Quiz in Art history 1

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Unit 3 Tutorials: Early Christian Through Early Renaissance Art: 401 AD - 1450 AD

INSIDE UNIT 3

Early Christian and Byzantine Art and Architecture

Early Christian Art and Architecture Images of Christ Early Churches Byzantine Art and Architecture Icons and Iconoclasm

Islamic Art

Islamic Art Islamic Architecture Ceramics, Textiles and Calligraphy Alhambra

Early Asian Art

Asian Art and Architecture Chinese Buddhist Art and Architecture Song Dynasty Landscape Painting Art and Architecture of Buddhism in Japan The Hindu Temple

The Ancient Americas

The Ancient Americas The Maya South America Art and Architecture of Ancient American Civilizations

Early Mediveal, Romanesque, and Gothic Art

Early Medieval and Romanesque Art Romanesque Architecture Romanesque Art Gothic Architecture Chartres Cathedral

Late Gothic/Early Renaissance Art

Late Gothic/ Early Renaissance in Italy Early Northern Renaissance Art Fifteenth-Century Flemish Painting The Early Renaissance in Florence Evaluating Works of Art Early Renaissance Architecture

Early Christian Art and Architecture by Sophia Tutorial

 WHAT'S COVERED

Early Christian art and architecture has a relationship with Christianity, Judaism, and the Roman Empire. This lesson covers:

1. Time Period and Location: Early Christian Art and Architecture 2. Early Christianity 3. Catacombs 4. Synagogue at Dura-Europos

 BIG IDEA

Early Christian art reflects its close ties to Judaism, and its architecture reflects the need for secrecy.

1. Time Period and Location: Early Christian Art and Architecture In this lesson you will explore the following two periods of time:

The historical lifespan of Jesus Christ Early Christianity

The historical lifespan of Jesus Christ was an important period. Zero AD is commonly associated with the birth of Christ; however, 0 AD marks a single moment in time and was either a best estimate or a miscalculation. Depending on the Gospel in the Bible, the birth of Christ actually falls within a range from 4 BC, which corresponds to the death of Herod the Great, to 6 AD, which corresponds to the census of Quirinius, who was the Roman head of Syria.

 DID YOU KNOW

The reason the census comes into play is that it is often the reason given for Joseph and Mary, who are the parents of Jesus, to be traveling to Joseph’s homeland of Bethlehem from their new home of Nazareth.

The second time period covered in this lesson is referred to as early Christianity, and it ranges from sometime after Jesus’ historical death to the First Council of Nicea in 325 AD, when Christian leaders got together under the Emperor Constantine and made the first group effort to organize Christianity into a formal religion.

The timeline below highlights the two periods covered in this lesson.

The origins of Christianity are in the Middle East, within and around the modern-day borders of Israel. This region is considered extremely important to the Abrahamic religions of Christianity, Judaism, and Islam. Due to its religious and historical significance, it has been fought over since antiquity, and the borders have changed countless times.

The map below shows the region covered in this lesson.

On the above map, modern-day Israel is shown in red. To the east is the modern-day country of Jordan. The ancient and biblical cities of Jericho, which is not pictured, and Bethlehem, the city of Jesus’ birth and ancestral home to his father, Joseph, are located in an area called the West Bank. This area is the present-day home of the largest population of Palestinian Arabs. Nazareth in northern Israel is where Jesus was thought to have grown up. Jerusalem is very important in the history of all three Abrahamic religions (Christianity, Judaism, and Islam). For Christians, Jerusalem is of particular importance because of its association with the crucifixion of Jesus.

2. Early Christianity The Christian movement began with the teaching and ministry of Jesus of Nazareth. “Christian” means

“relating to Christ.” As influential as the figure of Christ is historically and religiously, his ministry only lasted around three years according to the Gospels, which are the scriptural accounts of his life and comprise part of the New Testament in the Christian Bible.

 THINK ABOUT IT

Jesus was eventually executed by the Romans when he was around the age of 33. Christianity really began as a movement well after his death. It’s important to note that Jesus himself was Jewish, not Christian.

The spread of Christianity wasn’t only due to one individual, however, but is largely credited to one of his apostles, named Paul. Eventually, the Christian movement spread outside of the Middle East. It took hold in many places within the Roman Empire, including Rome itself.

 DID YOU KNOW

Remember, Christianity at this time wasn’t a formal religion. In fact, there were many Christian sects, and it was considered more of a Jewish cult at this time.

Eventually the Roman government took notice of these Christians, and the Roman persecution of them began during the first century AD. It didn’t officially end until the fourth century AD, but tolerance for Christians was beginning to show as early as the second century AD.

Christianity has close ties to ancient Rome and Judaism. The Christian religion even became the official religion of Rome during the fourth century AD, thanks in large part to the Emperor Constantine. However, until this time, being a Christian was a risky proposition. Due to this, early Christian architecture that predates the adoption of Christianity by the Roman Empire can be seen to reflect this need for secrecy.

3. Catacombs CatacombsCatacombs are essentially subterranean cemeteries. The rooms, or cubiculacubicula, were set off of the major hallways. The bodies of the dead were placed within these rooms.

IN CONTEXT

The use of catacombs to bury the dead isn’t unique to Christians. The catacombs of Rome were constructed in large part by necessity. Land within the city was in short supply. The secrecy of the location of catacombs allowed the early Christians a place to worship safely, as they were sacred ground and the Romans usually refrained from persecuting Christians there.

Here is an image of an artist’s depiction of what the catacombs looked like.

A Procession in the Catacomb of Callixtus by Alberto PisaA Procession in the Catacomb of Callixtus by Alberto Pisa

1905

Painting

The Christian catacombs in Rome originated in the second century AD. Because they weren’t buried in the traditional sense of the word, exposed human remains were not uncommon.

Here is a picture of the catacombs as they actually are, lit up with a floodlight. This is from the second century AD. Notice the exposed human remains.

Christian CatacombsChristian Catacombs

2nd century AD

Rome, Italy

This last image, below, shows the use of wall space as a place to create important religious imagery, typically inspired by stories from the sacred texts associated with Christianity.

Christian CatacombsChristian Catacombs

2nd-3rd centuries AD

Rome, Italy

 DID YOU KNOW

There wasn’t an official split from Judaism until the fourth century. Even though the rift between Christianity and Judaism was widening, early Christians still borrowed traditions and religious history from Judaism. The first five books of the Christian Old Testament are still equivalent to the Torah of Judaism.

 TERMS TO KNOW

CatacombsCatacombs An underground cemetery with tunnels and rooms with burial chambers

CubiculaCubicula Burial chambers in a catacomb

4. Synagogue at Dura-Europos Dura-Europos was a Roman city located in modern-day Syria. Interestingly, this city was apparently rather tolerant of practicing Christians and Jews, given that there are above-ground examples of an early synagoguesynagogue, as well as the earliest known example of a Christian house-church. While these two structures were not physically connected, they are positioned rather close to each other in the city.

Synagogue at Duras-EuroposSynagogue at Duras-Europos

3rd century AD

Syria

The images on the walls of the synagogue are notable for their similarity to the Christian imagery that can be found on the catacombs under the city of Rome. Both sets of imagery depict important scenes or stories from the Tanakh, or Jewish Bible.

The first image from the synagogue, pictured below, is of the baby Moses being picked out of the river in Egypt.

Moses Found in the River from the synagogue at Dura-EuroposMoses Found in the River from the synagogue at Dura-Europos

3rd century AD

Syria

This next image is of Moses leading the Israelites across the Red Sea to escape the army of the Pharaoh Ramses II.

Exodus and the crossing of the Red Sea from the synagogue at Dura-EuroposExodus and the crossing of the Red Sea from the synagogue at Dura-Europos

3rd century AD

Syria

 DID YOU KNOW

The orant figure is a figure of a person that is gesticulating in a particular way. It’s the traditional gesture of prayer, where the elbows are close to the body and the arms are sort of outstretched. Below is an example of Noah in the pose of an orant figure.

Noah praying in the Ark from a Roman catacombNoah praying in the Ark from a Roman catacomb

3rd century AD

Rome, Italy

 TERMS TO KNOW

SynagogueSynagogue A Jewish house of worship

Orant FiguresOrant Figures Image of a person in the early Christian position of prayer, with arms outstretched

 SUMMARY

Christianity, Judaism, and the Roman Empire all had an impact on early Christian art and architecture. In this lesson, you learned about the time period and location of early Christian art and architecture.time period and location of early Christian art and architecture.

Early ChristianityEarly Christianity began with the teaching and ministry of Jesus of Nazareth, and while his ministry only lasted around three years, according to the Gospels, Christianity really began as a movement after Jesus’ death.

Finally, you learned about catacombscatacombs and the Synagogue at Dura-Europos.Synagogue at Dura-Europos. Catacombs, or subterranean cemeteries, were used to bury the dead, but also were used as secret locations for early Christians to worship safely. The Synagogue at Dura-Europos was a Jewish house of worship located within the city of Dura-Europos, a Roman city located in modern-day Syria.

Source: THIS WORK IS ADAPTED FROM SOPHIA AUTHOR IAN MCCONNELL.

 TERMS TO KNOW

Catacombs

An underground cemetery with tunnels and rooms with burial chambers.

Cubicula

Burial chambers in a catacomb.

Orant figures

Image of a person in the early Christian position of prayer, with arms outstretched.

Synagogue

A Jewish house of worship.

Images of Christ by Sophia Tutorial

 WHAT'S COVERED

Christian art did not begin to flourish until after the adoption of Christianity as the Roman Empire's official religion. This lesson is about images of Christ and the relationship between pagan religion, Christianity, and the artwork from this period. Specifically, you will learn about:

1. Time Period and Location: Images of Christ 2. Early Christian Art 3. Christ as Good Shepherd #1 4. Christ as Sol Invictus 5. Christ as Good Shepherd #2

 BIG IDEA

Early Christian art was influenced by the religion and culture of the Roman Empire.

1. Time Period and Location: Images of Christ The lifespan of Jesus Christ covers only about 33 years. Interestingly, his official birth year is up for debate. The artwork covered in this lesson ranges from the second century AD to around 450 AD. The geographical region of this lesson is the Italian Peninsula, mainly two cities, Rome and Ravenna, both in Italy.

Below is the timeline highlighting the period covered in this lesson.

Here is a map of the Italian Peninsula with the cities of Rome and Ravenna marked.

2. Early Christian Art One of the reasons that the study of Christian art is important is that there are no existing images of Christ from his lifetime. Images depicting Christ don’t appear until sometime after his death.

Christian art really began to flourish after the adoption of Christianity as the Roman empire’s official religion. In fact, Christian art wasn’t publicly produced until after Constantine because of the fear that Christians would be persecuted and killed. Christian art shows strong evidence of syncretismsyncretism, or a union of sorts between elements of the pagan and Christian religions. This cultural exchange between religions and philosophies isn’t new, but it is interesting in how it affects traditional understandings of the Christian religion.

 EXAMPLE Take for instance, December 25. This is the official date for celebrating the birth of Christ, but scholars agree almost unanimously that this is most likely not the true date of his birth. However, there are two pools of thought as to why December 25 was the chosen date. The first is that it is a mathematical calculation based on his supposed death during the Jewish feast of Passover. The second thought is that it was adopted based on a pagan religious celebration associated with the solstice and the return of the sun that was celebrated on or around December 25.

Although the origin of December 25 as the birth of Christ is debatable, the syncretism that is suggested in the works of art from this time is widely accepted by scholars.

 TERM TO KNOW

SyncretismSyncretism Attempt at uniting differing or opposing practices in religion or philosophy

3. Christ as Good Shepherd #1 This example of Christ as good shepherd is from the catacomb of Priscilla, located in Rome, Italy.

Christ as a Good Shepard at Catacomb of PriscillaChrist as a Good Shepard at Catacomb of Priscilla

2nd-3rd century AD

Fresco

Rome, Italy

Like other images of Christ from this time, he’s shown as a youthful shepherd figure, an inspiration that likely stemmed from earlier Greco-Roman depictions of Apollo and Hermes as good shepherds.

This image also draws forth comparisons to an earlier example of Arcade Greek sculpture and its depiction of a calf-bearer, an example of which can be seen here:

Moschophoros (also known as Calf-Bearer)Moschophoros (also known as Calf-Bearer)

570 BC

Marble

Rather than offering an animal for sacrifice, the good shepherd finds a lamb lost from his flock and returns it to the fold. The artwork of Christ carrying a sheep on his shoulders symbolizes the Christian religion, where Christ is the good shepherd and the fold is faith in the Christian God.

This is also an example of Christian iconographyiconography, or visual symbolism, that represents the Gospel narratives of Christ describing himself as the good shepherd laying his life down for his flock, which foreshadows Jesus’ eventual crucifixion, a sacrifice scripture says is done willingly for the good of humankind.

 TERM TO KNOW

IconographyIconography A type of visual symbolism; Christian iconography, for instance, might make references to the biblical story of the nativity.

4. Christ as Sol Invictus Syncretism is evident in the mosaic “Christ as Sol Invictus.” Found in a mausoleum beneath the Basilica of Saint Peter’s in Rome, this is one of the earliest known images of a regal Christ. He’s also thought to be depicted as the sun god Sol Invictus, which was a later form of the sun deity in the Roman religion.

 EXAMPLE Below is an image of the mosaic “Christ as Sol Invictus”.

Christ as Sol Invictus in the Mausoleum of the Julii, St. Peter's BasilicaChrist as Sol Invictus in the Mausoleum of the Julii, St. Peter's Basilica

Late 3rd century

Mosaic

Rome, Italy

Pay close attention to the rays of light emanating from his head in the image above. Aside from the cross-like shape depicted, the halo or ring of light surrounding the head of Christ or other important church figures is a type of imagery seen in almost all of the later depictions of Christ. This is another example of syncretism.

5. Christ as Good Shepherd #2 This final image is another mosaic, this time for the mausoleum of Galla Placidia in Ravenna, Italy.

Christ as Good Shepherd at Mausoleum of Galla PlacidiaChrist as Good Shepherd at Mausoleum of Galla Placidia

425-433 AD

Mosaic

Ravenna, Italy

 DID YOU KNOW

A mosaic is an image, typically on the ceiling, wall, or floor, created out of colored ceramic or glass tiles.

The mausoleum of Galla Placidia is literally covered in mosaics and is considered one of the best surviving examples of mosaic artwork from this time period.

 THINK ABOUT IT

What is interesting about this image of Christ as good shepherd is how he’s changed in appearance from a youthful Apollo-like version of a shepherd to a much more regal- or imperial-looking version of a shepherd. It’s quite obvious, given the dates of these creations and the manner in which they are depicted, that these are not actual likenesses of Christ but rather reflections of the people or cultures that created them.

This mosaic was created after Christianity became the main religion of Rome, and undoubtedly it reflects the desire to make the image of Christ appear more grand and imperial. Some clues to this are the use of the gold and purple robes, which are colors of the emperor, the golden cross-shaped staff, and his head bathed in a golden aura. This imagery of Christ as King is another common depiction in the Christian art that was to come.

 SUMMARY

When Christianity became the Roman empire’s official religion, Christian art began to flourish. In this lesson, you learned about the time period and location of images of Christ.time period and location of images of Christ. One of the reasons that the study of early Christian artearly Christian art is important is that there are no existing images of Christ from his lifetime.

You explored some examples of artwork in this lesson, including: Christ as Good Shepherd #1Christ as Good Shepherd #1 “Christ as Sol Invictus”“Christ as Sol Invictus”

Christ as Good Shepherd #2Christ as Good Shepherd #2

Source: THIS WORK IS ADAPTED FROM SOPHIA AUTHOR IAN MCCONNELL.

 TERMS TO KNOW

Iconography

A type of visual symbolism. Christian iconography for instance, might make references to the biblical

story of the nativity.

Syncretism

Attempt of union between differing or opposing practices in religion or philosophy.

Early Churches by Sophia Tutorial

 WHAT'S COVERED

Early churches used two different design formats, which you will explore in this lesson. Specifically, you will learn about:

1. Time Period and Location: Early Churches 2. Early Churches 3. Santa Costanza 4. Old St. Peter's 5. Santa Sabina

 BIG IDEA

Many early Christian churches were based on the design format of the Roman basilica.

1. Time Period and Location: Early Churches The architecture in this lesson is dated in the range of the third century AD to fourth century AD in Rome.

Below is a timeline highlighting the period covered in this lesson.

2. Early Churches Like art, early churches are a reflection of the cultures in which they were created. Early Christians didn’t necessarily have an inherent artistic style, so they drew upon what they knew or what they had been exposed to.

IN CONTEXT

Churches are often re-purposed buildings or temples. Two main design plans for churches were used in the period explored in this lesson: the basilicabasilica design and the central plan. The basilica design was essentially an elongated rectangle that formed the central navenave, terminating in an apseapse. The apse area with a triumphal arch, which originally would have been where the emperor was seated, instead became an area for the Christian altar, clergy seating, and, in many cases, the choir

as well.

Here is a diagram of the basilica design:

Here is a different example of the basilica style, this time with a transepttransept, which is the crosspiece that was added to give it more of a cross shape.

A centrally planned church has no long central nave. Instead, the altar is positioned in the middle of the church, and is surrounded by a circular walkway called an ambulatoryambulatory. This style of church became more popular in the fourth and fifth centuries, but was largely replaced by the basilica-style design later on. The cross shape, which originally was more of a coincidence, eventually became its own major and intentional design element in the planning of churches.

Below is a diagram of a centrally planned church. Notice the altar in the center and the surrounding walkway.

Many early churches were based on the design of the Roman basilica, which lent itself well to Christian religious ceremonies. Originally used as meeting or audience halls, the basilica was a rectangular shape with a long central aisleaisle called a nave, that terminated in a rounded, semi-circular section called an apse.

 TERMS TO KNOW

AmbulatoryAmbulatory An area for walking, usually semicircular, around the apse of a church

CathedralCathedral The main church that contains the bishop’s throne

ApseApse An architectural term; a recess or semicircular space in a building, vaulted and, in a church, often used by the choir

AislesAisles The walkway between the sections of seats, for example, in a theater

NaveNave A long central aisle that extends the whole length of the church

BasilicaBasilica A columned meeting hall in ancient Rome; later, a church with columns

3. Santa Costanza

Not all churches were based on this basilica design, however. It was common to reclaim a temple or building to be repurposed as a church, and this was the case with Santa Costanza in Rome. Santa Costanza was originally built as a mausoleummausoleum for the Emperor Constantine’s daughter, but later was converted to a church. Because of its original purpose, Santa Costanza is based on what’s called a central plan.

Below is an interior view of Santa Costanza, which was originally constructed in 350 BC.

Santa CostanzaSanta Costanza

Coverted Mausoleum of Constantine's daugher

350 AD

Rome, Italy

This image is taken from the ambulatory, which is separated from the central area and altar by a colonnade of Corinthian-style columns. A clerestoryclerestory provides light from above. Notice the windows.

The next image is of one of the surviving mosaicsmosaics from inside Santa Costanza).

Mosaic from Santa CostanzaMosaic from Santa Costanza

Originally, a Roman Bacchus motif, adapted to Christianity as symbolic of the blood and Eucharist of

Christ

350 AD

Mosaic

Rome Italy

 DID YOU KNOW

The original design was a Bacchus motif with putti, or little chubby, winged spirits, harvesting grapes for wine. Bacchus was the Roman deity of wine and the grape harvest. Interestingly, in an example of syncretism, this image was kept by the Christians, who felt it was evocative of the Christian rite of Eucharist. The angels gathering grapes for wine were symbolic of the blood of Christ.

 TERMS TO KNOW

ClerestoryClerestory A part of a building that rises above the roofs–basically windows above eye level, primarily for allowing light and ventilation

MosaicMosaic A system of patterns on a floor, wall, or ceiling constructed of small colored pieces of inlaid stone, glass, clay, or other materials

MausoleumMausoleum A tomb or building containing tombs

4. Old St. Peter’s The basilica style can be seen in several other churches, including Old Saint Peter’s Basilica in Rome, diagrammed below.

The term “old” is to distinguish it from the newer Saint Peter’s, built centuries later. If you look closely, you can see the rectangular basilica design with its central nave and auxiliary aisles, the cross shape, and the apse. It was originally constructed in 360 AD.

Nothing from Old Saint Peter’s Basilica survives. It was deconstructed and a new church, the new St. Peter’s Basilica, was built in its place. However, this fresco of Old Saint Peter’s provides a nice cross-section of what the fourth-century building looked like:

Old Saint Peter's BasilicaOld Saint Peter's Basilica

4th Century

Fresco

Notice the colonnade and rounded arcade, which is that row of arches, as well as the tiered roof and resulting clerestory at the very top. In many ways, the basilica of Old Saint Peter’s evokes many of the design elements of Egyptian temples from centuries earlier. It’s no wonder, though, given that the Romans themselves were inspired by the stylistic conventions of ancient Egypt.

5. Santa Sabina This image is of the basilica-style fifth century church of Santa Sabina in Rome:

Santa SabinaSanta Sabina

422-432 AD

Rome, Italy

At first glance it could be mistaken for the basilica at Trier, Germany, which has a very similar design, as well as an exterior brick construction. However, the interior features very familiar design elements. The central nave and side aisles are separated by a Corinthian-style colonnade that you can see here:

Interior of Santa SabinaInterior of Santa Sabina

422-432 AD

Rome, Italy

Note the rounded arcade that supports the structure, with the clerestory above.

Here is an image of the apse of Santa Sabina:

Apse and triumphal arch of Santa SabinaApse and triumphal arch of Santa Sabina

422-432 AD

Rome, Italy

 SUMMARY

Two main design formats were used in early churches. In this lesson, you learned about the timetime period and location of early churchesperiod and location of early churches.

