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Course Learning Outcomes for Unit III Upon completion of this unit, students should be able to:

4. Recognize significant Western cultural ideas. 4.1 Identify the significance of cultural establishments constructed in different Roman periods.

6. Contrast attributes of Western societies across different periods and locations.

6.2 Recognize the pattern of development of events across the cultural spectrum. Required Unit Resources Chapter 5: The Rise of Rome, ca. 1000–27 B.C.E. Chapter 6: The Roman Empire, 27 B.C.E.–284 C.E. Unit Lesson At the time that Hellenistic Greece dominated the ancient world, numerous tribes of non-Greek peoples formed and developed outside of the lands that Alexander had once conquered. Some of these tribes, centered along the Tiber River (ca. 1000 B.C.E.), would grow steadily into what we know now as the Roman people.

The Foundations of Rome: History, Symbol, and Myth From 6th century B.C.E. onward, Rome strove to conquer and expand its footprint from the Italian Peninsula and into Europe. However, unlike many similar cultural populations, the tribal kingdoms of early Rome fell to revolts by the most influential families, which resulted in a republic of and for the people. At its heart was the Senate, the symbol of the people of Rome. So powerful was this symbol that, as the government again transitioned, this time into an Empire, this republican body would continue to meet. Even from the field of battle, banners identifying SPQR (Senātus Populusque Rōmānus—The Roman Senate and People) flew as a symbol of the city/state, illustrating the power of this idea. Like Greece, Rome developed in waves, from the Kingdom (753–509 B.C.E.) to the Republic (509–27 B.C.E.) and finally to the Empire (27 B.C.E.–476 C.E.). The earliest Roman tradition gained great influence from the southern regions of the Italian peninsula; while still Greek-inspired, many examples of Hellenization would permeate the culture, these were independent of Alexander’s power and that of his successors. The geography of Italy provided both great lands for farming and development and natural protections, which made Rome a formidable city. Within the walls, the city was very reminiscent of Greek influence, from temples to gods resembling Greek myth to a public meeting plaza (like the Greek Agora). Greek art has even been found there and preserved by historians and archaeologists. The first culture to embrace the region had been the Etruscans (ca. 750–500 B.C.E.), who likely invaded from the east and settled in the northwest of the peninsula. As the Etruscans expanded to the south, they met and were eventually conquered by the Roman tribes. The history of Rome, like that of Greece, is deeply connected to myth. The most celebrated story is of twin brothers, Romulus and Remus. They were sons of the god Mars (parallel to the Greek god Aries) whose mother, Rhea Silvia, was descended from the Trojan hero Aeneas, son of the goddess Aphrodite (Venus) and King Priam of Troy. The story recounts a harrowing childhood and eventual disagreement between the two over where Rome should be built. This led to the death of Remus at the hands of Romulus, the namesake of

UNIT III STUDY GUIDE Roman Republic and Early Empire

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Rome and the founder of the Senate, or “council of old men.” There are several things tying the story to the area where Rome sits. In the myth, the local Sabine ancestors appear as conquered but virtuous people, an honored part of Roman foundations due to the brave actions of the women. On the other hand, the myth presents the overthrow of Etruscan kings as the result of their lack of virtue. While the story can be argued as myth, the regional influences are very evident in early Roman culture, perhaps most famously in the image of the Capitoline Wolf, which is a sculpture found throughout the city and even used as a city seal, and this regional identity stayed with the Roman people even with its spread throughout Europe and the Mediterranean. Today, several dates remain central to the Roman legacy, including 753 B.C.E. as the founding of the city, 509 B.C.E. as the expulsion of the Etruscan kings, and, as we will see later, 27 B.C.E. as the birth of an Empire like none ever seen before. The Senate is traced back to as early as the 6th century B.C.E., led by aristocracy with consuls serving as elected executives.

