing band members in my business. Second, I donated my boat for ninety days to do supply runs for the community people when they needed it with the road situation and also the blockade happening.

Management of Infrastructure:

I needed an even bigger boat and more equipment. I had a temporary business partner- the Aboriginal Business Corporation who helped me with covering 40% of my capital needs, and 70% of soft costs such as documentation, legal paperwork and other non-capital business expenses. They reviewed my business plan and accepted it.

I purchased an even larger boat and motor.

I hired local people under contract work. I now picked up the tourists and drove them to the lake and dropped them off again, so I needed drivers, cooks, cultural people to give talks to them, and I also hired other boaters and leased out their boats and themselves as operators.

To enhance my skill and be accredited I took the appropriate courses in boating and passed my certification needs.

My business was successful for several more years. I became active in other community work – positions in the band office, as well as leadership work through Chief and Council, so I eventually closed my business to focus on community work.

Business Model Canvas Interview # 7

(May 7, 2019): opened a cafe

Pre-Launch

I had wanted to own and operate a small business for some time, so I decided to open an Indian Café in my community.

Products/Services:

My value proposition was to provide low cost food at quick preparation and service. It was to be affordable, prompt and accessible meals for people stopping over who were en route and traveling as it was on a main highway thoroughfare. Another value for customers was my plan to hold an all-day breakfast special- something not available in the area I lived so there wasn’t any competition. Also, I wanted to provide what I regarded as “comfort food” for customers. As a value to customers it would be available and reliably open for seven days a week with long daily hours.

Interface clients:

Management of Infrastructure:

Post-launch < 2 years

Products/Services:

I kept my same menu and services hours throughout the first two years. There was virtually no change in my menu or hours. My location remained the same. I had made an early decision to hang in as long as I could to see if the business could survive, thrive and grow.

Interface clients:

I continued with my advertising campaign sending out brochures and advertising through tourist spots in the region. I maintained my signs and roadside banner advertisements, but I never did set up a website or use Facebook. Looking back now, I wish I had- but then again at the time I wasn’t aware how to do those things, or how important they could be to a business.

My client base was very different than I had planned. Over time during that first couple of years my business did not draw any where near the number of tourists I had anticipated. In fact, I can say that my client base was completely different than expected. It became almost entirely local traffic and local people. While that was a regular client group, without the tourist draw and business income, it made financial survival more and more financially challenging. My ongoing promotion didn’t improve tourist numbers or cash flow.

The unexpected change in client base did something else significant. You see, one of my purposes in opening the business included to be able to hire and support other First Nation women- to help them not only financially but to become confident and independent. As the months wore on, my business cash flow grew tighter and tighter and eventually I had to lay off my staff person by person. My mother began to help me to cover labour and labour costs and became a partner in the second year. While that helped, I was very disappointed not to be able to help the community members with employment as I had hoped. We worked long days until late in the evening, and seven days a week.

Management of Infrastructure:

Post-launch > 2 years

Products/Services:

I continued into my third year but it became impossible and unrealistic to continue and expect

to have business survival. I closed shop and ended my business. I had to admit it was not working, and my small business venture “went under”.

Interface clients:

I never successfully accessed different client segments, and I didn’t do any other advertising or promotion activities. In looking back I think I acquired as many clients as possible from the local client base but didn’t otherwise gain or acquire many customers. I also had only moderate take out food options and didn’t do deliveries or large groups.

Management of Infrastructure:

I closed up my café , sold my equipment, and ended the lease and other activities. I really appreciated the work done by former staff, mother and the help I got from the band.

The one thing I can add is that during the early start-up period there were some people from my community who assumed, thought or said I must be well off and rich to have a business, and this caused me some grief, as it was a misperception and/or simply untrue. I was trying to be a success in business, and to help other people in my community, so that part wasn’t really a very nice time.

Business Model Canvas Interview # 8

(May 7, 2019): opened an event planning business

Pre-Launch

I worked for several years for my First Nation, and one of my responsibilities was to plan and set up meetings and workshops for seventeen bands in our territory. From this experience, as the years went by, I eventually came to the decision to open up my own event planning business.

Products/Services:

I also enrolled in and completed a two -ear event planning diploma to go along with my experience working for my First Nation.

I wanted to, and did, open a sole proprietorship. I did up a business plan through related school courses I was taking which was really helpful.

Interface clients:

My way of reaching out to customers was through two ways. First, I was quite well known in the community for setting up events so word-of-mouth would be important and I expected that would happen quickly. Second, I planned to set-up a face book page to keep in touch with clients and find new ones.

To get started, as I didn’t have any contract requests yet, I needed to find customers.

Management of Infrastructure:

Post-launch < 2 years

Products/Services:

I started up my business and it was successful right from the start. My value proposition remained the same for the first two years- I made sure to respond promptly to planning requests, arrange the contracts and budgets, ensure delivery of all aspects of the events that were needed- including catering, venue and other needs- and to solve arising problems for the event sponsors during the contract servicing.

Interface clients:

I continually provided the important face-to-face connection with my clients, their needs, and their special or arising requests. I really personalized the relationships and communications. I stayed connected with my customers through the whole process from the very first contact right through to the end. I believed strongly in mutually respectful relationships.

