IM_A6

MGT 6306, Intercultural Management 1

Course Learning Outcomes for Unit VI Upon completion of this unit, students should be able to:

6. Synthesize models of culture classifications. 6.1 Illustrate the six value dimensions. 6.2 Relate imagery to Kluckhohn and Strodtbeck’s value orientation theory.

Course/Unit

Learning Outcomes Learning Activity

6.1, 6.2 Unit Lesson Chapter 7 Unit VI Assignment

Required Unit Resources Chapter 7: Culture as Value Orientation Unit Lesson

Introduction This unit focuses on the differences between frameworks and models when studying culture. A conceptual framework provides a map of the world a researcher intends to study. It captures what researchers see and how they make sense of what they are exploring (Frey, 2018-a). Empirical models play an important role in bringing order, comprehension, and manageability to complex interrelationships among variables. They enhance researchers’ abilities to develop hypotheses and provide mechanisms to speculate about multifaceted processes (Frey, 2018-b). In summary, a framework gives the overall structure of the research, while the model is used to explore the methodology of the research. Advantages of using a framework is that it provides ways to gather relevant information about a particular population. Disadvantages include overgeneralizing and essentializing (Nahavandi, 2022). This unit will also examine low-context cultures and high-context cultures. We cannot assume that employees of the same culture would behave in exactly the same manner at work. A high-context culture means that most of the information is within the person, such as someone’s title, while a low-context culture means that a lot of information is needed to infer understanding of the situation (for example in giving instructions). Finally, this unit examines how culture influences our communication. Since every person is influenced by the level of context, it is helpful to know whether the culture of a particular country falls on the high or low side of the scale (Afrouzi, 2021). The assignment for the unit will have you explore the six value dimensions of culture that are human nature, relationship to time, relationship to the environment, relationship to others, motivation and activity mode, and relationship to physical space because these are value dimensions that are universal to all populations.

Hall’s Communication Context Framework Edward T. Hall was an American anthropologist and cross-cultural researcher. Hall developed the framework that explains how people use information and rely on the context to communicate with one another. Hall proposed that cultures can be identified based on the messages that the members of a given culture prefer to use and ascertained that there are two broad groups of culture. These groups are high-context and low- context based on how they obtain and manage information. In high-context cultures, people rely on non-

UNIT VI STUDY GUIDE Frameworks and Models of Culture

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verbal cues, indirect communication and are more flexible with their business schedules; whereas, in low- context cultures, people focus on explicit and specific verbal and written messages to understand people and situations and to communicate with others (Hall, 1976). Using Hall’s conceptualization, Dooghoon et al. (1998) conducted a cross-cultural study on three countries, China, Korea, and the United States. These three countries have different cultures and represent both high- and low-context cultures. According to their findings, the Chinese and Korean subjects are shown to exhibit tendencies that are consistent with Hall’s description of high-context cultures, while the American subjects are shown to exhibit tendencies that are consistent with low-context cultures. The high-context cultures would do everything to avoid any type of direct confrontation that may be go against the social harmony and intimate bonds between people, even if that means denying oneself. With the low-context cultures, people are less likely to avoid direct and open confrontation at the expense of expressing and defending the self (Hall, 1976). Criticism is more direct and recorded formally in low-context cultures; whereas, in high-context cultures criticism is more subtle and verbal because what is not being said can carry more meaning than what is said. We have a wide range of linguistic choices to communicate our thoughts and ideas, which can range from the most explicit with less interpretive problems, to the most implicit with more interpretive difficulties. Such are also evident in business discussions. The study of high-context and low-context cultures provides leaders with better understanding and guidelines for interacting with people from certain cultures. It promotes clear understanding of messages sent. Communicators who wish to transmit information to a recipient are presumably motivated to construct their messages in a way that the recipient will understand and consider to be informative (Wyer & Shrum, 2015).

Value Orientation Theory We have established cultural differences around the world. With that also goes values connected with each culture. Values are stable, long-lasting beliefs and preferences about what is worthwhile and desirable (Nahavandi, 2022). Cultural exchanges have become more and more frequent because of economic integration and technological globalization, but people from different countries may have different cultural values (Yan & Li, 2021). This unit studies the differences in value orientation between China and the United States using Kluckhohn and Strodtbeck’s value orientation theory. Their paper discussed the differences between Chinese and American cultural values from five aspects: nature, humanity, time, relationship, and human actions. The focus of the value orientation theory is the fact it is difficult to explain, describe, or even predict behavior. The idea, therefore, is to provide managers with knowledge to better understand and predict cultural differences. Yan and Li (2021) stated that traditional values are experiencing a huge internal change after frequently contacting with the outside world. People in economically developed regions are more likely to accept new things than those in underdeveloped regions. For example, the traditional Chinese social system that was known to be hierarchical is being replaced by the concept of equality and competition in this modern era. Kluckhohn and Strodtbeck identified six basic challenges that societies face. These challenges are addressed in form of questions:

• What is our nature? • How do we relate to time? • How do we relate to our natural environment? • How do we relate to one another? • What is our primary motivation? • How do we relate to physical space? (Nahavandi, 2022, p. 316)

It is interesting to see that responses to these questions vary according to different cultural groups and the value that they place on each of the challenges. These answers are presented in Table 7.3, Alternative Answers to Six Universal Challenges: The Value Dimensions (Nahavandi, 2022, p. 316).

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Conclusion Our takeaway from this unit is that different cultures place different preferences on the challenges outlined by Kluckhohn and Strodtbeck in their 1961 study on value orientation theory. Kluckhohn and Stodbeck’s mode of value orientation is based on three basic assumptions.

