Unit 7 DB: Learning Math through Music and Movement Activities in Early Childhood

Chapter Introduction

© Cengage Learning

Learning Objectives

After studying this chapter, you should be able to:

· 17-1Discuss the importance of music for young children.

· 17-2Outline some basic goals for music activities for young children.

· 17-3List guidelines for planning music activities for young children.

· 17-4Explain how to vary the rhythm of the music program.

NAEYC Program Standards

· 5a

Understanding content knowledge and resources in academic disciplines.

· 5b

Knowing and using the central concepts, inquiry tools, and structures of content areas of academic disciplines.

DAP Criteria

· 2D

Teachers plan for learning experiences that effectively implement a comprehensive curriculum so that children attain key goals across the disciplines, including music.

· 3D

Teachers consider what children should know, understand, and be able to do across the curriculum, including music.

Lisa sang to herself in a sing-song way while drawing with crayons: “One purple, two purple, three purple, four purple.” Next to her, William was humming the jingle for a fast-food restaurant advertisement and keeping rhythm with his coloring strokes. Out on the playground, Drew chanted, “I-am-going-to-be-a-lawn-mo-wer,” and as he slid down the slide, he made a sound like a lawn mower. Picking up his cue, Inez and Christy slid down after him, each on her stomach and making motor-growling sounds.

Musical experiences like these are a common occurrence in a young child’s life. Children love the sound of their own voices, and chanting is the way they experiment with sound and rhythm. Chants are half-speaking, half-singing sounds that often accompany young children’s play. Making up original chants and songs and moving rhythmically to musical beats are quite natural to a young child, for whom music is a favorite avenue for creative expression.

Importance of Music for Young Children

LO 1

Music is one of our greatest inheritances as human beings. So global is the human experience of music that it has often been called the universal language of humankind. Music is all around us, which is a testimony to its great importance for adults. Music is equally important for children from infancy on (see  Photo 17-1 ). Children sing to communicate thoughts and feelings. They sing as they play. They grow silent and intent when they hear unusual sounds. They become quiet and relaxed when they hear soothing sounds. They move their bodies in concert with the sounds they hear. Music is central to the human experience of children, just as it is to adults. For this reason, music should be an important part of the early childhood curriculum.

Photo 17-1

Music is important for children from infancy on.

Casper Holroyd

Every child begins life immersed in the most basic element of music—rhythm. The steady beat of the mother’s heart introduces the baby to patterned sound. Into the safe, suspended world of the womb also come outer-world voices with unique rhythms and timbre. The unborn child responds, physically, to these external sounds, showing an innate desire to listen and learn. So, even before birth, children hear sounds in their brains. The child’s world, too, is filled with music. Infants’ windup musical teddy bears, crib mobiles, and go-to-sleep lullabies are just a few examples of early introductions to music. Young children respond quite naturally to music with rhythmic movement, and they also create their own musical patterns in original chants and songs as well as in unaccompanied rhythmic movements such as swinging, tapping, and even rocking in a chair. Activities that make up the natural beginnings of musical learning right in the home can be extended by the early childhood teacher to classroom music activities.

We know a foreign language is best learned when the brain is still growing rapidly, and this is also true for the language of music. So the obvious conclusion is that early years need to be musically rich. Young children are more open to types of music—from classical to country—and it is what they hear the most that becomes what they like and value. The teaching implication is to take advantage of this openness to musical diversity by providing experiences with a wide range of styles, types, periods, and cultural music experiences.

In an early childhood program, music of all kinds is appropriate (see  Photo 17-2 ). For example, the sounds of a slow Duke Ellington tune and a fast, rhythmic portion of Stravinsky’s “Rite of Spring” are equally appropriate for young children. Background music in the early childhood classroom can be as soft and soothing as Schubert’s “Cradle Song” or a Brahms lullaby. For a change of pace to a livelier mood, classics such as “Tambourine” by Gretry or Bach’s “Badinerie” can be used. Good music of all types has a place in all early childhood programs.

Photo 17-2

It is appropriate to expose children to a variety of music, including music they play themselves.

Casper Holroyd

Brain Research Says

Musical Experiences Improve Brain Functions

Music seems to be related to very primal parts of the brain (Hudson, 2011). Our bodies cannot help but react physiologically to musical input (Thaut & Kenyon, 2003; Hasan & Thaut, 2004). This implies that even the youngest children have the potential to inherently respond to music (Geist, Geist, & Kuznik, 2012).

Recent music neuroscience research indicates that steady beat does affect attention behaviors in humans. We typically process steady beat in the premotor cortex of the brain, an area also related to attention (Bengtsson et al., 2008). Zentner and Eerola (2010) found that  infants, ages , were more engaged with rhythm-only stimuli (for example, a steady drum beat) than with speech-only stimuli. The results of this study indicate that children have the potential to be more engaged when listening to steady beats than when listening to verbal-only instructions. Therefore, it is conceivable that listening to a steady beat pattern during certain teaching activities (such as mathematics) in the early childhood classroom could promote better attention and increased engagement in young children (Geist et al., 2012).

In other research, a longitudinal study (Hyde et al., 2009) with  nonmusician children over  was conducted to determine

· 1)

whether functional differences between musician and nonmusician children reflect specific predispositions for music or result from musical training, and

· 2)

whether musical training improves nonmusical brain functions such as reading and linguistic pitch processing.

Event-related brain potentials were recorded while -year-old children performed tasks designed to test the hypothesis that musical training improves pitch processing not only in music but also in speech. Following the first testing sessions, nonmusician children were randomly assigned to music or to painting training for  and were tested again after training using the same tests. After musical (but not painting) training, children showed enhanced reading and pitch discrimination abilities in speech. Remarkably,  of musical training seemed to significantly improve behavior and to influence the development of neural processes as reflected in specific pattern of brain waves. These results reveal positive transfer from music to speech and highlight the influence of musical training. Finally, they demonstrate brain plasticity in showing that relatively short periods of training have strong consequences on the functional organization of the children’s brain. (Hyde et al., 2009).