Churches are often re-purposed buildings or temples, and this was no different in early churchesearly churches. Two main design plans for churches were used in the time period explored in this lesson: the basilica design and the central plan.

Finally, you explored the following examples of architecture from early churches: Santa CostanzaSanta Costanza Old St. Peter’sOld St. Peter’s Santa SabinaSanta Sabina

Source: THIS WORK IS ADAPTED FROM SOPHIA AUTHOR IAN MCCONNELL.

 TERMS TO KNOW

Aisles

The walkway between the sections of seats located, for example in a theater.

Ambulatory

An area for walking, usually semicircular, around the apse of a church.

Apse

An architectural term; a recess or semicircular space in a building, vaulted and used often by the choir

in a church.

Basilica

A columned meeting hall in ancient Rome, later a church with columns.

Cathedral

The main church that contains the bishop’s throne.

Clerestory

A part of a building that rises above the roofs – basically windows above eye level primarily for

allowing light and ventilation.

Mausoleum

A tomb or building containing tombs.

Mosaic

A system of patterns on a floor, wall, ceiling constructed of small color pieces of inlaid stone, glass, or

clay or other types of materials.

Nave

A long central aisle that extends the whole length of the church.

Byzantine Art and Architecture by Sophia Tutorial

 WHAT'S COVERED

The Byzantine Empire is historically and religiously very important. It was during this time that the focus of the Roman Empire was moved east and Christianity replaced centuries of polytheism. Things changed, including architecture and artistic styles. In this lesson, you will explore:

1. Time Period and Location: Byzantine Art and Architecture 2. Emperor Constantine 3. Rise of Christianity 4. Hagia Sophia 5. San Vitale and the Mosaics of San Vitale 6. Christ Pantocrator

 BIG IDEA

The establishment of the new capital in Constantinople moved the focus of the Roman Empire east and facilitated a new artistic style that combined eastern and western conventions.

1. Time Period and Location: Byzantine Art and Architecture The Byzantine Empire can be broken into the following periods:

The Early Period

Constantinople became the new capital of the eastern Roman Empire Middle Byzantium

843 to 1204 AD Late Byzantium

1204 to 1453 AD

Constantinople is finally overrun by the Ottoman Turks

Two empires were prominent during these times, Western and Eastern. Historically, Rome was the capital of the Western Empire. However, it is important to know that this capital did move twice. When Rome was defeated by the barbarians in 410 AD, the capital had already moved to Ravenna, Italy, from its former location in present-day Milan.

The new capital of the Eastern Empire, established under the emperor Constantine, was the city of Constantinople. This was originally the Greek city of Byzantium. After the conquest of Constantinople by the Ottoman Turks in 1453, it was renamed Istanbul. Istanbul is located in modern-day Turkey.

2. Emperor Constantine Constantine was a major figure in the political shakeup and subsequent religious changes that occurred during the fourth century AD. He is often credited with splitting the empire of Rome, but this is not true.

It was his predecessor, the emperor Diocletian, who split the empire into Eastern and Western empires. The

Roman Empire had become so huge, it had become a bureaucratic nightmare to run. When Constantine became ruler of the Eastern Empire, he moved the capital to ByzantiumByzantium, renamed it Constantinople, and ran his empire from there.

Political disorganization of the time left major parts of the Western Empire vulnerable to continued barbarian attacks. Eventually, Rome was defeated in 410 AD by the Visigoths, a barbarian tribe. The Western Empire officially ended after the conquest of Ravenna by barbarians in 479 AD.

Take a look below at this image showing the approximate borders of the Western and Eastern Empires of Rome at the time of the conquest of Ravenna, Italy, in 476 AD:

 TERM TO KNOW

ByzantiumByzantium A Greek city rebuilt by Constantine in 330 AD and renamed Constantinople

3. Rise of Christianity The rise of Christianity was also historically important. Emperor Constantine is largely responsible for later adoption of Christianity as the official state religion, replacing centuries of polytheism. The Edict of Milan declared religious tolerance to Christians and others, and by the end of the fourth century, Christianity was officially declared the state religion. This all happened many years after Constantine’s death in 337 AD.

 TERM TO KNOW

ByzantineByzantine A term referencing the Byzantine Empire, a style of art developed during the Byzantine Empire characterized by religious iconography, very formal, shallow pictorial space, and rich colors

4. Hagia Sophia The ByzantineByzantine Empire, as it came to be known, developed its own unique blended style of Eastern and Western convention. It was in this new blended style that the church of Hagia Sophia in Constantinople was designed under the reign of Emperor Justinian during the sixth century AD.

This church embodies the style and architectural elements that are now associated with the Byzantine Empire, including:

A pendentive dome

A centralized plan Extensive detail covering every surface of the church’s interior

Hagia Sophia was built to be a cathedral, or a church that houses the cathedra, the throne of a Christian bishop. Justinian developed an ambitious plan to return the empire to its former glory, and from this plan came the architectural masterpiece, Hagia Sophia.

 DID YOU KNOW

The supportive pendentives are separated by a clerestory at the base of the massive dome, which creates the effect of the dome appearing to float effortlessly above the building. PendentivePendentive is one of two primary architectural methods of supporting a circular dome on a rectangular or polygonal base. A squinchsquinch is another method.

In the image below, the arrow highlights the pendentive.

Take a look at the rectangular base below. The squinches are the four blue triangles that are built in to provide a base for the circular bottom of the dome.

Here is an exterior view of the Hagia Sophia:

Hagia SophiaHagia Sophia

532-537 AD

Istanbul, Turkey

Notice the minarets, the four towers, on the side. These were a later addition completed when the church was converted to a Muslim mosque after the Ottoman Turks. Hagia Sophia is in Istanbul, Turkey, which is the modern-day city of what used to be Constantinople.

 TERMS TO KNOW

PendentivePendentive An architectural term; a construction that allows the placement of the circular dome over a rectangular room

SquinchSquinch An architectural term; a small arch, or corbelling, built across the interior between two walls as a support in a square tower

5. San Vitale and the Mosaics of San Vitale The Basilica of San Vitale in Ravenna, Italy, is a centrally planned church.

Construction began in 526 AD. The exterior brick facade, an octagonal shape, is rather constrained in comparison to the interior design of the church.

Here is an image of San Vitale:

San VitaleSan Vitale

526-547 AD

Ravenna, Italy

IN CONTEXT

The Basilica or Church of San Vitale is important because it is an example of classical Byzantine architectural design. The interior mosaics really capture our interest. It’s literally covered in these interior mosaics that have remained in relatively excellent condition, considering their age. The imagery depicted is all religious in nature.

San Vitale was completed during the reign of the Emperor Justinian, but it is not known whether he actually saw the church. He was a very religious man who ambitiously sought to establish the former greatness of the Roman Empire. In addition to his artistic campaign, his military campaign was successful in reclaiming large portions of the former empire, including Italy, much of North Africa, and parts of Spain.

Justinian was married to the empress Theodora. He saw himself as Christ’s representative on earth. This notion is evident in this depiction of Justinian and his attendants in this mosaic from the north wall of San Vitale.

Emperor Justinian and His Attendents on the north wall of San VitaleEmperor Justinian and His Attendents on the north wall of San Vitale

547 AD

Mosaic

Ravenna, Italy

This mosaic from 547 AD is positioned under and perpendicular to that mosaic on the right side of Christ, which was, symbolically, a very important position.

Some of the Byzantine stylistic high points that stand out include:

Almond-shaped eyes Tall, elongated bodies Roughly nine heads tall Flat, two-dimensional rendering Use of overlapping to suggest space and denote importance

The Emperor is the only one not overlapped. He also wears the purple and gold imperial robes. His

head is surrounded by a golden halo, and he holds a Eucharistic platter.

Directly across from Justinian is his wife, Theodora, in a similar composition from 547 AD, shown below.

Empress Theodora and Her Attendants on south wall of San VitaleEmpress Theodora and Her Attendants on south wall of San Vitale

547 AD

Mosaic

Ravenna, Italy

Notice above that the figures are elongated, and there is the use of overlapping. Theodora is the furthest forward and wears the purple and gold imperial robes. Hers, however, are trimmed with images of the Magi, or the three wise men. Her head is framed by a halo.

Like her husband, she holds a Eucharistic object, a Eucharistic cup of Christ. However, she is attended by fewer people and is positioned on the less desirable left side of Christ, symbolic of her status in comparison to Justinian.

 DID YOU KNOW

An interesting tidbit of information about the mosaic of Justinian and his attendants is the number of attendants, which not coincidentally was the number 12. This is the same as the number of disciples of Jesus Christ.

6. Christ Pantocrator Other images designed in the Byzantine style can also be found in Greece several hundred years later.

Below is an image of Christ PantocratorPantocrator from the central dome of the Church of the Dormition.

Christ Pantocrator on central dome of the Church of the DormitionChrist Pantocrator on central dome of the Church of the Dormition

Late 11th century AD

Mosaic

Daphne, Greece

This above image of Christ is designed in the Byzantine style. Notice the almond-shaped eyes, the sharp nose, and the elongated features. This almost brooding figure of Christ would actually be looking down on you from above. It’s a mosaic that’s situated within the dome of the church. Other images of Christ Pantocrator use a similar depiction with the right hand of Christ in a blessing gesture and the left hand holding the New Testament.

 TERM TO KNOW

PantocratorPantocrator Refers to a specific Christian iconography; icon image of Christ understood in Greek as “ruler of all”

Reverse PerspectiveReverse Perspective Also called Byzantine perspective, where lines of vanishing points diverge outside the picture plane or outside a painting

Picture PlanePicture Plane The invisible plane that corresponds to the surface of the painting, the picture plane is like a window opening out onto another world.

 SUMMARY

During the Byzantine Empire, the focus of the Roman Empire was moved east and Christianity replaced centuries of polytheism. Architecture and artistic styles began to change and adapt. In this lesson, you learned about the time period and location of Byzantine art and architecture.time period and location of Byzantine art and architecture.

You learned about Emperor ConstantineEmperor Constantine, who was a major figure in the political shakeup and subsequent religious changes that occurred during the fourth century AD. It was during this time that there was a notable rise in Christianity.rise in Christianity. By the end of the fourth century, Christianity was officially declared the state religion. This all happened years after Constantine’s death in 337 AD.

Finally, you explored several examples of Byzantine art and architecture, including: Hagia SophiaHagia Sophia San Vitale and the Mosaics of San VitaleSan Vitale and the Mosaics of San Vitale Christ PantocratorChrist Pantocrator

Source: THIS WORK IS ADAPTED FROM SOPHIA AUTHOR IAN MCCONNELL.

 TERMS TO KNOW

Byzantine

A term referencing the Byzantine Empire, a style of art developed during the Byzantine Empire

characterized by religious iconography, very formal, shallow pictorial space and rich colors.

Byzantium

A Greek city rebuilt by Constantine in 330 AD and renamed Constantinople.

Pantocrator

Refers to a specific Christian iconography; icon image of Christ understood in Greek as “ruler of all.”

Pendentive

An architectural term; a construction that allows the placement of the circular dome over a rectangular

room.

Picture Plane

The invisible plane that corresponds to the surface of the painting, the picture plane is like a window

opening out onto another world.

Reverse Perspective

Also called Byzantine perspective where lines of vanishing points diverge outside the picture plane

or outside a painting.

Squinch

An architecture term; a small arch, or corbelling built across the interior between two walls as a

support in a square tower.

Icons and Iconoclasm by Sophia Tutorial

 WHAT'S COVERED

There was once a period in time when Christian images was banned, and religious images or icons were literally destroyed. Several influences led to the destruction of icons. This lesson covers:

1. Time Period and Location: Icons and Iconoclasm 2. Virgin and Child with Saints and Angels 3. Transfiguration of Christ 4. Iconoclasm 5. Virgin (Theotokos) of Vladimir

 BIG IDEA

Byzantine iconoclasm refers to a time when the veneration of Christian images was banned, and religious images or icons were literally destroyed.

1. Time Period and Location: Icons and Iconoclasm The Byzantine Empire is broken into three main eras:

Early Byzantine Middle Byzantine Late Byzantine

The artwork in this lesson falls within the early and middle periods. The geographical region covered in this lesson is the Sinai Peninsula and the monastery of Saint Catherine at Mount Sinai. According to the Book of Exodus, this is the biblical location where Moses received the Ten Commandments from God.

 DID YOU KNOW

A monastery is a collection of buildings that are cared for and lived in by religious monks.

2. Virgin and Child with Saints and Angels According to the Christian church, religious icons are not the same as idols. In fact, idol worship was forbidden according to Jewish law. Many adherents to Christianity, which has its roots in Judaism, were uncomfortable with the veneration of images in the early centuries of Christianity. They thought of it as a form of idolatry. At some point, however, the distinction was made between the veneration of images and use of images for prayer and meditation versus worshiping the idols themselves.

 EXAMPLE Take a look at this example of Christian iconography from the sixth century AD:

Virgin and Child with Saints and Angels at Monastery of St. CatherineVirgin and Child with Saints and Angels at Monastery of St. Catherine

Second half of 6th century

Encaustic on wood panel

Mt. Sinai, Egypt

This above painting of the Theotokos, or Virgin Mary, and the child Jesus with saints and angels is located at the Monastery of Saint Catherine at Mount Sinai. It is an encaustic painting, which means the paint is made of a pigment suspended in a beeswax binder. Unlike tempera paint, which is limited in its blending capabilities, encaustic paint can be blended together more easily to create greater variations in color.

Mary is the central figure of this image, and functions as a sort of throne for the baby Jesus. Jesus is known by Christians as the King of Kings. He and his mother are flanked by two saints, Theodore and George, both warrior saints who are said to have killed dragons, which is likely symbolism for Jesus conquering evil.

Notice how Mary, Jesus, and the angels in the background are rendered in a way that hints at depth and volume, while the saints are rather flat in their appearance, despite the very detailed and rather realistic- looking robes. All figures have halos surrounding their heads, but only the four in front have golden halos, which perhaps is an indication of their status with respect to the angels behind them.

3. Transfiguration of Christ Transfiguration refers to the moment when a person changes from mortal to divine. Here, this is in reference to Jesus’ prophesized rise from the dead.

 EXAMPLE Take a look at this image of the transfiguration of Jesus, also located in the monastery of Saint Catherine at Mount Sinai from 554-565 AD:

Transfiguration of Jesus at Monastery of St. CatherineTransfiguration of Jesus at Monastery of St. Catherine

548-565 AD

Mosaic

Mt. Sinai, Egypt

This above image is an interesting depiction in a number of ways. First, Christ, who is shown radiating light, is surrounded by a dark blue mandorlamandorla, as opposed to the usual gold coloring. Instead, the artist chose to color the entire background gold, opting not to include any type of landscape or indication of depth and space. For example, there are no shadows cast, even in the presence of all that light.

Some scholars have suggested that this was intended, due to its use as an icon meant to evoke a quality that has no connection to a physical time or place.

The heavenly images of Christ and the prophets Elijah and Moses that flank him are rather serene and composed compared to the disciples John, Peter, and James, who appear to be very scared.

Notice the way in which the ground line appears. Generally speaking, the ground line is an element that sort of defines the edge of a picture. But if you look carefully, you can see how some of the figures are behind it. The two prophets, however, are stepping over it. The central disciple is actually straddling it.

 TERM TO KNOW

MandorlaMandorla An area of radiance or luminous glow in paintings that are sacred; usually appears as a disk or halo but can extend to include the whole body

4. Iconoclasm During the eighth century a ban on religious imagery was enacted under the reign of Emperor Leo III. IconoclasmIconoclasm refers to the destruction or deconstruction of religious imagery and iconsicons. Examples of iconoclasm can be found throughout history. The Byzantine Empire experienced two periods of iconoclasm, the first in the eighth century and the second during the ninth century. The end of the second period of iconoclasm in Byzantium marked the beginning of the middle Byzantine period in 843 AD.

 TERMS TO KNOW

IconIcon A religious image of an important person from Christianity, used as an aid to worship in the Byzantine tradition

IconoclasmIconoclasm The intentional deconstruction of religious or political icons, symbols, or monuments

5. Virgin (TheotokosTheotokos) of Vladimir If we jump ahead towards the end of the middle Byzantine period, we can take a look at this next religious image.

 EXAMPLE This image is of the Virgin Mary and child, called “The Virgin of Vladimir” due to it being located in Russia.

Virgin of Vladimir (Virgin of Child)Virgin of Vladimir (Virgin of Child)

11th-12th century AD

Tempera on wood panel

Originally from Constantinople, now resides in Moscow, Russia

 DID YOU KNOW

Vladimir is a city in this case, not a person.

This image of the Virgin Mary and child was likely created in Constantinople, and it is an example of tempera paint on wood. Remember, tempera paint is limited in its ability to blend with other colors, so the tendency is to paint with tiny or smaller brush strokes. This can come across as flat in its appearance or lacking in the depth that is possible with other types of paint.

Compared to the encausticencaustic painting from earlier in this lesson, this painting seems rather two-dimensional or flat. The theme of a tender scene between a mother and child is common in artwork. Notice the depiction of Jesus. Until the Renaissance, more often than not, Jesus is depicted as a tiny adult in appearance.

There are exceptions, of course. In fact, the encaustic painting from earlier depicts Jesus with a much more natural set of proportions, like those of a small child. It’s an interesting stylistic choice, though, that you see returning again and again in religious imagery. It is believed to be an intentional Christian suggestion of Christ’s inherent perfection, that even though he’s a child, he’s still the savior of mankind.

 TERMS TO KNOW

TheotokosTheotokos The Greek title of the Christian Virgin Mary as the Mother of God

EncausticEncaustic A type of painting that uses beeswax as a binder

 SUMMARY

In this lesson, you learned about Byzantine iconoclasm and its reference to a time when the veneration of Christian images was banned and religious images or icons were literally destroyed. This lesson started off with a review of the time period and location of icons and iconoclasmtime period and location of icons and iconoclasm.

Not only did this lesson explore iconoclasmiconoclasm, or the destruction or deconstruction of religious imagery and icons, you also looked at examples of icons found throughout history, including:

Virgin and Child with Saints and AngelsVirgin and Child with Saints and Angels The Transfiguration of ChristThe Transfiguration of Christ Virgin (Theotokos) of VladimirVirgin (Theotokos) of Vladimir

Source: This work is adapted from Sophia author Ian McConnell.

 TERMS TO KNOW

Encaustic

A type of painting that uses beeswax as a binder.

Icon

A religious image of an important person from Christianity, used as an aid to worship in the Byzantine

tradition.

Iconoclasm

The intentional deconstruction of religious or political icons, symbols or monuments.

Mandorla

An area of radiance or luminous glow in paintings that are sacred, usually appears as a disk or halo

but can extend to include the whole body.

Theotokos

The Greek title of the Christian Virgin Mary as the Mother of God.

Islamic Art by Sophia Tutorial

 WHAT'S COVERED

The origin of Islam can be traced back to a religious prophet, Muhammad. The basic history and tenets of Islam are important when attempting to understand why Islamic art is aniconic. This lesson explores:

1. Time Period and Location: Islamic Art 2. Basic Tenets of Islam 3. Rise of Islam 4. Aniconic

 BIG IDEA

Islam traces its origin to the divine revelations of Muhammad, a religious prophet, and shares a religious ancestry with Judaism and Christianity.

1. Time Period and Location: Islamic Art The religious prophet MuhammadMuhammad was born in Arabia in 570 AD in the city of Mecca. His revelations from God are said to have begun in 610 AD. The beginning of IslamIslam is in 622 AD, marked by the migration of Muhammad and his followers to the city of Medina to escape persecution. Muhammad died in 632 AD, but his religion endured and today is the second largest religion in the world after Christianity.

Adherence to the faith of Islam can be found all over the world today. However, in the late 15th century, the Islamic world covered approximately the area overlaid in green on the map shown here:

Included in this area, which is considered the Islamic world, are:

Northern Sahara Parts of Eastern Africa (including modern-day Somalia) Spain Eastern portions of Europe The entire Middle East The majority of India

 TERMS TO KNOW

IslamIslam The religious faith of Muslims with the basic principle of absolute submission to Allah

MuhammadMuhammad In Islam, the prophet and messenger of Allah

2. Basic Tenets of Islam Islam was an extremely influential religion, and it remains so today. This religion dictates religious and secular laws for its adherents, and five pillars of Islam make up the basic tenets of the religion:

Declaration of faith (there is one God, AllahAllah, and Muhammad is his chosen prophet) Prayers (five specific prayers said daily while facing Mecca) Alms-giving (giving to the poor) Fasting Pilgrimage to Mecca (if physically and financially able to)

 TERMS TO KNOW

AllahAllah In Islam, God, the Supreme Being

MosqueMosque A Muslim temple or place of worship

3. Rise of Islam The rise of Islam begins with Muhammad, who was born in Arabia in 570 AD. At the time of his birth, this region was predominantly religiously polytheistic. Muslims believe that Muhammad received revelations from God beginning in 610 AD. This is believed to be the same time that he began to preach, gaining a modest following.

When he was persecuted because of his beliefs, he fled the city with his followers, eventually settling north of Mecca in the city of Medina. During this time, his following grew and he returned eight years later to Mecca with 10,000 soldiers to control the city and convert the people to Islam.

The Koran (or Qur'an) is the sacred text of Islam. It is essentially a codification of the sacred revelations and laws of Islam. The spread of Islam was twofold, spreading person to person and then politically as the conquest of new lands by Islamic civilization, such as the Ottoman Turks, expanded the religion to the parts of the world under their authority.

