Corrections

Unit IV: Correctional

Management and

Organization

In Unit IV, the items below will be discussed:

Organization and Management • Design and Structure

• Security

• Expenditures

• Accreditation

Challenges • Violence

• Overcrowding

• Gangs/Security Threat Groups

• Riots

• Escapes

Inmate Programs • Education

• Vocational

• Religious

• Substance Abuse

• Sex Offender Treatment

• Animal Programs

I. Organization and Management

A. Design and Structure

A. Design and Structure

 Not all prisons are created the same. For example, a facility designed for the

most dangerous offenders will be different from that which houses low-

threat, nonviolent inmates.

 Currently, three types of long-term incarceration facilities exist: state

facilities, federal facilities, and private facilities.

 Currently, most of the states as well as the federal government classify

offenders into one of five security levels. These security levels are low,

minimum, medium, high, and administrative.

A. Design and Structure: State Facilities

 State facilities vary in design and organization. See some of the examples of security classifications below.

C o lo

ra d o 1. Close

2. Medium

3. Minimum

4. Maximum M ic

h ig

a n 1. Level I

2. Level II

3. Level III

4. Level IV

5. Level V (Maximum)

K e n tu

c k y 1. Community

2. Minimum

3. Restricted Custody

4. Medium

5. Close

6. Maximum

M a ss

a c h u se

tt s 1. Pre-Release

2. Minimum

3. Medium

4. Maximum

A. Design and Structure: Bureau of

Prisons (BOP) History

1800

• The federal prison system (FPS) was established in 1891 (Federal Bureau of Prisons, n.d.-g). The FPS was created by the Three Prisons Act passed by Congress.

• The first three prisons were USP Leavenworth, USP Atlanta, and USP McNeil Island (Federal Bureau of Prisons, n.d.-g). McNeil closed in 2011 (Department of Corrections Washington State, 2015). (Bureau of Prisons, n.d.-b)

A. Design and Structure: Bureau of

Prisons (BOP) History

1 9 0 0

1930: BOP established

1932: First BOP penitentiary

1940: Development of modern BOP practices

1959: “Medical Model” increases in popularity

1960: Growth in inmate population

1970: Inmate population decreases

1971: “Balanced Model” increases in popularity

1974: National Institute of Corrections is established

1984: Substantial inmate population increase

(Adapted from Federal Bureau of Prisons, n.d.-a)

A. Design and Structure: Bureau of

Prisons (BOP) History

2000

2000: Inmate population more than doubles

2001: Federal

executions resume

2006: Combating terrorism

(Adapted from Federal Bureau of Prisons, n.d.-I)

A. Design and Structure: Bureau of Prisons

(BOP)

(Federal Bureau of Prisons, n.d-i.)

A. Design and Structure: Bureau of

Prisons (BOP)

(Federal Bureau of Prisons, n.d.-a)

Please click on the image below to read more about the BOP.

A. Design and Structure: Security

Low Security Minimum Security

Medium Security

High Security Administrative

 The BOP has five levels of security to include low, minimum, medium, high, and

administrative.

 Read the details of each at https://www.bop.gov/about/facilities/federal_prisons.jsp

(Federal Bureau of Prisons, n.d.-f) (Federal Bureau of Prisons, n.d.-b) (Federal Bureau of Prisons, n.d.-l) (Federal Bureau of Prisons, n.d.-m) (Federal Bureau of Prisons, n.d.-e)

A. Design and Structure: Security

The FBOP also has complexes (Federal

Correctional Complexes or FCCs),

which are facilities located in close

proximity to another facility.

Click on the picture of each of the

facilities to learn more.

(Federal Bureau of Prisons, n.d.-c)

(Federal Bureau of Prisons, n.d.-d)

A. Design and Structure: Security

(Federal Bureau of Prisons, n.d.-h)

C. Correctional Expenditures

C. Correctional Expenditures

 Currently, fiscal challenges have necessitated scrutiny of prison expenditures, which have almost quadrupled in the past two decades (Henrichson & Delaney, 2012).

