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Social Psychology

Thomas Heinzen

Heinzen, Social Psychology 1e. © SAGE Publications 2019.

Chapter 11

Aggression

Social Psychology

Thomas Heinzen

Heinzen, Social Psychology 1e. © SAGE Publications 2019.

Chapter 11

Aggression

Core Questions

What does it mean to be “aggressive”?

Is aggression explained by biological instincts?

Is aggression explained by cultural influences?

Is aggression explained by situational influences?

How can we manage or reduce aggression?

Heinzen, Social Psychology 1e. © SAGE Publications 2019.

What Does It Mean To Be “Aggressive”?

Humans have become efficient killers.

The weapons have changed, but the psychology remains the same.

Aggression defined

Heinzen, Social Psychology 1e. © SAGE Publications 2019.

LO 11-1: To explain typologies that define and organize different forms of aggression and apply them to aggression in humans over time.

Human have become efficient killers:

In 1863, it required three days to kill approximately 8,000 soldiers.

In 1916, it required one day to kill approximately 19,000 soldiers.

In 1945, it required less than one second to vaporize 75,000 soldiers.

The weapons have changed, but the underlying psychology of aggression appears to be the same.

Aggression is behavior intended to harm others who do not wish to be harmed.

Aggression includes non-violent acts like backstabbing office politics.

Deciding what behaviors qualify can be subjective.

Typologies Help Define Aggression

Three typologies

Descriptive typology

Motivational typology

Microaggressions

Heinzen, Social Psychology 1e. © SAGE Publications 2019.

LO 11-1: To explain typologies that define and organize different forms of aggression and apply them to aggression in humans over time.

A typology is a categorical systems that helps us think more clearly about complex but related events.

A descriptive typology of aggression helps us understand how people are aggressive, and includes three categories:

Physical or verbal

Direct or indirect

Active or passive

A motivational typology focuses on why people are aggressive, and includes two categories:

Hostile/reactive aggression is an emotion-based reaction to perceived threats.

Instrumental/proactive aggression is a thoughtful or reason-based decision to harm others to gain resources, money, self-esteem, or social status.

A relatively new typology is microaggressions, which are brief and “everyday” subtle or covert forms of prejudice and discrimination.

Microinsults are rude statements to demean someone’s heritage.

Microassaults are overt behaviors to psychologically harm someone.

Microinvalidations that invalidate the target’s feelings on an individual or group level.

The Persistence of Aggression Over Time

Always a part of the human story

Stockpiling weapons

“Iceman”

Egyptian cemetery

Holy books

Heinzen, Social Psychology 1e. © SAGE Publications 2019.

LO 11-1: To explain typologies that define and organize different forms of aggression and apply them to aggression in humans over time.

Aggression has always been a part of the human story:

Primitive people stockpiled ax heads.

Russia and the U.S. stockpile nuclear arsenals.

A 5,300-year-old skeleton of “Iceman” died with a dagger in his hand, preserved blood of two people on his body, and an arrow in his back.

Egyptian cemetery 14,000 years old with half of the 50 skeletons included embedded stone projectiles.

Aggression in holy books like the Bible.

The Escalation of Aggression: The Stages of Provocation

Escalation of aggression effect

Three States of Provocation Model

Heinzen, Social Psychology 1e. © SAGE Publications 2019.

LO 11-1: To explain typologies that define and organize different forms of aggression and apply them to aggression in humans over time.

The escalation of aggression effect is an upward spiral of increasingly aggressive exchanges from which the antagonists are seemingly unable to free themselves.

The three stages of provocation model describes how thoughts, feelings, and behaviors collectively contribute to the escalation of aggression.

Stage 1: Irritated; cautiously assertive

Stage 2: Angry, strongly assertive

Stage 3: Biased conclusions; impulsive

In the Robber’s Cave study, the boys quickly escalated through the stages.

The Big Picture of World-Wide Aggression

Actually a persistent, long-term decline in world-wide violence.

Increasing intelligence leads to a decreased need for violence.

Although we are more efficient, actual killing is decreasing.

Heinzen, Social Psychology 1e. © SAGE Publications 2019.

LO 11-1: To explain typologies that define and organize different forms of aggression and apply them to aggression in humans over time.

Despite vivid images and watching conflicts live, there has been a persistent, long-term decline in world-wide violence.

Over time, humans have become more intelligent, and increased intelligence leads to a decreased need for violence.

Although we are more efficient, actual killing is decreasing.

Is Aggression Explained By Biological Instincts?

Some dogs bark and bare teeth at strangers.

Abused (nurture) or instinctively aggressive (nature)?

Aggression as automatic behavior

Dogs have to bark.

Heinzen, Social Psychology 1e. © SAGE Publications 2019.

LO 11-2: To analyze biological and evolutionary explanations for aggression.

Some animals display instinctive aggression:

Dogs will automatically bark and bare their teeth at strangers.

Have they been abuse (nurture) or are they instinctively aggressive (nature)?

Evolutionary psychology explains aggression as an automatic behavior.