4. Aniconic The art of Islam is aniconicaniconic, meaning there are no icons allowed, a distinct contrast to Christian art. Islamic art is dominated by absolutely beautiful geometric patterns and motifs. You won’t find anything like the Christian iconography or images we’ve already looked at. In fact, images of Allah and Muhammad are strictly forbidden.

 DID YOU KNOW

Images of Allah and Muhammad are forbidden because of Islam’s connection with Judaism and Christianity. All three Abrahamic religions trace the lineage of their faiths back to and through the prophet Abraham. All three religions take their ban on idolatry from the law of Moses. The forbiddance of idolatry in the veneration of images became murky water for Christians and was the underlying issue that spurred the iconoclasm of the eighth and ninth centuries. Muslims interpret this law as forbidding the use of figures in their religious art, including and especially images of Allah or Muhammad.

Being in proximity to Byzantium undoubtedly influenced the Islamic civilizations. The Christian church’s struggles with the veneration of images would have likely reinforced the original argument in Islam against the use of images.

 TERMS TO KNOW

AniconicAniconic Not allowing images or idols

ArabesqueArabesque A spiraling or serpentine line or motif

 SUMMARY

Muhammad, a religious prophet, is responsible for the rise of Islamrise of Islam. To help you understand this idea in more detail, this lesson covered the time period and location of Islamic arttime period and location of Islamic art.

Furthermore, the basic tenets of Islambasic tenets of Islam were explored. Remember, these are a declaration of faith,

prayers, alms-giving, fasting, and pilgrimage to Mecca.

Finally, you learned about Islamic art and why it is aniconicaniconic, meaning there are no icons allowed. This stems back to the connections Islam has with Judaism and Christianity, because all three of these religions trace their lineages back to Abraham and the law of Moses that forbids idolatry. Even images of Allah and Muhammad are forbidden in art from this time.

 TERMS TO KNOW

Allah

In Islam, God, the Supreme Being.

Aniconic

Not allowing images, or idols.

Arabesque

A spiraling or serpentine line or motif.

Islam

The religious faith of Muslims with the basic principle of absolute submission to Allah.

Mosque

A Muslim temple or place of worship.

Muhammad

In Islam, the prophet and messenger of Allah.

Islamic Architecture by Sophia Tutorial

 WHAT'S COVERED

Civilizations that Islam has touched as well as some Islamic religious beliefs have both had influence on Islamic architecture. This lesson covers:

1. Time Period and Location: Islamic Architecture 2. Basic Features of Islamic Architecture 3. Dome of the Rock 4. Great Mosque, Qayrawan 5. Great Mosque at Cordoba 6. Mosque at Isfahan

 BIG IDEA

Design elements of Islamic architecture are a blend of styles from the civilizations that Islam has touched and reflective of some Islamic religious beliefs.

1. Time Period and Location: Islamic Architecture This lesson covers architecture ranging from the seventh century AD to the 17th century AD.

The timeline below highlights this period. Notice that 600 AD, the beginning of the seventh century, and 1700 AD, the end of the 17th century, are labeled as end points.

2. Basic Features of Islamic Architecture The first area of focus for this lesson is the elements found in Islamic buildings, including:

The minbar The mihrab The Qibla The hypostyle prayer hall

Styles of architecture vary, but there are some common design features that distinguish Islamic architecture from other styles. The minbarminbar, the mihrabmihrab, and QiblaQibla are common within all mosques. One of the most unique elements of Islamic architecture is the use of geometric or vegetal patterns. These are patterns that can be

repeated and continued indefinitely in any direction. They can adorn the exterior and interior of buildings and are just as common within smaller works of art.

The dome is a borrowed element from earlier forms of architecture, such as the Christian design of the Hagia Sophia in Istanbul. Minarets are the (usually) thin towers that rise around, or are attached to, Islamic mosques. They are used as places to call people to prayer. The hypostyle prayer hallhypostyle prayer hall is a space separated by columns for privacy. Finally, the horseshoe or keyhole archhorseshoe or keyhole arch is another characteristic element of Islamic architecture, an example of which is shown here:

Horseshoe archHorseshoe arch

 TERMS TO KNOW

MinbarMinbar In Islam, the pulpit from which the sermon is delivered

MinaretMinaret A tower attached to a mosque and used for calling people to prayer

MihrabMihrab In a mosque, a niche or decorative panel showing the direction of Mecca

Qibla WallQibla Wall Also kiblah; in Islam, the wall that indicates the direction of Mecca and the Kaaba, for prayer

Hypostyle Prayer HallHypostyle Prayer Hall In a mosque, a personal space separated by columns for privacy

Horseshoe ArchHorseshoe Arch Also called a keyhole arch; semicircular and characteristic of Islamic architecture

3. Dome of the Rock Within the holy city of Jerusalem, Israel, the Dome of the Rock can be found. This building is a shrine that was constructed by Muslims in the late seventh century after the city had been taken from the Byzantines in 638 AD. The Dome of the Rock shares certain characteristics with Byzantine architecture, which was an influence on the architects of the dome. The octagonal-shaped, centrally planned building was just one of these influences.

The Dome of the Rock, of the late seventh century, is pictured below:

Dome of the Rock shrineDome of the Rock shrine

Late 7th century

Jerusalem, Israel

Architecturally, the building is dominated by the huge, golden dome. It is covered in beautiful, colorful, vegetal and geometric patterns, which continue inside. This building is a shrine built over the Foundation Stone, which is the holiest location in all of Judaism. The stone was originally covered by the Jewish Temple of Solomon that once stood in the same spot. In terms of Islam, some scholars regard it as the location where Muhammad ascended into heaven.

4. Great Mosque, Qayrawan The next building is found within Qayrawan, Tunisia, and is an example of a hypostyle mosque that was largely constructed during the ninth century.

Great Mosque at QayrawanGreat Mosque at Qayrawan

836-875 AD

Qayrawan, Tunisia

This huge stone building resembles examples of Roman architecture, specifically with the large central courtyard enclosed by a colonnade. However, instead of a rounded arcade like we’d see with Roman architecture, this is an example of a horseshoe style arcade. Right at the top of the column, the masonry juts in, creating a keyhole shape with the arch and columns.

5. Great Mosque at Cordoba When people think of Islam, they tend to think of the Middle East, but the Iberian Peninsula, which is home to modern-day Portugal and Spain, has a rich history associated with Islam and the narrow Strait of Gibraltar. This strait separates the peninsula from the African continent. The strait did little to prevent the Moors from Northern Africa from coming over and occupying it for many centuries.

The Great Mosque at Cordoba, shown below, is another fantastic example of a hypostyle prayer hall that makes use of the horseshoe shape in the lower arches. It was completed in the late 10th century.

Prayer hall in Great Mosque at CordobaPrayer hall in Great Mosque at Cordoba

Late 10th century

Cordoba, Spain

6. Mosque at Isfahan Our last example of Islamic architecture is located within the city of Isfahan, Iran, and was constructed over many centuries. Eventually completed in the 17th century, it’s an impressive example of Islamic architecture at its finest.

Mosque at IsfahanMosque at Isfahan

17th century AD

Isfahan, Iran

What cannot be appreciated from this photo, however, is the attention to detail paid to the vegetal and geometric patterns or designs that adorn the mosque. Take a close look particularly at the colorful examples that cover two entrance gates that are flanked by the minarets and the large peaked dome in the background.

 SUMMARY

Islamic architecture has roots in several of the civilizations that Islam has touched as well as in some Islamic religious beliefs. This lesson started with a review of the time period and location of Islamictime period and location of Islamic architecturearchitecture, followed by an explanation of the basic features of Islamic architecturebasic features of Islamic architecture. Remember, many of the terms to know were covered in this section.

Continuing on, you looked at elements of architecture such as the minbar, mihrab, Qibla, and the hypostyle prayer hall. These elements were explored further using examples of Islamic architecture, including:

Dome of the RockDome of the Rock Great Mosque, QayrawanGreat Mosque, Qayrawan Great Mosque at CordobaGreat Mosque at Cordoba Mosque at IsfahanMosque at Isfahan

Source: This work is adapted by Sophia Author Ian McConnell.

 TERMS TO KNOW

Horseshoe arch

Also called a keyhole arch, semicircular and characteristic of Islamic architecture.

Hypostyle Prayer Hall

In a mosque, a personal space separated by columns for privacy.

Mihrab

In a mosque, a niche or decorative panel showing the direction of Mecca.

Minaret

A tower attached to a mosque calling people to prayer.

Minbar

In Islam, the pulpit from which the sermon is delivered.

Qibla wall

Or kiblah, in Islam, the wall that indicates the direction of Mecca and the Kaaba, for prayer.

Ceramics, Textiles and Calligraphy by Sophia Tutorial

 WHAT'S COVERED

Because representations of figures in Islamic art are not allowed, artists had to resort to other areas and techniques to find and show meaning in their artwork. Small objects and textiles both became very important to Islamic artists and Islamic culture. Ceramics, textiles, and calligraphy were more abundant, and these served as ways for artists to make their marks. This lesson covers:

1. Time Period and Location: Islamic Ceramics 2. Small Objects and Calligraphy 3. Bowl with Kufic Border 4. Macy Jug

 BIG IDEA

With the absence of figural representations in Islamic art, production of ceramics, textiles, and calligraphy became major outlets for artistic expression.

1. Time Period and Location: Islamic Ceramics This lesson covers examples of art from the 11th century to the early part of the 13th century. The works of art in this lesson come from within modern day Iran.

2. Small Objects and Calligraphy Given the Islamic view on representational art, with the exception of architecture, the production of large public works was essentially non-existent during this time. This made the production of smaller objects and textiles particularly important, both as a form of artistic expression and as a form of personal art. Remember, representations of Allah and Muhammad are forbidden in artwork. However, the representation of human and animal forms was not expressly forbidden and was typically acceptable for personal works of art.

 DID YOU KNOW

The traditional story booklets typically owned by wealthier Muslims used these images of representations of human and animal forms in the artwork of miniaturesminiatures.

The production of textiles is also deeply rooted in the culture of Islam. These are figurative canvases for the display of beautiful arabesque patterns, and they are of particular importance in their use as prayer rugs. In the absence of representational art, calligraphy became one of the primary forms of artistic expression.

 DID YOU KNOW

Calligraphy in Islam is symbolically a very important art form, particularly the Kufic scriptKufic script, which was used to record the first copies of the Koran.

Kufic scriptKufic script

 TERM TO KNOW

MiniatureMiniature A small-scaled version, i.e., painting, illuminated text

Kufic ScriptKufic Script Oldest form of calligraphy; the first copies of the Koran were written in Kufic script

3. Bowl with Kufic Border Below is an example of calligraphy used as decorative enhancement.

Bowl with Kufic BorderBowl with Kufic Border

11-12th century AD

Iran

This example is Samarkand WareSamarkand Ware ceramic work. It is a bowl with a decorative Kufic border, which reads, “Planning before work protects you from regret. Prosperity and peace.”

 TERM TO KNOW

Samarkand WareSamarkand Ware An Islamic ceramic style characterized with decorations in green, yellow, pink, and brown

4. Macy Jug Another type of ceramic work is called LusterwareLusterware. Here is an example called a Macy jug:

Macy JugMacy Jug

Early 13th century

Iran

This jug is a striking example from the early 13th century. Notice the two layers: a solid inner layer that holds the liquid, and an open, decorative, outer layer that depicts harpies, sphinxes, and quadrupeds, or four- legged animals. Encircling the bottom in a difficult-to-see, lighter blue band, is a love poem written by an anonymous poet.

 TERM TO KNOW

LusterwareLusterware Middle Eastern in origin, a type of pottery decorated with glassy, metallic lusters

 SUMMARY

During the time period and location of Islamic ceramicstime period and location of Islamic ceramics, many representations of figures in Islamic art were not allowed. This meant that artists showed meaning in their artwork using other techniques. Small objects and calligraphySmall objects and calligraphy, as well as other textiles, became very important to the Islamic culture.

In this lesson, you looked at two examples of Islamic artwork from this period: a bowl with Kuficbowl with Kufic borderborder and a Macy jugMacy jug. The first piece of artwork was calligraphy used as decorative enhancement, and the last was an example of Lusterware.

Source: THIS WORK IS ADAPTED FROM SOPHIA AUTHOR IAN MCCONNELL.

 TERMS TO KNOW

Kufic Script

Oldest form of calligraphy; the first copies of the Qur’an were written in Kufic script.

Lusterware

Middle Eastern in origin, a type of pottery decorated with glassy, metallic lusters.

Miniature

A small scaled version i.e. painting, illuminated text.

Samarkand Ware

An Islamic ceramic style characterized with decorations in green, yellow, pink and brown.

Alhambra by Sophia Tutorial

 WHAT'S COVERED

The palace fortress of Alhambra in Spain is an important structure in Islamic architecture, both historically and politically. This lesson covers:

1. Time Period and Location: Alhambra 2. Alhambra 3. Courtyard of the Lions 4. Muqarnas Vault

 BIG IDEA

Alhambra is an important example of Islamic architecture in Spain.

1. Time Period and Location: Alhambra Like many forms of large-scale architecture, the construction of Alhambra took place in stages over many centuries and under many rulers, both Christian and Muslim. This lesson focuses on the ninth through 14th centuries. This period largely covers the beginnings of Alhambra and the muqarnas vault construction from the 14th century. Alhambra is located just west of the city of Granada in Spain.

The timeline below highlights the period covered in this lesson.

2. Alhambra Many ancient buildings were lost to modern times as they were destroyed by conquering civilizations. Alhambra, however, is different. This palace fortress is important because it is essentially a time capsule of preserved Nazarid palaces that were built within it. It was preserved even after the Christian reoccupation of Spain.

 DID YOU KNOW

Alhambra is actually an Arabic word meaning “red castle,” a name that reflects the use of reddish stone in the building’s construction.

Alhambra gives us an impression of what royal life was like in Islamic Spain under the Nazarids, who were the last Arabian Muslim dynasty in Spain. They lost their hold on the Iberian Peninsula with the final battle of Granada in 1492.

 EXAMPLE Here is an image of Alhambra:

AlhambraAlhambra

889 AD

Granada, Spain

It was originally constructed as a strategic military fortress with a high vantage point in view of the city. Eventually palaces were built for the Nazarid rulers inside the walls of Alhambra, some of which still exist today, even after the reconstructions that took place after ownership switched from Muslim to Christian.

3. Courtyard of the Lions One of the most impressive buildings within Alhambra is the Palace of the Lions and the Courtyard of the Lions that resides within it. It is a beautiful marble courtyard, circled by a colonnade with horseshoe-style arches above which were the chambers where the sultan’s wives lived.

The Courtyard of the Lions draws its name from the unusual fountain perched upon 12 stone lions, and it is decorated with a poem by the famous Islamic poet, Ibn ZamrakIbn Zamrak. As people traveled through the arches, they would be led to the Hall of the Abencerrajes and Hall of Two Sisters, where the poet Ibn Zamrak is responsible for other poetic inscriptions within the muqarnas vault.

 EXAMPLE Below is an image of the Courtyard of the Lions and the fountain from which the courtyard

draws its name.

Courtyard of the LionsCourtyard of the Lions

1362

Granada, Spain

 TERM TO KNOW

Ibn ZamrakIbn Zamrak Famous poet and statesman for Granada, Al-Andalus; his narratives of his writings decorate fountains, i.e., the Fountain of the Lions and palaces.

4. Muqarnas Vault The Hall of the Abencerrajes is in front of the Hall of Two Sisters, within which is the famous muqarnas vault. MuqarnasMuqarnas are stalactite architectural elements that hang down from the ceiling and were likely intended to reflect the sunlight coming into the room, creating abstract patterns. The effect is an ethereal and heavenly quality that contrasts sharply with the military solidity of the outer fortress.

 DID YOU KNOW

The Hall of the Abencerrajes is actually named after the knights that were supposedly beheaded there.

 EXAMPLE Here is an image of the muqarnas vault:

Muqarnas vault in Hall of the AbencerrajesMuqarnas vault in Hall of the Abencerrajes

14th century AD

Granada, Spain

 TERMS TO KNOW

MuqarnasMuqarnas Islamic or Persian architecture, a type of corbel decorative projecting element

MiradorMirador Spanish; an architectural term; a balcony built on an upper floor to assist with an open view

 SUMMARY

An important structure in Islamic architecture, both historically and politically, is the palace fortress of Alhambra in Spain. In this lesson, you explored the time period and location of Alhambra.time period and location of Alhambra.

To do this, you learned about AlhambraAlhambra as well as two additional pieces of architecture from this period: the Courtyard of the LionsCourtyard of the Lions and the muqarnas vaultmuqarnas vault. The Courtyard of the Lions resides within the Palace of the Lions. It is a beautiful marble courtyard, circled by a colonnade with horseshoe-style arches above which were the chambers where the sultan’s wives lived. The Hall of the Abencerrajes is in front of the Hall of Two Sisters, within which is the famous muqarnas vault.

Source: THIS WORK IS ADAPTED FROM SOPHIA AUTHOR IAN MCCONNELL.

 TERMS TO KNOW

Ibn Zamrak

Famous poet and statesman for Granada, Al-Andalus; his narratives of his writings decorate fountains,

i.e. the Fountain of the Lions and palaces.

Mirador

Spanish, an architectural term, a balcony built on an upper floor to assist with an open view.

Muqarnas

Islamic or Persian architecture, a type of corbel decorative projecting element.

Asian Art and Architecture by Sophia Tutorial

 WHAT'S COVERED

China and Japan historically have had a close relationship, and the influence of Buddhism on both of these cultures has had much impact on Asian art. It is important to understand the basic tenets of Buddhism and two types of Buddhism, Zen and Pure Land, when exploring artwork from this region and period in time. This lesson will cover:

1. Location: Asian Art 2. China and Japan 3. Buddhism

 BIG IDEA

Buddhism was very influential on the art and architecture of China and Japan.

1. Location: Asian Art The focus for this lesson is the geographical region of China. The historic Silk Road, which is located in this region, is largely responsible for the cultural exchanges between Western and Eastern civilizations, as well as within Asia itself.

2. China and Japan China and Japan may not have always been best friends necessarily, but these two Asian countries have a close relationship historically. China had significant influence on the cultural, linguistic, religious, political, and artistic development within Japan.

Both cultures were very influenced by the rise of Buddhism. This was largely due to the Silk Road. Buddhism found its strongest integration within the cultures of China and Japan, despite developing in India. Influenced by devotional cults and Bhakti, a movement characterized by the deeply reciprocal love between a devotee and a personal god, India began seeing significant growth in Hinduism between the 4th and 11th centuries.

3. Buddhism Although distinct religions, Buddhism and HinduismHinduism are closely related, and share many essential characteristics. This overlap in religions includes the veneration of images. The veneration of images was perceived as idolatrous by other religions, such as Islam. Because of this conflict, the results were the destruction of the Bamiyan Buddhas, which are colossal statues of Buddha carved within massive rock walls. Their destruction occurred in Afghanistan in 2001 by the Taliban, despite the best efforts globally to preserve them.

The idea of a devotional cult is at the heart of Pure LandPure Land Buddhism, a type of Buddhism that emphasizes devotion to a form of Buddha-- the Buddha of Infinite Light. The belief was that in order to be reborn within the Pure Land, or Pure Realm, one must be sincerely devoted to the Buddha of Infinite Light. ZenZen Buddhism, on the other hand, was a more introspective take on Buddhism with an emphasis on personal enlightenment through the study of Buddhist teachings and the use of meditation.

Both types had, and still have, a large following within Asia. But regardless of the type of Buddhism, the basic

tenets remain essentially the same. Buddhists believe in the four noble truths. These four truths include:

Truth of suffering Truth of the cause of suffering Truth of the end of suffering Truth of the path that leads to the end of suffering

Karma is another basic tenet of Buddhism, and refers to actions and consequences, or cause and effect. The third basic tenet is the concept of reincarnation, which is a cycle of spiritual rebirth in order to achieve enlightenment.

 TERMS TO KNOW

Pure LandPure Land The heavenly realm of a Buddha.

ZenZen A school and teaching of Chinese Buddhism that emphasizes enlightenment and individual understanding of Buddhist teachings through formal studies and observances.

HinduismHinduism A system of religious practice in India that emphasizes the idea of dharma, or duty, and corresponding daily rituals and practices.

 SUMMARY

Buddhism was very influential on the art and architecture of China and Japan. You learned about the location of Asian artlocation of Asian art in this lesson. China and JapanChina and Japan have a significant and historical relationship, and they are both influenced by the religion of BuddhismBuddhism in various ways. Remember, though, that the veneration of images was perceived as idolatrous by other religions, such as Islam. This resulted in the destruction of some Asian artwork such as the Bamiyan Buddhas, colossal statues of Buddha carved within massive rock walls.

Source: THIS WORK IS ADAPTED FROM SOPHIA AUTHOR IAN MCCONNELL.

 TERMS TO KNOW

Hinduism

A system of religious practice in India that emphasizes the idea of dharma, or duty, and

corresponding daily rituals and practices

Pure Land

The heavenly realm of a Buddha.

Zen

A school and teaching of Chinese Buddhism that emphasizes enlightenment and individual

understanding of Buddhist teachings through formal studies and observances.

Chinese Buddhist Art and Architecture by Sophia Tutorial

 WHAT'S COVERED

Buddhism played a major role in dynastic China, and influenced Chinese art. This lesson explores Chinese Buddhist art and architecture by looking at examples of both. Specifically, you will learn about:

1. Time Period and Location: Chinese Buddhist Art 2. Tang Dynasty 3. Longmen Caves 4. Pure Land Buddhism 5. Chinese Pagodas

 BIG IDEA

The Buddhist religion was very influential on the art and architecture of dynastic China.