Word of mouth and Facebook continued as promotion processes for my businesses, but I added posters and newspaper advertising, plus brochures, in the first two years.

I retained my customer groups and they often became repeat clients. I also gained more new clients. I believe my customers were happy that I made the whole process easy for them, and did a good job.

Looking back at those first years the hardest thing for me in business was self-promotion- promoting my business which was really myself and my skills. Growing up we were taught in our First Nation community by family and elders not to brag and not to talk about yourself. So there was always a struggle for me early on with business promotion-self promotion that I tried to work through during that time.

Management of Infrastructure:

Post-launch > 2 years

Products/Services:

Those early years were very busy, and I am still busy to this day ten years later providing the same services and doing the same activities as during the first two years.

Something I can say that I added on to my services after two years, now that I had more time and had settled into my business processes and had met continued success was to be able to help other First Nation community members even more. I hired locally- contracting out catering and venues. I kept my workshop locations local. The community saw this, understood this, and knew me for this. I was helping our people.

I added another service for our people- I arranged for First Nation story-tellers, artists and elders to be available to work at the venues if needed by the customers. I built a local team of contractors who then could share their skills, help the customers, and be paid for their work.

Beyond this I began to mentor other First Nation people in doing business- it has been often I am asked how to start and run a business- even though I am not paid to this, I see it as part of my business, my responsibility and my community and culture. I am willing to share my information and learning with others, and I do this for our people.

Interface clients:

My client remained the same with the exception community that I kind of regard the community members I mentor or give advice to my clients as well. It is an informal part of my business, yet also part of my business and who I am and what my business is. It has a good community reputation and consequently I believe that I do as well. In fact, people know my business more by my personal name than by my business name!

Management of Infrastructure:

Otherwise nothing has really changed in terms of my key resources, partnerships and activities over the past eight or so years. Thank you for letting me share my story.

Business Model Canvas Interview # 9

(May 7, 2019): opened a First Nation gift shop

Pre-Launch

I had wanted to open a gift shop in my community that focused on local First Nation products for some time, and I finally I made the jump when a funding opportunity came up with my band.

Products/Services:

I knew that the business would have to make money in order to survive and to be able to help the artists and craftspeople it would be supporting. The idea was that they would be paid for their work, and after business expenses including a fairly modest pay draw for myself, the profit would go back into the artists and craftspeople as income sharing. That was my model.

The products to be sold would be moccasins, drums, drawings and paintings, dream catchers, ribbon skirts, and other items they created- all made by our people and with their own materials and know-how. The products were 100% First Nation.

Interface clients:

I didn’t plan to use a website and didn’t think there would need to have very much print advertising if any.

Management of Infrastructure:

Community Futures Program which gave me the seed money I needed to start-up.

Post-launch < 2 years

Products/Services:

I had drawn up a very good business plan. It was approved by the band and the Community Futures Program, so I started-up my business as from the document and followed through on the business strategy aspects laid out within the start-up and development plan. The products were as I envisioned and went for sale in the store.

Interface clients:

My client channels were as planned and didn’t shift through the first two years- word of mouth and contact with other businesses in the area who were willing to promote my business, artists and craftspeople to potential customers.

Management of Infrastructure:

I used the money from the Community Futures Program as per business start-up framework and agreement, then invested some of my own money into the business to keep it going. I found and retained artists, drum makers, skirt creators, and a variety of craftspeople willing to sell their goods through my store and receive profits back.

My intent to provide jobs, income and a boost to the artist and craft community of my First Nation remained, and I followed through on my commitments to them.

As time went on, I fell further and further into personal debt to keep the business going, and meet all of the financial overhead costs, pay myself some wages, and ensure appropriate pay to the artists and craftspeople.

I continued with my store location and the plan to have walk-in traffic and customers. I still spoke with other businesses and shared information. I had enough contractors (making the products) but it was getting to the pont that I had to lay off store sales staff and try to run it by myself.

Post-launch > 2 years

Products/Services:

I realized that the business wasn’t making enough money to continue much longer than the first two years. What I can say, when I look back at this, is that personal circumstance, situations and problems primarily contributed to why the business did not continue long after two years. I had to lay off staff, return products to the artisans, artists and craftspeople, and close-up shop. I was left with a fair bit of debt; fortunately, things have worked out better for me since this time.

Interface clients:

I made sure I met the obligations to my contract staff and store staff before having to let them go. I was left in debt, but fortunate through time to be able to do ok.

Management of Infrastructure:

The shop was closed. I paid my final bills, but was left covering expenses that put me in debt for a while.

I learned a lot about business, and without going into any details, for sure personal issues are a contributing factor to how a business does, and that is a factor to go along with the business proposal, how you market, and make changes on the go with you business. I am glad I was able to help some of the community members for a while, but I wish it had been more successful.

Business Model Canvas Interview # 10

(May 13, 2019): opened business in strategic communication/development

Pre-Launch

I spent about half of my career working for large organizations in the field of communication, branding/marketing, and related business strategies. This included a variety of groups such as government, non-profit sector, education and public health. I did a lot of what is called cross-sector work, so I had a broad base of workplace and corporate experiences and had built up quite a few business and corporate connections. After giving it a lot of thought, I decided it was time to open my own independent consulting business providing services to mid-sized/ large organizations needing communication and strategic development at the “executive level”. I had worked extensively in social marketing and with corporate social responsibility (CSR).