(Kohl, 1989)

A New Form of Citizenship Emerges

For most of its history, to be Roman meant to be at war. This meant there was a sense of pride in men to serve and frequent use of diplomacy in the construction of alliances. Many of Rome’s political structures and traditions were deeply seated in the expectation of near constant battle, and many stories told among the people emphasized the glory of victory and the valor of battle, even in the face of certain defeat. While the number of wars is too long to address here, many recognizable terms and names came from this tradition, including the Roman dictator Cincinnatus and the Epirus king and general Pyrrhus. Religion and religious practice, too, would become a part of war, including developing an attitude for war, dealing with crisis, and praising those who were lost. One of the most recognizable Greek influences in the Roman culture was religious overlap, including parallels for almost every major god, such as Jupiter/Zeus, Juno/Hera, Neptune/Poseidon, and Saturn/Cronus (the first in each pairing is Roman; the second is Greek). Many of the stories from the two cultures would be unique, however, and the Roman gods seem to be portrayed as more divine in their roles than the Greek gods, who appeared to encompass some human traits. Like the Greeks, citizenship had great significance and responsibilities. In exchange for military service and paying taxes, there were also gains in the form of roads for trade and support in times of conflict. In some cases, even allies were granted forms of citizenship, though maybe without all perks. However, not all citizens of Rome were equal. In the early years of the republic, there were clear lines between the lineage of aristocracy (patricians) that had helped topple the kingdoms and the common person (plebeian). This separation was most visible in politics, and the divide was enforced by the law. Until a period known as the Struggle (Conflict) of the Orders, the rights of plebeians were limited in comparison to those of the patricians. This included political opportunities, rights under the law, and even the ability to marry into the patrician class. This idea of law even extended into the expectations of different members of the family, which traditionally was a patriarchy led by the oldest male, called the paterfamilias.

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Women were considered citizens, but men controlled every part of a woman’s life, whether he was a father, brother, or husband. Other elements of society also developed heavy Greek cultural influence during the Republic years, from art and literature, to drama, and even to bathing and leisure activities. While some behaviors at public baths (for example) would lead to scorn by conservatives, Romans as a whole welcomed Greek influences as a part of their daily lives. Starting in the 5th century B.C.E. and lasting more than 200 years, new positions and opportunities were created for plebeian citizens. This was done mainly to appease what had become, by expansion and growth, an overwhelming majority of the population, including the lion’s share of the military and city service positions essential for Rome to function and protect itself. Tradition notes a literal walk out or what we today would consider a strike by the army in 494 B.C.E. While the political concessions were significant to ensuring greater equality, and the lex Canuleia (ca. 445 B.C.E.) helped end legal elitism by allowing marriage across classes, arguably the most significant victory involved granting rights to the law itself, which had before this time only been known by the patricians. This printing and codifying of the law onto 12 bronze tablets (ca. 449 B.C.E.), The Law of the Twelve Tables, outlined a range of offenses and punishments as well as more practical city and family law. The passage of the lex Hortensia in 287 B.C.E. made Plebeian Council resolutions binding on all Romans, signaling the end of the Struggle of the Orders.

The Central Role of Militarism in Expansion and Social Fractions While Rome’s internal struggles found some resolution, external struggles continued during the Republic years. As noted earlier, Rome’s determination to expand kept it almost consistently at war. Perhaps the most notable conflicts from this period would be with neighboring Carthage. The increase of trade with Greece led to competition with the Carthaginians, and from 264–241 B.C.E., the two powers engaged in the first of three Punic Wars. In the end, Rome was simply too much for Carthage, especially in naval battles, and Rome took control of the island of Sicily in 241 B.C.E. The end of the First Punic War did nothing to bring peace to either side, and Rome continued to expand into the Mediterranean. In 218 B.C.E., during the Second Punic War, Hannibal led the Carthaginian army into the Italian Peninsula over the Alps, famously with tens of thousands of troops and a pack of elephants and took many victories, including the Battle of Cannae (ca. 216 B.C.E.), before being forced back due to a lack of resources. Rome countered with its general, Scipio Africanus, defeating Hannibal at Zama (ca. 202 B.C.E.). The Third Punic War finally ended the conflict in 146 B.C.E. with Carthage being burned to the ground.