1. Time Period and Location: Chinese Buddhist Art During the Common Era, China was ruled by a succession of dynasties. This period of time stretched from after 0 AD to the early 20th century.

Below is a timeline highlighting a partial list of some of the ruling dynasties during this period.

Note that this is not a definitive list by any stretch, but rather an outline. Some of the dynasties on this list may stand out to you, such as the Qin Dynasty, which is where the word “China” derives from. It’s the first one on the left. The Ming dynasty is known for the production of the white and blue porcelain vases that are named after it.

In this lesson, you will explore the art and architecture from two periods shown on the above timeline in blue: the Tang dynasty and the Song dynasty. The Song dynasty itself is actually broken up into two parts, the North and South.

China is a country that, along with Russia to the north and India to the south, comprises the majority of the Asian continent. Two locations covered today are Luoyang, China, and Foguang Pagoda, just a bit northeast. The Silk RoadSilk Road, which was named after one of the primary goods traded via this route, is shown on the map below. It was one of the most important means of cultural exchange throughout Asia as well as between Eastern and Western cultures. It actually passes right by the city of Luoyang.

 TERM TO KNOW

Silk RoadSilk Road A modern term that refers to the trade routes that linked Asia with the Mediterranean

2. Tang Dynasty The Tang dynasty succeeded the Sui dynasty and successfully reunited a broken China. The Tang dynasty subsequently became one of the most important periods of Chinese cultural development. It was also a time when Buddhism was the primary religion throughout China, and there was a proliferation of art with Buddhism as its theme.

3. Longmen Caves The Longmen Caves are located in Luoyang, China, and feature sculptural relief that spans almost 1,000 years. In this lesson, you will explore some examples of monumental sculptural relief, specifically the Vairocana Buddha.

The Vairocana Buddha is one of the largest, if not the largest, sculptures of the Buddha, and it resides within an even larger, complex assortment of Buddhist iconography in these caves. “Vairocana” means “illuminator,” and depicts the large figure of the Buddha in a lotus, or meditative, position.

Below is an image of the Vairocana Buddha, created during the Tang Dynasty, 618 AD to 907 AD.

Vairocana Buddha and Longmen CavesVairocana Buddha and Longmen Caves

618-907 AD (Tang Dynasty)

Luoyang, China

In the above image of this triadtriad, Buddha is on the right. He is flanked by BodhisattvasBodhisattvas and disciples who, in typical hierarchic scale, are smaller but still colossal in size.

 DID YOU KNOW

One way to tell the Bodhisattvas and the Buddha apart, aside from their size and position, is in their depiction. The Buddha is shown wearing a topknot (how he wears his hair) and is in the meditative lotus position with his hands in mudras, which are symbolic hand gestures. The Bodhisattvas look almost identical, and stand on either side of the Buddha, creating a triad grouping.

 TERMS TO KNOW

TriadTriad In Buddhism, an artistic grouping of three characters, usually Buddha in the center flanked by two bodhisattvas, but there could be some variation

BodhisattvaBodhisattva Someone who is capable of achieving enlightenment, but who is motivated by great compassion to assist others in their spiritual development

4. Pure Land Buddhism Buddhism is a religion that is composed of different branches, all of which share a similar foundation and ancestry. Zen and Pure Land Buddhism are two of these branches. Unlike Zen Buddhism, adherents to Pure Land Buddhism believe that enlightenmentenlightenment cannot be achieved on your own but only through faith in a form of Buddha called Amida BuddhaAmida Buddha. Pure Land predates Zen Buddhism by about 350 years, and arose during the

Tang dynasty, quickly gaining a strong following.

 THINK ABOUT IT

These branches of Buddhism are similar to the branches of Christianity, such as Catholic, Baptist, Lutheran, et cetera.

 DID YOU KNOW

There are two ways of referring to the same Buddha, Amida and Amitabha. Amida is more common in Japan, while Amitabha is more common in China.

 EXAMPLE Below is an image of the Paradise of Amitabh:

Paradise of AmitabhaParadise of Amitabha

9th century AD

Dunhuang, China

The above image is a 9th century painting in Dunhuang, China, a major stop on the Silk Road that consequently became a major site of Buddhist art. This is just one of many cave paintings at this particular site. This painting is interesting in how it depicts the Pure Land as consisting of Tang dynasty imperial architecture, which is a definite nod to the style of the time, but also the very honest and human depiction of paradise as something familiar, something like home.

 TERMS TO KNOW

EnlightenmentEnlightenment Also known as nirvana, the highest state of spiritual being in Buddhism, characterized primarily by a complete lack of worldly desire

Amida BuddhaAmida Buddha

Principal Buddha in the Pure Land sect, practiced primarily in East Asia, and known for longevity and possessing unlimited merits from good works over many past lives

5. Chinese Pagodas It is important to think back to the idea that the veneration of sacred relics is an important part of Buddhism. The Chinese pagoda is a type of shrine that was developed, like the Indian stupa structures that preceded it, to house sacred Buddhist relics. The relics were housed under the foundation floor of the pagoda in many cases, sealed off from the rest of the structure, which also functioned as a Buddhist temple that could be entered, unlike the Indian stupa.

The pagodas were wooden structures and featured many innovative design elements, such as the post-and- lintel variant called dougong, which is a form of Chinese roof bracketing.

 EXAMPLE Here’s an example of dougong from a Japanese structure:

Dougong supporting a structure at a Japanese templeDougong supporting a structure at a Japanese temple

Unlike many types of structures, the walls within the pagoda are not load-bearing. Instead, the weight of the roof structure is channeled through massive vertical columns by way of the dougong. Layers of wooden beams are laid perpendicular to each other and cantilevered over a supportive column.

 EXAMPLE Take a look at the image below. This is a simple example of this structure.

If you can imagine here, those little gray blocks are supposed to be going back into the picture running perpendicular to the blue block. You can see how this rather ingenious method allows for portions of the structure to be extended outwards, and allows for a surprising amount of elasticity in earthquake-prone areas, something with which stone structures are notoriously poor.

The Foguang Si Pagoda in Shanxi Province in China is a Buddhist temple and shrine. At about 216 feet tall, it is the tallest wooden structure ever made. It was constructed in 1056 during the Northern Song dynasty, and it is an octagonal design with column supports in the corners of that octagon. This structure is symmetrically balanced and supported by the use of 60 giant, four-tiered brackets that hold the structure together.

 EXAMPLE Here is an image of the Foguang Si Pagoda in Shanxi Province in China:

Foguang Si PagodaFoguang Si Pagoda

1056 AD

Shanxi Province, China

If you look at the walls or the sides of the octagon, you will see that these were not load-bearing. Actually, all the weight is channeled into the columns that you can’t see, that are in the corners of the octagon.

 TERM TO KNOW

PagodaPagoda A Chinese tower with multiple tiers and a bracketed wooden roof; it is based loosely on the idea of an Indian stupa.

 SUMMARY

Buddhism had a significant role in dynastic China, influencing the artwork from this area and period. In this lesson, you began by looking at the time period and location of Chinese Buddhist art.time period and location of Chinese Buddhist art. The TangThe Tang dynastydynasty became one of the most important periods of Chinese cultural development when it reunited a broken China.

You learned about the Longmen cavesLongmen caves, home to the Vairocana Buddha, one of the largest examples of sculpture of the Buddha within an even larger, complex assortment of Buddhist iconography. You also learned that Buddhism is a religion that is composed of different branches, Zen and Pure LandZen and Pure Land BuddhismBuddhism being two of these branches.

Finally, you explored the Chinese pagodas,Chinese pagodas, a type of shrine that was developed, like the Indian stupa structures that preceded it, to house sacred Buddhist relics.

Source: THIS WORK IS ADAPTED FROM SOPHIA AUTHOR IAN MCCONNELL.

 TERMS TO KNOW

Amida Buddha

Principal Buddha in the Pure Land sect, practiced primarily in East Asia, and known for longevity and

possessing unlimited merits from good works over many past lives.

Bodhisattva

Someone who is capable of achieving enlightenment, but who is motivated by great compassion to

assist others in their spiritual development.

Enlightenment

Also known as nirvana, the highest state of spiritual being in Buddhism, characterized primarily by a

complete lack of worldly desire.

Pagoda

A Chinese tower with multiple tiers and a bracketed wooden roof. It is based loosely on the idea of an

Indian stupa.

Silk Road

A modern term that refers to the trade routes that linked Asia with the Mediterranean.

Triad

In Buddhism, an artistic grouping of three characters, usually Buddha in the center flanked by two

bodhisattvas, but there could be some variation.

Song Dynasty Landscape Painting by Sophia Tutorial

 WHAT'S COVERED

Song Dynasty landscape paintings are known for basic traits such as shifting perspective. In this lesson, you will explore examples of Buddhist art and architecture from China. In doing so, you will learn about the influences on art from this time period. Specifically, this lesson covers:

1. Time Period and Location: Song Dynasty Landscape Painting 2. Neo-Confucianism 3. Landscape Painting

a. “Travelers Among Mountains and Streams”

b. “Fishing on a Mountain Stream”

c. “Streams and Mountains with a Clear Distant View”

 BIG IDEA

Neo-Confucianism was an important philosophical influence on northern Song landscape painting.

1. Time Period and Location: Song Dynasty Landscape Painting China was ruled by a succession of dynasties throughout the Common Era. The Common Era was the period of time from 0 AD to the early 20th century. This lesson covers the Song dynasty, which was weak militarily, but extremely progressive technologically, politically, and philosophically. The artwork that we’ll be looking at all comes from China.

The timeline below highlights many of the dynasties that ruled during the Common Era. Notice that the Song dynasty, covered in this lesson, is blue.

2. Neo-Confucianism ConfucianismConfucianism dates back to the sixth and fifth centuries BC. Neo-ConfucianismNeo-Confucianism, or New-Confucianism, is a form of Confucianism that revived Confucianist thought and became ingrained in the sociopolitical context of China.

Portrait of ConfuciusPortrait of Confucius

The idea of "li" is a fundamental part New-Confucianism. Li is viewed as an underlying reason and order to nature, or connection between nature and living beings. This belief was very influential on the way that landscape painters created their images and depicted nature in their artwork. Artists of this time sought to represent the idea of nature rather than specific places.

 TERMS TO KNOW

ConfucianismConfucianism A belief system based on the teachings of Confucius that emphasizes love and respect for human beings, the value of learning, and the value of family, including ancestors

Neo-ConfucianismNeo-Confucianism A moral and ethical Chinese philosophy that revived Confucianism, but added influences from Daoism and Buddhism and emphasized the importance of nature and a sense of spiritual connection with nature

Li (idea)Li (idea) The underlying reason and order of nature, as seen in its living forms

Ji (spirit)Ji (spirit) Life energy or life force

3. Landscape Painting The Chinese landscape painting of the Song dynasty is different than landscape paintings we see in, for example, 15th or 16th century Italy. Chinese landscape paintings do not depict specific places, but ideas of features within nature.

Below is an example of a painting that is not an image of a specific mountain scene, like a photograph; rather,

this piece of work evokes the idea or sense of the concept of a mountain scene. It also makes use of shifting perspective.

Chinese Landscape PaintingChinese Landscape Painting

Shifting perspectiveShifting perspective is a way of visually moving the viewer through the painting in a number of directions. This is done by having no fixed vanishing point like there is in linear perspective. Rather, objects appear closer and farther away, detailed or less detailed, depending on the way the artist is intending to pull the viewer through the landscape. It’s a different way of viewing a painting than what is typical in Western landscape paintings and arguably a more organic way of looking at the landscape.

The use of shifting perspective was better suited to the long horizontal scrolls on which these Chinese landscapes are painted. The painting wasn’t intended to be framed, but extended indefinitely in all directions.

 TERMS TO KNOW

Shifting PerspectiveShifting Perspective A characteristic of traditional Chinese paintings as a way to break time and space

Feng ShuiFeng Shui A Chinese practice in which elements of space are arranged in a way that maximizes the flow of energy

3a. “Travelers Among Mountains and Streams"3a. “Travelers Among Mountains and Streams" The scene below is just a small detail from a much larger—almost seven feet long—scroll.

Travelers Among Mountains and StreamsTravelers Among Mountains and Streams

1000-1020 AD

Ink on silk

Even though the title references the travelers, nature is obviously the subject of this painting, dominating the scroll and relegating the travelers to tiny figures that are almost hidden within the painting. Again, there isn’t a single vanishing point in this example, but rather a use of shifting perspective to visually move you across the width of the landscape.

3b. “Fishing on a Mountain Stream”3b. “Fishing on a Mountain Stream” The image below gives you a better idea of the use of shifting perspective.

Fishing on a Mountain StreamFishing on a Mountain Stream

1049 AD

Ink on silk

While it is titled “Fishing on a Mountain Stream,” the idea in the title is not very evident from this image. Nature is clearly the focus, rather than a specific place. It could be any place. It’s an idea of nature. Linear perspective would be too limiting in this kind of landscape.

3c. “Streams and Mountains with a Clear Distant View”3c. “Streams and Mountains with a Clear Distant View”

This final example, titled “Streams and Mountains with a Clear Distant View,” is an example of the southern Song dynasty landscape style.

Streams and Mountains with a Clear Distant ViewStreams and Mountains with a Clear Distant View

1190-1230 AD

Ink on silk

Xia Gui

Here the artist uses a sharper contrast between light and dark, as well as more simplified forms than what we’ve seen previously. It’s essentially a different application of the same stylistic elements of Chinese landscape painting. It evokes a sense of a human connection in nature, but in a more reserved way than that of the northern Song style. In either case, Song dynasty landscape paintings embody our connection to nature, and they achieve more than just the depiction of nature to create a state of mind.

 SUMMARY

Landscape paintings in the Song Dynasty were interesting in their depiction of nature. In this lesson, you learned about the time period and location of Song Dynasty landscape paintings.time period and location of Song Dynasty landscape paintings. It is important to understand that neo-Confucianismneo-Confucianism played a role in artwork and architecture during this dynasty. Artists of this time sought to represent the idea of nature rather than specific places.

Chinese landscape paintingslandscape paintings do not depict specific places, but ideas of features within nature. In this lesson, you explored these examples of Chinese landscape painting:

“Travelers Among Mountains and StreamsTravelers Among Mountains and Streams” “Fishing on a Mountain StreamFishing on a Mountain Stream” “Streams and Mountains with a Clear Distant ViewStreams and Mountains with a Clear Distant View”

Source: THIS WORK IS ADAPTED FROM SOPHIA AUTHOR IAN MCCONNELL.

 TERMS TO KNOW

Confucianism

A belief system based on the teachings of Confucius that emphasizes love and respect for human

beings, the value of learning, and the value of family, including ancestors.

Feng Shui

A Chinese practice in which elements of space are arranged in a way that maximizes the flow of

energy.

Ji (spirit)

Life energy or life force.

Li (idea)

The underlying reason and order of nature, as seen in its living forms.

Neo-Confucianism

A moral and ethical Chinese philosophy that revived Confucianism, but added influences from Daoism

and Buddhism and emphasized the importance of nature and a sense of spiritual connection with

nature.

Shifting Perspective

A characteristic of traditional Chinese paintings as a way to break time and space.

Art and Architecture of Buddhism in Japan by Sophia Tutorial

 WHAT'S COVERED

Chinese culture greatly influenced the art and architecture of Japan. This lesson covers: 1. Time Period and Location: Art and Architecture of Buddhism in Japan 2. Chinese Cultural Influences on Japan 3. Examples of Japanese Art and Architecture

a. Horyuji Kondo

b. Tori Busshi Triad

c. “Yakushi Triad”

d. Scene from The Tale of Gengi

e. Womb Mandala

f. Amida Descending

g. Phoenix Hall

 BIG IDEA

Chinese culture, including Buddhism, Confucianism, Chinese writing, and elements of the Chinese royal court, has been very influential in the art and architecture of Japan.

1. Time Period and Location: Art and Architecture of Buddhism in Japan The period covered in this lesson begins in the seventh century and ends in the 13th century AD. The geographical region covered is Japan, a country consisting of four large islands with numerous smaller islands, and located just east of mainland China.

Below is a timeline highlighting the period covered in this lesson.

2. Chinese Cultural Influences on Japan China’s culture deeply influenced Japan in many ways, influencing its writing system, religion, and elements of

the royal court. In particular, the Japanese culture copied Chinese Buddhism very closely.

3. Examples of Japanese Art and Architecture 3a. Horyuji Kondo3a. Horyuji Kondo Below is our first example of Japanese architecture.

Horyuji KondoHoryuji Kondo

7th century AD

Wood

Nara Prefecture, Japan

This piece of architecture is from the Horyuji Buddhist temple complex in the Nara Prefecture in Japan. This is a kondokondo, which is the main hall in a Buddhist temple. It was originally built during the seventh century AD, and has been rebuilt a few times, although its core remains as it was. In fact, it is the oldest surviving example of a wooden building in existence.

The Horyuii Kondo has several formal similarities to Chinese pagodas:

Curved roof Shrinking size of the upper stories Wooden building on a stone platter Chinese bracketing system, known as dougong (this cannot be seen here, but it is used to support the

building)

 TERM TO KNOW

KondoKondo The main hall in a Japanese Buddhist temple

3b. Tori Busshi Triad3b. Tori Busshi Triad This next image is of a bronze Buddha.

Shaka Triad by Tori BusshiShaka Triad by Tori Busshi

623 AD

Bronze

Nara Prefecture, Japan

The above sculpture, the “Shaka TriadTriad” from 623 AD, is located within the Horyuji complex, and is a bronze triad, a common Buddhist depiction of a central Buddha figure flanked by two bodhisattvas. It was created by the artist known as Tori Bushi. “Bushi” means “maker of Buddhist images.” Here the figures are depicted with elongated heads and highly stylized folds within the robes.

The central Buddha is Shaka, which is the historical Buddha, as opposed to one of his many manifestations. He is seated in the meditative Lotus position, with his right hand in a specific type of mudra, or gesture, called the “fear not” gesture. Behind the Buddha is a highly stylized flaming mandorla.

 TERM TO KNOW

TriadTriad In Buddhism, an artistic grouping of three characters, usually Buddha in the center flanked by two bodhisattvas, but there could be some variation

3c. “Yakushi Triad”3c. “Yakushi Triad” This next image is of the “Yakushi Triad,” from the late seventh or early eighth centuries.

Yakushi TriadYakushi Triad

Late 7th to early 8th centuries AD

Bronze

Nara Prefecture, Japan

It shows a stylistic influence of mainland China’s Tang dynasty. The artist takes care to render the forms in a much more realistic manner. The clothing isn’t as overtly stylized as it is in the Tori Bushi triad. Instead, it clings to the forms and reveals the body definition underneath.

Notice the contrapposto-like stance of the nearest bodhisattva figure. According to scholars, this stylistic influence can be traced back to the Indian influence on the stylistic conventions of China, which were then borrowed by Japan. This itself may have been the influence of cultural exchange between India and Greece during the reign of Alexander the Great.

3d. Scene from 3d. Scene from The Tale of GengiThe Tale of Gengi During the Heian periodHeian period in Japan, the court moved the capital to Kyoto. It was a time of extended peace and prosperity, and during this time a lady of the court, known as Lady Murasaki, wrote the first graphic novel in history.

 EXAMPLE This image is from Murasaki’s 11th century AD literary work, The Tale of Genji.

Scene from Minori Chapter of the Tale of Gengi Scene from Minori Chapter of the Tale of Gengi

12th century AD

Color on silk

Kyoto, Japan

The image is a major insight into the courtly life of an 11th century aristocrat, told through the main character, Prince Genji. The scholarly language of the time was Chinese, but Tale was written in a more common form called Hiragana scriptHiragana script. Hiragana script was often used by women, as it was thought to be easier than other forms of Japanese writing. Keep in mind this was a contemporary opinion.

Works of writing such as this were not considered equal to poetry, so it’s very likely this would’ve been looked at as nothing more than a novelty in its time.

The above image is a scene from the talk from The Tale of Genji. Interestingly, these stories are told from the perspective of the reader, who views the characters from above at an angle inside a building, thanks to the roof being blown off. This is typical Japanese stylistic preference. Also similar is the way in which emotions are conveyed through color, symbolism, poses, and overall composition.

 TERMS TO KNOW

Heian PeriodHeian Period “Heian” means “peace and tranquility”; a period from 794 to 1185 in Japanese history when Buddhism, Taoism, and Chinese influences were important; a period of time especially noted for its art, poetry, and literature.

Hiragana ScriptHiragana Script Japanese writing system of characters

3e. Womb Mandala3e. Womb Mandala During the Heian period, Esoteric Buddhism became the main form of Buddhism. It emphasized complex hierarchies of gods, which were depicted in mandalas such as the Womb World Mandala, shown here:

Womb World MandalaWomb World Mandala

Second half of 9th century AD

Color on silk

Kyoto, Japan

 DID YOU KNOW

This Womb World Mandala can be thought of as a Buddhist flowchart of sorts; it helps to keep things straight.

3f. Amida Descending3f. Amida Descending Pure Land Buddhism remained popular during the Kamakura period in Japan. The late 12th century through the early to mid-13th century set the foundation for feudalism in Japan. Pure Land Buddhism emphasizes the importance of the Amida Buddha and the path to salvation that is achieved by committing oneself to the salvation of Amida Buddha.

During this time, speedy descent images of the Buddha became popular, depicting Amida Buddha shooting down from the clouds to help someone in need, usually a dying person. This next image, however, is an image of the Amida descending slowly over the mountains. Obviously, speedy is a relative term.

 EXAMPLE Below is an image of the Amida Buddha descending slowly over the mountains.

