Unit IV Case Study USG

POL 2301, United States Government 1

Course Learning Outcomes for Unit IV Upon completion of this unit, students should be able to:

5. Explain the role of political parties in elections within the U.S. political system. 5.1 Identify the factors that motivate and hinder voting in the United States. 5.2 Describe the two stages of elections. 5.3 Describe the presidential election process.

7. Describe the impact of media on public opinion and politics.

7.1 Describe the ways that the public opinion polls can influence voting behavior. 7.2 Discuss how the public opinion can impact public policy and politics at the local level of

government. 7.3 Define fake news.

Course/Unit Learning Outcomes

Learning Activity

5.1

Unit Lesson Chapter 7, pp. 243–280 Article: “When Citizen Engagement Becomes Too Much” Article: “The Citizens Most Vocal in Local Government” Unit IV Case Study

5.2 Unit Lesson Chapter 7, pp. 243–280 Unit IV Case Study

5.3 Unit Lesson Chapter 7, pp. 243–280 Unit IV Case Study

7.1 Unit Lesson Chapter 6, pp. 201–213, 219–221, 229–236 Unit IV Case Study

7.2 Unit Lesson Chapter 6, pp. 201–213, 219–221, 229–236 Unit IV Case Study

7.3 Unit Lesson Chapter 8, pp. 287–320 Unit IV Case Study

Required Unit Resources In order to access the following resources, click the links below. Throughout this course, you will be provided with sections of text from the online textbook American Government 2e. You may be tested on your knowledge and understanding of the material presented in the textbook as well as the information presented in the unit lesson. Chapter 6: The Politics of Public Opinion, pp. 201–213, 219–221, 229–236 Chapter 7: Voting and Elections, pp. 243–280 Chapter 8: The Media, pp. 287–320

UNIT IV STUDY GUIDE

Public Opinion, Voting and Elections, and the Media

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Ehrenhalt, A. (2018, November). When citizen engagement becomes too much. Governing. https://www.governing.com/columns/assessments/gov-citizen-engagement.html

Maciag, M. (2014, July). The citizens most vocal in local government. Governing.

https://www.governing.com/topics/politics/gov-national-survey-shows-citizens-most-vocal-active-in- local-government.html

Unit Lesson In the United States, civic engagement is a critical component of democracy. As we learned in Units I and II, our democratic polity provides citizens with many possible avenues through which to participate in political society. In Unit III, we discussed how the Bill of Rights and subsequent amendments and laws work to ensure that the right of citizens to engage in civic life and self-governance is protected. In your readings for Unit IV, which include Chapters 6 (select sections), 7, and 8 (select sections), you will learn about four key aspects of civic engagement that are core features of American government: public opinion, voting, elections, and the media. Protected as civil liberties and present at all levels in our system of federalism, these components of representative democracy serve as cornerstones of civic engagement. While these four cornerstones may seem only marginally related, they are, in fact, closely intertwined. In this unit, we will examine the critical ways in which the media and public opinion polling impact voter behavior and elections.

The Influence of Polls on Public Opinion

Public opinion polls have been an important feature of the American landscape since the early 1800s (Smith, 1990). They provide an important mechanism to learn about political values, public policies, political leaders, candidates for public office, and political institutions. Those running for political offices, the media, and research institutes often conduct public opinion polls. But, public opinion polls (also called surveys) are not only a way for those involved or interested in politics to gather information about what citizens think; rather, they also can be used to impart political information to citizens and potentially influence their political preferences and behaviors. Below are a few specific ways that polling can influence public opinion.

 Strategic or tactical voting: This phenomenon occurs when a voter casts a ballot for a candidate who is not their first preference but, rather, is who they believe to have a higher probability of winning the election. This perception is often based on repeated polling data, which is reporting the likely election outcomes (Stephenson et al., 2018).

 Closeness of elections as reported in polls: When polls near the election date indicate a high probability of a close election, citizens are more likely to turn out to vote in an attempt to influence the election outcome (Bursztyn et al., 2017).

 Bandwagon effect: When polls show that one candidate has a strong lead over other candidates, voters are more likely to vote for the leading candidate. At times, the bandwagon effect can cross party lines with the voters jumping onto the leading candidate’s bandwagon even though the candidate is associated with the opposing party (Balnaves, 2016).

 Political information: Polls also can provide information to voters on political candidates and issues that affect voter preferences (Snyder, 2012).