 Correctional expenditures include the elements below:

 community supervision,

 confinement,

 rehabilitation (both adults and juveniles),

 confinement for those awaiting trial or adjudication,

 operation and employment for prisons,

 probation and parole offices,

 pardon proceedings,

 correctional administration, and

 intergovernmental transfers (Kychelhahn, 2014).

C. Correctional Expenditures

 By the numbers:

 Between 1982 and 2001, state

corrections expenditures increased

from $15 billion to $53.5 billion

(Kychelhahn, 2014).

 Between 2002 and 2010,

expenditures fluctuated between

$53.4 billion and $48.4 billion

(Kychelhahn, 2014).

 In 2010, preliminary reports

indicated that expenditures were

at $48.5 billion (down 5.6% from

2009) (Kychelhahn, 2014).

(Bureau of Justice Statistics, 2015)

D. Accreditation

D. Accreditation

 Accreditation is defined as the method correctional facilities and

agencies can use to measure themselves against the nationally

adopted standards and how they can go about earning formal

recognition and accredited status (Schmalleger & Smykla, 2015).

 The benchmark for effective operation of correctional systems is the

American Correctional Association (ACA) (Schmalleger & Smykla,

2015, p. 442).

D. Accreditation

 Accreditation is necessary for the following reasons:

 It improves staff training and development as well as staff morale and

professionalism.

 It assesses strengths and weaknesses of the program.

 Accreditation acts as a defense against lawsuits.

 It establishes measurable criteria for upgrading operations.

 It provides a safer environment for offenders and staff.

 Accreditation reduces liability insurance costs.

 It provides performance-based benefits (Schmalleger & Smykla, 2015, p.

442).

II. Challenges

A. Violence

A. Violence

 Unfortunately, prisons and jails are not immune

to violence. A combination of unfortunate

conditions often leads to violence.

 These could include crowded facilities,

insufficient staff, lack of appropriate staff

training, mistreatment of mentally ill inmates, a

culture of disrespect, excessive solitary

confinement, insecure facilities, policies which

weaken family ties, and little accountability for

wardens (Prison Fellowship, n.d.).

 Inmates may experience rape from other

prisoners or correctional personnel.

 Additionally, inmates may experience violence

from gangs. Click on the image to read more about

inmate deaths from 2000-2013.

(Bureau of Justice Statistics, 2015)

A. Violence: State Prisoner Deaths 2000-

2013

Click on the image to the

left to read more about

state prisoner deaths

from 2000-2013.

(Bureau of Justice Statistics, 2015)

A. Violence: Prison Rape Elimination Act

 In order to combat sexual violence, the federal government passed the Prison Rape Elimination Act (PREA) in 2003.

 The purpose of this legislation was to allow for an analysis of the frequency and effects of prison rape in federal, state, and local institutions. It also provided information, resources, recommendations, and funding to protect individuals from prison rape (Bureau of Justice Statistics, n.d.).

(National PREA Resource Center, n.d.-b)

A. Violence: Prison Rape Elimination Act

 Learn more about PREA by viewing the resources

below:

 The “Prison Rape Elimination Act” at

http://www.prearesourcecenter.org/about/pris

on-rape-elimination-act-prea

 “Fact sheet: Justice Department

implementation of the Prison Rape Elimination”

Act at http://www.nccasa.org/cms/wp-

content/uploads/2014/06/PREAFactSheet1.pdf

(National PREA Resource Center. (n.d.-b)

B. Overcrowding

B. Overcrowding

 Prison overcrowding is a problem for many countries, including the United States.

 Currently, U.S. prisons are operating at 99% capacity (Caumont, 2013).

 Crowded prisons negatively affect inmates, staff, and facility infrastructure (Government Accountability Office [GAO], 2012).