Amida Buddha Descending Over the MountainsAmida Buddha Descending Over the Mountains

13th century

Color on silk

Kyoto, Japan

3g. Phoenix Hall3g. Phoenix Hall The pure land of Pure Land Buddhism referred to a paradise, of sorts, created by one of Buddha’s manifestations. The Phoenix Hall, located in Kyoto, Japan, uses careful stylistic details such as:

More accentuated curled roofs More recessed, central building Narrower space between sections of the roof Reflection pool to evoke a sense of a heavenly realm of the pure land on earth

 EXAMPLE Below is the Phoenix Hall.

Byodoin Phoenix HallByodoin Phoenix Hall

1053 AD

Kyoto, Japan

 SUMMARY

Japan and its art and architecture were greatly shaped by Chinese cultural influencesChinese cultural influences. This lesson covered the time period and location of art and architecture of Buddhism in Japan.time period and location of art and architecture of Buddhism in Japan. Throughout this lesson, you explored works of art and examples of architecture that walked you through these influences. These examples included:

Horyuji KondoHoryuji Kondo Tori Busshi TriadTori Busshi Triad Scene from Scene from The Tale of GengiThe Tale of Gengi Womb MandalaWomb Mandala Amida DescendingAmida Descending Phoenix HallPhoenix Hall

Source: THIS WORK IS ADAPTED FROM SOPHIA AUTHOR IAN MCCONNELL.

 TERMS TO KNOW

Heian period

Heian means peace and tranquility; a period from 794-1185 in Japanese history when Buddhism,

Taoism and Chinese influences were important; a period of time especially noted for its art, poetry

and literature.

Hiragana script

Japanese writing system of characters.

Kondo

The main hall in a Japanese Buddhist temple.

Triad

In Buddhism, an artistic grouping of three characters, usually Buddha in the center flanked by two

bodhisattvas, but there could be some variation.

The Hindu Temple by Sophia Tutorial

 WHAT'S COVERED

The art and architecture of Hindu temples contrasts greatly with that of the Indian Buddhist stupa. There are basic features of the Hindu temple, and the function of this temple is specific. In this lesson, you will learn about:

1. Time Period and Location: The Hindu Temple 2. Hinduism 3. The Hindu Temple 4. Vishnu Temple at Deogarh 5. Khajuraho Temple Complex 6. Shiva Nataraja

 BIG IDEA

The vibrant art and architecture of the Hindu temple contrasts noticeably with the more reserved appearance of the Indian Buddhist stupa.

1. Time Period and Location: The Hindu Temple The art and architecture from today dates from the sixth to the 10th centuries AD, highlighted in the timeline below. This lesson will explore temple architecture and sculpture from two locations in India, Deogarh and Khajuraho.

2. Hinduism Hinduism is an extremely old (roughly 4,000 years) system of beliefs. It is essentially considered a polytheistic religion that includes the worship of many variations or manifestations of many different deities. These many manifestations and many forms of deities appear to be simultaneously faces of a single god while retaining the individual characteristics of multiple gods.

This idea of multiple perspectives is fundamental to Hinduism, as it helps explain how Hinduism appears to weave between polytheism and monotheism. This is true despite the fact that at its core it lacks the sense of organization and monotheism of many other religions.

3. The Hindu Temple

Hindu temples were considered a god’s home on earth. There is an interesting contrast between vibrant and occasionally shocking imagery on the exterior and the supposedly serene and calm atmosphere of the interior. Sculptural motifs in these Hindu temples are more than decorative, as the gods themselves are thought to be manifested through the imagery of the temple. They are sacred buildings. The mountain shape shikharashikhara, referring to the peak of a mountain, is typical of northern-style temples.

Ordinary worshippers stand near the entrance and mandapamandapa, which is a public gathering place. The most sacred inner chamber, the garbhagrihagarbhagriha, is essentially a “womb room” where the deities, idols, or icons are located. These rooms are only accessible by high priests, or brahman.

 TERMS TO KNOW

MandapaMandapa In Indian architecture, a pillared outdoor hall for public ceremonies

GarbhagrihaGarbhagriha The innermost sanctum of the Hindu temple that houses deities, idols, or icons

ShikharaShikhara The roof of a Hindu temple

4. Vishnu Temple at Deogarh Below is an image of the Vishnu temple from Deogarh.

Vishnu TempleVishnu Temple

500 AD

Stone and masonry brick

Deogarh, India

 DID YOU KNOW

Vishnu is one of the primary deities in Hinduism.

This is an old structure dating from 500 AD, and is an example of an earlier, simpler type of Hindu temple. It’s rectangular with a tower that originally would have been about 40 feet tall. Even though the building is rather simple in its design, it’s decorated with elaborate sculptural reliefs, in particular the sculptural guardians that protect the entrance.

5. Khajuraho Temple Complex Below is an outer view of the Kandariya Mahadeva temple complex at Khajuraho, India.

Kandariya Mahadeva TempleKandariya Mahadeva Temple

1000 AD

Sandstone

Khajuraho, India

This is an example of the northern style of temple design in India. It’s made of sandstone.

The progressive dome shapes that culminate with the large shikhara, which is the mountain-shaped roof, are the most distinguishing features of the northern-style temple.

The Himalayan mountain range in the north of India was believed to be the home of Shiva, another principle deity. The temple design was symbolic of the gradual assent from foothill to the highest mountaintop in the Himalayas. In the interior, a garbhagriha under the shikhara contains the image of Shiva.

The temples at this complex are notable for the elaborate, vibrant, and erotic sculptural reliefs adorning the exterior.

 EXAMPLE Here’s an image of some of the exterior sculpture at Kandariya Mahadeva:

Exterior sculpture at Kandariya Mahadeva TempleExterior sculpture at Kandariya Mahadeva Temple

1000 AD

Sandstone

Khajuraho, India

 EXAMPLE And here is an image from another temple at Khajuraho, called the Visvanatha Temple:

Exterior sculpture at Visvanatha TempleExterior sculpture at Visvanatha Temple

1000 AD

Sandstone

Madhya Pradesh, India

 DID YOU KNOW

Visvanatha means “lord of the world.” The above images, from the north side of the temple, are called the mithunamithuna reliefs, which is a Sanskrit term related to sexual union.

 THINK ABOUT IT

Notice the individuals in these two images just above. They seem to be enjoying themselves. Why do you think images like this are located on the side of a religious temple?

These images are not something you would see on the side of the Western, or European style, church. The purpose of images such as this is debated among scholars, but one of the more plausible suggestions is that the imagery on the exterior is a positive representation of sexual relations as well as sexuality in its celebrated role within the religion. This idea sharply contrasts with negative views associated with sexuality that were and continue to be pervasive in Western religions.

 TERM TO KNOW

MithunaMithuna Sexual union for the purpose of creating divine energy

6. Shiva Nataraja This last image is of a solid bronze sculpture called the “Shiva Nataraja,” which means “lord of the dance.”

Shiva Nataraja (Lord of the Dance)Shiva Nataraja (Lord of the Dance)

1000 AD

Bronze

The above sculpture is intended to be portable, and is considered a physical embodiment of the deity, not just a sacred image. It was treated as the actual deity, and cared for like a real person. This personification was intended to encourage the bhaktibhakti, or active involvement, on the part of the worshipper. The bhakti was also a common form of worship that has a close association with Hindu temples, and is a unique form of worship that distinguishes Hinduism from other religions.

 TERMS TO KNOW

BhaktiBhakti Loving devotion to a deity that can be performed by any individual

TantraTantra A series of beliefs and ritual practices that seek to channel divine energy

ShaktiShakti Female divine energy, often personified as a goddess

Personal GodPersonal God A god that people can relate to as a person, rather than as an energy force or other abstract concept

 SUMMARY

The art and architecture of the Hindu temple contrasts greatly with other temples. In this lesson, you learned about the time period and location of the Hindu temple.time period and location of the Hindu temple. HinduismHinduism and the Hindu Templethe Hindu Temple were explored in this lesson. The idea of multiple perspectives is fundamental to Hinduism, as it helps explain how Hinduism appears to weave between polytheism and monotheism. Sculptural motifs in

these Hindu temples are more than decorative, as the gods themselves are thought to be manifested through the imagery of the temple. These temples are sacred buildings.

Finally, you looked at examples of the Hindu temple: Vishnu Temple at DeogarhVishnu Temple at Deogarh Khajuraho Temple ComplexKhajuraho Temple Complex Shiva NatarajaShiva Nataraja

Source: THIS WORK IS ADAPTED FROM SOPHIA AUTHOR IAN MCCONNELL.

 TERMS TO KNOW

Bhakti

Loving devotion to a deity that can be performed by any individual.

Garbhagriha

The innermost sanctum of the Hindu temple that house deities, idols or icons.

Mandapa

In Indian architecture, a pillared outdoor hall for public ceremonies.

Mithuna

Sexual union for the purpose of creating divine energy.

Personal God

A god that people can relate to as a person, rather than as an energy force or other abstract concept.

Shakti

Female divine energy, often personified as a goddess.

Shikhara

The roof of a Hindu temple.

Tantra

A series of beliefs and ritual practices that seek to channel divine energy.

The Ancient Americas by Sophia Tutorial

 WHAT'S COVERED

The art and architecture of the ancient Americas is unique. Specific to this region is art of the Olmec and architecture and structures within the city of Teotihuacan. This lesson covers:

1. Time Period and Location: The Ancient Americas 2. Colossal Head From La Venta 3. Ceremonial Ax 4. Teotihuacan 5. Mural From Teotihuacan

 BIG IDEA

The art and architecture of the ancient Americas are the products of civilizations that developed after the migration of humans across the Bering Strait.

1. Time Period and Location: The Ancient Americas This lesson covers 900 BC through 400 AD, a span of nearly 1,300 years, highlighted in the timeline below. Geographically, this lesson explores the Americas, which include all the major land masses of the Western hemisphere, most notably North, Central, and South America.

It is believed that early indigenous Americans crossed the Bering Strait sometime during Earth’s last major glaciation period, when lower levels of the Bering Sea revealed a land bridge between the continents of Asia and North America. Most believe that some humans continued south, settling in the areas of modern-day Mexico, Central America, and South America. This lesson focuses on MesoamericaMesoamerica, a region extending from Central Mexico which includes Belize, Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua, and Costa Rica, and looks in particular at the locations of La Venta and Teotihuacan.

2. Colossal Head From La Venta Many Mesoamerican cultural traditions can be linked to the Olmec culture native to La Venta in what is now the state of Tabasco, Mexico. Volcanic activity is frequent in this area, providing a healthy supply of nearby basalt. Basalt is a type of volcanic stone created from magma that cooled quickly and produced tiny crystals,

as opposed to the larger crystal formations of slower-cooling granite.

 EXAMPLE Here is a colossal head from La Venta:

Colossal Head from Olmec CultureColossal Head from Olmec Culture

900-400 BC

Basalt

La Venta, Mexico

This huge sculpture of an OlmecOlmec ruler is carved in basalt. At almost 10 feet tall and weighing several tons, it is believed that the features are rather individualized, and depict an actual person rather than a deity. The sheer size of the statue reflects the power and importance of this individual.

 TERMS TO KNOW

MesoamericaMesoamerica A region that extends from central Mexico through Belize, Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua, and Costa Rica

OlmecOlmec The first civilization in Mexico

3. Ceremonial Axe Another example of artwork from La Venta is this jade ceremonial axe in the shape of a jaguar human:

Ceremonial AxeCeremonial Axe

900-400 BC

Jade

La Venta, Mexico

These figures were like werewolves, human-animal hybrids that were thought to be used as votive statues for religious offerings to the gods. They are made of jade, which is a very hard stone.

4. Teotihuacan Ancient indigenous cultures are often portrayed as primitive by those unfamiliar with them. However, the civilizations in the ancient Americas were very advanced, with an extensive understanding of mathematics and astronomical phenomena. Many of the major cities were economically important cultural centers of politics and religion.

The city of TeotihuacanTeotihuacan was an Olmec metropolis, probably the largest pre-Columbian city in the New World, with a population around 150,000. It lies just northeast of modern-day Mexico City.

Teotihuacan was laid out on an axial planaxial plan, divided into quarters by two primary axes that run north/south and east/west for about four miles. There are a number of massive pyramids within the city.

Take a look at the picture below of Teotihuacan.

TeotihuacanTeotihuacan

1st century BC to 3rd century AD

Teotihuacán, Mexico

The Pyramid of the Moon, which is an Aztec name, would be in the bottom center of the picture if it weren’t cut off. The Pyramid of the Sun, also an Aztec name, is in the top left of the picture.

Here is another view of the Pyramid of the Sun:

Pyramid of the SunPyramid of the Sun

1st century BC to 3rd century AD

Teotihuacán, Mexico

One of the notable design features of the building is the use of what is called Talud-TableroTalud-Tablero architecture. The tableros, Spanish for “boards,” were often decorated with sculpture reliefs.

Here is an example from the temple of the feathered serpent, or QuetzalcoatlQuetzalcoatl:

Temple of the Feathered SerpentTemple of the Feathered Serpent

1st century BC to 3rd century AD

Teotihuacán, Mexico

 TERMS TO KNOW

TeotihuacanTeotihuacan An expansive archaeological site in the Basin of Mexico containing the largest pyramids built during the pre- Columbian period of the Americas

Axial PlanAxial Plan The horizontal arrangement of the elements of a building or town along a central axis

Talud-tableroTalud-tablero A style of architecture characterized by a platform structure on top of a sloping surface, also referenced as the slope-and-panel style; often seen in pyramids built during the pre-Columbian period in Mesoamerica

QuetzalcoatlQuetzalcoatl Mesoamerican deity whose name means “feathered serpent.”

Pre-ColumbianPre-Columbian An adjective referring to cultures that existed before the arrival of Columbus to the Americas in 1492

5. Mural From Teotihuacan The buildings of the city would have been covered with brightly painted murals. Take a look at this example from within an elaborate apartment complex:

Mural Painting from TeotihuacanMural Painting from Teotihuacan

1st century BC - 3rd century AD

Mexico

These buildings were not for just anyone. They would have been apartment complexes, or residential complexes, for the elite within the city.

This depicts what appears to be a masked goddess, and on either side of her headdress are two human hearts. These human hearts indicate the importance of human sacrifice to this community and its role in ensuring the blessings from what may be the city’s patron deity.

 SUMMARY

The art and architecture of the ancient Americas, such as the art of the Olmec and architecture and structures within the city of Teotihuacan, is unique. In this lesson, you learned about the time periodtime period and location of the ancient Americas.and location of the ancient Americas.

In doing so, you looked at several examples, including the colossal head from La Ventacolossal head from La Venta. This huge sculpture is of an Olmec ruler carved in basalt. The sheer size of the statue reflects the power and importance of this individual. You also looked at a ceremonial axeceremonial axe, which was an example of a human-animal hybrid thought to be used as a votive statue for religious offerings to the gods.

Finally, you explored the city of TeotihuacanTeotihuacan. One example of art and architecture from this city that you learned about was a mural from Teotihuacanmural from Teotihuacan.

Source: THIS WORK IS ADAPTED FROM SOPHIA AUTHOR IAN MCCONNELL.

 TERMS TO KNOW

Axial Plan

The horizontal arrangement of the elements of a building or town along a central axis.

Mesoamerica

A region that extends from central Mexico, Belize, Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua and

Costa Rica.

Olmec

The first civilization in Mexico.

Precolumbian

An adjective referring to cultures that existed before the arrival of Columbus to the Americas in 1492.

Quetzalcoatl

Mesoamerican deity whose name means 'feathered serpent'.

Talud-tablero

A style of architecture characterized by a platform structure on top of a sloping surface. Also

referenced as the slope-and-panel style. Often seen in pyramids built during the pre-Columbian

Mesoamerica.

Teotihuacan

An expansive archaeological site in the Basin of Mexico containing the largest pyramids built during

the pre-Columbian Americas.

The Maya by Sophia Tutorial

 WHAT'S COVERED

The Maya were a civilization that is important to explore when studying art and architecture in Mesoamerica. Some aspects of this culture directly relate to the stylistic traits of their art and architecture. This lesson covers:

1. Time Period and Location: The Maya 2. Maya Culture 3. Maya Stylistic Traits 4. Tikal 5. Palenque

 BIG IDEA

The Maya were one of the most important early civilizations to develop in Mesoamerica.

 DID YOU KNOW

The word Maya is both a noun and an adjective used to describe anything about the Maya culture. The word Mayan is the name for the language spoken by the Maya.

1. Time Period and Location: The Maya The art and architecture from today’s lesson extends from about 200 to 900 AD, as shown in the timeline below. The Maya civilization largely covered portions of Mexico’s Yucatan Peninsula, where modern-day Cancun is, and parts of Guatemala. We’ll be looking at two cities within this area, Tikal and Palenque.

2. Maya Culture The artifacts and art discovered in this geographical region have told us much of what we know about the culture of the Maya. Mayan hieroglyphshieroglyphs have been difficult to decipher. We know that at some point the civilization began to develop city-states, which were autonomous entities with hereditary rulers. Religion and politics were tightly intertwined. Architecture and artwork projected the power of the rulers.

City-states were quite large, and featured many different types of structures, including:

Religious temple pyramids

Public plazas for gathering Residential palaces for the elite members of the city Ball courts for entertainment and ritualistic games

As we begin to better understand the Maya culture, it appears to be depicted as warlike. This depiction is in contrast to the views of the mid-20th century, when the Maya were thought to be much more peaceful. However, important components of their religion included human sacrifice and sacrificial rituals and ceremonies, in the belief that the gods were satiated through the spilling of human blood. Now we know that human sacrifice and self-mutilation were very common throughout the Maya culture.

 TERM TO KNOW

HieroglyphsHieroglyphs A form of writing that uses pictures and symbols to represent syllables and entire words or concepts

3. Maya Stylistic Traits Artwork was abundant throughout this civilization. Maya vases, for example, were created to hold items such as food, but also to present as gifts. They were often inscribed with hieroglyphs indicating the contents, as well as the name of the recipient and details of the events, which were often depicted around the vase. Human depictions in Maya art shared similar stylistic elements:

Faces in profile Bodies formed using the contour line Proportional bodies Use of clothing to indicate status Prominence of relief sculpture Interest in narrative scenes Presence of hieroglyphic descriptions

4. Tikal Maya pyramids resemble stepped pyramids from the Middle East, but feature a projecting crest on the roof called the roof combroof comb. Roof combs were vaulted on the interior with corbel vaultscorbel vaults. On the exterior, they featured brightly colored sculpture.

Take, for example, this sculpture on the roof comb of this temple at Tikal, titled Temple I:

Temple I at TikalTemple I at Tikal

200-900 AD

Guatemala

This roof comb was originally covered with massive stucco portraits of the rulers, but unfortunately, those have largely eroded away, as seen here. Temples such as this could function as ritualistic temples or as funerary tombs. The stelestele, just as in the Middle East, was a way of advertising to the public. Here is an image of a stele featuring a ruler nicknamed Ruler A:

Stele from TikalStele from Tikal

200-900 AD

Guatemala

Notice the elaborate headdress and set of clothing in the above image. This indicates an act of displaying tremendous wealth as well as authority. He is also holding a ceremonial bar of Maya rulership.

 TERMS TO KNOW

Roof CombRoof Comb The construction that tops a pyramid in monumental Mesoamerican architecture, and is decorated with iconography of the Maya culture

Corbel VaultsCorbel Vaults The simplest type of vault, involving step support systems

SteleStele A slab of stone or terra-cotta, usually oblong, carved

5. Palenque Palenque, also called Lakamha, is a smaller Maya city-state just west from Tikal. Like other Maya cities, this complex featured palaces, pyramids, and a ball court. The Palace of the Inscriptions, shown below was a nine- tiered step pyramid similar to Temple I from Tikal. However, this pyramid was used as a funerary tomb for a ruler of Palenque named Lord Pacal.

Temple of the InscriptionsTemple of the Inscriptions

Late 7th century AD

Palenque (Mayan City), Southern Mexico

Lord Pacal was a powerful ruler also known as Pacal the Great. Below is his image.

Portrait of Lord PacalPortrait of Lord Pacal

7th century AD

Palenque (Mayan City), Southern Mexico

This portrait sculpture of Lord Pacal from the seventh century realistically depicts the Maya aesthetic ideal, which includes:

A sloping forehead Elongated skull Long, curved nose Full lips Open mouth

This ideal of beauty was so important that babies’ heads were actually bound so that the soft plates of their little skulls would reform into the desired shape. Therefore, the sloping forehead is not a genetic feature, but instead is the result of physically manipulating the skulls of babies.

Finally, here is an image of a sarcophagussarcophagus lid:

Sarcophagus lid from tomb of Lord PacalSarcophagus lid from tomb of Lord Pacal

Late 7th century AD

Stone

Palenque (Mayan City), Southern Mexico

This drawing depicts the ruler situated between Earth and the underworld, and it symbolizes his death and apotheosisapotheosis.

 TERMS TO KNOW

PortraiturePortraiture An artistic likeness of an individual

Relief SculptureRelief Sculpture A sculpture technique that uses a process of cutting into a flat surface, i.e., wood, stone or other material, by chiseling or gouging

SarcophagusSarcophagus A stone coffin, often decorated with sculpture

ApotheosisApotheosis The elevation of a person to the status of a god, often seen in ancient Rome in portraits of emperors and busts of deceased family members

 SUMMARY

The Maya were one of the most important early civilizations to develop in Mesoamerica. In this lesson, you learned about the time period and location of the Maya.time period and location of the Maya. As you explored Maya cultureMaya culture, you learned that architecture and artwork in this area projected the power of the rulers. Human sacrifice and self-mutilation were very common throughout the Maya culture, and this was also depicted in the art of this time.