I wanted to focus on organizations, primarily First Nations, that wanted to do “positive social change” and whom I could help move down the path of self-determination, stronger governance and Nation building. I could help them build or rebuild- in many cases “turn an organization around” in a good direction re: their communication methods and strategic direction. With Indigenous organizations this could be band administrations or large departments, or corporate entities ran or owned by Indigenous groups or communities.

Products/Services:

One way I would describe my services would be that I would not only make improvements to the organizations, but I would solve their problems and help prevent problems.

Interface clients:

I would need to begin finding clients as soon as possible.

My strategy was to use my extensive contacts and business network to find clients, and at the same time to set up a website outlining my business and skill set.

My customer segments had a wide scope across sectors (public health, government, non-profits, education, etc.), but in these areas I mostly wanted to work with First Nation organizations.

I was also extra interested in cross-sectorial work- that is, working in combination with two corporations that were distinctly different yet would have some commonalities that would satisfy their mutual self-interests. One example of this would be if a non-profit organization and a corporate for-profit organization were to work together with the non-profit gaining some funds and social accomplishment while the profit organization gained advertising, promotion and good social will for their reputation and brand.

Management of Infrastructure:

I planned to be a sole proprietor and would need a home office and all the equipment and trappings that go with it.

My key activities would be designing and implementing programs for branding and organizational growth and development.

Key human resources would be my network of business connections from my old job who could make referrals to me. As well, in the event I received a fairly big contract I would develop a team of contract consultants I could rely on, and oversee, to help me complete the larger deliverable contracts. The latter seemed important because I knew I had powerful, global competitors out there like KPMG who had significant resources- people, locations, money and history.

Another important resource I had was my experience and some intellectual property/models (service frameworks, templates and processes) that I had developed over time that would come with me as part of my business.

Post-launch < 2 years

Products/Services:

My value proposition hit the mark for the first two years. I obtained two significant clients at the very beginning of my start-up that kept me busy for just over two years. I provided marketing and strategic planning almost exactly as I had planned. With each organization I worked through an ongoing roadmap and set of processes. The two organizations were quite different- one being in education and there other connected to immigration work.

I was however able to apply some of my cross-sectorial expertise, and my ability to both solve and prevent problems as I had hoped.

Even if I had acquired some new clients for my business, my availability had gone down, and I didn’t have any business partners, colleagues or support staff.

Interface clients:

I continued to use my website and network building to promote my business. Even though I was busy I recognized that the contracts would be winding down and I would need to secure new contracts from new customers. The two existing clients were not going to be retained for other work, as all the required work was going to be completed. I would always have to search for new clients. As none were forthcoming in the first year, and into the second, I tried to devote more time, when I could to drawing in new contracts but hadn’t been successful. I decided to focus more on my one-to-one network contacts rather than rely on website incoming expressions of interest or Request for Proposals. I felt this low-level marketing approach would be the most helpful. My thinking was that my continued work would build credibility and that would be an important element of marketing and growing my business.

I wasn’t able to access First Nation organizations during the early years of business, as I had hoped, so my scope of clients did not expand.

As well, I wasn’t able to spend time with non-profits or organizations that worked towards “social accomplishments” since I was so busy working on the two contracts, and finding time to promote for new contracts so my business would be sustainable.

Management of Infrastructure:

In terms of key resources, including partners, colleagues or short/medium/long term contractors to hire, I hadn’t been able to find any one through this time I felt I would like to work with- something I would need in my business should a larger opportunity come up that I couldn’t handle solo. I had hoped to create key partnerships to be able to form working alliances but that hadn’t happened.

My physical office space (home-based) remained the same, and there were no new physical resources.

To keep my knowledge base up-to-date, and to advance it or improve it, I enrolled in a post-secondary program for Indigenous people. This also took time away from promoting my business, but felt it would benefit in the long-term once I completed it.

Post-launch > 2 years

Products/Services:

I carried on with my service model and methods, and fortunately the original two clients kept me on and had more work for me using my existing frameworks, models and strategies. Although, I was adding to my education, the skill sets helped my business thinking but didn’t actually change my service and product delivery.

Interface clients:

I followed through beyond the two year mark with my same clients, and was still looking to add further clients. Both of my retention or returning clients continued to give me work. I continued to try to add to my business network. I engaged more and more First Nation organizations and individuals connected with them in the hope for contracts, but still to this date I haven’t received any.

Now that my school is winding down, I hopefully can devote more time to networking as I look for business opportunities beyond the same two clients.

While I haven’t reached my goal to move to Indigenous organizations and group with my business, I haven’t given up. I still want to be able to help them with self-determination, governance, community empowerment and Nation building. I haven’t stopped trying- it is important to me.

I am thinking of nuancing my marketing and skill set to include Indigenous and corporate relations- relations that are mutually beneficial.

One of the ways I am planning to reach new customers is to do pro-bono work. Providing free services for some organizations would be both helpful to communities and organizations, as well as my own business.