Dogs have to bark.

Genetic Determinism

Genes determine behavioral outcomes.

Genetics are a compelling force.

Evolutionary psychology: it works

Gaining resources and improving reproductive chances.

Heinzen, Social Psychology 1e. © SAGE Publications 2019.

LO 11-2: To analyze biological and evolutionary explanations for aggression.

Genetic determinism proposes that a gene’s influence alone determines behavioral outcomes--a biological fate.

Genetics are a compelling force:

Monarch butterflies are genetically directed to fly to Mexico.

In humans, genetic determinism compels some people to have brown eyes, go bald in their 30s, or have Down Syndrome.

Evolutionary psychology explains that aggression has a simple explanation: it works.

People who automatically respond with aggression tend to gain resources that improve their reproductive opportunities.

Status and Mating Motives

Men prefer direct aggression.

Women favor indirect aggression.

Bullying occurs in a variety of social situations.

Gaining status and preventing future aggression

Heinzen, Social Psychology 1e. © SAGE Publications 2019.

LO 11-2: To analyze biological and evolutionary explanations for aggression.

For most men, status and mating motives increase direct aggression only when they know other men are watching.

Women favor indirect aggression (e.g., social exclusion).

Bullying happens in “polite” circles too, such as professors bullying graduate students due to their drive for status, recognition, and money.

Bullying occurs in a wide variety of social situations, and the intent is to harm someone in order to gain status and possibly to prevent future aggression.

Biological Mechanisms of Aggression

Four biological responses to threat

Low resting heart rate

Alcohol and aggression

Testosterone and aggression

Heinzen, Social Psychology 1e. © SAGE Publications 2019.

LO 11-2: To analyze biological and evolutionary explanations for aggression.

The goal of aggression is to survive and reproduce; our bodies inherited biological mechanisms that select for whatever strategy works in a given situation.

There are four biological responses to threat:

Fight

Flight

Freezing

Tend and Befriend

A low resting heart rate at 11 is a strong predictor of delinquency at 21; outward calm correlates with aggression.

“Less sensitive to the negative consequences of their behavior”

Less responsive to the environment

More than any other drug, alcohol is implicated in aggressive behavior.

The alcohol disinhibition hypothesis proposes that alcohol interferes with the brain’s inability to suppress violent behavior.

There is also a small but positive correlation between aggressive behavior and testosterone in humans.

Is Aggression Explained By Cultural Influences?

“Football hooliganism”

Yanomamö tribe

“Crisis of masculinity”

Cultures of honor, gender roles, sports culture

Heinzen, Social Psychology 1e. © SAGE Publications 2019.

LO 11-3: To analyze cultural explanations for aggression.

Examples of culture and aggression:

“Football hooliganism”

Yanomamö tribe

“Crisis of masculinity”

Cultures of honor, gender roles, and sports-related violence

Cultures of Honor

Perceive an insult as a threat to one’s reputation for masculine courage.

Cultures of honor and the seven values

Not bound by geography

Tied to how men define their social roles and expectations.

Heinzen, Social Psychology 1e. © SAGE Publications 2019.

LO 11-3: To analyze cultural explanations for aggression.

In a study, college students were bumped and called an “asshole;” men from the South were more likely to:

think their masculinity had been threatened

be emotionally upset

become physiologically primed for aggression

engage in more aggressive and dominant behavior

A culture of honor perceives an insult as a threat to one’s reputation for masculine courage that must be restored though dominance and aggression.

Cultural values include masculine courage, pride in manhood, independence, standing up to bullies, protecting women, not accepting insults, and family comes first.

Cultures of honor are not bound by geography; Chicago, United States, Turkey, and Brazil have cultures of honor.

Aggression is tied to how men define their social roles and expectations.

Gender Roles and Aggression

Gender equality female victimization

Sexism, wife beating, and general aggression

In Sweden:

Women have the most education, higher salaries

“Rape capital” of Europe

Male backlash?

Heinzen, Social Psychology 1e. © SAGE Publications 2019.

LO 11-3: To analyze cultural explanations for aggression.

As gender equality and individualism increase, female victimization decreases.

In some cultures, sexist attitudes predicted wife beating but general aggression is not.

Sweden is the rape capital of Europe, but women also have more education, higher salaries, and more likely to be board members.

This is thought to perhaps be a “backlash” of threatened men who feel the need to aggress to regain power.

Sports Culture

Risk of physical injury like concussions

Athletes, coaches, fans, and purposeful aggression

The color black, aggression, and dehumanization

Good sportsmanship

Heinzen, Social Psychology 1e. © SAGE Publications 2019.

LO 11-3: To analyze cultural explanations for aggression.

Many sports require the risk of physical injury like American football and soccer:

Head impacts lead to concussions.

Athletes, support staff, coaches, and fans have all displayed purposeful aggression.

The color black in uniforms is associated with higher rankings in penalties.

Black children are more likely dehumanized, meaning they are cognitively perceived as lacking positive human qualities and retaining negative, animalistic qualities.