Maya stylistic traitsMaya stylistic traits were explored in this lesson. You learned that some of these stylistic elements included faces in profile, proportional bodies, use of clothing to indicate status, interest in narrative scenes, and the presence of hieroglyphic descriptions.

Finally, you learned about TikalTikal and PalenquePalenque and the art and architecture from these two areas.

Source: THIS WORK IS ADAPTED FROM SOPHIA AUTHOR IAN MCCONNELL.

 TERMS TO KNOW

Apotheosis

The elevation of a person to the status of a god, often seen in ancient Rome in portraits of emperors

and busts of deceased family members.

Corbel Vaults

The simplest type of vault, involving step support systems.

Hieroglyphs

A form of writing that uses pictures and symbols to represent syllables and entire words or concepts.

Portraiture

An artistic likeness of an individual.

Relief Sculpture

A sculpture technique that uses a process of cutting into a flat surface i.e. wood, stone or material, by

chiseling or gouging.

Roof Comb

The construction that tops a pyramid in monumental Mesoamerican architecture decorated with

iconography of the Mayan culture.

Sarcophagus

A stone coffin, often decorated with sculpture.

Stele

A slab of stone or terra-cotta, usually oblong, carved.

South America by Sophia Tutorial

 WHAT'S COVERED

Ancient indigenous art of South America is unique in part because of the nature of this geographical region. This lesson explores:

1. Time Period and Location: South America 2. Nazca Line Images 3. Moche Portrait Bottles 4. Moche Ear Ornaments 5. Tiwanaku

 BIG IDEA

The ancient indigenous cultures of South America are actually older than the more familiar Mesoamerican cultures, and their people were accomplished artists, architects, and metalworkers.

1. Time Period and Location: South America The artwork explored in this lesson dates between 200 AD and 700 AD, as highlighted on the timeline below, and comes from Bolivia and Peru. These are two modern-day, neighboring countries that are part of the continent of South America.

Historically, the South American cultures covered in this lesson are older than the Mesoamerican cultures of the Olmec and Maya. The South American indigenous cultures of the Nazca, Moche, and Tiwanaku were settled in the Andean high country in modern-day Peru and Bolivia.

2. Nazca Line Images The NazcaNazca are probably best remembered for their land images or Nazca line images. These line images were made by drawing relatively wide paths in the earth, and then removing the darker stones from the Nazca plain where they were made, in order to reveal the lighter stone and soil beneath. While the true purpose of these drawings still remains somewhat of a mystery, theories include possible ritualistic processions along the lighter paths or a possible symbolic mapping system with a religious purpose.

 EXAMPLE Below is an example of a line drawing of a monkey.

Nazca line imagesNazca line images

400-650 AD

Peru

At first glance, the above image might appear to be a cave drawing or a painting. However, it is an aerial view of a very large land drawing or geoglyphgeoglyph.

 TERMS TO KNOW

GeoglyphsGeoglyphs Arrangements of elements of landscape—rocks, earth, gravel—to create artwork

NazcaNazca A pre-Incan culture located in southwest Peru; also the name of a city and valleys in the same region

3. Moche Portrait Bottles The MocheMoche were another culture that flourished in the northern parts of Peru. This culture included expert ceramic artists, and kept extensive informational records on their ceramics.

 EXAMPLE This portrait bottle below is an example of their skill with ceramics, and depicts what may be a warrior or a ruler:

Moche portrait bottlesMoche portrait bottles

100-700 AD

Painted clay

Peru

The above is an impressive example of the level of detail and realism that the artists were able to achieve.

 TERM TO KNOW

MocheMoche An early civilization characterized by iconography and monumental architecture

4. Moche Ear Ornaments The indigenous civilizations of this area were also accomplished metalworkers.

 EXAMPLE Here is an example of ear ornaments in gold and semi-precious stone from Sipán, Peru:

Ear ornamentEar ornament

300 AD

Gold & semi-precious stone

Sipán, Peru

This is another impressive example of the attention to detail that these artists had. Each tiny piece would have been independently cut, shaped, and applied on a miniature scale. These were found with an assortment of other funerary items in a tomb of a warrior priest in Sipán.

5. Tiwanaku The Tiwanaku civilization existed for almost 1,000 years in and around southern Peru, Bolivia, and northern Chile. The monolithic gateway of the sun has today been moved from its original location, but is a rather large block of carved stone with a central doorway. Above it is a carved relief depicting a deity, possibly a sun or sky deity, with rays emanating from his head.

 EXAMPLE Below is an image of the monolithic gateway of the sun.

Gateway of the SunGateway of the Sun

375-700 AD

Tiwanaku, Bolivia

Notice the puma. The puma was the largest predatory animal in this region, and would have been a symbol of power. There are smaller attendant figures beneath him. The entire piece would have originally been elaborately decorated, the deity in gold and turquoise inlay, and the lower reliefs in colorful paint.

 EXAMPLE This is an example of a Tiwanakuan stela sculpture, which contrasts noticeably with the realism of the Moche portrait bottle shown previously in this lesson.

Tiwanaku stela sculptureTiwanaku stela sculpture

200-400 AD

Tiwanaku, Bolivia

This is a very boxy, stylized depiction of an individual rendered in shallow relief. Its discovery in a temple and the fact that it appears to be holding some sort of tablet may suggest that it served some sort of religious function or simply as a marker to the entrance of a sacred structure.

 SUMMARY

Ancient indigenous cultures of South America, such as Nazca, Moche, and Tiwanaku, had many accomplished artists, architects, and metalworkers. In this lesson, you learned about the time periodtime period and location of South Americaand location of South America.

In this lesson, you explored art from these three South American civilizations. You started off by looking at Nazca line imagesNazca line images. These enormous drawings were made by drawing relatively wide paths in the earth, then removing the darker stones. Next, you explored Moche portrait bottlesMoche portrait bottles and MocheMoche ear ornaments.ear ornaments. Finally, you learned about TiwanakuTiwanaku, a civilization that existed for almost 1,000 years.

Source: THIS WORK IS ADAPTED FROM SOPHIA AUTHOR IAN MCCONNELL.

 TERMS TO KNOW

Geoglyphs

Arrangements of elements of landscape, rocks, earth, gravel.

Moche

An early civilization characterized by iconography and monumental architecture.

Nazca

A pre-Incan culture located in southwest Peru; also the name of a city and valleys in the same region.

Art and Architecture of Ancient American Civilizations by Sophia Tutorial

 WHAT'S COVERED

Ancient indigenous art of South America is unique in part because of the nature of this geographical region. This lesson explores:

1. Time Period and Location: South America 2. Nazca Line Images 3. Moche Portrait Bottles 4. Moche Ear Ornaments 5. Tiwanaku

 BIG IDEA

The ancient indigenous cultures of South America are actually older than the more familiar Mesoamerican cultures, and their people were accomplished artists, architects, and metalworkers.

 EXAMPLE Below is an example of a line drawing of a monkey.

Nazca line imagesNazca line images

400-650 AD

Peru

At first glance, the above image might appear to be a cave drawing or a painting. However, it is an aerial view of a very large land drawing or geoglyphgeoglyph.

 TERMS TO KNOW

GeoglyphsGeoglyphs Arrangements of elements of landscape—rocks, earth, gravel—to create artwork

NazcaNazca A pre-Incan culture located in southwest Peru; also the name of a city and valleys in the same region

 EXAMPLE This portrait bottle below is an example of their skill with ceramics, and depicts what may be a warrior or a ruler:

Moche portrait bottlesMoche portrait bottles

100-700 AD

Painted clay

Peru

The above is an impressive example of the level of detail and realism that the artists were able to achieve.

 TERM TO KNOW

MocheMoche An early civilization characterized by iconography and monumental architecture

4. Moche Ear Ornaments The indigenous civilizations of this area were also accomplished metalworkers.

 EXAMPLE Here is an example of ear ornaments in gold and semi-precious stone from Sipán, Peru:

Ear ornamentEar ornament

300 AD

Gold & semi-precious stone

Sipán, Peru

 EXAMPLE Below is an image of the monolithic gateway of the sun.

Gateway of the SunGateway of the Sun

375-700 AD

Tiwanaku, Bolivia

 EXAMPLE This is an example of a Tiwanakuan stela sculpture, which contrasts noticeably with the realism of the Moche portrait bottle shown previously in this lesson.

Tiwanaku stela sculptureTiwanaku stela sculpture

200-400 AD

Tiwanaku, Bolivia

 SUMMARY

 TERMS TO KNOW

Geoglyphs

Arrangements of elements of landscape, rocks, earth, gravel.

Moche

An early civilization characterized by iconography and monumental architecture.

Nazca

A pre-Incan culture located in southwest Peru; also the name of a city and valleys in the same region.

Early Medieval and Romanesque Art by Sophia Tutorial

 WHAT'S COVERED

The Dark Ages or Middle Ages are names for the period between the fall of the Western Roman Empire, and the rebirth of Classicism during the Renaissance beginning in the late 13th century in Italy. These names, however, are misleading, as this period was quite productive historically and artistically. This lesson covers:

1. Time Period and Location: Early Medieval and Romanesque Art 2. Vikings and the “Dark Ages” 3. Sutton Hoo Burial Mound 4. Fibulae 5. Oseburg Burial Ship 6. Illuminated Manuscripts

 BIG IDEA

Dark Ages and Middle Ages are misleading terms about this period. For example, the artistic metalwork and manuscript production from this time are considered some of the greatest examples of Western artwork.

1. Time Period and Location: Early Medieval and Romanesque Art The artwork covered in this lesson originates during the fifth to ninth centuries AD, as highlighted on the timeline below. Ireland, the British Isles, and Norway, which is part of Scandinavia, are the three geographical regions we will explore as you learn about the artwork of this period.

2. Vikings and the “Dark Ages” Dark Ages and Middle Ages were pejorative terms used during the Renaissance to refer to the period between the fall of the Western Roman Empire and the rebirth of Classicism during the Renaissance beginning in the late 13th century in Italy.

IN CONTEXT

Interestingly, these times were far from dark. In fact, there was much going on. The proliferation of manuscripts and the recording of information were both taking place. Because of the Christian monasteries and the proliferation of manuscripts, much of the classical knowledge that was fundamental to the emergence of the Renaissance was passed on.

It was also during this time that the doctrine of Christianity became more formalized and the familiar kingdoms of Europe were established. The Vikings, or Norsemen, were a large collection of independent groups of Scandinavian traders, as well as pirates that terrorized Christian Europe along the North Sea and in England for many hundreds of years, mostly during the eighth to 11th centuries.

It was, in fact, Norsemen--or Northmen, and later Normans--under the command of William the Conqueror that established Normandy in France and took control of the kingdom of England, as depicted in the famous Bayeux Tapestry.

 DID YOU KNOW

Before the invention of the printing press around 1440, books were copied by hand predominately in scriptoriums in monasteries throughout Europe.

3. Sutton Hoo Burial Mound The ship burials of ancient kings from this area, such as the burial mound of Sutton Hoo in Suffolk, England, give us some of the best examples of artwork from this time period. This burial mound may have been a pagan king or recently-converted Christian king, given that a few Christian artifacts were found.

 EXAMPLE Here is an example of a purse cover from Sutton Hoo:

Purse cover from Sutton Hoo burial moundPurse cover from Sutton Hoo burial mound

625 AD

Suffolk, England

The purse cover is a beautiful example of the type of metalware called cloisonnécloisonné, in which little compartments are created with metal wire and inlaid with colored enamel, glass, or stone. It’s an incredibly meticulous and detailed process. It is truly amazing how well this example is preserved; it looks almost brand new.

 TERM TO KNOW

CloisonnéCloisonné

A type of decoration consisting of colored enamel separated by bands of metal

4. Fibulae Here is another example of elaborate gold, silver, glass, and enamel fibulaefibulae from the early fifth century:

Germanic fibulaeGermanic fibulae

Early 5th century AD

Goldfoil, silver, glass, & enamel

Austria

Fibulae, which is the plural for fibula, were a type of brooch used as decoration or to hold a garment such as a cape and keep it closed.

 TERM TO KNOW

FibulaFibula A pin used to hold together a cloak in ancient Greece and Rome

5. Oseburg Burial Ship The setting to sea of a ship loaded with treasure and the body of a dead king is a tradition that is associated with the Scandinavian and northern Germanic tribes. The burial of a ship loaded with treasure and the body of a dead king is symbolic of that tradition. The burial ship at Oseberg, Norway, is a wonderful example of this.

 EXAMPLE Take a look at an image of the burial ship at Oseberg:

Burial shipBurial ship

825 AD

Oseborg, Norway

It is important to note that the bodies inside this particular ship were not those of kings. They were actually bodies of two women of some importance. The treasure once on this ship was stolen long ago. Regardless, the 70-foot Viking longship is incredibly well preserved, as you can see here.

 EXAMPLE A carved animal head, shown below, adorned this ship.

Carved animal head from burial shipCarved animal head from burial ship

This is also very well preserved. In this image, you can see the detailed woodwork, as well as the intricate curvilinear carvings that surround the head and neck.

6. Illuminated Manuscripts With the influence of Rome, Christian missionaries, and the Christian monasteries that were established throughout Europe, Christianity eventually spread throughout Europe, even to the Vikings. The Celts were a pagan group that had settled in England, Scotland, and Ireland. Their conversion to Christianity began in the fifth century in Ireland.

The illuminated manuscripts produced in the monasteries during this time were beautiful synergies of Christian text and imagery. They included the intertwining vegetal, animal-shaped, and geometric patterns that were native to this area.

 EXAMPLE You can see evidence of these details in the cross on this example of the cross and carpet page from the Lindisfarne Gospel.

Cross & Carpet Page from Lindesfarne GospelCross & Carpet Page from Lindesfarne Gospel

698-721 AD

Tempera on vellum

London, England

 EXAMPLE You can also see it in this example of enlarged letters from the Chi-Rho-Iota page.

Chi-Rho-Iota from Book of KellsChi-Rho-Iota from Book of Kells

Late 8th to early 9th centuries AD

Ireland

Above is a page in the Book of Kells, which is the most famous illuminated manuscript from this time, if not in all history. The letters are clearly defined, yet at the same time, they blend in to the intricate details of geometric and abstract patterns.

This is commonly referred to as Hiberno-Saxon style. Hibernia is Latin for Ireland, and Saxon refers to the culture of the Anglo-Saxon people who lived there. This one dates from the late eighth or early ninth century.

The manuscripts of Carolingian France and Ottonian Germany were created in scriptoriumsscriptoriums by monks. These works were produced on either vellumvellum or parchmentparchment, and sometimes included colophonscolophons.

 EXAMPLE Take a look at the two images of Saint Matthew.

Saint Matthew from Coronation GospelsSaint Matthew from Coronation Gospels

800-810 AD

Germany

The first image is a calm, subdued image of Saint Matthew. Compare this to the next image, a frantic, hurried image of Saint Matthew.

Saint Matthew from Ebbo GospelsSaint Matthew from Ebbo Gospels

816-835 AD

France

The first example is an image of the evangelist Saint Matthew from a book of gospels called the Coronation Gospels. The artist used light and shadow to suggest depth and give the figure a very realistic, three- dimensional form. Compare this more calm and subdued style to that of the Ebbo Gospels, in the second example. The Ebbo Gospels date from about 816 to 835 AD in France. Notice the frantic writing depicted in the energetic lines that form Saint Matthew’s robe, hair, and the space behind him.

 TERMS TO KNOW

Animal StyleAnimal Style Characterized by animal and bird designs and themes

ScriptoriumScriptorium A room in a monastery where monks would copy manuscripts

VellumVellum Calfskin, or lambskin, used as a writing surface

ParchmentParchment A paper-like writing material made from the skin of a sheep or goat

ColophonColophon An emblem or trademark in a book or manuscript

 SUMMARY

The period of time between the fall of the Western Roman Empire, and the rebirth of Classicism

during the Renaissance beginning in the late 13th century in Italy is referred to as the Dark Ages or Middle Ages. Despite the names, this period was historically and artistically active. In this lesson, you learned about the time period and location of Early Medieval and Romanesque art.time period and location of Early Medieval and Romanesque art.

Starting with the Vikings and the Dark AgesVikings and the Dark Ages, this lesson walked you through just how much was going on during this time. The ship burials of ancient kings from this area, such as the burial mound ofthe burial mound of Sutton HooSutton Hoo, are examples of artwork from this period. You also looked at fibulaefibulae, which are pins used to hold together a cloak, and the Oseburg burial shipOseburg burial ship. This was an example of the symbolic tradition of burying a ship loaded with treasure and the body of a dead king.

Finally, you explored the illuminated manuscriptsilluminated manuscripts. These examples, which were produced in the monasteries during this time, were beautiful synergies of Christian text and imagery.

Source: THIS WORK IS ADAPTED FROM SOPHIA AUTHOR IAN MCCONNELL.

 TERMS TO KNOW

Animal Style

Characterized by animals and bird designs and themes.

Cloisonne

A type of decoration consisting of colored enamel separated by bands of metal.

Colophon

An emblem or trademark in a book or manuscript.

Fibula

A pin used to hold together a cloak in ancient Greece and Rome.

Parchment

A paper-like writing material made from the skin of a sheep or goat.

Scriptorium

A room in a monastery where monks would copy manuscripts.

Vellum

Calfskin, or lambskin, used as a writing surface.

Romanesque Architecture by Sophia Tutorial

 WHAT'S COVERED

During the 9th through the 12th centuries, Romanesque architecture was prominent. This architecture was unique in its features. This lesson covers:

1. Period and Location: Romanesque Architecture 2. Pilgrims and Pilgrimage Routes 3. Cathedral of Saint-James 4. Romanesque Architecture 5. The Church of Saint-Etienne 6. Durham Cathedral

 BIG IDEA

The Romanesque style refers to the styles of sculpture, painting, decoration, or architecture during the 9th to 12th centuries.

1. Period and Location: Romanesque Architecture The architecture--specifically three cathedrals--covered in this lesson originates from the 11th century. The three cathedrals you will learn about are:

The Cathedral of Saint-James in Santiago de Compostela, Spain Durham Cathedral in Durham, England The Church of Saint-Etienne in Caen, France

Below is a timeline highlighting the period covered in this lesson.

2. Pilgrims and Pilgrimage Routes Historically, this was a very active period of time. The Catholic Church became a major force within the European world. Changes within the Church allowed the Pope to become more involved with the sociopolitical issues at the time. The threat of Islam was very real to Christendom, and the first of several religious Crusades was called for by Pope Urban II in 1095 to help fend off the Islamic advance near Constantinople.

These Crusades helped influence religious fervor within Christendom and contributed to the popularity of pilgrimagespilgrimages, which are expeditions a person of the faith makes to a holy location.

 THINK ABOUT IT

The well known Canterbury Tales are a collection of stories from the 14th century about pilgrims on the pilgrimage trail to the shrine of Saint Thomas Becket at Canterbury Cathedral in England.

Pilgrimage routes began to develop throughout Europe, but predominantly within Western Europe. Sanctioned and encouraged by the Church for those that could afford it, pilgrimages became an important source of revenue for the Church. Large churches and cathedrals were constructed to house relics, which were physical objects that had religious importance. Some of these relics included the bodily remains of a saint, or supposed pieces of the True Cross upon which Christ was crucified.

 DID YOU KNOW

The veneration of relics was an important part of Christianity, just like the veneration of images. In a sense, the Church itself became a reliquary.

 TERM TO KNOW

PilgrimagePilgrimage A long journey, expedition, or crusade

3. Cathedral of Saint-James One of the most important churches that served as the anchor for a number of pilgrimage routes was the Cathedral of Saint-James in Santiago de Compostela, pictured below. This cathedral was the endpoint of a few minor pilgrimage trails within Spain and Portugal. The major trail, however, was the pilgrimage trail of Saint-James that originated in France, and passed through such notable places as the abbey church of Sainte-Foy, which held the famous reliquary of Sainte-Foy.

Cathedral of Saint-JamesCathedral of Saint-James

1078-1122 AD

Santiago de Compostela, Spain

The cathedral, above, was constructed in a typical RomanesqueRomanesque style featuring a façade that was reconstructed in a Baroque style several centuries later.

 TERMS TO KNOW

RomanesqueRomanesque The styles of sculpture, painting, decoration, or architecture during the period from the 9th to the 12th century.

ReliquaryReliquary A storage container for relics

4. Romanesque Architecture Romanesque means Roman-like, and the architects of these buildings used techniques that originated before and during the Roman Empire. Defining the Romanesque style were such architectural elements as:

Use of a rounded arch and rounded arcade Barrel vault/groin vault (a variant of the barrel vault of the Roman Empire) Smaller exterior windows, especially compared to Gothic Overall visual heaviness (this was largely overcome in the later Gothic architectural innovations)

Other examples of Romanesque architecture include the Church of Saint-Etienne in Caen, France, and Durham Cathedral in Durham, England.

5. The Church of Saint-Etienne Below is an image of the Church of Saint-Etienne in Caen, France.

Church of St-EtienneChurch of St-Etienne

11th Century AD

Caen, France

This is an example of what is called the high Romanesque style in Normandy, which is an area in the north of France. It was constructed during the 11th century AD.

6. Durham Cathedral Next is the Durham Cathedral in Durham, England.

Durham CathedralDurham Cathedral

1093-1130 AD

Durham, England

This is a massive building that marks an important change of architectural design in churches. At close to 400 feet in length, it has typical Romanesque architectural design elements, such as its visual weight and the predominant use of the rounded arch. The architects of Durham, however, made use of rib-vaulting inside. This is a major design element of the Gothic style, which came later.

 SUMMARY

In this lesson, you learned about the period and location of Romanesque architectureperiod and location of Romanesque architecture, which was prominent during the 9th through the 12th centuries.