1. People, no matter what era they live in, must provide a solution to the common problems for certain human beings.

2. The solution to these problems is not infinite or arbitrary but can be changeable in a series of choices or values.

3. Each value orientation exists in all societies and individuals, but each of them has different preferences for value orientation.

Their study is not without criticism but still it has become the basis for many of the other models such as Schwartz, Hofstede, and Trompenaars. Schwartz (1992) discusses substantive contents of human values, identification of comprehensive set of values, extent to which the meaning of particular values was equivalent for different groups of people, and how the relations among different values were structured. Hofstede gave the management profession a model with which to categorize culturally based behavior and, for this contribution, is known as the Sigmund Freud of multicultural studies (Granered, 2006). His model included the following six dimensions: individualism-collectivism, power distance, uncertainty avoidance, masculinity-femininity, long-short term orientation, and indulgence (Hofstede, 2011). Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner (2012) focus on seven dimensions to address culture:

1. universalism versus particularism, 2. individualism versus communitarianism, 3. specific versus diffuse, 4. neutral versus affective, 5. achievement versus ascription, 6. sequential time versus synchronous time, and 7. internal direction versus external direction.

References Afrouzi, O. A. (2021). Humanitarian behavior across high-/low-context cultures: A comparative analysis

between Switzerland and Colombia. Journal of International Humanitarian Action, 6(2). Dooghoon, K., Yigang, P., & Park, H. S. (1998, September). High- versus low-context culture: A comparison

of Chinese, Korean, and American cultures. Psychology & Marketing, 15(6) 507–521. Frey, B. B. (2018-a). Conceptual framework. In The SAGE encyclopedia of educational research,

measurement, and evaluation. https://dx.doi.org/10.4135/9781506326139.n134 Frey, B. B. (2018-b). Model-data fit. In The SAGE encyclopedia of educational research, measurement, and

evaluation. https://dx.doi.org/10.4135/9781506326139.n439 Granered, E. (2006, December). Managing change across cultures. Multilingual, 17(8), 69–72. Hall, E. T. (1977). Beyond culture. Anchor Press/Doubleday. Hofstede, G. (2011, December). Dimensionalizing cultures: The Hofstede model in context. Online Readings

in Psychology and Culture, 2(1), 8. https://doi.org/10.9707/2307-0919.1014 Kluckhohn, F. R., & Strodtbeck, F. L. (1961). Variations in value orientations. Row, Peterson.

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Nahavandi, A. (2022). The cultural mindset: Managing people across cultures. SAGE. Schwartz, S. H. (1992). Universals in the content and structure of values: Theoretical advances and empirical

tests in 20 countries. Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, 25, 1–65. Trompenaars, F., & Hampden-Turner, C. (2012). Riding the waves of culture: Understanding diversity in

global business (2nd ed.). McGraw-Hill. Wyer, R. S, & Shrum, L. J. (2015) The role of comprehension processes in communication and persuasion.

Media Psychology, 18(2),163–195. https://doi. org/10.1080/15213269.2014.912584 Yan, J., & Li, Y. (2021, January). Comparative study of cultural value orientation between China and America.

Theory and Practice in Language Studies, 11(1), 97–103. Suggested Unit Resources In order to access the following resources, click the links below. Watch the following videos about the basics of cross-cultural communication. The transcripts for these videos can be found by clicking the “Transcript” tab to the right of the video in the Films on Demand database. Promedion/American MultiMedia (Producer) (2002). Cross cultural communication and globalization

(Segment of 1 of 12) [Video]. In Cross-Cultural Communication. Films on Demand. https://libraryresources.columbiasouthern.edu/login?auth=CAS&url=https://fod.infobase.com/PortalPl aylists.aspx?wID=273866&xtid=115830&loid=426545

Promedion/American MultiMedia (Producer) (2002). Cross-cultural communication basics (Segment 2 of 12)

[Video]. In Cross-Cultural Communication. Films on Demand. https://libraryresources.columbiasouthern.edu/login?auth=CAS&url=https://fod.infobase.com/PortalPl aylists.aspx?wID=273866&xtid=115830&loid=426546

Promedion/American MultiMedia (Producer) (2002). Collectivism vs. individualism (Segment 3 of 12) [Video].

In Cross-Cultural Communication. Films on Demand. https://libraryresources.columbiasouthern.edu/login?auth=CAS&url=https://fod.infobase.com/PortalPl aylists.aspx?wID=273866&xtid=115830&loid=426547

Promedion/American MultiMedia (Producer) (2002). Cultural patterns by country (Segment 4 of 12) [Video]. In

Cross-Cultural Communication. Films on Demand. https://libraryresources.columbiasouthern.edu/login?auth=CAS&url=https://fod.infobase.com/PortalPl aylists.aspx?wID=273866&xtid=115830&loid=426548

Read the following comparison article about high- and low-context cultures. Afrouzi, O. A. (2021). Humanitarian behavior across high-/low-context cultures: A comparative analysis

between Switzerland and Colombia. Journal of International Humanitarian Action, 6(1). https://link.gale.com/apps/doc/A650609569/AONE?u=oran95108&sid=ebsco&xid=1b1be950

Learning Activities (Nongraded) Nongraded Learning Activities are provided to aid students in their course of study. You do not have to submit them. If you have questions, contact your instructor for further guidance and information. Complete the Self-Assessment 7.2: Value Orientations questions in your textbook in Chapter 7. Based on your score, reflect on the questions at the end of the assessment and note your thoughts in a personal journal.