The Fall of the Republic: Personal Betrayal or Systemic Challenge? Even with victories, internal and external, Rome was not without vulnerability. Political vulnerabilities, coupled with epic personalities, would lead to the end of the Republic. Wars of conquest had taken a great toll on Rome. They left some regions in shambles while making others rich and creating what was, in a sense, a new form of class warfare, based on economic means. The concerns of the poor became the charge of one aristocrat, Tiberius Gracchus, and he took a political stand for the lowest class, which angered those who had gained from the conflicts. There were riots in favor of his opponents, which led to his public death at the hands of a mob (ca. 133 B.C.E.). His brother, Gaius Gracchus (d. 121 B.C.E.), followed in the footsteps of Tiberius. He, too, would die of politically charged violence. This pattern became more common during the Late Republic and eventually led to its eventual collapse. Following the traditions going back to the Early Republic, more and more major political personalities rose within the Senate. Some, like Sulla, would even be granted ultimate power as a dictator in times of crisis. However, Sulla was unlike the legendary Cincinnatus who willingly gave up power after the crisis was over; he finally abdicated this role in 79 B.C.E. only due to illness. Rome’s leaders began acting less and less in the traditional interests of the people, but instead worked only for their own benefit, at least in the eyes of the Senate. With little argument, the most famous example of this was Julius Caesar. A noble with military training, Caesar, along with the wealthy Crassus and commander Pompey, would be seen as the successors of Sulla.

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In 60 B.C.E., the three joined into a partnership called the First Triumvirate with the goal of advancing each other, but after Caesar used the others to become Council, the bond dissipated. Caesar led Rome into war with Gaul. Crassus died in battle while Caesar’s supporters rioted against Pompey, who sided with the Senate’s view that Caesar should give up his growing power with the people. Caesar charged Pompey with treachery and led his army against the Senate and those loyal to Pompey. Pompey died in Egypt, where Caesar allied with Cleopatra VII. Caesar was unmatched in power; he was given the position of dictator where none could stand against him. He had made the position, which to that point had been a very positive term, into the one symbolizing unchecked power, as we can recognize today. He then started to demand changes to the culture of Rome, from economics to the calendar, but his lust for power led to the most famous political assassination of all time. On March 15, 44 B.C.E., Julius Caesar was assassinated by a group of patricians led by Marcus Brutus, who was a close friend, and Gaius Cassius. The group stabbed Caesar repeatedly until he fell dead in the Senate House.

Artist rendering of the assassination of Julius Caesar

(Sullivan, ca. 1888)

The Empire Begins As had become the recurring norm, the political chaos erupted into civil war until Caesar’s adopted son Octavian joined with two of Caesar’s former lieutenants, Mark Antony and Lepidus, during the Second Triumvirate. They planned to avenge Octavian’s adopted father against those who had plotted against him, known as the Liberators. While successful with their initial goal, this grouping too would end in political violence as Octavian defeated Antony in Egypt and Lepidus was forced into exile. The title Augustus (revered one) was bestowed on Octavian in 27 B.C.E.; this date is today regarded as marking the end of the Roman Republic and the beginning of the Roman Empire. Octavian (Augustus) understood the significance of SPQR, that the traditions of Rome directly reflected in its greatness, and that a successful reign would require the support of the people. The Senate, which had been at the cornerstone of the Republic era, was the truest symbol of this, but he also recalled the unity under the leadership of his adopted father. What he created was a new kind of government that drew from elements of each. What was perhaps the most effective plan for rebuilding Rome was returning it back to some sense of

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normalcy, hiding the publicity of the dictators before him, and this needed to begin where his father had fallen: the Senate. Publicly, Rome was again under the power of the Senate; the people had their representation, and no single man held absolute power. In actuality, Octavian had been given the titles of imperator, which came to mean emperor, and princeps, which he elevated from first citizen into sovereign ruler. With these, he had a powerful grip on society in a much more solid way than the dictators before him did. Octavian commanded the military, which was paid by increased taxation and land grants from conquered lands and returned it to regular order. He also controlled the Senate behind the scenes, even serving as a chief religious figure—pontifex maximus. With an eye on restoring the glory of Rome and securing the provinces, his was truly an imperial goal, and his was a power greater than that of any leader before him— even his adopted father, Caesar. What made Octavian successful at transforming Rome, however, was the person, not the office, and this fact would become evident quickly.