You do not have to be able to play an instrument or be able to read music in order to plan appropriate music experiences for young children. It often helps to view teaching music as an experience to be offered, rather than a subject to be taught. It also helps to think of music experiences as ways to explore, test, and investigate ideas by connecting music to topics studied. In this way, the focus is on student participation and the process, not perfect singing or competence in playing an instrument.

As with other areas of the curriculum,  developmentally appropriate music activities  can be planned only if the teacher understands the developmental levels of the children involved. Although individual rates of development vary widely, the sequence of development follows a particular pattern.  Figure 17-1  shows some important behavioral characteristics for each stage of development, along with their effect on a child’s experiences with music. This material is based on the theories of Piaget (Wadsworth, 1979) and Erickson (1963).  Figure 17-1  may be used as a guide for choosing from the musical activities for children listed at the end of this chapter.

Figure 17-1

Developmental Characteristics and Music Experiences.

AGE	BEHAVIORAL CHARACTERISTICS	MUSIC EXPERIENCES
Newborn to	Responds to stimuli by moving entire body.	Quiet singing and rocking soothe the baby. Scary sounds avoided. Sound stimuli important.
to	Changes from hearing to listening. Turns head toward stimulus. Follows moving objects with eyes.	Same as for newborn.
to	Involved in purposeful activity. Reproduces interesting events. Develops hand–eye coordination.	Hits suspended bells again and again to reproduce the sound.
to	Anticipates events, shows intention. Knows that objects have functions. Imitates actions.	Hits drum or xylophone with stick. Claps hands to music. Hits instrument to produce a sound. Understands purpose of instrument.
to	Invents new actions. Uses trial and error to solve problems.	Experiments by hitting instrument in different ways with different objects.
to	Creates new actions through prior thought. Imitates actions after person leaves.	Continues music activity after adult stops. Listens to radio, dances to it.
	Steps in place. Pats. Runs. Increases language. Has limited attention span. Attends to spoken words a few at a time. Develops independence, is very curious. Tendency to tire easily.	Enjoys action songs and moving to music. Can learn short, simple songs. Enjoys activities with short, simple directions. Many opportunities to experiment with instruments and sound. Opportunity for frequent rest breaks in strenuous rhythmic experiences. Avoid prolonged activities.
	Jumps, runs, and walks to music. Has self-control. Attentive, has longer attention span. Uses more words. Compares two objects. Participates in planning. Initiative emerges.	Special music for special movements. Can wait for a turn. Longer songs or small-group experiences can be planned. Experiments with sound comparisons. Suggests words for songs or additional activities. Can recognize several melodies and may have several favorites. Choices important along with an opportunity to try out own ideas.
	Has better motor control. Interested in rules. Plans ahead with adults. Likes to imagine.	May begin skipping. Rule songs and games appropriate. Can make suggestions for music activities. Adds words to songs. Creates songs on instruments. Makes dramatic movements. Likes to experiment with the piano. Likes to play music over and over. Can identify simple melodies.
to	Has good motor control. Likes to have rules. Vision not yet fully developed; eye movements slow; likely to have trouble seeing small print or making fine linear distinctions when music staff is not enlarged. Heart in stage of rapid growth.	Able to sit longer. Enjoys songs and dances with rules. Can follow specific rhythm patterns. May pick out tunes on the piano. Likes musical movies but may become restless. Strenuous activity periods should be brief.
to	Begins to read written symbols. Concerned with rules. Cooperation and competition. Logical thought processes emerge. Can compare more than two objects after first object removed (seriation). Thoroughly enjoys group play, but groups tend to be small. Boys and girls play together.	Can read words to songs, Rule dances and songs especially valued. Better able to tell reality from fantasy. Can compare three or more sounds or pitches. Likes duets and doing anything musical with a friend. May want to take piano or dancing lessons. Likes group activities including singing games, playing informal instruments, phrase games.
to	Has more developed language arts skills. Understands rules and strategies of games. Peer group assumes greater importance. Logical thought processes are present. Has more flexible thought. Enjoys play with peer group. Boys and girls prefer same-sex play. Begins to see others’ opinions and ideas as unique.	Can create original lyrics. Enjoys dances with varied steps and patterns. Begins to enjoy small-group singing experiences, such as duets, trios, chorale. Can compare sounds, pitch, rhythms in music. Can understand elements of music such as tone, basic notations, styles, and forms of music. Introduce harmony and part singing for small groups. Provide duet singing experiences, all-boy, all-girl singing groups. Enjoys multicultural music and dance.

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Did You Get It?

· A father plays classical, country, pop, and folk music for his six-month-old son. Developmentally speaking, this father’s activities are

1. recommended because they will help the child learn the language of music.

2. useless because a baby cannot distinguish between styles of music.

3. questionable because they might further musical development, but not enough information is known about the topic.

4. inadvisable because playing different styles will confuse the child.

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Goals for Young Children’s Music Experiences

LO 2

  Music is a common and enjoyable occurrence in a young child’s life (see  Photo 17-3 ). One of the main goals of musical activities for young children is to maintain this natural appreciation of musical experiences. Focusing and then building on this natural enjoyment of music will help you produce the most successful and joyous music program for young children. As in all early childhood activities, it is the process—not the finished product—that teaches and enriches a young child.

Photo 17-3

Music is an enjoyable experience in a child’s life.

© Cengage Learning

Other goals of the early childhood music program include the following.