 Take a look at the problem of prison overcrowding around the world by clicking on the image below.

(Geralt, 2014)

B. Overcrowding

 To alleviate overcrowding, some states

have made the following changes:

 modified criminal statutes and

sentencing,

 relocated inmates to local facilities, and

 provided additional opportunities for

early release (GAO, 2012).

 Click on the image to read more about a

GAO study on the negative affects to all

involved due to overcrowding.

(Bureau of Prisons, n.d.)

B. Overcrowding

 Unfortunately, the BOP does not have the authority to take similar

actions; however, they could take the following steps:

 reduce the inmate population through actions such as reforming

sentencing laws;

 increase the capacity, to include constructing new prisons; or

 a combination of both (GAO, 2012).

C. Gangs/Security Threat Groups

C. Gangs/Security Threat Groups

 Prison gangs, also known as security threat groups (STGs), are one of the

greatest threats to prison safety. Prison gangs are defined as groups that

function as criminal organizations within correctional facilities, have

established a chain of command, and whose conduct is governed by a set of

rules that focus on criminal activity (Lynam, 1989).

 In American prisons, more than 1600 STGs and 113,627 gang members operate

(Schmalleger & Smykla, 2015).

C. Gangs/Security Threat Groups

 Many STGs have affiliations with terrorist groups or may be susceptible to

recruitment by them (Schmalleger & Smykla, 2015). The National Alliance of

Gang Investigators Associations (2007) reported that 27 members of al Qaeda

were incarcerated at the Administrative Maximum Security Prison in Florence,

Colorado.

 Gangs are considered to be security threat groups due to the threat they

present in facilities. They are often involved in criminal activity involving

drugs, prostitution, loan sharking, gambling, extortion, and cell phones.

C. Gangs/Security Threat Groups

 Some inmates join a gang/STG to exert influence and take advantage of

others. They use any means, including violence, to try to control their

environment.

 Inmates believe they require a gang for protection; however, many times, the

opposite is true. Instead, inmates who join a gang are often in greater danger

of victimization.

 Although many gang members attempt to keep activities secret, oftentimes,

they will tattoo their body, utilize gang-specific terminology, or use hand signs

that reveal the gang alliance.

C. Gangs/Security Threat Groups

 The most frequently identified STGs are listed below:

 The Aryan Brotherhood

 The Nazi Low Riders

 Bloods

 Crips

 Gangster Disciples

 Black Guerilla Family

 Mexican Mafia

 Latin Kings

 La Nuestra Familia

 Texas Syndicate

C. Gangs/Security Threat Groups

 Read more about gangs/STGs by reading the following articles from the CSU

Online Library.

In order to access the resources below, you must first log into the myCSU

Student Portal and access the Criminal Justice database within the CSU Online

Library. To reduce the amount of results you receive, it is recommended to

conduct an advanced search; enter the article title in the first search box, and

enter the author’s last name in the second search box.

 Kowalski, B. R., & Martin, B. D. (2012). Violence and security threat group

participation in Ohio prisons. Corrections Today, 74(5), 80-81.

 Parry, B. (2006). Intelligence: The key to gang suppression. Corrections Today,

68(2), 42-45.

D. Riots

D. Prison Riots

 When you consider the term “riot,” we think of unorganized or mindless

events. However, prison riots can be the opposite. To inmates, prison riots are

“expected to be rather organized and predictable: prisoners with grievances

seize hostages and territory, win public attention, and bargain for reform”

(Useem & Kimball, 1986, p. 4).

 However, the term “prison riot” is often used to describe a situation which

happens when those in charge lose control of a large amount of prisoners,

usually in a critical area of the prison and for a substantial time period

(Useem & Kimball, 1986).

D. Prison Riots  Riots occur for many reasons, which are described below:

 Bad conditions: These conditions could include overcrowding, low staffing levels,

lack of funding, or poor implementation of policy.