Conversely, sports competition can have a humanizing effect between combatants; “good sportsmanship” is the expectation of honoring and respecting your sports rival.

Is Aggression Explained By Situational Influences?

How do certain environments cause aggression?

Nationalistic calls for war

Modeling aggression in violent media

Environmental cues

Heinzen, Social Psychology 1e. © SAGE Publications 2019.

LO 11-4: To analyze situational explanations for aggression.

So far, we have covered biological instincts and cultural differences, but how do certain situations or environments bring about aggression?

Nationalistic calls for war

Modeling aggression in violent media

Environmental cues

Aggression in Times of War

Start of WWI, millions of men enlisted

Stirring words and patriotic songs

Large crowds gathered to send men off

Swell of patriotic aggression

Courageous necessity for a nobler cause

LO 11-4: To analyze situational explanations for aggression.

At the start of WWI, millions of men enthusiastically joined armies to fight.

Everyone encouraged enlisting with stirring words and patriotic songs.

Crowds gathered to send men off to war.

People who were normally pacifists were caught up in the swell of patriotic aggression.

Killing and the risk of being killed was a courageous necessity of a nobler cause.

Modeling Aggression

Bandura’s Bobo Doll Studies

Study 1: Imitating adults

Study 2: Imitating adults on TV

Study 3: Imitating children on TV

Watching wrestling versus musicals

Aggression and violent video games

Positive outcomes of video game play

LO 11-4: To analyze situational explanations for aggression.

Bandura’s Bobo Doll Studies:

Study 1 showed children who watched an adult beating up a Bobo doll were likely to copy the aggressive behavior.

Study 2 showed that aggressive models on television produced the same effects.

Study 3 showed that boys (but not girls) who saw a boy on television rewarded for aggression displayed the highest levels of aggression.

More recently, children who watched wrestling were more likely to play violently relative to watching Christian gospel musicals.

Studies have shown that aggression goes up with sustained play of violent video games.

Alternatively, video games can be associated with more pro-social behavior, cooperation, an understanding of artificial intelligence, and effective ways to teach.

A Cognitive Explanation for Environmental Cues

Black uniforms, heat, loud noises, crowding, and pain

Cognitive neoassociation analysis

Weapons effect

Images of alcohol

LO 11-4: To analyze situational explanations for aggression.

Black uniforms, hot temperature, loud noises, crowding, and pain are associated with negative feelings that lead to aggression.

Environmental cues activate brain connections that trigger fight or flight.

Cognitive neoassociation analysis combines the emotions we feel while frustrated with higher-order thought processes regarding goals.

The weapons effect occurs when the presence of weapons primes aggressive thoughts, feelings, and behaviors.

Images of alcohol can trigger aggression even when no alcohol has been drunk.

Heat increases aggressive behavior.

How Can We Manage or Reduce Aggression?

Why isn’t the world more aggressive?

Frustration and aggression

Biological instinct

Cultural promotion

Certain Situations

What can we do to manage or decrease aggression?

Start by examining what doesn’t work

Then focus on what does work

LO 11-5: To compare and contrast ideas for decreasing aggression in social situations.

Why isn’t the world even more aggressive than it already is?

People can become violent when they experience frustration.

Aggression may be a biological instinct.

Some cultures promote violence.

Certain situations promote more violence than others.

What can we do to manage or decrease aggression? Start by examining what doesn’t work, then focus on what does work.

Tempting But Bad Ideas: Catharsis and Revenge

“Letting off steam”?

Banging on nails with a hammer

Hitting a punching bag

Revenge feels good but is transient

Expressing aggression empowers more aggression

LO 11-5: To compare and contrast ideas for decreasing aggression in social situations.

Some people try the catharsis hypothesis, which is the idea that engaging in aggressive behavior will reduce it overall; “letting off steam”

An early study showed that, compared to control subjects, subjects allowed to bang on nails with a hammer were significantly more hostile to a confederate.

In a more recent study, participants were insulted. Participants allowed to hit a punching bag were more aggressive to the confederate relative to participants who sat quietly for two minutes.

Cathartic revenge feels good in the moment, but the feelings are transient; revenge often leads to being more aggressive later.

As cognitive neoassociation predicts, expressing aggression empowers people to be more, not less, aggressive.

Hope for the Future: Cultures of Peace and Modeling Forgiveness

Peaceful societies range across continents and how they gather food.

The only commonality is distinctive ways of discouraging conflict.

Children can learn forgiveness through modeling.

In one study, participants were less aggressive when observing others being less aggressive.

LO 11-5: To compare and contrast ideas for decreasing aggression in social situations.

Just as there are cultures of relative aggression, there are also cultures of relative peace:

Bonta (1997) identified 25 relatively peaceful societies that range across continents and varied in terms of how they gather food and interact with others.

The only commonality is each evolved its own distinctive ways to reduce and discourage conflict.

If children can learn aggression through modeling, they can also learn non-aggressive behavior.

For example, one study showed that participants were less likely to be aggressive to an obnoxious confederate when they observed other confederates first behaving non-aggressively.