· Numerous opportunities to sing a wide variety of songs

· Frequent exposure to various forms of music with wide ranges of rhythms, tempos, and moods

· Opportunities to hear and learn about music from different cultures and ethnic groups

· Frequent opportunities to express feelings and emotions in song, rhythm, and movement

· Opportunities to expand listening skills

· Developing an increased enjoyment of music

· Frequent opportunities for group participation

· Opportunities to explore their own creativity in music

· Experience in playing simple instruments, moving to rhythms, and expressing emotions in motion during musical activities

· Learning to identify some basic musical concepts and terms, such as loud and soft, fast and slow, and high and low

For older children, these goals also include the following:

· Opportunities to sing in parts, in rounds, and in harmony

· Learning about a variety of major musical works such as operas, ballets, symphonies, concerts, and chamber music

· Listening experiences with instruments and tonal qualities of strings, wood-winds, brass, and percussion

· Recognizing basic meter and rhythmic notation by sound

Did You Get It?

· A preschool teacher hands out instruments to her students and asks them to create a song together because one of the goals of early childhood music programs is to

1. compose songs.

2. learn to play an instrument.

3. create dissonant sounds.

4. give opportunities for group work.

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Guidelines for Planning Music Activities

LO 3

  The two keys to success in all your musical endeavors are  flexibility  and  acceptance . You should be able to accept more than one kind of response to a music activity and adapt the activity accordingly. If, for example, the child in a planned clapping activity chooses to pat the rug or his leg, accept the response and imitate it as you continue the activity. In fact, the child may interpret your imitation of his response as a form of praise, thus making the enjoyment of what he is doing even greater. Or if the child is more interested in just listening to music than in dancing to it, accept that, too. Try to catch the child for your dancing activity at another time, when he is in a dancing mood. In other words, take your cues from the children and build enjoyment and learning on what they already find enjoyable. Build, don’t tear down, the joyful world that music naturally creates for young children.

With these guidelines in mind and with an understanding of the developmental needs of children at different ages, a teacher may plan appropriate musical activities for young children. Let us now consider some examples of specific musical experiences appropriate for young children.

17-3aMusical Experiences

Infants and very young toddlers experience music by hearing it, by feeling it, and by experimenting with pitch and timbre as they vocalize. Adults can provide infants and toddlers music experiences daily while giving children caring, physical contact. Singing to children during changing and feeding times is a basic way to provide music experiences for very young children. Following is some more specific information on this age group and appropriate musical experiences.

Infants – 18 months.

A child in this age range can be expected to exhibit the following musical aptitudes:

· Child becomes calm when sung to, or spoken to with a soothing voice.

· Child shows interest in and responds to music.

· Child enjoys producing music and other sound with rattles, bells, music boxes, and so on.

· Child delights in new ability to produce sounds (smacks lips, squeals on purpose, and so on).

Musical learning activities for infants are as follows:

· Provide the child many musical experiences in a variety of ways—singing, musical toys, and so on.

· Encourage the child’s interest and participation in musical activities such as listening to favorite songs and making simple movements such as clapping or touching the head or belly.

· Encourage the child to make his or her own music and sounds such as banging spoons on a tray, chapping, giggling, mimicking sounds, and so on.

· Expose the child to a variety of types of music (lullabies, classical, children’s songs, and so on) from a variety of cultures/languages/backgrounds.

Toddlers (18 months – 3 years).

Children in this age group can be expected to exhibit these general musical aptitudes:

· Clapping, bouncing, and beginning to dance to music

· Using instruments to produce rhythm and musical sounds

· Experimenting with a variety of sound-making objects (See Photo 17-4).

· Participating in musical activities such as singing, dancing, finger plays, and so on

· Knowing and asking for favorite songs

· Participating in group singing activities for short periods of time

The following are some age-appropriate musical activities for toddlers:

· Provide musical experiences in a variety of ways (singing, musical instruments, recorded music, and so on).

· Plan for and encourage the child’s participation in musical activities, including through repetition.

· Expose the child to a variety of types of music from a variety of cultures, languages, and backgrounds.

· Provide the child simple instruments and toys that make sounds.

Photo 17-4

Toddlers enjoy experimenting with a variety of sound-making instruments.

Casper Holroyd

Preschool – 3 years and up.

When children enter the preschool program, music continues to be an important part of their lives. In the classroom, preschoolers need to hear all kinds of music. Adults need to talk about this music and how it expresses feelings. Rocking, patting, touching, and moving with children to the beat, rhythm patterns, and melodic direction of the music are all appropriate musical experiences for preschool children.

TeachSource Video

Learning Math through Music and Movement Activities in Early Childhood

© 2015 Cengage Learning

1. What specific elements of music are covered in this video?

2. What other instruments other than the tambourines could the children make to practice rhythm?

3. In the alligator game led by the male teacher, Chad, what other visuals would you use in this lesson to better interest the little girl in this activity?

Think about It

Music Education Can Help Children Improve Reading Skills

Children exposed to a multiyear program of music involving increasingly complex rhythmic, tonal, and practical skills display superior cognition performance in reading skills compared with their nonmusically trained peers, according to a study published in the journal, Psychology of Music. Authors Joseph M. Piro and Camilo Ortiz from Long Island University report that data from this study will help clarify the role of music study on cognition and shed light on music’s potential to enhance school performance in language and literacy (2009).

The study involved two U.S. elementary schools, one that routinely trained children in music and one that did not. They aimed to investigate the hypothesis that children who received keyboard instruction as part of a music curriculum increasing in difficulty over successive years would demonstrate significantly better performance on measures of vocabulary and verbal sequencing than students who did not receive keyboard instruction.

Using a quasi-experimental design, the investigators selected second-grade children from two schools located in the same geographic area with similar demographic characteristics. Children in the intervention school  studied piano formally for a period of  consecutive years as part of a comprehensive intervention program. Children attending the control school  received no formal musical training on any musical instrument. Also, they had never taken music lessons as part of the general school curriculum or in private study. All students were pre-tested for their reading skills at the start and close of the standard  school year.