The American flag is a symbol of democracy and freedom. (McLeod-Simmons, 2019b)

Polling can help predict voter behavior. (Kontakt5956, n.d.)

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 Exit polls: This type of public opinion survey is taken the day of the election to indicate a strong front- runner, which can deter voters from voting because of their perceived belief that the election has already been decided.

 Favorability polls: These polls rate candidates on specific issues or characteristics. When a candidate receives a high rating and that rating is publicized, it can influence voters to support that candidate even if their initial support for that candidate was weak.

If conducted correctly, public opinion polls can provide accurate information about the public opinions on timely and important policy issues, views about political institutions and leadership, and attitudes regarding civic engagement. However, conducting public opinion polls is a complex undertaking. How can surveying a sample of 1,000 people provide accurate information about the entire U.S. population, which is approximately composed of 330 million people?

In order to access the following video, click the link below. Review the video Methods 101: Mode Effects, which was produced by the Pew Research Center, to learn about how they conduct polls (Kennedy, 2019). A transcript and closed captioning are available once you access the video.

The Media’s Influence on Public Opinion

Protected by the First Amendment, a free press ensures that government cannot prevent the news media from performing its roles of reporting, investigating, and scrutinizing political leaders, institutions, and public policies. In other words, a free press works to inform the public and acts as a watchdog on government. However, over the years, the news media has developed the additional role of shaping the public’s perception of politics and political leaders. Here are several ways in which the media can influence voter preferences and even elections.

 Framing political issues: Framing asks the following questions: Why does an issue matter? Who is

responsible for the problem? What should be done? Framing is how the media presents an issue and on which issues the media spotlights, which can have an impact on voter perception and voter behavior. The focus and intensity of focus can influence the views of voters and increase the likelihood that voters will support specific candidates and turnout when the voters likely would not have done so otherwise (Krutz, 2019).

 Election projections: Media conducts research and publishes data to indicate that an election will be decided by a slim margin. Voter turnout is higher when citizens perceive that the margin of election between top candidates will be narrow.

 Media bias: Media bias occurs when a media outlet deliberately publicizes partisan information about a candidate, political leader, or political issue. This partisan attention can have an important impact on voters’ perspectives of key political issues, which can, in turn, impact voting preferences (Krutz, 2019).

 Latent attitudes: While citizens often hold strong beliefs about politics or public figures, political attitudes can also be latent. This means that voter beliefs and views are present but are weak. Latent attitudes can occur when issues have a limited impact on citizens or when citizens regard certain issues as being of minimal importance. Latent attitudes often lead to a lack of interest in civic engagement. However, concentrated media attention on an issue or political figure can transform voters’ latent attitudes into strong attitudes, which can lead to active civic engagement, such as active support of a political candidate (Key, 1964).

The Changing Face of Political News

While the news media plays a role in the development and trajectory of public opinion by the way it frames issues, projects electoral outcomes, and leads and motivates citizens, a significant complication for voters is the proliferation of both inaccurate news reports and highly partisan (opinion) political communications. In order to

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prepare to cast an informed vote, citizens must filter through a vast array of information from various types of news sources. Until the past decade, Americans learned about election results, public policies, current events, international affairs, and local news from network and cable television, newspapers, and radio. However, the ways that citizens acquire their news has changed over the past few years. A recent survey conducted by Pew Research Center found that the number of Americans who get their news from an online source (e.g., websites, apps, social media) was on the rise. As of 2018, over one-third (34%) of American adults preferred to get news online rather than through any other source. While television remained the most popular platform to receive news, with 44% of Americans indicating television as their preferred new media choice, that number is on the decline (Geiger, 2019). In 2016, Pew Research Center reported that 57% of U.S. adults preferred TV as their primary source for news (Matsa & Lu, 2016). While the use of television as citizens’ key resource for news is declining, the number of Americans who report getting their news at least occasionally from online sources, including social media, is increasing. However, about two-thirds of Americans report getting their news at least occasionally from social media. Of the various social media sites, almost half of people who get their news from social media rely on Facebook (Shearer & Matsa, 2018).