Management of Infrastructure:

I have not added contract staff or partners. I remain my own and my only employee as a sole proprietor. I have no new human resources added to my business.

My physical resources haven’t changed- office space (home-based with essential small-business office equipment).

My business has survived, and is doing okay financially. All of this is due to the continuation of my two original contracts, so I am going to continue looking for work to either add-on or follow in succession. It is still my vision to help First Nations with self-determination their own stronger infrastructures and systems.

(May 16, 2019): opened a pre-paid debit card business

Pre-Launch

Something I noticed with our citizens in my First Nation, as well as other First Nations both in our region and beyond, was how difficult it was for many of the people to get cheques cashed, or even to open a bank account. This applied to our band members on-reserve and to those, such as students or trainees, who were temporarily off reserve and waiting for cheques to cover living expenses. There were a number of reasons for these issues, and I eventually came up with an idea to open a business that provided pre-paid debit cards.

Products/Services:

Cheques would then not have to be written, and the entire process of money from payer into people’s hands would be come streamlined. Each cheque cost about $6.00 to write so totaled up to a very significant amount. It also was labor intensive, and my payment system could be more efficient.

In brief, I saw that this product and service would make life easier for citizens, customers, organizations and band offices by saving time, money, worry and hassle when it came to “the cheque writing process/industry”. In my community, and many others, cash had to be flown in regularly and a whole process of security and distribution undertaken (we were a fly-in community, and many other First Nation communities are either fly-in, use winter roads, or are in remote or more distant regions. The banking fees involved, and the costs passed onto First Nation citizens, would be lessened.

The whole idea was not just to help as many First Nation people as possible, but for the business to also make money and be profitable.

Interface clients:

The channels for client communication and promotion would be two ways. First, by word of mouth, including from clients themselves passing along their experience and benefits to others. Second, by attending First Nation conferences and workshops in our region and further out to spread the word to band managers and businesses, and other conference attendees. Initially, I wasn’t going to create a website but was going to rely on what call the “moccasin trail”- word of mouth.

But first things first, I would have to get the business set up, and then to begin acquiring customers. I designed the plan through to details of how the card would work and how we would run set-up and run the business.

Management of Infrastructure:

To keep my workload reasonable, I would need a business partner to share start-up costing, sweat equity and strategic follow-through on our activities.

I would need a financial institution to provide the distribution platform and to serve as the trustee/financial carrying arm of the business (cash access funds for clients).

Finally, I would need a production group to make the pre-paid debit cards for clients to carry and use.

In terms of hard, physical resources I could operate the business out of my home office, and using my phone and laptop.

Post-launch < 2 years

Products/Services:

Our value proposition remained the same. All the parties involved in our business and service chain were happy with the process and results that came from using the product. Our service end was strong and had a growing reputation.

Lost cards didn’t result in loss of money or risk to the holder. Time was saved for the purchaser and the vendor. Cash flowed into and around our communities and territory faster. First Nation administrations and businesses that used it found it convenient, and their customers happy. We didn’t make any changes to our product nor to our services in the first two years. Things went pretty much as planned, and we didn’t have any real significant external or internal surprises or problems.

Interface clients:

Our product was being used by a combination of: First Nation members, First Nation businesses and organizations, and band administrations.

Word of mouth and networking at conferences remained our main promotion to look for new customers. Our financial institution partner set up a website that served as another channel to reach customers. We also made sure to handle any concerns that arose with customers as promptly as possible.

We added one customer channel to our business strategy: we began doing demonstrations at the conferences, larger meetings and workshops held by First Nations. How it worked was that we would meet an individual (First Nation member) at the conference (businesses and band managers would often watch to see how it worked) and walk them through the process to register for their card, have their card confirmed and made, and then receive it to begin using it right away if they so wished. By the time they had a cup of coffee in the conference room (the whole set up process usually took about five minutes from process start to finish) and walked back over to our table, the card would be ready to use. This also brought us interest, and new customers.

Management of Infrastructure:

I found a business partner- another First Nation business person like myself who took on sharing the responsibilities and the risks. We became a joint partnership: two person operation. Up.

I connected with a well-known, reputable national financial institution who agreed to use their platform and to provide the trustee and cash management system for the cards. This was a great partnership and their end of cash management was guaranteed.

We successfully arranged for card manufacturing in line with the financial institution and our requirements.

My partner and I both opened our home offices, and purchased the office equipment we would need. We ran our business successfully and it was paying us and making a profit. Our customers were happy with the product, and we were now hoping to scale up from our own region across Canada.

As our second year of business was winding down we developed a new partnership. We did train-the-trainer sessions to hire contractors to help in person with the process of signing people up and following through on services and maintaining the business.

Post-launch > 2 years

Products/Services:

After two years the business was ready to expand and scale up.

We continued with the same model of service and same products. We didn’t make any changes to our design, and our value proposition continued as we had planned, and as we had experienced the first twenty-four months. We wanted to carry over the value proposition into other regions of Canada.

Interface clients:

It was time to expand our client base after two years.

Our key partners were ready to jump in: the financial management firm, and the card production team.

We prepared to set up our business website and hire an IT person. This website would be independent, but work in conjunction with the website of the financial management firm that promoted our business the first two years.