Results analyzed at the end of the year showed that the music-learning group had significantly better vocabulary and verbal sequencing scores than the nonmusical control group. The researchers suggest that the study of how music may also assist cognitive development will help education practitioners to go beyond the sometimes hazy and ill-defined “music makes you smarter” claims and provide careful and credible instructional approaches that use the rich and complex conceptual structure of music and its transfer to other cognitive areas (Piro & Ortiz, 2009).

Source: http://www.sagepub.com/repository/binaries/press/2009/music_instruction_reading_skills.pdf.

If you don’t know how to begin incorporating music into your program, simply start at the opening of the day. Sing in your classroom as the children are arriving. In the mornings, to warm up your voice and the children’s voices, hum a little bit. Show children all the possibilities of song. Sing high, then low. Sing softly, then loudly. Change the words of a familiar song such as “Twinkle, Twinkle, Little Star.” Change the melody. Play with your song, just as you would take a ball and dribble, roll, or twirl it. There’s certainly more than one way to play with a ball. The same is true for a song.

Sing when you are doing routine tasks. Remember that making up the words is fine. Children will pick up on the joyful atmosphere you are creating and also begin spontaneous singing as they move around the classroom. Use familiar tunes as “frames” for songs describing movements. Many children know the tune to “Row, Row, Row Your Boat,” “Mulberry Bush,” and “Twinkle, Twinkle, Little Star,” and can easily sing along with you—especially if you have lots of repetition in the words. Children will often make up verses themselves, spurring literacy learning. In such an environment, teaching songs and singing are a natural part of the early childhood program.

Playing music during periods of the day is another opportunity for a musical experience. Adults can further encourage the musical development of infants and toddlers by exposing them to a wide variety of vocal, instrumental, and environmental sounds. Simple things such as talking about the sounds children hear on their walks outside—if they are loud sounds or soft, if they are near or far away—are basic beginning music experiences for very young children.

Listen to the sounds of young children playing in the dramatic play area, on the playground, in the sandbox, and in the building block area. You will often hear young children in these everyday situations singing, humming, or chanting familiar songs. Songs and singing are a common occurrence in the everyday life of a young child.

17-3bIntroducing Music Elements

Although musical terms alone do not create music, early childhood teachers need to understand and teach basic elements so that there is a common language to discuss music and concepts to use when exploring music creation. In other words, to integrate music into the curriculum, teachers and students need some basic understanding of the tools of music. This is similar to the basic art concepts introduced while children are working with two- and three-dimensional media.  Spiral teaching  can be used in this instance. In spiral teaching of music elements, the teacher presents the basic facts about music without worrying about the details. For example, the teacher calls it “marching music” instead of duple time, or “swinging music” instead of . Then, as learning progresses, more and more details are introduced while at the same time they are related back to the basics. For example, the teacher now adds the word “tempo” so the song now has a “slow tempo” rather than just being “slow.” The caution is for teachers not to kill the joy and spirit of music through overanalysis of music elements. Figure 17-2 contains a summary of the  basic elements of music . Specific suggestions on working with the basic elements of music are available in the Activities for Children section at the end of this chapter.

Figure 17-2

Summary: Basic Elements of music.

Rhythm: Movement of sounds through time. In songs, the words usually match the rhythm.

Beat and Accent: Have to do with the rhythmic pulse, like the steady beat of a clock ticking. The accent is where the strongest emphasis is placed as in one two three, one two three.

Tempo: The speed, how fast or slow the music is.

Syncopation: Uneven rhythms as in jazz, yet the beat remains steady.

Melody (tune): A series (more than one) of musical tones falling into a recognizable pattern. When we sing words, they become melodies.

Pitch: The high or low tones in the sound pattern.

Timbre (Pronounced “tambur”): Tone color or unique qualities of sound (e.g., voices or sounds made by plucking, beating, rattling, or blowing various instruments).

Dynamics: Volume or relative loudness or softness of the sound; gives emotional intensity.

Texture: Layering of instruments and/or voices to create a thin or full feeling. Melodies, rhythms, and timbres can be combined to create different textures. Music made by an orchestra is an example of a full texture.

Harmony: The blending of sounds, e.g., chords; two or more pitches simultaneously.

Form: Structure, shape, or distinct pattern or a piece of music or a song. Related to style or genre.

Ostinato: Simple, rhythmic or melodic content repeated over and over to accompany a song.

© Cengage Learning

17-3cTeaching Songs

The way in which you teach songs and singing to young children reflects the same natural and enjoyable place music holds in a young child’s life. Always consider the developmental level of the children and keep songs for younger children simple—easy lyrics, limited melody (not too high or too low), and a catchy beat.

The method you choose to present a song to children will depend on the mood and the nature of the song itself. Following are the basic ways to present a song to young children:

· Phrase-wise method . Introduce the song with a brief story, discussion, or question. Sing one phrase and ask children to repeat it, then sing two phrases, and so on.

· Whole-song method . Present the whole song in a variety of ways: rhythmic moving, dancing, playing instruments, or dramatizing to make repetition interesting and meaningful.

· Modeling . The teacher or another student who knows the song models it (sings it) for the rest of the group. They join in as the song is repeated.

· Combination of phrase-wise and whole-song method . The teacher sings and presents the whole song but asks the children to respond to the easiest part of it with voices, hands, or an instrument.

The following suggestions are intended to help you present songs and singing experiences in the early childhood program in a way that maintains the young child’s natural musical interest.

· Choose songs that have a natural appeal for young children. Popular topics include the children themselves, family members, animals, seasons, toys, and holidays. Be sure to include songs for all ethnic and cultural groups represented in the class, as well as in the larger community group.