 Rebellious inmates and racial antagonism: Outside of the prison, the ratio of

minorities to whites is about one to five; however, in prison, whites are in the

minority. This, in addition to bad conditions, lack of space, etc., has resulted in

racial antagonism, whereby inmates separate themselves according to race or

ethnicity, which leads to riots (Schmalleger & Smykla, 2015).

 Institutional structure and readiness: When the infrastructure fails and the staff do

not adequately prepare, this provides an opportunity for riot.

 Administrative factors: Poor prison and administrative management has led to

riots. This could include low correctional officer qualifications, inadequate

training, or poor staff-inmate communication (Schmalleger & Smykla, 2015).

 Random chance: Unfortunately, some riots will not have a definitive cause. These

are impossible to predict (Schmalleger & Smykla, 2015).

 One of the most violent and famous prison riots in U.S. history occurred at

Attica.

D. Attica Prison Riot

 In 1971, Attica became the most famous prison in the world due to

1,281 convicts who held 39 prison guards and employees hostage (“Riot

at Attica,” n.d.). They would continue to hold these hostages for four

days (“Riot at Attica,” n.d.).

 Ultimately, 10 hostages and 29 inmates were killed in the raid by state

police and prison officers; 89 other individuals were seriously injured

(“Riot at Attica,” n.d.).

D. Attica Prison Riot

Learn more by accessing the video below.

In order to locate the videos below, you must first log into the myCSU Student

Portal and access the Academic OneFile database within the CSU Online Library.

You may access each resource by entering the title of the video in the search

box.

 New information on 1971 Attica Prison riots. (2015, May 21). [Video file].

Retrieved from galegroup.com

E. Escapes

E. Escapes

 Many assert that preventing inmates from escaping correctional facilities

should be the first principle in the field of corrections.

 Although the primary goal of corrections is debatable, the end result should

include control of the inmates’ location (Culp, 2005).

 In almost every department of correction, this goal is outlined in the mission

statement as inmate classifications are refined in order to provide greater

security within correctional facilities (Culp, 2005).

 Unfortunately, prisoners continue to escape, which elicits fear and curiosity

among communities and the media. Although most escapes are minor, some

tend to lead to legislative attention, special investigations, and changes in

staffing, programs, and procedures (Culp, 2005).

E. Escapes

 Although facilities track serious incidences, records of escape are hardly

maintained; therefore, little is known about how many escapees are

captured, what their characteristics are, the means by which they escaped,

how many more crimes the escapees may commit, the escapees’ level of risk

for violent behavior, and whether the higher prison population has led to a

larger number of escapes in the recent decade (Culp, 2005).

E. Escapes

 Who escapes?

 Research tells us the following information:

 Younger inmates are more prone to escape (Anson & Hartnett, 1983;

Campbell, Porporino, & Wevrick, 1985; Chard-Wiershem, 1995).

 Escapees are more likely to be property offenders than violent offenders

(Murphy, 1984; Verlag, 1978).

 More men escape than women (Chard-Wierschem, 1995).

 Escapees tend to be white rather than black (Cowles, 1981; Haisted,

1985; Murphy, 1984).

 Prior history of escape and previous confinement increase the chances for

escape (Johnston, Porporino, & Sturrock, 1991).

E. Escapes

 One of the most recent prison escapes occurred in New York in 2015.

 Richard Matt and David Sweat, both convicted murderers, formed a

bond while in the Dannemora prison in New York.

 After months of planning and carving holes through pipes, they

emerged outside of the prison near a power plant.

 The manhunt that followed had the whole country watching.

E. Escapes

Learn more about prison escapes by accessing the resources below.

In order to locate the resources below, you must first log into the myCSU

Student Portal and access the Academic OneFile database within the CSU Online

Library. You may access each resource by entering the title of the article/video

in the search box.

 New York prison break timeline. (2015, June 29). CNN Wire.

 Prison escape manhunt continues in New York. (2015, June 24). [Video file].