Continuing on in the lesson, you learned about pilgrimspilgrims, who were people of faith, and pilgrimagepilgrimage routesroutes, the expeditions they made to a holy location.

Finally, you looked at Romanesque architectureRomanesque architecture elements and examples of this type of architecture, including:

Cathedral of Saint-JamesCathedral of Saint-James The Church of Saint-EtienneThe Church of Saint-Etienne Durham CathedralDurham Cathedral

Source: THIS WORK IS ADAPTED FROM SOPHIA AUTHOR IAN MCCONNELL.

 TERMS TO KNOW

Pilgrimage

A long journey, expedition or crusade

Reliquary

A storage container for relics.

Romanesque

The styles of sculpture, painting, decoration or architecture during the period from 9th-12th century.

Romanesque Art by Sophia Tutorial

 WHAT'S COVERED

Romanesque art has elements that act as areas of display for religious components of this art. This lesson will cover:

1. Period of Time and Location: Romanesque Art 2. Bayeux Tapestry 3. Last Judgment Tympanum at Autun 4. St. Foy Reliquary at Conques

 BIG IDEA

The tympanum, archivolts, and jambs of Romanesque architecture were important areas for the display of religious art.

1. Period of Time and Location: Romanesque Art The art covered in this lesson originates from the 10th to 12th centuries, and all of the art was located within three cities in France:

Conques Bayeux Autun

Below is a timeline highlighting the period of time covered in this lesson:

2. Bayeux Tapestry The first piece of art that this lesson will explore is the Bayeux Tapestry, or Bayeux Embroidery. This is a magnificent example of art. It details the events leading up to and during the Battle of Hastings, which resulted in the Norman conquest of England and the eventual crowning of William the Conqueror as the king of England.

William the Conqueror and Harold from Bayeux TapestryWilliam the Conqueror and Harold from Bayeux Tapestry

1066-1082 AD

Bayeux, France

The tapestry is 200 feet long, and it is an important cultural reservoir that supplements what we know historically. It depicts distinct types of clothing and armor.

Battle of Hastings from Bayeux TapestryBattle of Hastings from Bayeux Tapestry

1066-1082 AD

Bayeux, France

An interesting scene is depicted below

Men staring at Halley's Comet from Bayeux TapestryMen staring at Halley's Comet from Bayeux Tapestry

1066-1082 AD

Bayeux, France

The people on the left are pointing skyward and appear alarmed. Interestingly, they are pointing at the famous Halley's Comet, which would have passed by the earth during this time on its 75- to 76-year-long orbit around the sun.

 DID YOU KNOW

It was taken as a bad omen, and one of the individuals ran to tell the current King Harold the terrible news. Underneath Harold's feet are the wispy-looking images of ships which foreshadow the arrival of William in the battle to come.

3. Last Judgment Tympanum at Autun This next image is from the Western entrance to Autun Cathedral in Autun, France:

Western entrance to Autun CathedralWestern entrance to Autun Cathedral

1120-1146 AD

Autun, France

IN CONTEXT

This above image is essentially an elaborate rounded archway, a series of incised rounded arches setting up on decorative jambsjambs on either side of the doorway. Artists use these spaces to create narrative, symbolic, or other types of Christian imagery that serve both religious and decorative purposes.

The artist Gislebertus created this Last Judgment scene in the semicircular area above the doorway, which is called the tympanumtympanum, around 1120 AD. The decorative semicircular bands above it are called archivoltsarchivolts. The jambs are cropped out of this picture, unfortunately.

The central, largest, and most important element within this above composition is Jesus Christ in the traditional orant prayer gesture, seated within a mandorla of inscribed Latin text. To his right is the Virgin Mary, his mother, enthroned next to the angel there.

The whole idea of right as good and left as bad is a type of symbolism that itself is cross-cultural and ancient, and even retains its significance to this day.

Saint Peter, who monitors the gates of heaven, is shown here holding keys. Notice the use of hieratic scale. More important figures like Christ, Mary, the saints, and even the angels, are shown comparatively larger. They are shorter or taller, relative to each other, but all of them are larger than the human beings being judged. The righteous are being led into heaven.

There is an angel that helps to divide the composition. If you look closely, you can see how he or she is almost shoving one of the figures to the left. It is apparent that this person has been judged as unrighteous, as being directed into the unhappy line of individuals on their way to hell.

If you look closely, you can see the disembodied hands that are plucking individuals up to the next

level, and the cowering souls waiting in line. The Devil is coming out of a Roman-style basilica to grab hold of the soul for the unpleasantness to come. It was this juxtaposition of good and evil, or rather, salvation and damnation, that reminded individuals coming into the church of the reward of piety and faith in Christ and the consequences of turning from him.

 TERMS TO KNOW

TympanumTympanum In architecture, a semicircular space above a doorway that is often decorated with sculpture.

ArchivoltsArchivolts In architecture, a decorated band that forms an arch-like frame for an opening.

JambJamb Pillar, frame, post, lintel on either side of a doorway, window, or arch.

4. St. Foy Reliquary at Conques This last image is of an elaborate Christian reliquary, or container of a relic.

IN CONTEXT

Specifically, this is an image of Saint Foy, or Saint Faith, as she would be known in English:

Reliquary of Saint FoyReliquary of Saint Foy

980 AD

Wood, gold, silver, and precious stones

Conques, France

Saint Foy, or Saint Faith, was a young woman who was tortured and martyred by the Romans. The reliquary holds the supposed head of Saint Foy behind the obviously gilded mask of a male, interestingly enough.

Relics and the reliquaries that hold them were very important objects for veneration in Christianity. In fact, possession of relics was considered so important and the supply so limited that shady under- dealings are as much a part of the history of relics in the church as the actual relics themselves. This also explains why the relics themselves can seem so odd or macabre with no given context.

The relics had to be a physical object of an important Christian saint. These had to be something touched by them, or a piece of them, or related to Christ, like a piece of the True Cross, for example. Examples of relics that actually exist and are considered sacred in the Christian church include:

Teeth of a saint Hand of a saint Hair of a saint A piece of the True Cross Bones of a saint

These relics were not considered idolatry, but instead were considered the veneration of a sacred object. The object is a means of communication to God, not an object of worship itself.

 SUMMARY

There are many religious aspects and components displayed in Romanesque art. In this lesson, you learned about the period of time and location of Romanesque art.period of time and location of Romanesque art.

In this lesson, you explored three Romanesque works of art: Bayeux TapestryBayeux Tapestry. Last Judgment Tympanum at AutunLast Judgment Tympanum at Autun St. Foy Reliquary at ConquesSt. Foy Reliquary at Conques

Source: THIS WORK IS ADAPTED FROM SOPHIA AUTHOR IAN MCCONNELL.

 TERMS TO KNOW

Archivolts

In architecture, a decorated band that forms an arch-like frame for an opening.

Jamb

Pillar, frame, post, lintel on either side of a doorway, window, or arch.

Tympanum

In architecture, a semicircular space above a doorway that is often decorated with sculpture.

Gothic Architecture by Sophia Tutorial

 WHAT'S COVERED

This tutorial will discuss the influences of the development of the Gothic style and describe some of the design innovations of Gothic architecture. The objectives for this tutorial include:

1. Period and Location: Gothic Architecture 2. Influences of the Development of Gothic Style

a. Scholasticism

b. Pseudo-Dionysus 3. Characteristics of Gothic Architecture

 BIG IDEA

The overall effect of Gothic architecture is light and spacious compared to Romanesque architecture.

1. Period and Location: Gothic Architecture The time frame for this tutorial is very small, from 1140 to 1144 AD. The tutorial will focus on one church in Paris, France.

2. Influences of the Development of Gothic Style Gothic is an architectural style originating in France during the 12th century. Traits of Gothic include the use of the pointed arch, flying buttress, rib vault, and a general emphasis on space and verticality. Scholasticism was a form of theology and philosophy taught at universities during the Middle Ages based on Aristotelian logic.

The term was coined by Giorgio Vasari, the Italian author who used the term disparagingly during the Renaissance to refer to this type of architecture.

 DID YOU KNOW

Today, gothic is strongly associated with the dark and fantastical, but ironically, it's a design intended to bring a sense of religious light and airiness to Christian architecture. It was a departure from the comparatively darker, heavier style of Romanesque architecture that was a consequence of the construction limits of that

time. As you can see, it is kind of the opposite of what is known in the mass mainstream today!

The stylistic changes of the Gothic are also related to the sociopolitical happenings of the time. Cities were getting bigger and bigger, and urban cathedrals were becoming more important as religious institutions versus monasteries. There was also the establishment of urban universities, like the University of Bologna in Italy. Monasteries, instead of universities, had been the primary educational repositories for centuries.

University of BolognaUniversity of Bologna

1088 AD

Bologna, Italy

2a. Scholasticism2a. Scholasticism The Crusades brought Europeans into contact again with the work of Greek philosophers, which forced the contemporary religious thinkers to incorporate scientific thought into their philosophies. This resulted in a sort of hybrid of theology and philosophy called scholasticismscholasticism, a common area of study at universities.

 TERM TO KNOW

Scholasticism A form of theology and philosophy taught at universities during the Middle Ages based on Aristotelian logic

2b. Pseudo-Dionysus2b. Pseudo-Dionysus Lastly, let's discuss the influence of Pseudo-Dionysian light mysticism, a form of mysticism concerning the important association with light and God--specifically, that light was a physical manifestation of God. This was attributed to the 5th century author Pseudo-DionysusPseudo-Dionysus, who combined elements of Greek philosophy with Christianity. His work would have been known to the Abbot Suger, the person primarily responsible for the Gothic style at Saint-Denis.

 TERM TO KNOW

Pseudo-Dionysus A Christian philosopher mystic and theologian during the late 5th century

3. Characteristics of Gothic Architecture

Basilica of Saint DenisBasilica of Saint Denis

1140-1144 AD

Paris, France

Saint-Denis was an important church in Paris, originally founded during the 5th century. The use of architectural elements largely associated with the Gothic style, like the pointed arch, ribbed vaults, and flying buttresses, had already been used in other Romanesque-style buildings in one way or another.

 EXAMPLE An example would be Durham Cathedral with its ribbed vaults.

However, it was here at Saint-Denis, specifically in the reconstruction of the church's choirchoir, that they were combined in a way that allowed for greater expanses of open space. This space could be filled in with stained glass and yet still exist within a structurally sound building.

Rib vaulting at Saint-DenisRib vaulting at Saint-Denis

The rib vaultingrib vaulting channeled most of the downward force into the supportive columns, rather than the walls. Walls had a minimum load bearance in Gothic architecture as opposed to Romanesque style buildings where the exterior walls were primary load-bearers.

Pointed arch at Saint-DenisPointed arch at Saint-Denis

The pointed archpointed arch allowed for the expanses to stretch upwards, creating more space. The use of the flying buttress as an exterior supportive element allowed walls of glass and light, as opposed to walls of stone. The overall effect was that of something light and spacious compared to the Romanesque style of architecture.

 TERMS TO KNOW

Pointed Arch Also referred to as the "ogival arch," a primary characteristic of Gothic architecture; also seen in Islamic architecture

Rib Vault Architecture, a vault supported by or decorated with diagonal ribs

Choir Architecture, a part of the cruciform church east of the crossing

 SUMMARY

The gothic architecturegothic architecture style originated in France during the 12th century. Influences of theInfluences of the development of gothic styledevelopment of gothic style include a hybrid of theology and philosophy called scholasticismscholasticism and a form of mysticism developed by 5th century author Pseudo-DionysusPseudo-Dionysus, concerning the important association with light and God.

Characteristics of gothic architectureCharacteristics of gothic architecture include rib vaulting, flying buttresses, and the pointed arch to create space.

The big idea for today is that the overall effect of Gothic architecture is light and spacious compared

to Romanesque architecture.

Source: This work is adapted from sophia author ian mcconnell.

 TERMS TO KNOW

Choir

Architecture, a part of the cruciform church east of the crossing.

Gothic

An architectural style originating in France during the 12th century. Traits of Gothic include the use of

the pointed arch, flying buttress, rib vault, and a general emphasis on space and verticality.

Pointed arch

Also referred to as the ‘ogival arch’ a primary characteristic of Gothic architecture; also seen in Islamic

architecture.

Pseudo-Dionysus

A Christian philosopher mystic and theologian during the late 5th century.

Rib vault

Architecture, a vault supported by or decorated with diagonal ribs.

Scholasticism

A form of theology and philosophy taught at universities during the Middle Ages based on Aristotelian

logic.

Chartres Cathedral by Sophia Tutorial

 WHAT'S COVERED

The formal characteristics of the portal sculptures, along with the influence of humanism on the design elements at Chartres Cathedral, make this structure an important example of Gothic architecture. This lesson covers:

1. Period and Location: Chartres Cathedral 2. Exterior of Chartres 3. Numeric Symbology 4. Interior of Chartres

 BIG IDEA

Chartres Cathedral is a classic example of Gothic architecture and contains some of the best examples of Gothic stained glass in the world.

1. Period and Location: Chartres Cathedral As highlighted in the timeline below, this lesson spans 1134 to 1260 AD, and focuses on Chartres, France, which is very close to Paris.

Here is a map of France showing the cities of Chartres and Paris:

2. Exterior of Chartres Chartres Cathedral is a beautiful example of Gothic architecture in France. Interestingly, the stained glass windows in Chartres are, for the most part, completely original. To have survived in the elements for roughly 900 years is nothing short of amazing. The artistry of the windows themselves is truly amazing as well.

 EXAMPLE Here is an image of the Chartres Cathedral:

Chartres CathedralChartres Cathedral

1134-1260 AD

Chartres, France

 EXAMPLE Here is the western façade of the church:

Western façade of Chartres CathedralWestern façade of Chartres Cathedral

The western façade of a cathedral is the primary entrance, as they are arranged west to east. Chartres Cathedral had a standard three portal entrance, and the tympanums were all filled with religious imagery. Sculptures adorn the supportive jambs that flank the doorways of these churches.

Chartres has a rather interesting style in that it had engaged portal sculptures constructed on the exterior of the church.

 EXAMPLE Pictured here are sculptures of two Old Testament kings and a queen, who are ancestors of Christ:

Sculptures of two Old Testament kings and a queen at Chartres CathedralSculptures of two Old Testament kings and a queen at Chartres Cathedral

 EXAMPLE These are sculptures of Saints Martin, Jerome, and Gregory:

Sculptures of Saints Martin, Jerome, and Gregory at Chartres CathedralSculptures of Saints Martin, Jerome, and Gregory at Chartres Cathedral

Saint Theodore is not pictured here, but is also included in these sculptures. These sculptures are naturalistic in their appearance, yet unnaturally elongated. This might have been done purposefully to fit the sculptures into the length of jamb itself.

These sculptures show the influence of humanism that penetrated this age, sometimes referred to as the Proto-Renaissance, and contributed to the rise of humanism during the actual Renaissance. Other examples of sculptures such as these are the Christ as Beau Dieu at Amiens Cathedral and the visitation jamb sculptures at Reims Cathedral, which are all in France.

Flying buttress at Chartres CathedralFlying buttress at Chartres Cathedral

Finally, on the exterior, the flying buttressflying buttress supports enabled the wall to function as a support for stained glass rather than a support for the weight of the building itself. This specific element is a unique characteristic of Gothic architecture.

 TERM TO KNOW

Flying ButtressFlying Buttress Associated with Gothic church architecture, an exterior segmented semi-arch that relieves load-bearing walls

3. Numeric Symbology It is worth pointing out the numeric symbology of Chartres Cathedral.

IN CONTEXT

Take, for example, the three portals in the western facade. Why three? Three is an important number in Christianity, as it represents the Holy Trinity: Father, Son, and Holy Spirit.

Four is another important number. It represents the four cardinal directions of earth: North, East, South, and West.

 DID YOU KNOW

Three plus four represents the union of heaven and earth. The resulting number is seven, which is found in several groupings within the church, such as the seven bays within the apse. This is another example of scholasticism’s presence in the architecture of the 12th and 13th centuries.

4. Interior of Chartres The inside of the church is where we see the full effect of the walls filled with colored glass. Narratives or iconography important to the Church and Christ’s history fill these glass windows. The narratives were elaborate in the windows that lined the navenave because they were closer to people, and could be seen in detail. Patterns of icons were easier to see from a distance.

 EXAMPLE The nave is pictured below.

Nave at Chartres CathedralNave at Chartres Cathedral

 EXAMPLE The rose windowrose window located in the north transept describes the ancestry of Jesus and Mary.

Rose window at Chartres CathedralRose window at Chartres Cathedral

The windows that lined the nave each had a theme. For example, the Charlemagne Window, which is not pictured, depicted a narrative about Charlemagne that included his departure from Spain.

 THINK ABOUT IT

Donors for this artwork and glass windows were important because these windows were incredibly expensive. Donors included the baker, carpenter, and local furriers. Sometimes, as in the case of the Charlemagne Window, donors were depicted in the artwork itself.

 EXAMPLE The Jesse Tree, shown below, is another example depicting the important ancestral lineage of Christ. This time it’s displayed vertically with the image of Christ located at the top.

Jesse Tree window at Chartres CathedralJesse Tree window at Chartres Cathedral

 EXAMPLE This final example is of the "Virgin and Child and Angels" window, more commonly called "The Blue Virgin" window because of her blue robes.

Virgin and Child and Angels window at Chartres CathedralVirgin and Child and Angels window at Chartres Cathedral

In this window, the Virgin Mary is enthroned with Christ in front of her and a dove near her head, symbolizing the Holy Spirit. The bottom three rows depict two stories. The first two are of the wedding feast at Cana, where Jesus turned water to wine, and the last row of that set depicts the temptation of Christ.

 TERMS TO KNOW

Rose WindowRose Window Circular window, especially seen in Gothic church architecture

NaveNave The space extending from the main entrance to the narthex with aisles on both sides

 SUMMARY

Chartres Cathedral is a classic example of Gothic architecture. In this lesson, you learned about the period and location of the Chartres Cathedralperiod and location of the Chartres Cathedral.

Moving on in the lesson, you explored the exterior of Chartresexterior of Chartres and the interior of Chartresinterior of Chartres. Chartres Cathedral has exterior components that are filled with religious imagery. Sculptures adorn the supportive jambs that flank the doorways of this church. Narratives or iconography important to the Church and Christ’s history fill the glass windows.

Finally, you learned about the numeric symbologynumeric symbology present in this piece of architecture. The number three represents the Holy Trinity in Christianity: Father, Son, and Holy Spirit. The number four represents the cardinal directions: North, South, East, and West. Both are intertwined in the architectural elements of Chartres Cathedral.

Source: THIS WORK IS ADAPTED FROM SOPHIA AUTHOR IAN MCCONNELL.

 TERMS TO KNOW

Flying Buttress

Associated with Gothic church architecture, an exterior segmented semi arch that relieves load

bearing walls.

Nave

The space extending from the main entrance to the narthex with aisles on both sides.

Rose Window

Circular window, especially seen in Gothic church architecture.

Late Gothic/ Early Renaissance in Italy by Sophia Tutorial

 WHAT'S COVERED

Late Gothic and Early Renaissance art in Italy is defined by the changes happening during this period. Shifts to classical ideals and elements were apparent as the Renaissance developed. This lesson covers:

1. Period and Location: Late Gothic/Early Renaissance 2. The Developing Renaissance 3. Late Gothic Art 4. Cimabue and Giotto 5. Siena and Florence Cathedrals

 BIG IDEA

The Renaissance developed gradually over time, time that was interspersed with artists such as Giotto marking distinct instances where the shift to classical ideals was notable.

1. Period and Location: Late Gothic/Early Renaissance The artwork and architecture covered in this lesson originates between 1200 and 1450 AD in Italy, highlighted on the timeline below. Remember, Italy is the birthplace of the European Renaissance, and this lesson focuses attention primarily on the city of Florence.

2. The Developing Renaissance As we begin to explore this period, it is important to understand that the RenaissanceRenaissance did not just start, it developed. It developed gradually over time, and in different periods of time around Europe, beginning with Italy around the end of the 13th century.

The development of the visual style during this time can be attributed to a number of things, including:

Rise of city-states in Italy Increase of trade Refinement of the concept of humanismhumanism in literature, attributed to the increase and eventual return to

naturalismnaturalism seen in the art of the Renaissance

 TERMS TO KNOW

RenaissanceRenaissance A cultural movement marking a time of accelerated activity and learning expressed by art and literature in Europe during the 14th to 17th centuries

HumanismHumanism Study or system of ethical practice that promotes human interests, values, scientific investigations, and human pleasures in the natural world and often rejects the belief in God

NaturalismNaturalism An artistic approach that involves reproducing objects as they appear to the eye. This term is often used in art history as a substitute for realistic, to avoid any confusion with realism as an artistic movement.

3. Late Gothic Art PerspectivePerspective in the two-dimensional visual arts had not been perfected by this time.

 EXAMPLE Below is an example of a fresco, titled Peaceful City From Effects of Good Government in the City, by the Italian artist Ambrosia Lorenzetti.

Peaceful City From Effects of Good Government in the City by Ambrosia LorenzettiPeaceful City From Effects of Good Government in the City by Ambrosia Lorenzetti

1338 - 1339 AD

Fresco

This fresco shows attempts at creating a sense of depth, but notice that there is not a single vanishing point.

Italian Gothic art from this time also shows the continued influence of the Byzantine style, or maniera grecomaniera greco, which was used by Italian artists such as Duccio from Siena, and Bonaventura Berlinghieri.

 EXAMPLE Below is an altarpiece of Saint Francis of Assisi by Berlinghieri.