· Be aware that not all children will participate in singing activities. This may be due to cultural reasons—not a lot of singing in the home, for instance—or for personal reasons, such as shyness.

· Pay attention to the songs you choose. Select one in the right key (in other words, not too low and not too high) so children can sing it. Sometimes, it’s not the song but the arrangement that is difficult. Be aware that some songs are not designed for the average singer (as anyone who has tried to belt out a rendition of “The Star-Spangled Banner” can tell you).

· Be aware that learning a song is really quite a complicated process for young children. It involves listening, understanding and remembering words, having correct pronunciation, and remembering and singing a tune. That is quite a number of skills to be coordinated in a short period of time. Many young children find this difficult.

· Choose songs with a clear, strong melody. If the melody is easy to follow, it will be easier to remember.

· Try out all songs yourself first.

· After you’ve chosen a song, learn it yourself—and learn it well. Nothing is less inspiring to eager songsters than a teacher who has to check notes while teaching a song.

· Based on the length of a song, you may want to teach it in sections, by verses, or even in short phrases. Often, a song’s wording may be a bit tricky, and you may want to practice key words a bit more. Whatever method you choose, remember to be light on practice and heavy on praise. Don’t make learning a song work; instead, give children lots of verbal encouragement during singing activities.

· Visual aids can help add to the pleasure of singing and song activities. Pictures of key characters in the song or a series of pictures of key song events add interest to song activities. For example, a flannel board with farm animals for “Farmer in the Dell” helps add interest to this old favorite song. Use puppets to accompany you when teaching a song to children. If you’re shy, this will help, as children can’t help but focus on the puppet and not you!

· Keep on hand a list of songs you have taught the children. They really enjoy singing old favorites, and it’s easy to forget which songs they know. You may want to post the list with some associated picture words so that children can choose their favorites.

· Encourage all attempts at singing (see Photo 17-5). Just as with other developmental skills, each child will perform at his or her own unique level. Thus, there is never any reason to compare children’s singing or encourage children to compete with one another. If you ever had the experience of hearing a group of children attempting to out-shout one another in a choral performance, you will know firsthand the results of encouraging competition between young children in singing.

Photo 17-5

Encourage all attempts at singing—each child will perform at his or her own level.

Casper Holroyd

· Add movements, gestures, and props when appropriate for the song and for the children. A too-heavy emphasis on gimmicks to teach a song is unnecessary if you have chosen a song that interests children and is of an appropriate level of difficulty for them to learn. Added devices need to be thought of as “spices” and used as such: A few appropriately placed hand gestures in a song are like a dash of cinnamon in the applesauce. An entire routine of cute gestures and too many props adds too much “spice” to the recipe. Let preserving the integrity of both the song and the children be your guides in the use of all “extras” in teaching songs to young children.

· Include the new song in other areas of the curriculum by playing the song softly during center time or rest periods.

· Introduce new books related to the song’s topic in the language arts area.

· Include art activities related to the song’s topic throughout the week’s activities.

· Record children singing the song. Have the recording available in the listening center for children to enjoy (with earphones or without). Play the recording during your next musical activity session. You may want to record the next version—with rhythm instruments, with a “solo” performance by one of the children, or with any other new variation you and the children prefer.

· Refer to Appendix E and make rhythm instruments like the circle embroidery hoop, egg shaker, and small plastic bottle rattles as an activity in the arts and crafts center. Have children use these as a rhythmic accompaniment to the song.

· Use the instructions provided in Appendix E to make “flutes” out of paper towel or tissue paper rolls. Have children decorate them with crayons, colored markers, and stickers, and use their “flutes” to hum along to the song.

This One’s for You!

Start the Music!

The National Association for Music Education (NAfME), Texaco Foundation, National Association for the Education of Young Children (NAEYC), and the U.S. Department of Education developed Start the Music in 2000. This is a series of projects and events designed to help bring age-appropriate music education to every child in the United States. These organizations solicited the expertise of early childhood music educators, music therapists, education association administrators, early childhood educators, and healthcare providers to identify best practices for early childhood music education and to develop strategies to implement those practices.

Developmentally and individually appropriate musical experiences are guided by these beliefs (MENC, 1995):

· All children have music potential.

· They bring their own unique interests and abilities to the music learning environment.

· They can develop critical thinking skills through musical ideas.

· They come to early childhood music experiences from diverse backgrounds.

· They should experience exemplary musical sounds, activities, and materials.

· Young children should not be expected to meet performance goals.

· Their play is the work.

· They learn best in pleasant physical and social environments.

· They need diverse learning environments.

· They need effective adult models.

Start the Music recognizes the role adults play in assisting young children in their musical development. Families, caregivers, and teachers can all help children grow musically (Neely, Kenney, & Wolf, 2000) by doing the following:

· Immersing children in musical conversations while singing, speaking rhythmically, moving expressively, and playing musical instruments. By doing these things, we stimulate children’s initial awareness of the beauty and the structure of musical sound.

· Encouraging children’s musical responses by smiling, nodding, and responding with expressive sounds and movements. In doing so, we show children that music making is valuable and important.

· Finding ways to encourage and motivate children’s playful exploration, interpretation, and understanding of musical sound.

· Start the Music recognizes that all children are individuals and that music experiences should be a part of every child’s world.

17-3dBreathing for Singing

Explain to children that breathing for singing is different from regular breathing and that they need to breathe more deeply for singing. Try this exercise to help them breathe more deeply. Have the children stand or sit “tall” with one hand on their abdomens below their waists and the other on their chests. Have them inhale to the count of three and then exhale to the count of five. Only the bottom hand should move as they inhale and exhale. Explain that the exhale lets the “old” air out and the inhale lets the “new” air in. As they inhale “new” air, they will feel their abdomens grow bigger and their chests stay still. When this happens, they know they are breathing deeply. Explain as they sing songs, they need to breathe deeply.