The customer groupings would continue to be First Nation citizens, business, organizations, and band offices.

Management of Infrastructure:

Most importantly, we were readying to set up four regional offices across Canada- Maritimes, Quebec, Ontario, and Western Canada divisions. This would include sales teams, and a distribution network.

Our key resources were all ready to roll out the expansion: staff/human resources; national partner; production team; training plan; strategic plan. Financing for scaling up was to come from our operating account – our profits we had put aside for over two years.

Post-script: Unfortunately, one resource quickly disappeared (financial). This was a completely unexpected internal event. What I learned from this was that one should be sure to have all contracts/agreements in place with business partners in business relationships. Regrettably, the business had to be closed- there was now no cash flow, and subsequently a loss in reputation capital and in the trust and relationships with our national partner who stepped away.

Business Model Canvas Interview # 12

(May 19, 2019): opened a business in community development

Pre-Launch

I had an education background related to Treaty negotiations and I noticed at that time from my own first-hand experiences in First Nations that no one was doing much of any community development planning, nor seemed to have community interests very much in mind, in regards to Treaty settlements- there seemed to be financial agreements with no or virtually no future planning on what to do in the communities once the agreements were in progress or when signed. I opened my advising and consulting business from that experience and thinking.

Products/Services:

Interface clients:

The channels I planned to use would be “grass roots” methods- in-person and face-to-face with Chief and Councils of First Nation bands, as well as leadership people who oversaw First Nation agencies and departments in those communities- education, health and social services, and so on. I didn’t plant to use a website or any other form of advertising or marketing.

I had no specific clients ready or eager to use my services ahead of time, so I would need to begin acquiring customers.

Management of Infrastructure:

I planned to be a sole proprietor, so didn’t have any key partnerships, supports or backing.

I had my education background, and some “street smarts” in working with bands and First Nation issues, so those were my key intellectual and emotional resources I would need to start and be successful in business I felt.

In thinking back, I was going to be pretty much my own key resource.

Post-launch < 2 years

Products/Services:

The services I offered caught on quickly. What happened was I met with and identified one First Nation early on that was interested in my work and offer. They had me start right away. What was interesting was that this early beginning with one First Nation led them to give me a much broader variety of work in their community. I worked throughout different departments and different areas of the administrative and governance systems of the community- really a “myriad” of responsibilities and tasks during the first two years.

My services morphed into several topical areas depending on the department and situation within that individual band. This also led to mentoring services with existing staff and leadership individuals in the two First Nations.

A second band then retained my services, and the same thing happened with them. I now had two primary clients, and they became retained and repeat customers. In fact, they gave me enough work that I didn’t need, or have time, for any other clients!

I was doing primary research in traditional areas for the two bands, and secondary research in the areas of their band governance. So, my services definitely expanded. I would gather the data, and then depending on the results and the analysis I would identify gaps and then do the work to fill the gaps. In short, from these assessments what does the community want out of the Treaty negotiations, and how to get there/how to do it.

It was so busy, I couldn’t take other work, nor did I need to. I was to busty basically helping the communities with their own capacity building. I had many projects to handle, and was on the go all of the time. I really didn’t have time for much else.

Interface clients:

My client groups remained First Nation bands, but I didn’t expand beyond the two communities

as I had so much returning and ongoing work with them. My first two clients were retained through the two years after my start-up.

I still utilized word of mouth and direct contact with the customers and clients- Chief and Council, Department Heads, and community-based business leaders. I didn’t need to advertise.

Management of Infrastructure:

I was away travelling so much that I had to open a second office to go along with my home office. I was regularly provided access to staff by the two First Nations depending on what was needed to accomplish a given task- assessment work, economic development, negotiations aspects, and so forth. They would provide the funds to pay for contract staff that helped me in completing the work, and I would review and determine who was to be hired, but the band provided payroll and liability coverage. So, these workers became one of my key resources, and I never did need to hire and pay for my own staff.

I also expanded my skill set and ability to be a problem solver. My key activities really were assessing, planning and solving. Once the bands gave me permission to move ahead with a plan or a task, If I needed resources to help achieve it, they would typically arrange for those resources to be at my disposal.

Post-launch > 2 years

Products/Services:

My services continued as in the first two years, and then expanded further to include “aboriginal rights” specific to treaty land claims, and then into economic development planning with communities. I still continue with all of these services through to today.

I realized after two years that what I was really doing, or had become in business, was a “project manager”. When the First Nations who were my customers had a problem or situation or need, they would typically come to me and I would set up a plan or project, gather the resources, oversee the work, and ensure it was followed through to completion. It could be a fiscal matter, a Treaty matter, a human resources matter, or other issues.

Now, I regard myself as more of a “crisis management professional” although there are still clearly “project management” aspects in my work.

Here is what I think my value proposition has become over time: flexibility; crisis management; problem solving; cost effectiveness; clarity of costs and budgeting; desired results; trust building.

Interface clients:

I never did open a website, and my clients through time have remained the two bands as my customers, with some periodic work with Provincial or Federal Government along the way. However, my primary clients continue to be the two First Nation communities who give me business and work as it arises and/or is ongoing.