Romanization: Assimilation of the Conquered As had been true in the Republic, Rome was always seeking to expand, and thus was almost constantly at war. The land grants given to veterans were more than a pension—they were strategic in that they helped to enforce Roman rule and spread Roman culture into new lands without forcing conquered peoples to adopt Roman ways. This process, called Romanization, included miniature replications of national symbols, buildings, and temples. There were even examples of the offering of citizenship to people in these new areas as payment for supporting and joining the army. This form of relatively peaceful cultural adaptation was built on the ideas of great previous leaders such as Cyrus and Alexander. While Rome had previously taken control of much of the Mediterranean, including some of what had previously been Alexander’s lands, sights were now set on lands to the north, which had increasingly adopted Germanic and Slavic influences. Established Roman provinces in the north allowed for trade, which also reinforced the Roman cultural influence throughout new areas of Europe.

Sports and Bodies are Historical Artifacts, Too

How do ideals of bodily beauty, perfection, and performance reveal the impacts of conquest? “Romanization of Greek Sport” provides a window into how the conquering Romans changed forms of citizenship for the vanquished Greeks and how Greek views of the body reveal hidden resistance against the Romans. View Romanization of Greek Sport to see an example of how to use images of bodies and how bodies are regarded when learning and writing about history.

Octavian had succeeded in reestablishing Rome, and, for this, he was deified upon his death in 14 C.E. The near 200-year period after his assuming the throne (until 180 C.E.) has been dubbed the pax Romana, or Roman Peace, for the relative lack of chaos that had destroyed the Republic. While his direct successors (named the Julio Claudian dynasty) shared in this period of prosperity, Rome was not without chaotic elements. Tiberius was chosen by Octavian to assume power after his death, a practice that became common among many emperors, but his reign would begin a clear decline. The Praetorian Guard, which was charged with protecting the emperor, at times served to protect Rome from the people instead. Such was the case with Caligula, Rome’s third emperor, and one of the most infamous persons to ever take the throne. He, along with Nero, proved especially unfit to control the power Octavian had wielded, and even more suitable politicians, such as Tiberius and Claudius, paled in Octavian’s shadow (Weisner-Hanks et al., 2020). Nero’s suicide would leave the throne without a clear successor, and civil concern again rose until war hero Vespasian took command. With his sons Titus and Domitian as successors, Nero was able to halt the chaos that was seizing control. Following Vaspasian’s Flavian dynasty was nearly a century of stability led by the Antonine dynasty, which included Nerva, Trajan, Hadrian, Antoninus Pius, and Marcus Aurelius, who were

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dubbed centuries later as the “Five Good Emperors.” Political capability and military prowess kept Octavian’s pax Romana intact until the death of Marcus Aurelius. The ascension of his son, Commodus, to the throne was not the end of the Empire, but it proved just how necessary the vetting of successors was for the future of Rome. Rome, like any major city, had to take care of a growing population in a limited amount of space. This became an especially big issue as the population grew with Rome’s successes. To handle it, several civil works projects were undertaken that still serve as marvels and models today. Arguably the most immediately recognizable are the aqueducts that continually brought in freshwater to the city and aided in the removal of sewage under the city. The construction of these gravity-driven devices was so well managed that several examples of this system remain intact today, many centuries later. Such proficiency in construction was only one example of a blossoming Roman culture. While there had been a surge of Greek cultural influence during the Republic years, the first centuries of the Empire embraced a Latin “golden age.” Another form of this prowess came from scientific understanding and discovery. Galen (ca. 129–200 C.E.) advanced the understanding of the human body, and his studies increased our understanding of anatomy and physiology well beyond his Greek predecessors, even aiding in the treatment of battle wounds (Weisner-Hanks et al., 2020).