Did You Get It?

· A preschool teacher plays music while students are snacking to help them relax. One child taps his spoon on the table along with the rhythm of the music. The teacher should

1. ask the child to leave his food and go over to the music center where tapping is appropriate.

2. praise the child for his musical awareness.

3. tell the child to focus on his eating and leave tapping for music time.

4. point out his actions and encourage the other students to imitate him.

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Varying the Rhythm of the Program

LO 4

Just as variety is the spice of life, variety provides the same spark for the early childhood music program. Although young children enjoy the stability that routine provides, it is important to vary these routines to prevent lessening their, and your own, interest in music. Consider how many people can’t remember the words to our national anthem, even though they’ve heard it innumerable times: It has become so routine that people don’t really hear it anymore. The same thing can happen in your early childhood music program if you have too rigid a routine.

Varying the rhythm of the music program  helps hold children’s interest and makes the experience enjoyable. Variety can be provided in your choice of music, your method of presentation, and your lesson planning. In choosing music for young children, your own interests as well as the children’s can improve variety in musical selections. Children’s music need not be exclusively from music resource books. In an early childhood classroom, music selections can include classical, jazz, rap, rock, reggae, pop, and Native American, to name only a few. Young children are very interested in what’s new and different and enjoy hearing popular music. In fact, most preschool children can name their favorite pop singers and their latest hits. Although music experiences should expose young children to a wide variety of musical styles, a music program including popular songs gives young children a familiar sound and a friendly starting point. Developmentally, it is appropriate to begin with the familiar, using it as a base for the introduction of new concepts to the child.

Variety in choice of music can also be provided by the families of the children. A teacher may find a rich source of musical variety by asking families to share the names of their favorite music or to share tapes, records, or CDs with the class for special activities. In preparing for special ethnic and cultural celebrations, for example, you might find families willing to share favorite holiday music with your group. Some parents may be willing to sing for the group or bring in special instruments for children to see and hear. The key is to go beyond your likes and the dictates of curriculum guides into the children’s lives, their parents’ lives, and the community at large, where a variety of music awaits you and your group.

17-4aVariety in Presentation

We’ve already discussed several basic methods of presenting a song. In addition to these basics, you need to consider other ways to add variety to your presentation of songs and musical experiences for young children.

· Vary the time of day you have musical activities. Switch from afternoons to mornings and vice versa. Also, don’t neglect the spontaneous inclusion of a song during the day. Mixing up a recipe together is an excellent time to vary your program by singing as you work with the children. Singing a song on a nature walk is another. Swinging and singing on the playground is fun. And who can refrain from a song (“The Wheels on the Bus” is an obvious example) on a bus trip? In essence, plan for the unexpected occasion to sing and have a mental repertoire of songs to sing with the children. Singing can make an ordinary event joyous, so start making a list of favorites for this very reason.

· Vary your presentation by having the children choose the songs they want to sing and how they want to present them. Be sure to have available puppets, pictures, rhythm instruments, and audiovisual or other necessary equipment for their creative choices.

· Play games with music. Musical chairs is only one of these games. Games can focus on voice recognition. For example, a child is challenged to guess who is humming the song or who sang the last verse. A “name that tune” game is also a way to vary the presentation of songs. Play, sing, or hum a few bars of a song for the children to guess. Charades, or acting out a song, is an appropriate musical game for older children.

17-4bVariety in Lesson Planning

The key to variety in lesson planning is cross-curricular planning. More specifically, music need not be planned for only one area of the curriculum. Music should cross all curricular areas by specifically planning for it to do just that. Here are some suggestions for this specific planning.

· When making lesson plans for the week, include music in at least two other curricular areas. For example, plan to play music during art activities, and note which selections you will use on which day. Be sure to make a note to have the tape/CD ready and the tape/CD player set up for the days required. Then, plan to read a book at group time that relates to the new song(s) introduced that week. Plan to locate the book early.

· Use music as your cue to adding new materials and props to the dramatic play center. For example, engineer hats, trains, and railroad signs are natural additions when you’ve planned to teach “I’ve Been Working on the Rail-road” to children. Putting the book The Little Engine That Could (Piper, 2002) in the language arts center is another example of a music-inspired topic used in another curricular area.

· Review past lesson plans to assist you in your future planning. We are creatures of habit and often tend to get in a rut when making lesson plans. Review past plans to see what kinds of music you have been introducing, the method of presentation, and curricular coverage. If a pattern is obvious, then you need a change! Make a conscious effort to find new types of music or methods of presentation, or plan a new schedule of times/days for music. If you are bored with the lessons and the planning of music lessons, the children will reflect your lack of engagement in their half-hearted participation.

· Use a variety of sources for music experiences for young children.

17-4cRhythm Activities

Rhythm is present from life’s earliest moments, when a baby hears its mother’s heartbeat. Infants continue to enjoy rhythms in many everyday situations, such as the soothing ticking beat of a windup swing or the soft sounds and smooth rhythms of a lullaby. One of a child’s earliest musical experiences is clapping and moving to rhythmic music. Using rhythm instruments to follow the beat and feel the rhythm follows as one of the most accessible and enjoyable early childhood musical experiences. While learning a new song can be difficult for many young children, rhythm instrument activities are quite easy! With most of them, the child is simply copying one motion at a time. There is nothing to remember. Using  rhythm instruments  involves the body in keeping a beat and feeling rhythm, so children are fully participating musically. They’re really creating the music themselves. And children love playing these instruments. Young children, who love movement and motion in general, are naturally drawn to the use of rhythm instruments. Listening first to the music for its rhythmic pattern and then matching the beat with rhythm instruments is the most familiar method of introducing rhythm instruments. Having young children listen to the music and clap out the beat with their hands or tap it out with their feet is another appropriate, traditional rhythm activity.