I eventually got business cards, but didn’t open a website or do other advertising. My communications channels with my ongoing clients were always direct and face-to-face in the communities.

Management of Infrastructure:

My key resources remained the same as in the first two years of start-up. The human resources that I am given access to by the two First Nations have become what I refer to as “collaborative informal and formal”. Informal would be through discussions leading to utilization of existing band staff if they have availability, and formal would be if a given situation requires additional help or staff.

I still have my two offices and own business. I remain a sole proprietor.

Goals-setting Motivations of Economically Disadvantaged Community Initatives:

Importance Scores (Maximum 30)

Total Importance Score Autonomous Profit-Based (19/30 Community-Social Good (28/30) Political -Institutional Change (12/30) Collective Entrepreneurship (17/30) 19 28 12 17

Goals-setting Motivations of Indigenous Community Enterpreneurial Initatives:

Importance Scores (Maximum 24)

Social Networking Capital (13/24) Traditional Cultural Capital (16/24) Financial Achievement (17/24) Social Mission - Community Good **Importance Unknown (3/3) Social Networking Capital (13/24) Traditional Cultural Capital (16/24) Financial Achievement (17/24) Social Mission - Community Good **Importance Unknown (3/3) Indigenous Entrepreneurs' Individual Motivations by Importance Social Networking Capital (13/24) Traditional Cultural Capital (16/24) Financial Achievement (17/24) Social Mission - Community Good **Importance Unknown (3/3) 13 16 17 3

Questionnaires: First Nation entrepreneur motivations

Social Good Financial Gain Culture/Traditional Social Networking Nation Building Collective Enterprise Build a Team Independence / Time Off Support Artisans Build Confidence To Mentor To Take Care of Family Increase Influence 64 64 61 59 60 59 2 1 1 1 1 1 1

QUESTIONNAIRES: PRIMARY VERSUS OTHER MOTIVATORS

Other Motivators Six Primary Motivators 0.12 0.88

Interviews: First Nation Entrepreneur Motivations

Social Good Financial Gain Culture/Traditional Social Networking Nation Building Collective Enterprise Independence/Time Off Positive Role Model Respect Creativity To Mentor To Take Care of Family Creativity Social Standing 12 12 12 11 10 9 2 2 2 1 1 1 1 1

INTERVIEWS: PRIMARY (HYPOTHESIZED) VERSUS OTHER MOTIVATORS

Other Motivators Six Primary Motivators 0.19 0.81

Questionnaires: FIRST NATION ENTREPRENEUR MOTIVATIONS:

overall MEAN likert SCORES

FN

3.033

Create Social Good Nation Building Finance Cultural Support Social Networking Join Collective 4.1920000000000002 4.0439999999999996 4.0419999999999998 3.97 3.552 3.21

interviews: FN Entrepreneurial Motivation:

importance scores (Maximum = 115)

Create Social Good Financial Gain Nation Building Cultural Support Join Collective Group Social Networking 86 84 56 49 39 28

First Nation Entrepreneur Motivations by Business Stage

FN Pre Finance Social Good Cultu/Trad Nation Bldg Collective Social netw 4.140625 4.21875 4.140625 4.234375 2.90625 3.390625 FN < 2 Finance Social Good Cultu/Trad Nation Bldg Collective Social netw 3.807017543859649 4.0350877192982457 3.736842105263158 3.7192982456140351 2.9824561403508771 3.4912280701754388 FN > 2 Finance Social Good Cultu/Trad Nation Bldg Collective Social netw 4.17741935483871 4.32258064516129 4.032258064516129 4.17741935483871 3.7419354838709675 3.774193548387097

Social Good FN Pre FN < 2 FN > 2 4.21875 4.0350877192982457 4.32258064516129

Financial Gain

FN Pre FN < 2 FN > 2 4.140625 3.807017543859649 4.17741935483871

Cultural Support FN Pre FN < 2 FN > 2 4.140625 3.736842105263158 4.032258064516129