Retrieved from galegroup.com

 Winerip, M., Schwirtz, M., & Yee, V. (2015, June 22). Lapses at prison may

have aided killers' escape. New York Times, p. A1(L).

II. Inmate Programs

 Unlike in previous years where rehabilitation was viewed as

ineffective, the current correctional system has adopted the “what

works” doctrine whereby evidence-based information is utilized to

make decisions about treatment programs.

 Hence, the commitment to offer treatment programs is at an

unprecedented level. Consequently, many facilities offer not only

education and vocational programs, but they also offer religious

programs, substance abuse rehabilitation, and sex offender

treatment. Furthermore, some facilities are introducing innovative

programs such as animal programs, mentoring programs, stress

reduction programs, and many more.

A. Education Programs

A. Education Programs

 Educational programs are available in all of the federal facilities and 92% of

the state facilities (DeLisi & Conis, 2013). Currently, more than 80% of federal

facilities and 27% of state facilities offer college courses (DeLisi & Conis,

2013).

 Most of these programs are dedicated to basic adult education and secondary

education to assist in obtaining the General Education Development (GED).

Additionally, some facilities offer special education programs and learning

release programs for those with developmental and learning disabilities.

 Currently, more than 140,000 inmates participate in educational programs

(DeLisi & Conis, 2013).

A. Education Programs

Watch the video linked to the right

which explains the Bard Prison

Initiative. Click the picture to watch

the 10th Anniversary Film.

(Geralt, 2014)

A. Education Programs

Learn more by accessing the resource below.

In order to locate the resource below, you must first log into the myCSU Student

Portal and access the Academic OneFile database within the CSU Online Library.

You may access the resource by entering the title of the article in the search

box.

 Ryan, Z. (2012, March 2). College's prison program a 'win-win for everyone':

Inside Lansing's walls, inmates work toward associate degree. National

Catholic Reporter, 48(10), 10a.

B. Vocational Programs

B. Vocational Programs: History

 Inmate work programs have been utilized since the Auburn system (1816) (DeLisi &

Conis, 2013). Types of inmate labor systems include contract, piece-price, lease,

public account, and state-use (DeLisi & Conis, 2013).

 Currently, almost 94% of federal facilities and 56% of state facilities offer vocational

training (DeLisi & Conis, 2013).

 UNICOR, founded in 1934 and also referred to as Federal Prison Industries, is

perhaps the greatest innovation in vocational work and training (DeLisi & Conis,

2013). It is one of the most cost effective and successful federal government

enterprises (DeLisi & Conis, 2013).

B. Vocational Programs: History

 UNICOR provides products that are used by the U.S. government, such as license

plates. By producing these products, UNICOR provides inmates with vocational

training and work experience to assist them in gaining employment upon release.

 UNICOR is based on the following principles:

 The reduction of idleness results in a safer facility and better discipline.

 Investments in prison industries can result in cost efficiency, job training, and

rehabilitation.

 Wages earned through the prison industry are used to contribute to court-recognized

financial obligations, which lead to increased financial responsibility by the inmate

(DeLisi & Conis, 2013).

 To read more about UNICOR, please click the link below:

http://www.bop.gov/inmates/custody_and_care/unicor_about.jsp

B. Vocational Programs

Select the image to the right to read

the article entitled “Education and

Vocational Training in Prisons Reduces

Recidivism, Improves Job Outlook.”

(Geralt, 2014)

C. Religious Programs

C. Religious Programs: Faith Based

Programs

 Although education and vocational programs are very important in

correctional facilities, religion has had a significant role in the development

of facilities. Recently, religion has reemerged as a gateway to rehabilitation

through faith-based programs (DeLisi & Conis, 2013).

 In 2013, the BOP implemented the Life Connections Program, which is a

residential program that lasts for 18 months, whereby inmates experience a

curriculum taught by clergy (DeLisi & Conis, 2013). During both confinement

and the aftercare program, inmates work, study, pray, and work with religious

mentors (DeLisi & Conis, 2013).