Rhythm instrument activities encourage technical exploration as well as expand movement repertoire and vocabulary. When you verbalize each movement as you do it with the children (“Now we’re twirling the shakers” or “Can you click the tops of your sticks together?”), you are encouraging their exploration and learning. These activities also help children develop an awareness of rhythm, phrasing, tempo, dynamics, and other elements of music in a natural way that is suited to their developmental level and their active style of learning.

A teacher can also help a child’s development of rhythm by focusing on the natural movements of the child. For example, teachers can follow a child’s natural walking or running tempo by accompanying the child’s steps on the drum. This can quickly become a game as the child, realizing that his steps dictate the beat of the drum, walks faster and slower.

Following children’s galloping and skipping with the drum can also illustrate through sound the asymmetrical nature of those rhythms. The drum can emphasize the accent when running children leap over an object, or it can mark groups of beats (meter). Teachers can also mark the beat as children jump over a series of sticks laid out in parallel formation or pass a ball from hand to hand. Teachers provide a more fulfilling movement experience by fitting the external music source, such as a drumbeat, to the child’s movement. Some teachers feel that percussion instruments such as drums are merely noisemakers. Drums, however, can be used for musical conversations as children ask each other questions using patterns, as they drum out the rhythm of their names, as they count/drum out the syllables in their names, or as they simply explore the sound of a drum. The drum can be available for children’s exploratory free play, for a guided experience with an adult at circle time, or for small-group interaction in a play center.

This One’s for You!

Music Activities for Special Needs Children

A child with autism may not react well to being touched by another. When playing musical games, make adaptations to the movement so that the game can be played with individual movement. A child with disabilities may feel more comfortable and perform better in music activities if she is partnered with a “music friend” who can help during music activities. Ask the child which peer she would like as a music friend. Be sure that the child chosen is willing. Explain ways the friend could be helpful. For example, the music friend could repeat or clarify the directions of an activity.

If a child with a disability responds to music in a way that is disruptive to the class, it may be that the child has difficulty processing sensory input. Consult with the child’s parents to determine how this is handled in the home. Be sure to read the child’s IEP so that strategies you use are consistent with those being implemented in other aspects of the child’s life.

A child with a developmental delay may be slow to acquire a new skill. Be sure to provide multiple opportunities for the child to practice the new skill. Keep in mind that he or she may not have the ability to retain the skill, and expect that you may have to teach the child that skill again.

17-4dStrategies for Using Rhythm Instruments

Whenever rhythm instruments are added, they should have a specific purpose. Instruments are not used just to make “noise” but rather to enhance an activity. Instruments should be in good condition. Be sure children know the proper use of rhythm instruments before beginning any activities. Allow children to explore instruments freely before attempting a structured activity. Direct them to handle instruments with care, playing them to make a musical sound, rather than just noise. Demonstrate a “noisy sound” and then a “musical sound,” guiding children to compare and contrast the two. Invite children to take turns exploring the instruments one at a time.

Set up rules for using rhythm instruments, but keep the rules clear and very simple. For example, “Keep the instrument away from your face” is a good, simple rule. Be sure to maintain order at the beginning and throughout all of the activity. Have children keep their hands in their laps while you pass out and collect instruments. Try using simple signals for starting and stopping that don’t require your shouting over the music. Holding up rhythm sticks in a crossed formation is a good visual “stop” signal. Holding the rhythm sticks straight up can be a visual “start” signal. Have children practice picking up and playing, then stopping and putting down instruments on your signals. Using rhythm instruments, children learn to listen for a pattern of sounds in the music. In beginning rhythm activities, it’s a good idea to choose music with a clear, easy-to-hear beat or rhythm. Marches and many types of ethnic music are excellent choices for this strong beat.

Some children may have difficulty hearing rhythms and/or reproducing them. This can be handled in the same way you would handle a reluctant singer. Specifically, never force the child to copy your pattern to use a rhythm instrument or practice this activity. Your emphasis should be on the child’s natural enjoyment of music (see Photo 17-6). Whether the child can reproduce a rhythm is not essential to his or her enjoyment of music. As many an adult can attest, not being able to sing on key or reproduce rhythms does not affect one’s enjoyment of music.

Photo 17-6

With children of all ages, emphasis needs to be on the child’s natural enjoyment of music.

Casper Holroyd

Rhythm instruments may be made by the children as well as by the teacher. Refer to Appendix E for using recycled materials such as toweling rolls, pebbles, and spools to make rhythm instruments as yet another creative outlet for young children.

This One’s for You!

Organize with Music: Songs for Interest Centers

To add a new, interesting feature to your room, try a song for each area in your room to help direct children to an area as well as to provide new ideas for play. First, list the songs you (and the children) are familiar with, and then sort them according to the classroom area. For example, have children lay “miles of track” in the block areas to the tune of “I’ve Been Working on the Railroad.” Then have them build boats with blocks to the tune “Row, Row, Row Your Boat.”

Next door in the dramatic play area, as the children are “cooking” cakes, they can be encouraged to sing the “Happy Birthday Song.” “The Wheels on the Bus” can be acted out with chairs arranged in rows, with a cap for the driver, and even a cardboard steering wheel.

“If You’re Ready and You Know It” (a handy version of “If You’re Happy and You Know It”) can signal time to assemble on the rug for group time. Or start singing a familiar song like “I’m a Little Teapot” at the beginning of cleanup time and see if, after two verses, cleanup time is finished.

Your language arts center probably holds a number of nursery rhymes and storybooks already set to music. Why not use “Jack and Jill” one week, and then “Hot Cross Buns” another? These nursery rhyme books will become very popular as children try to match words and pictures to the songs you sing.