(Shearer & Matsa, 2018)

(Shearer & Matsa, 2018)

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From Yellow Journalism to Social Media to Fake News While some media reports are accurate and reputable, others tend toward sensationalism and inaccurate reporting. The purpose of this type of reporting is to attract and persuade readers. At the turn of the century, media reports of this nature were called yellow journalism (Great Projects Film Company, 1999). In the 1890s, two newspapers (i.e., the New York World and the New York Journal) were competing for readers. In an effort to bolster readership, they began to cover issues in a dramatized way in order to attract readers. The focus of these news reports was not on reporting the facts; rather, the focus was on writing stories in a way that was exciting and attention-grabbing. The more enticing the stories were that appeared in the newspapers, the greater the number of readers. Why is this important? Joseph Pulitzer and William Randolph Hearst were two major newspaper publishers, and what this meant for them was not only more profit but an increased ability to sway public opinion and influence political events. Take a look at the following political cartoon from 1894, which depicts a newspaper owner and the piles of money he has earned from sensationalistic reporting (Opper, 1894).

The Fin de Siècle Newspaper Proprietor is an illustration by Opper, F. B. (1894). The image depicts the profits that can be made in the newspaper business using yellow journalism. Click the image to view a larger version.

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While the term yellow journalism is familiar to many, the origins of the phrase is not well-known. In the 1890s, a comic depicted the life and adventures of a character known as the Yellow Kid. Cartoonist Richard F. Outcault developed the character to appeal to the growing immigrant population in New York. The cartoon was initially published by Pulitzer in his newspaper, the New York World. However, in 1986, a competing newspaper, the New York Journal, which was owned by Hearst, successfully outbid Pulitzer for Outcault and his Yellow Kid in a much-publicized fight over who would win the publishing rights to the cartoon. It was out of this very public and sensationalized publishing war that the term yellow journalism became popular (“How Did Yellow Journalism,” n.d.). While the initial goal of yellow journalism was to grow profit for these two publishers, that objective soon gave way to efforts to influence public policy, which, at the time, involved the U.S. interests in Cuba and the Spanish-America War. Focus shifted to capturing the attention of readers and swaying public reaction to political events (Office of the Historian, n.d.). Today, we refer to this type of reporting as fake news. Fake news is reporting that aims at sensationalizing the news; misleading the public with inaccurate information; and creating visual images that are manipulated or distorted for the purpose of altering public perceptions of institutions, processes, public policies, or public figures (Brummette et al., 2018). While you may think that fake news began as recently as the 2016 U.S. presidential election, you just learned that it began as early as the late 1900s. A century later, social media serves as the platform of choice for those who fake the news (Yu, 2018). Why is social media, such as Facebook and Twitter, the medium of choice? There are several explanations for why sensationalized news most frequently appears on social media. First, most social media platforms lack or decline to use fact-checking or editorial judgement mechanisms (Allcott & Gentzkow, 2017). Mainstream media, such as CNN and the New York Times, rely on long- established procedures for checking facts and employing staff and editors to review the content of news reports before they are aired or go to press. Second, many social media platforms do not use filters to screen information prior to users uploading posts. While social media companies may remove posts that are demonstrated to be inaccurate, this is done after the fact, which is after thousands or millions of users have read the fake news. Third, because social media accounts are free, posting sensationalized news reports to social media is readily accessible to almost anyone. Finally, the digital platform of social media coupled with mobile technology creates a process in which online news reporting can be uploaded with amazing swiftness and often with no delays.

Declining Trust in Social Media While many Americans use social media as a news source, it is not without some challenges. First, more than half of social media users have difficulty distinguishing between factual statements and opinions. In a 2018 poll, only about 60% of Americans surveyed were able to accurately distinguish between factual statements

This is a detail from The Fin de Siècle Newspaper Proprietor, which was featured in an 1894 issue of Puck magazine. Amid the flurry of eager paper-clutching public, one holds a publication brandished with the words “Fake News” (Opper, 1894).

Software media is often used as a news source, but is often inaccurate. (McLeod-Simmons, 2019a)

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and opinion (i.e., fake statements) (Mitchell et al., 2018). The study also showed that that citizens who maintained a high awareness of politics and were digitally savvy scored higher than those with a low political awareness and with less understanding of digital technology (Mitchell et al., 2018).

In order to access the following Pew Research Center quiz, click the link below to see how you score compared to other respondents. Quiz: How Well Can You Tell Factual From Opinion Statements?

(Chernetskaya, n.d.)