C. Religious Programs: Faith Based

Programs

 Unfortunately, it is undetermined if faith-based programs significantly reduce

institutional misconduct (DeLisi & Conlis, 2013). Additionally, although

findings are promising, there is still insufficient research to definitely

determine the overall effectiveness of faith-based programs.

 However, research has shown the inmates who complete the Prison Fellowship

Program were less likely to be rearrested after release (Johnson, Larson, &

Pitts, 1997).

C. Religious Programs: Faith Based

Programs

 Johnson (2004) also found that those who participated in the Prison

Fellowship Program had better adjustment and were less likely to be

rearrested.

 Kerley, Matthews, and Schultz (2005) reported in their evaluation of

Operation Starting Line that inmates indicated healthier emotions after the

program. Additionally, inmates reported reduced anger and bitterness (Kerley

et al., 2005). Furthermore, participants were less likely to engage in

arguments and fights with staff and other inmates (Kerley et al., 2005).

C. Religious Programs

 Read more about religious program by accessing the article below.

In order to access the resource below, you must first log into the myCSU Student

Portal and access the Criminal Justice database within the CSU Online Library.

To reduce the amount of results you receive, it is recommended to conduct an

advanced search; enter the article title in the first search box, and enter the

author’s last name in the second search box.

 Tomandl, J. D. (2015). Chaplains: Incarceration and faith. Corrections Today, 77(3),

109-111.

D. Substance Abuse

D. Substance Abuse

 There is a great need for drug and alcohol treatment for inmates.

 Consequently, the correctional system devotes quite a bit of money and

resources toward this endeavor.

 Currently,

 74% of prisons offer drug and alcohol education programs;

 55% of prisons offer up to four hours of substance abuse training per week;

 46% of prisons provide five to 25 hours of substance abuse group counseling a

week;

 45% of prisons offer relapse prevention programs; and

 11% of prisons offer more than 26 hours of substance abuse group counseling

(Taxman, Perdoni, & Harrison, 2007).

D. Substance Abuse

 Research indicates that substance abuse treatment while incarcerated results

in favorable behavioral outcomes once offenders rejoin the community (DeLisi

& Conlis, 2013).

 Furthermore, aftercare is significant to substance abuse. Research was

conducted on drug treatment programs with aftercare in California; the

research showed that offenders who completed treatment had better

employment records, lower recidivism, and longer stays in the community

before reincarceration than former prisoners who did not participate in drug

treatment (Prendergast, Hall, Wexler, Melnick, & Cao, 2004; Wexler, DeLeon,

Thomas, Kressel, & Peters, 1999).

E. Sex Offender Treatment

E. Sex Offender Treatment

 Sex offenders pose a challenge to the correctional system. Sex offenders are

those who commit sexually based offenses to include child molestation, rape,

incest, and other related offenses (DeLisi & Conlis, 2013).

 If the correctional system does not monitor, supervise, treat, or punish sex

offenders, the results can be tragic (DeLisi & Conlis, 2013). Dean

Schwartzmiller is often used as an example. Schwartzmiller is known as one

of the most prolific sexual predators in history. Records indicate he operated

in numerous states for over 30 years, and he kept records of the thousands of

boys he victimized (Gonzalez, 2005). Each time he was discovered, he would

run. When he was caught, he would jump bail. When he was finally taken to

court, he would attack his victims. Although he was sentenced in cases, the

public was outraged as the correctional system seemed unable to control such

a violent, repeat offender (DeLisi & Conlis, 2013).

E. Sex Offender Treatment

 Currently, almost 20% of prisons provide sex offender therapy (DeLisi & Conlis,

2013). Effective treatment begins with an assessment of behavioral factors

that relate to the criminality such as school, work, family history, criminal

history, psychiatric needs, prior involvement in the criminal justice system,

and cognitive development (DeLisi & Conlis, 2013).