Old Roman aqueduct at Constantine

(Jackson, 1894) Literature was another great milestone for this period. Roman children began their education in the home. While much of this education was in preparation for society’s expectations, there was also a feeling that citizens should be well-spoken. Similar to other cultures, the upper class had access to stronger educational opportunities, and these included tutoring. From this educational emphasis came some of Western culture’s more significant literary figures. Perhaps the most notable example of this was Virgil, whose Aeneid served as follow-up to Homer’s Iliad and Odyssey, starting with the fall of Troy and describing the mythology surrounding the founding of Rome. The historian Livy and poets Ovid and Horace serve as examples of where truly Roman prose distinguished itself from what had been a period of Greco-Roman cultural fusion. However, Ovid’s exile serves to show that not all art was accepted equally by the new regime, specifically by conservative Octavian, whose concern with questionable morality led to his exiling his own daughter, Julia (Weisner-Hanks et al., 2020). This early Empire period was very successful for many Romans. People were successful; harvests were plentiful; and trade of wool, wine, and olives thrived. Life was generally peaceful, and there was a call for people from around the world to Rome and its provinces. With this success, leisure was not limited to excess

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and extravagance among the rich; events for all citizens grew to new levels during this early imperial period. Rome’s most recognizable landmark, the Colosseum, was possibly home to Rome’s most famous leisure activity, gladiator matches. Not unlike today, successful fighters could gain a celebrity following, and it was always the intent of promoters to fill the seats by introducing new themes and types of events. Along with gladiator matches, chariot races were among the fan favorites (Weisner-Hanks et al., 2020). As with any cultural evolution, religion was a very important factor. At the outset of the Empire, Roman religion was generally polytheistic, had a variance of cults, and was often chaotic in terms of rituals. The Jewish faith had grown greatly but had suffered losses, particularly to the Romans in the area of Judaea. The historical figure Jesus of Nazareth was raised in Galilee and exposed to Greek and Roman cultures, as well as his family’s Jewish faith. By the stories of the Gospels, historians and theologians have a generally accepted proximity of Jesus’ life and death at the order of a Roman official, Pontius Pilate, who considered Jesus’s teachings a threat to peace in the area. The religion of Christianity played a very big role in the later years of the Roman Empire, but its beginnings came during this early Empire. The teachings of the faith were drastically different from the mainstream teachings of the time. In addition, it is important to note that followers of Christianity would face persecution by the order of some early emperors, including Nero and Hadrian, while other emperors, like Trajan, demanded that they be left alone (Weisner-Hanks et al., 2020). Historically, many areas sacred to the modern faith were, at the time, located in Roman-controlled regions of this period, and with the story of the crucifixion, Rome became a central part of the teaching of the faith. As the faith grew, so did its structure and influence. The emperor Septimius Severus (r. 193–211) helped restore order to the empire after a short period of chaos following the death of Marcus Aurelius. While he attempted to restore the empire to that of Octavian, his overambitious plans ultimately weakened the significance of citizenship and hurt the army in the long run (Weisner-Hanks et al., 2020). Over the next half century, there were more than 20 emperors, many of whom were military figures, not politicians. Rome was again facing a period of chaos, and this lack of leadership became visible in the actions of citizens, the rise of conflicts, and struggling trade. Rome would have to enter a new period in order for the Empire to survive.

References Boxer of Quirinal [Bronze sculpture]. [ca. 330 B.C.]. Wikimedia Commons.

https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=37882074 Jackson, W. H. (1894). Old Roman acqueduct (sic) at Constantine [Photograph]. Wikimedia Commons.

https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Old_Roman_acqueduct_(sic)_at_Constantine_LCCN200470 7564.jpg

Kohl, A. T. (1989, June). She-wolf or the Capitoline [Photograph]. Flikr.

https://www.flickr.com/photos/69184488@N06/11970895765 Newby, Z. (2005). Greek athletics in the Roman world: Victory and virtue. Oxford University Press. Sullivan, W. H. [ca. 1888]. Assassination of Caesar [Painting]. Wikimedia Commons.

https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Death_of_Julius_Caesar_2.png Weisner-Hanks, M. E., Crowston, C. H., Perry, J., & McKay, J. P. (2020). A history of Western society: From

Antiquity to the Enlightenment (13th concise ed., Vol. 1). Bedford/St. Martin’s. https://online.vitalsource.com/#/books/9781319112547

Westmacott athlete [Marble sculpture]. [ca. 100 A.D.]. Wikimedia Commons.

https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=2502988