Nation Building

Natio n Bldg FN Pre FN < 2 FN > 2 4.234375 3.7192982456140351 4.17741935483871

Business Collective FN Pre FN < 2 FN > 2 2.90625 2.9824561403508771 3.21

Social Networking

Soc ial netw FN Pre FN < 2 FN > 2 3.390625 3.4912280701754388 3.774193548387097

First Nation Business Background / Type of Business Would Start

[CATEGORY NAME] 63% [CATEGORY NAME] 14% [CATEGORY NAME] 23% Interested /plan start-up 70% Have a business < 2 Have a business > 2 Used to have a Business Not Interested-No Business Their own business In business collective Social Entrepreneurship 5 6 7 2 40 9 15 First Nation Entrepreneurs Who Know Sole Proprietors Would open their own business (87%) Would open a Social Entrepreneurship (24%) Would open in Business Collective (12%) 0.87 0.24 0.12 First Nation Entrepreneurs Who Know Business Collectives Would open their own business (63%) Would open a Social Entrepreneurship (21%) Would open in Business Collective (21%) 0.64 0.21 0.21 First Nation Entrepreneurs Who Know Social Entrepreneurs Would open their own business (43%) Would open a Social Entrepreneurship (21%) Would open in Business Collective (29%) 0.43 0.21 0.28999999999999998 Intent To Open a Social Entrepreneurship Know Social Entrepreneurship Entrepreneurs Know Business Collective Entrepreneurs Know Sole Proprietor Entrepreneurs Overall 0.21 0.21 0.24 0.23 Know Social Entrepreneurship Entrepreneurs Know Business Collective Entrepreneurs Know Sole Proprietor Entrepreneurs Overall Know Social Entrepreneurship Entrepreneurs Know Business Collective Entrepreneurs Know Sole Proprietor Entrepreneurs Overall Know Social Entrepreneurship Entrepreneurs Know Business Collective Entrepreneurs Know Sole Proprietor Entrepreneurs Overall Know Social Entrepreneurship Entrepreneurs Know Business Collective Entrepreneurs Know Sole Proprietor Entrepreneurs Overall INTENT TO OPEN SOLE PROPRIETORSHIP Know Social Entrepreneurship Entrepreneurs Know Business Collective Entrepreneurs Know Sole Proprietor Entrepreneurs Overall 0.43 0.63 0.87 0.63 Know Social Entrepreneurship Entrepreneurs Know Business Collective Entrepreneurs Know Sole Proprietor Entrepreneurs Overall Know Social Entrepreneurship Entrepreneurs Know Business Collective Entrepreneurs Know Sole Proprietor Entrepreneurs Overall Know Social Entrepreneurship Entrepreneurs Know Business Collective Entrepreneurs Know Sole Proprietor Entrepreneurs Overall Know Social Entrepreneurship Entrepreneurs Know Business Collective Entrepreneurs Know Sole Proprietor Entrepreneurs Overall INTENT TO OPEN IN BUSINESS COLLECTIVE Know Social Entrepreneurship Entrepreneurs Know Business Collective Entrepreneurs Know Sole Proprietor Entrepreneurs Overall 0.28999999999999998 0.21 0.12 0.14000000000000001 Know Social Entrepreneurship Entrepreneurs Know Business Collective Entrepreneurs Know Sole Proprietor Entre preneurs Overall Know Social Entrepreneurship Entrepreneurs Know Business Collective Entrepreneurs Know Sole Proprietor Entrepreneurs Overall Know Social Entrepreneurship Entrepreneurs Know Business Collective Entrepreneurs Know Sole Proprietor Entrepreneurs Overall Know Social Entrepreneurship Entrepreneurs Know Business Collective Entrepreneurs Know Sole Proprietor Entrepreneurs Overall Mainstream Entrepreneur Motivations According to First Nation Entrepreneurs Mainstream Financial Gain Social Networking Join Business Collective Cultural Support Social Good Nation Building 4.7380000000000004 3.677 2.806 2.806 2.71 1.839 Comparison of Mainstream versus First Nation Motivations Mainstream Finance Social Netwo Join Collective Cultural/Trad Social Good Nation Building 4.7380000000000004 3.677 2.806 2.806 2.71 1.839 FN Finance Social Netwo Join Collective Cultural/Trad Social Good Nation Building 4.0419999999999998 3.5219999999999998 3.21 3.97 4.1920000000000002 4.0439999999999996 Score out of 5 Social Good Actual FN Pre FN < 2 FN > 2 4.21875 4.0350877192982457 4.32258064516129 Hypothesized FN Pre FN < 2 FN > 2 4.2 190000000000003 4.2190000000000003 4.2190000000000003 Financial Gain Actual FN Pre FN < 2 FN > 2 4.140625 3.807017543859649 4.17741935483871 Hypothesized FN Pre FN < 2 FN > 2 4.141 4.141 3.76 Nation Building Actual FN Pre FN < 2 FN > 2 4.234375 3.7192982456140351 4.17741935483871 Hypothesized FN Pre FN < 2 FN > 2 4.234 4.4000000000000004 4.5999999999999996 Cultural Support Actual FN Pre FN < 2 FN > 2 4.140625 3.736842105263158 4.032258064516129 Hypothesized FN Pre FN < 2 FN > 2 4.141 4.141 4.141 Social Networking Actual FN Pre FN < 2 FN > 2 3.390625 3.4912280701754388 3.774193548387097 Hypothesized FN Pre FN < 2 FN > 2 3.391 3.774 3.774 Join Business Collective Actual FN Pre FN < 2 FN > 2 2.9060000000000001 2.9820000000000002 3.21 Hypothesized FN Pre FN < 2 FN > 2 2.9060000000000001 2.9060000000000001 2.2999999999999998 Social Good and Financial Gain Social Good FN Pre FN < 2 FN > 2 4.21875 4.0350877192982457 4.32258064516129 Financial Gain FN Pre FN < 2 FN > 2 4.140625 3.736842105263158 4.032258064516129 Nation