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PHI 1301, Critical Thinking 1

Course Learning Outcomes for Unit VII Upon completion of this unit, students should be able to:

4. Relate good reasoning to effective thinking. 4.1 Identify rhetorical devices used to persuade an audience.

6. Apply critical thinking to everyday situations.

6.1 Select premises for a logical argument.

Course/Unit Learning Outcomes

Learning Activity

4.1

Unit Lesson Chapter 7 Unit VII Video Unit VII Assignment

6.1

Unit Lesson Chapter 7 Unit VII Video Unit VII Assignment

Required Unit Resources Chapter 7: Getting to Grips With Rhetoric In order to access the following resource, click the link below. Unit VII Video A transcript and closed captioning are available once you access the video.

Unit Lesson Language is an amazing human construction that affords us the ability to communicate and, more to the point, to articulate our ideas. Because of language, we are able to formulate and express scientific theories. Language allows us to communicate mathematical and philosophical ideas as well. Logical arguments (assertions, premises, and conclusions), after all, can only be expressed via language. Language is also an indispensable tool in the quest to move technology forward. Language allows for the expression of creativity, too, through which there is a seemingly infinite number of ways to compose new sentences via syntax, the rules of grammar. The seemingly endless stream of expression that communication makes possible is a major advantage for humans, but it is also a double-sided sword when dealing with the use of rhetoric. Rhetoric often has a negative connotation, but it can be used for good reasons. Dr. Martin Luther King, for example, often employed rhetoric in the fight for civil rights during the 50s and the 60s. It is important for us to distinguish rhetoric from logical argument, meaning the attempt to persuade with good reasons, or premises, that support the conclusion. Rhetoric and logical arguments are not the same. As we have seen in previous units, arguments have conclusions and reasons for those conclusions (premises). In valid and strong arguments (that is, good arguments), the conclusion follows logically. As critical thinkers, we should attempt to construct and understand good arguments. The primary aim of rhetoric, on the other hand, is to persuade, which involves an altogether different goal than classic argument. Often, the principle purpose of rhetoric is to convince, sometimes, by any means necessary. In the textbook, Chatfield (2018) notes rhetoric encompasses

UNIT VII STUDY GUIDE

The Uses and Abuses of Rhetoric

PHI 1301, Critical Thinking 2

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“expressing emotions and attitudes” as well as “seeking to cause change” (p. 153). The desire to seek change is a motive understood within certain historical contexts. When writers or speakers use rhetoric, they express emotion because they understand the power emotion has in moving people to change their views, vote in a certain way, or fight for certain causes. Thus, politicians are better at their craft if they are experts in using rhetoric. One reason why people may confuse arguments with rhetoric is due to the fact that there is some overlap. Logical arguments have a conclusion, and a conclusion is an attempt to persuade. People who use rhetoric such as politicians and activists also attempt to persuade. The key difference is a logical argument is an attempt to persuade via good reasons. For deductive reasoning, this means validity, and, for inductive reasoning, this means strength. Aristotle classified three key components of rhetoric: ethos, logos, and pathos. This classification is important because it allows us to see how rhetoric involves other aspects that a logical argument does not. Two of those aspects are ethos and pathos. Speakers using ethos try to establish themselves as trustworthy, in attempt to gain favor with a crowd or audience. We are more likely to believe or be convinced by someone whom we trust. Pathos, on the other hand, involves setting up a mood based solely on emotion. When a speaker or writer appeals to pathos, the goal is to evoke an emotional response, like happiness, anger, fear, or pity. Rhetoric is used in speech as well as in writing. As critical thinkers, the form rhetoric takes is not of concern as much as being able to recognize when rhetoric is being used. We should, as such, be aware of the techniques and overall ways rhetoric is often employed. One way rhetoric is used is through rhetorical devices. Rhetorical devices comprise a list of linguistic tools, devices, or tricks that can be used to manipulate or persuade an audience. Hyperbole is a good example of a rhetorical device, one which involves exaggeration. When a speaker or writer uses hyperbole, they want to make a situation appear more dramatic than it is. If, for example, a politician says, “I nearly had a heart attack when I heard of my opponent’s misdeeds,” such a claim does not literally mean the speaker has had a heart attack and thereby requires immediate medical attention. Instead, the speaker is exaggerating for effect, to draw further attention to the opponent’s misdeed. Asking rhetorical questions is another good example of a rhetorical device. Rhetorical questions are often posed not to get an answer, but, instead, to elicit a certain dramatic effect or to make a point. In Shakespeare’s play, The Tragedy of Julius Caesar, we have a good example of rhetoric being used by one of the central characters, Mark Antony. This is a very good example because Mark Antony has the explicit motive of turning a mob against Caesar’s killers. Antony raises a rhetorical question after noting some of Caesar’s accomplishments that benefitted the Romans, “He hath brought many captives home to Rome…Whose ransoms did the general coffers fill. Did this in Caesar seem ambitious?” (Shakespeare, 1599/1998, 1.3.74-75). We know Antony does not expect his audience to answer this question because he keeps on talking. Instead, he wants to undercut “the noble” Brutus’ portrayal of Caesar as overly ambitious and power hungry (Shakespeare, 1599/1998, 1.3.62). The rhetorical force in Antony’s speech is felt even more after repeating the same question a little later in the speech: “Was this ambition?” (Shakespeare, 1599/1998, 1.3.83). The question in its latter version is raised after Antony gives an anecdote in which Caesar refused to be crowned the king of Rome. Antony does not want the audience to answer the question; instead, he wants to instill the belief that Caesar cared deeply about Rome and the Roman Republic. Wording also plays a central role in rhetoric. A speaker’s or writer’s choice of words is very important to the message being conveyed. Word choice can affect the pathos (feelings) and the mood of a speech or written piece, depending on whether the words are positive or negative. In rhetoric, positive words are referred to as euphemisms while negative words are dysphemisms. Imagine a speech in which the speaker wants to show reverence for a person, say a general who has died in an important battle. The speaker can choose to say, “the general has passed away” rather than the “general has died.” “Passed away” is an example of a euphemism to describe someone’s death. If the same speaker wants to describe someone else’s death in a negative fashion (in dysphemistic fashion) instead, he or she could use the word “croak.” These examples demonstrate how wording can be used to direct the negative, positive, or neutral tone of a piece of writing or speech. There are many historical examples of great speeches where the speaker used euphemisms to set a positive tone; some examples are Pericles’ Funeral Oration and Lincoln’s Gettysburg Address. Notice the choice of wording falls outside the scope of logic or is, what may be described as, extra-logical. Logical arguments are composed of assertions (premises) intended to prove another assertion (the conclusion). Yet, the words used in rhetoric, as seen in the speech about the general above, are more about tone or mood

PHI 1301, Critical Thinking 3

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rather than what, for example, follows from given premises. Such examples highlight why we must, as critical thinkers, be aware of when and where rhetoric is being used.

References Chatfield, T. (2018). Critical thinking. SAGE. https://bookshelf.vitalsource.com/#/books/9781526418777 Shakespeare, W. (1998). The tragedy of Julius Caesar. Project Gutenberg.

https://www.gutenberg.org/files/1522/1522-h/1522-h.htm (Original work published 1599)

Learning Activities (Nongraded) Nongraded Learning Activities are provided to aid students in their course of study. You do not have to submit them. If you have questions, contact your instructor for further guidance and information. The Unit VII Practice Questions are a fantastic resource for practicing the material in this unit. It is recommended that you complete these before attempting the unit assessment. An answer key is provided at the end of the questions.