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Second, most Americans regard social media as inaccurate (Shearer & Matsa, 2018). More than half of the Pew Research Center survey respondents stated that inaccurate and biased reporting are very big problems (Shearer & Grieco, 2019). More specifically, half of Americans view made-up (fake) news as a more significant problem than violent crime, terrorism, and climate change (Shearer & Grieco, 2019). Why is understanding and recognizing fake news important? When citizens obtain and act on inaccurate information or sensationalized news, or when they are unable to clearly distinguish between facts and opinion, this can have a negative impact on public faith in and understanding of governmental institutions, political leaders, and the political system in general. This, in turn, can also lead to lower civic engagement. In fact, nearly 70% of Americans state that made-up news greatly impacts their confidence in government and is detrimental to American democracy (Mitchell et al., 2019). As we learned in Unit I, by its very definition, democracy requires the participation of citizens.

Social Media as a News Source As the aforementioned studies show, many Americans using social media do not trust it as a news source and have difficulty distinguishing between factual reporting and opinion, so why do so many people use it? Quite simply, it is convenient. Users of social media, while recognizing the negative aspects of social media as a news source, also recognize the value of efficiency. They can obtain quick information that is up-to-date, varied, and tailored to their own interests and viewpoints. Social media consumers recognize the drawbacks of this news acquisition platform but believe that these disadvantages are sufficiently balanced by the advantages.

Conclusions: Fake News, Social Media, Public Opinion, and Elections

While two-thirds of Americans gather at least some of their political news from social media sites, American news consumers are intelligent consumers. They recognize that social media sites do not always contain

accurate information and, at times, include fake news intended to mislead. They also are aware of the possible negative implications of inaccurate news on democracy. However, advances in technology, especially artificial intelligence-based techniques for discrete frame-by- frame editing of videos, makes it quick, easy, and inexpensive to produce high-quality recordings of events that never occurred. The use of digital content manipulations to create alternate realities during election cycles can have profound effects on public opinion and political behavior (Villasenor, 2019). Sensationalized and fake news typically targets specific demographics that have latent attitudes toward a particular party or candidate. This influence can then be evidenced in public opinion polls. When coupled with strategic voting, this can lead to a bandwagon effect, which is a psychological condition that leads voters to flock to support a

Shearer, (2018)

(Mitchell et al., 2019)

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specific candidate or party just because others do. In close elections, this can be a turning point that produces an unanticipated electoral outcome.

News Habits (Nongraded) Answer the follow questions. These questions are about your own news habits, so try to be as honest as possible when you answer. No one will see your responses but you. The purpose is for you to think seriously about your news choices.

Where do you get your news?

Have you ever believed fake news? What made you believe the news report? How did the author get your attention?

How do you determine if a news source is credible or reliable?

How do you determine if a news story is accurate?

Elections

Why is it important for citizens to have access to accurate and up-to-date political information?

 Access to accurate information empowers citizens to make informed decisions about public policies and candidates who are running for elected office.

 Citizens can cast an informed vote only when they have access to correct and timely information.

 Only when citizens possess accurate and up-to-date information about the world around them are they able to fully understand and effectively evaluate the decisions made by political leaders.

 Accurate and up-to-date information is an essential element in a free and fair election.

Purpose and Characteristics of Democratic Elections Elections serve as the foundation of a democratic political system and provide an essential avenue through which citizens can engage in and influence the life of their community. In the United States and other democratic countries, elections are an important avenue of civic engagement that help ensure citizens are free to enjoy the benefits that living in a democracy provides. However, the mere presence of elections does not guarantee that a country is democratic. For example, the former Soviet Union held elections, campaigning occurred, party meetings were held, the time and location of elections and polling places were well-publicized, and voter turnout averaged at approximately 99% (Karklins, 1986). However, the country was far from democratic. What makes elections democratic, and how do democratic elections help ensure that a country is and remains a democracy? An election is the political mechanism by which citizens make choices. Elections serve a critical function in the American political system by providing a way for citizens to select political leaders and public policies. Elections help prevent political leaders from remaining in power for extended periods of time without the consent of the voting public. Characteristics of a democratic election must meet the following criteria: the election must be free, inclusive, public, competitive, regularly scheduled, and definitive. If any one of these elements is missing, then the election moves away from democracy and toward authoritarianism. See more information on this below.

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1. Free: Citizens that meet basic requirements (such as a minimum age) are permitted to vote with no intimidation.

2. Inclusive: A substantial percentage of the population is eligible to vote. 3. Public: The time and place of elections are publicly announced. 4. Regular: Elections are held at fixed and regular intervals. 5. Competitive: All eligible citizens and political parties can run for office. 6. Definitive: Election results lead to winners taking office in a timely manner.

In order to access the following presentation, click the link below. Review this brief Elections presentation to see which elements of democratic elections the United States and other democratic and non-democratic states meet. A PDF version of the Elections presentation is also available.