E. Sex Offender Treatment

 Additionally, many correctional facilities screen sex offenders for the following characteristics:

 deviant sexual arousal, interests, or preferences;

 obsessive sexual preoccupation;

 pervasive anger or hostility;

 emotional management difficulties;

 self-regulation difficulties;

 impulsivity;

 antisocial orientation and pro-offending attitudes;

 cognitive distortions;

 social isolation and poor social skills; and

 emotional callousness and absence of empathy (DeLisi & Conlis, 2013).

E. Sex Offender Treatment

 The recidivism rate for those who have committed sexually based offenses is

not promising. The recidivism rate for non-sexual offenses is 12%, while the

rate for sexual offenses is 13% (those who committed another sexual offense)

(DeLisi & Conlis, 2013). Rapists had the highest sex offense recidivism and

non-sex offense recidivism (DeLisi & Conlis, 2013).

 Studies do show, however, that offenders who participate in sex offender

treatment recidivate at a lower rate. Losel and Schmucker (2005) found that

recidivism rates among those treated were 11% for sex offenses and 22% for

any offenses, as compared to 18% (sex offenses) and 33% (any offenses) for

those untreated.

E. Sex Offender Treatment

Read about a promising sex

offender treatment program by

clicking on the picture to the right.

(Geralt, 2014)

F. Animal Programs

F. Animal Programs

 Animal programs have been around for quite a while. Studies indicate that animals may have been used for therapeutic reasons as early as 1792 (Harkrader, Burke, & Owen, 2004). During the last 25 years, animals have been utilized to assist with both juvenile delinquents and adult offenders.

 Read more about animal programs by accessing the resource below.

In order to access the resource below, you must first log into the myCSU Student Portal and access the Criminal Justice database within the CSU Online Library. To reduce the amount of results you receive, it is recommended to conduct an advanced search; enter the article title in the first search box, and enter the author’s last name in the second search box.

 Moore, C. (2013). Animals behind bars. Law Enforcement Technology, 40(4), 12-16.

This concludes Unit IV.

References

Anson, R. H., & Hartnett, C. M. (1983). Correlates of escape: A preliminary assessment of Georgia prisons. Criminal Justice Review, 8(1),

38–42.

Bureau of Justice Statistics. (2015). Mortality in local jails and state prisons, 2000-2013- statistical tables. Retrieved from

https://www.bjs.gov/content/pub/pdf/mljsp0013st.pdf

Bureau of Justice Statistics. (n.d.) Prison Rape Elimination Act. Retrieved from http://www.prearesourcecenter.org/about/prison-rape-

elimination-act-prea

Bureau of Prisons. (n.d.-a). LVN [Image]. Retrieved from https://www.bop.gov/locations/institutions/lvn/LVN_lrg.jpg

Bureau of Prisons. (n.d.-b). Buildings at McNeil Island [Photograph]. Retrieved from

https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Buildings_at_McNeil_Island_-_NARA_-_299554.tif

Campbell, G., Porporino, F. J., & Wevrick, L. (1985). Characteristics of inmates involved in prison incidents: Phase 1. Ottawa, ON: Ministry

of the Solicitor General of Canada.

Chard-Wierschem, D. J. (1995). Comparison of temporary release absconders and nonabsconders: 1993-1994. Albany, NY: State

Department of Correctional Services.

Caumont, A. (2013). Chart of the week: The problem of prison overcrowding. Pew Research Center. Retrieved from

http://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2013/08/02/chart-of-the-week-the-problem-of-prison-overcrowding/

Cowles, E. L. (1981). A study to explore race as it relates to correctional institution escape behavior (Doctoral dissertation, Florida State

University). ProQuest Digital Dissertations, AAT 8118517.

Culp, R. (2005). Frequency and characteristics of prison escapes in the United States: An analysis of national data. The Prison Journal,

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