Building and Cultural Support Nation Building FN Pre FN < 2 FN > 2 4.234375 3.7192982456140351 4.17741935483871 Support Culture FN Pre FN < 2 FN > 2 4.140625 3.807017543859649 4.17741935483871 Social Networking and Business Collective Social Networking FN Pre FN < 2 FN > 2 3.390625 3.4912280701754388 3.774193548387097 Business Collective FN Pre FN < 2 FN > 2 2.90625 2.9824561403508771 3.21 Total BMC Changes per Interview: Postlaunch Stages Combined (* closed prior to end of Year Four) A B C * D E F G * H I * J K * L 6 6 2 1 7 11 4 5 2 4 5 8 Interviewee Total Element Chagnes Total Changes in BMC Elements: 12 First Nation Entrepreneurs (Postlaunch <2 Years & Postlaunch >2 Years) Total Changes < 2 Years > 2 Years 16 45 Postlaunch stage Number of changes Mean BMC changes Postlaunch < 2, postlaunch > 2, Combined Postlaunches: First Nation entrepreneurs Postlaunch < 2 Postlaunch > 2 Postlaunch < 2 + > 2 Postlaunch < 2 Postlaunch > 2 Postlaunch < 2 + > 2 1.33 3.75 5.08 Business Stages Mean Number of BMC Changes Business Model Canvas Changes after Prelaunch per Element: First Nation Entrepreneurs (Postlaunch < 2 Years + > 2 Years) Key Resources Client Segments Client Relations Value Proposition Key Partners Key Activities Channels 12 11 9 9 8 7 5 BMC Element Number of Changes (Combined Postlaunch Stages) BMC Element Changes during Postlaunch < 2 Years: First Nation Entrepreneurs < 2 Years Key Resources Client Segments Client Relations Value Proposition Key Partners Key Activities Channels 4 4 0 3 3 3 1 BMC Element Number of Changes BMC Element Changes during Postlaunch > 2 Years: First Nation Entrepreneurs > 2 Years Key Resources Client Segments Client Relations Value Proposition Key Partners Key Activities Channels 8 7 9 8 5 5 4 BMC Element Number of Changes BMC Element Changes Postlaunch < 2 Years versus Postlaunch > 2 Years: First Nation Entrepreneurs < 2 Years Key Resources Client Segments Client Relations Value Proposition Key Partners Key Activities Channels 3 4 0 1 3 3 1 > 2 Years Key Resources Client Segments Client Relations Value Proposition Key Partners Key Activities Channels 5 7 9 8 5 4 4 Elements Number of Changes BMC Element Changes by First Nation Entrepreneurs: Comparison of Postlaunch < 2 versus Postlaunch > 2 Years < 2 Years Client Relations Value Proposition Key Resources Client Segments Key Partners Key Activities Channels 0 1 4 4 3 3 1 > 2 Years Client Relations Value Proposition Key Resources Client Segments Key Partners Key Activities Channels 9 8 8 7 5 4 4 Mean BMC Element Changes Combined Postlaunch Stages: Closed vs Open First Nation Businesses Business Open at End of Year Four Busines Closed at End of Year Four 6 3.25 Business Open or Closed Mean Number of BMC element changes Mean BMC Element Changes: Closed vs Open First Nation Businesses Separated Postlaunch Stages Business Open at End of Year Four Postlaunch > 2 Years Postlaunch < 2 Years 4.13 1.88 Business Closed at End of Year Four Postlaunch > 2 Years Postlaunch < 2 Years 3 0.25 Sector Experience: Open and Closed Businesses > 4 Years of First Nation Entrepreneurs Business Opened Sector Experience No Sector Experience 8 4 Businesses open > 4 Years Sector Experience No Sector Experience 7 1 Percentages of First Nation Entrepreneurs with Backgrounds in the Their New Venture Sectors Business Sector Background No Business Sector Background 8 4 Combined Postlaunch BMC Changes per Pillar Value Proposition Client Interface Infrastructure 9 25 27 Postlaunch BMC Changes per Pillar: Percentages Value Proposition Client Interface Infrastructure 9 25 27 BMC Elemen Changes per Pillar Postlaunch < 2 years versus > 2 years < 2 Value Proposition Client Interface Infrastructure 1 5 10 > 2 Value Proposition Client Interface Infrastructure 8 20 17 Open First Nation businesses: Changes per pillar < 2 Years Value Proposition Client Interface Infrastructure 1 5 10 Open First Nation businesses: Changes per pillar > 2 Years Value Proposition Client Interface Infrastructure 8 20 17 Value Proposition Client Interface Infrastructure 1 5 10 Total References per BMC Theme: First Nation Entrepreneurs Busy with Business Knowledge: Bring/Grow/Use-Focus Financial Concerns/Actions Help My Community 25 35 56 97 Theme Total Number of BMC References "Help My Community" BMC Theme: References per Business Stage by First Nation Entrepreneurs 39 Prelaunch Postlaunch < 2 Years Postlaunch > 2 Years 24 11 39 Business Stage Number of BMC Refere ces Financial Concerns/Actions BMC Theme: References per Business Stage by First Nation Entrepreneurs Prelaunch Postlaunch < 2 Years Postlaunch > 2 Years 19 19 18 Business Stage Number of BMC References Mean Entrepreneur BMC Pillar Changes: divided by elements within pillar Infrastructure Client Interface Value Proposition 0.75 0.7 0.75 Pillar Average Change by Pillar Element Help My Community Theme: First Nation Entrepreneur References and Comments per Business Stage 39 Prelaunch Postlaunch < 2 Years Postlaunch > 2 Years 24 11 39 Business Stage Number of References