Election Stages

Elections for public offices at all levels of government and for all positions consist of a two-stage process: nomination and general election. The purpose of the nomination stage is to select candidates to run in the general election. Typically, candidates for elected office are sponsored by political parties. Candidate nominations for congressional elections as well as state and local elections are selected through either primaries (i.e., the most common method) or caucuses. Primaries are a type of election where citizens go to the polls and cast a vote for their candidate of choice. A caucus is a party meeting in which party members gather in person to select party candidates to run in the general election. The two most common types of primaries are closed primaries and open primaries. In a closed primary, only registered members of a specific political party can vote. In an open primary, all registered voters are permitted to vote. However, while voters need not be registered with a political party, they must select a particular party’s ballot at the time of the primary.

Presidential Elections While congressional elections for seats in the U.S. House of Representatives and the U.S. Senate use popular elections in which voters directly select who will fill the open seats, presidential elections use an indirect method of selecting the country’s chief executive, which is known as the Electoral College. This method of selecting the president of the United States is described and mandated by the U.S. Constitution. The long road to the White House begins with announcements and campaigning, which can begin more than 1 year before the nomination actually takes place. Your textbook provides an apt overview of presidential campaigns, so take a few minutes to read over these sections. The first formal stage of a presidential election is the party nomination. This takes place during the summer prior to the November general election. Each political party holds a national convention that selects the party’s nominee to compete for the office of president. However, unlike congressional, state, and local elections, the presidential election includes the two previously discussed stages (i.e., nomination and general election) as well as a third stage, the Electoral College. The Electoral College occurs in December after the general election. Review the brief flipbook below for details about the presidential selection progress.

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In order to access the following flipbook, click the link below. Presidential Elections flipbook A transcript of the Presidential Elections flipbook is also available.

References Allcott, H., & Gentzkow, M. (2017). Social media and fake news in the 2016 election. The Journal of

Economic Perspectives, 31(2), 211–236. https://www-jstor- org.libraryresources.columbiasouthern.edu/stable/44235006

Balnaves, M. (2016, June 20). How political opinion polls affect voter behaviour. The Conversation.

https://theconversation.com/how-political-opinion-polls-affect-voter-behaviour-60554 Brummette, J. D., DiStaso, M., & Vafeiadis, M. (2018). Read all about it: The politicization of "fake news" on

Twitter. Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly, 95(2). https://doi.org/10.1177/1077699018769906

Bursztyn, L., Cantoni, D., Funk, P., & Yuchtman, N. (2017). Polls, the press, and political participation: The

effects of anticipated election closeness on voter turnout (NBER Working Paper No. 23490). National Bureau of Economic Research. https://www.nber.org/papers/w23490.pdf

Geiger, A. W. (2019, September 11). Key findings about the online news landscape in America. Pew

Research Center. https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2019/09/11/key-findings-about-the-online- news-landscape-in-america/

How did yellow journalism lead to the Spanish-American War? (n.d.). DailyHistory.org.

https://dailyhistory.org/How_did_Yellow_Journalism_lead_to_the_Spanish-American_War%3F Great Projects Film Company. (1999). Yellow journalism. PBS.

https://www.pbs.org/crucible/frames/_journalism.html Karklins, R. (1986). Soviet elections revisited: Voter abstention in noncompetitive voting. The American

Political Science Review, 80(2), 449–470. https://libraryresources.columbiasouthern.edu/login?url=http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direc t=true&db=edsjsr&AN=edsjsr.10.2307.1958268&site=eds-live&scope=site

Kennedy, C. (2019, February 7). Methods 101: Mode effects [Video]. Cielo24.

https://c24.page/6r6xuz8vdmk33cbrggrxserv6q Key, V. (1964). Public opinion and American democracy (3rd ed.). Alfred Knopf. Kontakt5956. (n.d.). VOTE on the road [Photograph]. https://www.dreamstime.com/symbolic-image-elections-

person-stands-road-vote-road-image163738267 Matsa K. E., & Lu, K. (2016, September 14). 10 facts about the changing digital news landscape. Pew

Research Center. https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2016/09/14/facts-about-the-changing- digital-news-landscape/

McLeod-Simmons, L. (2019a). Fakebook [Photograph].