Art projects are easy to organize in the art corner to songs such as “Frosty the Snowman,” which can inspire painting with cotton balls for fun. “Old MacDonald” is a great springboard for animal pictures, murals, designs, and so on

“Jingle Bells” can be a year-round favorite. Sing it complete with bells, triangles, drums, and xylophones. “The Ants Go Marching” is another good tune for active participation as children enjoy marching in time to the music.

Keep a song in your heart in your classroom. Use singing to help organize space and activities. Singing will draw you together at circle time, as well as help foster group cooperation. Try it for variety and fun!

17-4eMusic Experiences for Older Children

With children in the middle- and upper-elementary grades, teachers are able to offer a wider array of musical experiences. Children of this age need to have broad experience with a variety of forms and styles of music. They need to have an abundance of listening experiences with the world’s finest music, including the classics, multicultural, folk, and composed music. By the end of fifth grade, students should have been exposed to the main periods of music history and be acquainted with composers and repertoire from each period. For these older children’s listening experiences, the following are the periods of musical history and composers associated with each period:

· Baroque—Bach, Handel, Corelli

· Classic—Haydn, Mozart, Beethoven

· Romantic—Weber, Schubert, Schumann, Mendelssohn, Chopin, Wagner, Liszt, Brahms, J. Strauss, Tchaikovsky, Moussorgsky, Saint-Saëns, MacDowell, Grieg

· Post-Romantic and Impressionist—R. Strauss, Sibelius, Dukas, Debussy, Ravel, Respighi

· Modern—Stravinsky, Bartók, Kodály, Prokofiev, Hindemith, Villa-Lobos, Copland, Thomson, Menotti, Bernstein

· Light Classic—Gershwin, Rodgers and Hammerstein, Gilbert and Sullivan, Irving Berlin

· Jazz and Popular—Miles Davis, Marsalis, Basie, the Beatles, Elvis

· Ethnic and Folk—Frere Jacques, Danny Boy, Clementine, Home on the Range, Bicycle Built for Two

The varied treatment that composers have given musical elements has resulted in different styles of music. The labels that are given these styles are also applicable to art and literature. For example, music experiences in the Impressionist music of Debussy can be associated with Impressionist paintings of Mary Cassatt. Art and music can both be enjoyed from the Impressionist style and time in history. The same is true for music of all periods.

Singing is an important classroom activity for children in the middle- and upper-elementary grades. Opportunities to sing in parts (harmony) or in rounds (like “Row, Row, Row Your Boat”) are enjoyable musical experiences for children of this age. They are becoming more familiar with vocal ranges, female (soprano, mezzo-soprano, and alto) and male (tenor, baritone, and bass). They are able to sing simple melodies while reading a musical score. They are learning more about musical notation as well. For example, they can begin to recognize and understand what a whole note, half-note, and rest notations mean.

Did You Get It?

· A teacher playing early folk songs for her students when teaching a unit on American history is

1. inadvisable, as it distracts the students from the real subject.

2. recommended, as it fulfills the need for cross-curricular lesson planning.

3. neither positive nor negative, as it does not enhance or detract from the students’ learning.

4. unlikely to teach the students anything new.

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Summary

· 17-1Discuss the importance of music for young children.

Children sing to communicate thoughts and feelings. They sing as they play. They grow silent and intent when they hear unusual sounds. They become quiet and relaxed when they hear soothing sounds. They move their bodies in concert with the sounds they hear.

Music is central to the human experience of children, just as it is to adults. For this reason, music should be an important part of the early childhood curriculum.

Every child begins life immersed in the most basic element of music—rhythm. The steady beat of the mother’s heart introduces the baby to patterned sound. The unborn child responds, physically, to these external sounds, showing an innate desire to listen and learn.

Young children respond quite naturally to music with rhythmic movement, and they also create their own musical patterns in original chants and songs as well as in unaccompanied rhythmic movements such as swinging, tapping, and even rocking in a chair. Activities that make up the natural beginnings of musical learning right in the home can be extended by the early childhood teacher to classroom music activities.

· 17-2Outline some basic goals for music activities for young children.

The most basic goal for music activities for young children is to maintain the children’s natural appreciation of musical experiences. Another goal is to focus on the process and not the product in all music activities. Other goals include giving children many opportunities to sing a wide variety of songs; to enjoy frequent exposure to various forms of music; to hear and learn about music from different cultures and ethnic groups; to express feelings in music and song; to expand listening skills; to develop an increased enjoyment of music; and to learn to identify basic musical concepts.

· 17-3List guidelines for planning music activities for young children.

Appropriate musical experiences for young children must take into account the child’s developmental level and need for self-expression. Careful planning is essential in providing successful learning experiences for children. Young children can be introduced to the elements of music by spiraling instruction, beginning with basic information and gradually adding information on these elements. For example, the teacher calls it “marching” music instead of duple time. The term “duple time” will be introduced at a later time after the initial learning of “marching” music is fully understood.

You do not have to be able to play an instrument or have a perfect singing voice in order to share music experiences with children. It is helpful to think of it as offering children a musical experience rather than a subject to be taught. In planning musical experiences, the teacher must consider many things. First, the teacher must plan for the developmental level of the group. Next, it is important to include activities from each area of music—singing, rhythm, instruments, movement, listening, and musical concepts such as loud and soft. It is equally important to be flexible and happy when presenting musical activities to children. You must enjoy yourself as much as the children.

· 17-4Explain how to vary the rhythm of the music program.

The music program may be varied by the choice of music, variety in presentation, and variety in lesson planning.

Children’s music should reflect your interests and the children’s interests. The families of the children can also provide variety in choice of music. Variety in presentation includes varying the time of day you have musical activities, varying the presentation, and playing games with music. The key to variety in lesson planning is cross-curricular planning. Music should cross all curricular areas.