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McLeod-Simmons, L. (2019b). The American flag [Photograph]. Mitchell, A., Gottfried, J., Barthel, M., & Sumida, N. (2018, June 18). Distinguishing between factual and

opinion statements in the news. Pew Research Center. https://www.journalism.org/2018/06/18/distinguishing-between-factual-and-opinion-statements-in-the- news

Mitchell, A., Gottfried, J., Stocking, G., Walker, M., & Fedeli, S. (2019, June 5). Many Americans say made-up

news is a critical problem that needs to be fixed. Pew Research Center. https://www.journalism.org/2019/06/05/many-americans-say-made-up-news-is-a-critical-problem-that- needs-to-be-fixed/

Office of the Historian. (n.d.). U.S. diplomacy and yellow journalism, 1895–1898. U.S. Department of State.

https://history.state.gov/milestones/1866-1898/yellow-journalism Krutz, G. (2019, February 21). American government 2e (S. Waskiewicz, Ed.). OpenStax.

https://openstax.org/details/books/american-government-2e Opper, F. B. (1894). The fin de siècle newspaper proprietor [Chromolithograph].

https://www.loc.gov/item/2012648704/ Shearer, E., & Matsa, K. E. (2018, September 10). News use across social media platforms 2018. Pew

Research Center. https://www.journalism.org/2018/09/10/news-use-across-social-media-platforms- 2018/

Shearer, E., & Grieco, E. (2019, October 2). Americans are wary of the role social media sites play in

delivering the news. Pew Research Center. https://www.journalism.org/2019/10/02/americans-are- wary-of-the-role-social-media-sites-play-in-delivering-the-news/

Smith, T. (1990). The first straw? A study of the origins of election polls. Public Opinion Quarterly, 54(1), 21–

36. https://doi.org/10.1086/269181 Snyder, B. (2012, October 30). How polls influence behavior: New research says polling data helps voters get

the information they need to make decisions. Stanford Graduate School of Business. https://www.gsb.stanford.edu/insights/how-polls-influence-behavior

Stephenson, L. B., Aldrich, J., & Blais, A. (Eds.). (2018). The many faces of strategic voting: Tactical behavior

in electoral systems around the world. University of Michigan Press. https://muse.jhu.edu/book/62751 Villasenor, J. (2019, June 3). Deepfakes, social media, and the 2020 election. The Brookings Institution.

https://www.brookings.edu/blog/techtank/2019/06/03/deepfakes-social-media-and-the-2020-election/ Yu, X. (2018, December 3). The relationship between fake news, social media, and politics and why? Boston

University. https://sites.bu.edu/cmcs/2018/12/03/the-relationship-between-fake-news-social-media- and-politics-and-why/

Suggested Unit Resources In order to access the following resources, click the links below. The following websites are all informative in unique ways about the U.S. government and, therefore, are worth taking the time to explore. Access the links below to review the different websites. The Federal Election Commission is an independent regulatory agency that is charged with administering and enforcing the federal campaign finance law. The Federal Election Commission has jurisdiction over the financing of campaigns for the U.S. House, Senate, presidency, and the vice presidency.

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Gallup is a U.S.-based company that conducts and analyzes public opinion polls, including political polling. Pew Research Center is a U.S.-based, nonpartisan organization that conducts and analyzes public opinion surveys and related research about public opinion, including political polling and research. Pew Research Center: Journalism & Media is the division of Pew Research Center that focuses on news and journalism. Vote Smart is a nonpartisan, not-for-profit organization that collects and publishes information on political candidates for public office in the United States.

Learning Activities (Nongraded) Nongraded Learning Activities are provided to aid students in their course of study. You do not have to submit them. If you have questions, contact your instructor for further guidance and information. Review In order to check your understanding of the materials presented in this unit, you are encouraged to complete the following exercises that can be found at the end of Chapters 6–8. Once you have completed the activities, check your answers using the Answer Key. Chapter 6: Review Questions, pp. 239–240 Chapter 6: Critical Thinking Questions, p. 240 Chapter 7: Review Questions, pp. 283–285 Chapter 7: Critical Thinking Questions, p. 285 Chapter 8: Review Questions, pp. 323–324 Chapter 8: Critical Thinking Questions, p. 324 Terminology

Engage with the terminology that plays an integral role in U.S. politics by reviewing the Unit IV Flash Cards (PDF version of the Unit IV Flash Cards).

Reference Luckydoor. (n.d.). ID 50718023 [Photograph]. https://www.dreamstime.com/stock-photo-flash-cards-box-

vocabulary-image50718023

(Luckydoor, n.d.)