Saint Francis Altarpiece by Bonaventura BerlinghieriSaint Francis Altarpiece by Bonaventura Berlinghieri

1235 AD

Tempera on wood

Notice how the images in this above example are very flat. The folds of cloth appear as hard lines, and rather than gradients of shadow, there is a sharp contrast of black on color.

 DID YOU KNOW

Tempera paint was a limited medium in terms of creating shadow that suggested depth, as oil paint had not yet arrived as a medium.

 TERMS TO KNOW

Maniera GrecaManiera Greca In Italian painting, the tendency to paint in the “Greek” style reminiscent of Byzantine icons, with stiff, flattened forms, hard lines that indicate folds in cloth, and the use of gold leaf

PerspectivePerspective A technique that depicts three-dimensional volume and space relationships on a flat surface

4. Cimabue and Giotto The first artist to begin departing from the Byzantine style of Italian Gothic painting was Florentine artist Cimabue, also known as Cenni di Pepo or Cenni di Pepi.

 EXAMPLE Here is an example of Cimabue’s work:

Madonna Enthroned with Angels by CimabueMadonna Enthroned with Angels by Cimabue

1280-1290 AD

The Byzantine influence is still here, particularly with the arrangement of forms and the golden background. However, instead of the flatness associated with the Byzantine style, Cimabue uses the architecture to create a sense of depth in the image, as well as space for the individual characters to recede into.

 EXAMPLE Compare the above example to another image of the Madonna and Child enthroned, by the artist known as Giotto:

Madonna Enthroned by GiottoMadonna Enthroned by Giotto

1310 AD

Giotto is often considered the first Renaissance painter. Rather than emphasizing a style of painting, he turned to nature and painted by observance. His ability to do this successfully is largely attributed to his particular style, rather than the influence of a particular master.

Here, the Virgin Mary is enthroned, again, within Gothic-style architecture like in Cimabue’s painting. However, the physical depiction is very different. There is a sense of a physical body under the clothing, and it’s better articulated in this painting than it is in Cimabue’s. There is also a truer feeling of space around and behind Mary’s throne.

Giotto was an accomplished artist, and was commissioned to create a number of notable works of art, including the campanilecampanile at the Florence Cathedral.

Here is a fresco from the Arena Chapel:

Arena Chapel fresco by GiottoArena Chapel fresco by Giotto

1305 AD

Fresco

Above is a great example of buon fresco, or paint applied to wet plaster, which worked quite well in the mild Mediterranean climate of Italy. It is something you wouldn’t see in the cooler climates of northern Europe.

 TERMS TO KNOW

CampanileCampanile Usually freestanding, a bell tower

ModelingModeling In painting, the depiction of forms, particularly the human form, as having a rounded, three-dimensional shape, indicated by the use of shadows

5. Siena and Florence Cathedrals The Italian examples of Gothic architecture are quite unique compared to French Gothic architecture.

 EXAMPLE This example of Gothic architecture from the 13th century, the Siena Cathedral, offers the opportunity to compare the Italian Gothic style with the French.

Siena CathedralSiena Cathedral

1215-1263 AD

Siena, Italy

In essence, it is a traditional cruciform-style church. The western façade shown here is quite large and magnificent, with a central rose window and a three-portal entrance. The design, however, is very ornate.

Notice the absence of the bell towers, or campaniles, attached to the façade. They have been pushed back toward the middle of the church. This creates a less imposing presence, and creates a more intimate feeling with the surrounding city.

 EXAMPLE Now compare it with the commanding presence of the Notre Dame Cathedral in Paris, France.

Notre Dame CathedralNotre Dame Cathedral

1163-1345 AD

Paris, France

The addition of the two bell towers up front makes for a dramatic change that dominates the surrounding landscape rather than integrating with it.

 EXAMPLE The final piece of architecture we’ll look at is the famous Florence Cathedral.

Florence CathedralFlorence Cathedral

1436 AD

Florence, Italy

This cathedral combines elements of Gothic and Renaissance architecture. For example, the use of the pointed arch and ribbed vaulting are Gothic, but the overall design is more earthbound than vertical--actually, more horizontal than vertical.

Exterior of Florence CathedralExterior of Florence Cathedral

The exterior is decorated in white, green, and pink marble in geometric designs rather than the elaborate sculptural programs of French Gothic cathedrals.

Interior of Florence CathedralInterior of Florence Cathedral

The interior is also much more reserved and efficient in terms of its design. Again, notice the use of the ribbed vaulting and pointed arches.

Dome of Florence CathedralDome of Florence Cathedral

The dome clearly dominates the church, as it is tremendous in size. It was designed by the artist Brunelleschi, and it’s considered one of the major achievements of the Renaissance. The artist Giotto was responsible for the design of the campanile, shown toward the left side of the image. It has geometric patterns that reflect the exterior decoration of the church, but it is itself unattached to the church, and functions very much as its own structure.

 SUMMARY

As the Renaissance began to develop over time, Late Gothic and Early Renaissance art was defined by these changes. In this lesson, you learned about the period and location of Late Gothic and Earlyperiod and location of Late Gothic and Early RenaissanceRenaissance art. In doing so, you explored the developing Renaissancethe developing Renaissance. Remember, the Renaissance did not start on a specific date, but instead developed over time.

Late Gothic artLate Gothic art began to make attempts to perfect perspective in the two-dimensional visual arts. Italian Gothic art from this time also shows the continued influence of the Byzantine style, or maniera greco.

Cimabue and GiottoCimabue and Giotto were two artists that made ground in Late Gothic and Renaissance art. The first artist to begin departing from the Byzantine style of Italian Gothic painting was the artist Cimabue, while Giotto is often referred to as the "Renaissance painter." Finally, you explored the Siena andSiena and Florence CathedralsFlorence Cathedrals, both examples of the architecture of the time.

Source: THIS WORK IS ADAPTED FROM SOPHIA AUTHOR IAN MCCONNELL.

 TERMS TO KNOW

Campanile

Usually freestanding, a bell tower.

Humanism

Study or system of ethical practice that promotes human interests, values, scientific investigations and

human pleasures in the natural world and often rejects the belief in God.

Maniera Greca

In Italian painting, the tendency to paint in the "Greek" style reminiscent of Byzantine icons, with stiff,

flattened forms, hard lines that indicate folds in cloth, and the use of gold leaf.

Modeling

In painting, the depiction of forms, particularly the human form, as having a rounded three-

dimensional shape, indicated by the use of shadows.

Naturalism

An artistic approach that involves reproducing objects as the appear to the eye. This term is often

used in art history as a substitute for realistic, to avoid any confusion with realism as an artistic

movement.

Perspective

A technique that depicts three-dimensional volume and space relationships on a flat surface.

Renaissance

A cultural movement marking a time of accelerated activity and learning expressed by art and

literature in Europe during the 14th to 17th centuries.

Early Northern Renaissance Art by Sophia Tutorial

 WHAT'S COVERED

There were many cultural components related to the development of art in northern France and Flanders. In this lesson, you will learn about:

1. Period and Location: Early Northern Renaissance 2. Two Philips 3. Very Rich Hours

 BIG IDEA

The "Three Rich Hours" is a major change in manuscript illumination, in which the images began dominating the text.

1. Period and Location: Early Northern Renaissance This lesson covers art and culture from about 1325 to 1475, as highlighted in the timeline below. This covers the lifespan of two Dukes of Burgundy, Philip the Bold and Philip the Good. The art studied in this lesson is from Flanders, an area of modern-day Belgium previously under the control of the kingdom of France. It is now part of Belgium.

This map shows the modern-day border of Flanders, as well as the city of Brussels for reference.

2. Two Philips A number of cultural aspects relate to the development of the art in northern France and Flanders during this time. First is the rise of the Burgundian dukes: Philip the Bold, followed by Philip the Good. Both functioned almost independently of the kingdom of France and spent a great deal of their time expanding their territory and enjoying very extravagant lifestyles. Their patronage of the arts was extremely important to its proliferation in this area during this time.

The other development was more of a natural consequence of one of the worst pandemics in human history, that of the bubonic plague, or Black Death. This plague is thought to have originated in Asia and been spread by fleas on rats. Regardless of how it started or spread, it decimated the European population, killing anywhere from one- to two-thirds of the population of Europe over the centuries. It’s hard to tell because there are few good records from that time.

 DID YOU KNOW

There was a bit of a silver lining for those that did survive. There was plenty of work, and plenty of money to pay those that could still work. Serfs, who were indentured servants tied to a piece of property until they paid their debt, were able to earn money relatively quickly and buy their freedom. This rise in the freedom of serfs contributed to the rise of the middle class, which in turn created a new, large pool of patrons to the arts, called burghersburghers.

 TERM TO KNOW

BurgherBurgher

A middle class citizen of a borough or town

Images of peasants and the aristocracy at their leisure are a defining element of the art of the NorthernNorthern Renaissance.Renaissance.

This image from a larger book of hours, illustrated by the Limbourg brothers between 1413 and 1416, is an example of aristocracy at leisure.

Very Rich Hours of the Duke of Berry by The Limbourg BrothersVery Rich Hours of the Duke of Berry by The Limbourg Brothers

1413-1416 AD

A book of hoursbook of hours was a devotional book used by Christians. This example is also interesting in that the emphasis is clearly on the illustration rather than the text. This marks a major change in manuscriptmanuscript illuminationillumination. Before this, the emphasis was on the text, and the images were supplementary. Here we see a reversal, where the emphasis is beginning to shift to the illustrations.

 TERMS TO KNOW

Northern RenaissanceNorthern Renaissance An age of artistic and cultural discovery and Christian humanism that took place in Germany, the Netherlands, and France

CapitalismCapitalism An economic system in which means of production (capital) is privately owned

Book of HoursBook of Hours A popular devotional book used by Christians during the Middle Ages

Manuscript IlluminationManuscript Illumination Decorating and illustrating a manuscript and embellishing it with gold or silver

 SUMMARY

The development of art in northern France and Flanders had several influential actors. In this lesson, you learned about the period and location of the Early Northern Renaissanceperiod and location of the Early Northern Renaissance.

Two PhilipsTwo Philips, or the Burgundian dukes Philip the Bold and Philip the Good, functioned almost independently of the kingdom of France, and spent a great deal of their time expanding their territory and enjoying very extravagant lifestyles. Their patronage of the arts was extremely important during this time.

Finally, you learned about the Very Rich HoursVery Rich Hours. A book of hours was a devotional book used by Christians. This example is also interesting in that the emphasis is clearly on the illustration rather than the text, marking a major change in manuscript illumination.

Source: THIS WORK IS ADAPTED FROM SOPHIA AUTHOR IAN MCCONNELL.

 TERMS TO KNOW

Book of Hours

A popular devotional book used by Christians during the Middle Ages.

Burgher

A middle class citizen of a borough or town.

Capitalism

An economic system in which means of production (capital) is privately owned.

Manuscript Illumination

A decorated and illustrated manuscript embellished with gold or silver.

Northern Renaissance

An age of artistic and cultural discovery and Christian humanism that took place in Germany, the

Netherlands, and France.

Fifteenth-Century Flemish Painting by Sophia Tutorial

 WHAT'S COVERED

Fifteenth-century Flemish painting and Italian Renaissance painting both have unique characteristics and symbology. In this lesson, you will learn about:

1. Period and Location: Fifteenth-Century Flemish Painting 2. Flemish vs. Italian Renaissance Painting

a. Mérode and Ghent Altarpieces

b. Arnolfini Portrait

c. “A Goldsmith in His Shop”

d. “The Garden of Earthly Delights”

 BIG IDEA

Northern Renaissance painters began using oil paints before their Italian contemporaries, and created a unique style that blended the secular and religious with an emphasis on detail and texture.

1. Period and Location: Fifteenth-Century Flemish Painting The artwork covered in this lesson ranges from 1425 to 1510 in FlandersFlanders, as highlighted in the timeline below.

Here is a map of the region. Use the city of Brussels for a reference point.

 TERM TO KNOW

FlandersFlanders A region in Belgium characterized by a thriving artistic, educational culture and society, especially noted for textiles

2. Flemish vs. Italian Renaissance Painting FlemishFlemish and Italian Renaissance painting have both stylistic and material differences. Stylistically, Flemish painting was much more secular. While Italian painting often used fresco or tempera as mediums, these types of paintings would not work well in the north due to the colder climate.

 DID YOU KNOW

When it was too cold, fresco or tempura paintings would not dry properly. This is just one reason why oil painting took hold in the north before it took hold in Italy. Eventually oil paintingoil painting became the preferred method of painting everywhere.

Humanism was a theme in Italian paintings from this period. The application of rational, scientific principles, such as one point, or linear, perspective was also common in Italian paintings. On the other hand, in Flanders, the Flemish emphasis was on textures, textiles, and detail. For the Flemish, the overall look of the painting was more important than the scientific mathematical qualities of it.

 DID YOU KNOW

Another reason oil painting became the preferred method was because more detail could be achieved using oil, due to the layering process. A glaze is laid down, and gradually the artist builds up color, adding depth to that color.

 TERMS TO KNOW

Oil PaintingOil Painting The process of applying pigments suspended in linseed oil to a surface characterized by a quality that gives it

a luminous appearance

FlemishFlemish Belgian Dutch, referring to Flanders

2a. Mérode and Ghent Altarpieces2a. Mérode and Ghent Altarpieces Robert Campin was one of the earliest artists to use oil painting, and by the fifteenth century this technique was mastered by a number of Flemish painters. Oil paint is applied as a series of glazes to build up depth and color in a way that isn’t possible with tempera paint. Campin used it to create his “Annunciation Triptych.”

Mérode altarpiece by Robert CampinMérode altarpiece by Robert Campin

425-1428

Oil on wood

This depiction of the Annunciation by Campin occupies the space at the center of the panel shown above.

As you explore the image above, notice how detailed and realistic the clothing looks. Also take note of how the scene takes place in what would have been recognized at the time as a Flemish home. The perspective is somewhat off, particularly with the table. However, that would not have been the primary concern of the artist. Rather, the way the painting looked was more important than the proper application of scientific perspective,

which wasn’t really known in this region at the time.

The objects placed within the room—the extinguished candle, the lilies, the copper pot in the back, and more —were carefully selected, and are symbolic in some way of the purity of the Virgin Mary. The panel on the left depicts the donor and his wife looking in on the event while Mary’s husband, Joseph, works in his shop on the right panel making a mousetrap, symbolic of Christ’s victory over Satan. Christ is the bait for the devil.

 EXAMPLE In this next altarpiece by the artist Jan van Eyck, the three panels are divided horizontally, separating into two main horizontal registers.

Ghent altarpiece by Jan van EyckGhent altarpiece by Jan van Eyck

1432

Oil on wood

 DID YOU KNOW

The above panel is about 15 feet long by about 11 feet high, and it was painted in 1432. It is an oil painting on wood, which was common for this region, as wood was plentiful.

On the top, God is enthroned and flanked by Mary to his right and Saint John the Baptist to his left. On either side of the trio are choirs of angels playing the organ. Further still on the outer edges are the figures of Adam and Eve.

In the lower register, the community of saints congregates around the altar of the lamb, which is a symbol for Christ, and fountain of life, which is the octagonal object in the foreground of the middle panel of the bottom register. Van Eyck took extra care to render the entire composition in incredible detail and color. This altarpiece still stands as one of the greatest examples of Northern Renaissance painting.

 TERM TO KNOW

AltarpieceAltarpiece A religious subject painted or carved on a screen above or behind the altar or table in a Christian church and

often made of two or more panels

2b. Arnolfini Portrait2b. Arnolfini Portrait Giovanni Arnolfini was a financier associated with the wealthy and influential Medici family of Italy. The portrait of Arnolfini and his bride, called the “Arnolfini Portrait,” by the artist Jan van Eyck, is a wonderful example that embodies the northern Flemish style that emphasized incredibly detailed and realistically textured works of art. Although this portrait appears to be a simple wedding portrait, the painting is abundant with religious symbolism.

Arnolfini Portrait by Jan van EyckArnolfini Portrait by Jan van Eyck

1432

Oil on wood

The context is possibly that of the actual ceremony, but this is one of many theories. There are actually two other people in the room, van Eyck himself and perhaps a religious official, whose reflections can be seen in the tiny mirror in the back of the room. Around the convex mirror, which represents the all-seeing eye of God, there are tiny medallions depicting the passion of the Christ, a reminder of God’s salvation.

Arnolfini’s bride is located near the marriage bed, where the curtains have been pulled back. And the finial, which is the ornament on top of the bedpost, is of Saint Margaret, the patron saint of childbirth. The bride’s gesture and clothing suggest pregnancy, but she isn’t pregnant. This style of clothing was consistent with the style at the time. The clog suggests that the place that they are standing is sacred ground. The small dog is symbolic of trust or fidelity to one another, as well as their wedding vows.

 THINK ABOUT IT

Their position in the room is also interesting. He is closer to the window, as his life takes place in the outside world, while her position further in is suggestive of the traditional domestic role of a female at this time. Overall, this is a unique combination of the secular imagery that was common in the Northern Renaissance with the religious symbolism ever present in the Renaissance artwork of contemporary Italy.

2c. “A Goldsmith in His Shop”2c. “A Goldsmith in His Shop”

Flemish artists carefully selected everyday items that could function symbolically in a composition.

 EXAMPLE This is evident in the painting below. “A Goldsmith in His Shop” is an example of the work of later Flemish panel painter Petrous Christus.

A Goldsmith in His Shop by Petrous ChristusA Goldsmith in His Shop by Petrous Christus

1449

Oil on wood

Take a look at the bride’s girdle on the table, a symbol of chastity. The goldsmith is possibly St. Eligius, who was a goldsmith before committing himself to his faith, sitting in his workshop wearing the gold ring of a wedded couple. It is believed that the local goldsmiths’ guild commissioned this work, and Christus undoubtedly chose the subject matter as a way of combining the religious with the secular.

2d. “The Garden of Earthly Delights”2d. “The Garden of Earthly Delights” The artist Hieronymus Bosch, who hails from the Netherlands, is one of most debated artists of this period. Much of his work is downright confusing. There is little that we know about his private life, which makes it harder to understand his work.

 EXAMPLE Take, for example, “The Garden of Earthly Delights” from 1506 to 1510.

The Garden of Earthly Delights by Hieronymus BoschThe Garden of Earthly Delights by Hieronymus Bosch

1505-1510

Oil on wood

His work has been described as fantastical, satirical, surrealist, and obscene. This image in particular might fall anywhere in these descriptors. It is believed to have been commissioned as a private piece of art in celebration of a wedding. Regardless, it’s unique and a significant departure from the type of painting we see coming out of Italy at this time.

 SUMMARY

Flemish paintings and Italian Renaissance paintings both have unique characteristics and symbology, especially those from the 15th century. In this lesson, you learned about the period and location ofperiod and location of fifteenth-century Flemish paintingfifteenth-century Flemish painting.

In doing so, you began to explore Flemish vs. Italian Renaissance paintingFlemish vs. Italian Renaissance painting, which had both stylistic and material differences. Stylistically, Flemish painting was much more secular, and Italian painting used fresco or tempera as mediums. The application of rational scientific principles was common in Italian paintings, while the Flemish emphasis was on textures, textiles, and detail.

Finally, you compared works of art from this period, including: Mérode and Ghent AltarpiecesMérode and Ghent Altarpieces “Arnolfini Portrait”“Arnolfini Portrait” “A Goldsmith in His Shop”“A Goldsmith in His Shop” “The Garden of Earthly Delights”“The Garden of Earthly Delights”

Source: THIS WORK IS ADAPTED FROM SOPHIA AUTHOR IAN MCCONNELL.

 TERMS TO KNOW

Altarpiece

A religious subject painted or carved on a screen above or behind the altar or table in a Christian

church often made of two or more panels.

Flanders

A region in Belgium characterized by a thriving artistic, educational culture and society, especially

noted for textiles.

Flemish

Belgian Dutch

Oil Painting

The process of applying pigments suspended in linseed oil to a surface characterized by quality that

gives it a luminous appearance.

The Early Renaissance in Florence by Sophia Tutorial

 WHAT'S COVERED

The princely courts of Italy had a great impact on Italy's early Renaissance artwork. During this time, innovations in perspective and naturalism began to occur in works of art. This lesson covers:

1. Period and Location: The Early Renaissance in Florence 2. The Princely Courts of Italy 3. Panel Competition 4. Masaccio 5. Donatello

 BIG IDEA

The spread of humanism, a growing emphasis on individual achievement, and the princely courts of Italy were all highly influential on the early Renaissance artwork of Italy.

1. Period and Location: The Early Renaissance in Florence This lesson focuses on 1401 to 1440 AD in Florence, Italy, as highlighted in the timeline below.

2. The Princely Courts of Italy As this lesson begins, it is important to remember that Italy was not a kingdom at this time. There was no centralized power like there was in other areas of Europe. Instead, this area was made up of independent city- states, which were owned by the Church, or republics such as Florence and Venice.

“Term prince” was a term applied to a person in charge of one of those areas. A term prince could be, for instance, a duke or a count--not necessarily an actual prince. These term princes were often enormously wealthy and strong supporters of the arts, so much so that they were one of the main sources of artistic patronage at this time.

 EXAMPLE One example of a term prince is the Duke of Urbino, pictured below.

Portrait of Duke of Urbino by Piero della FrancescaPortrait of Duke of Urbino by Piero della Francesca

1470

Tempera on wood

The resurgence of humanism during this time began to swing the pendulum away from the Byzantine style and towards that of the classical style. Artists were interested in the naturalism and scientific rationalism that had developed in ancient Greece. These artists longed to apply it to the work that they were producing.

 DID YOU KNOW

It was not just the artists, however, that were interested in naturalism and scientific rationalism. These ideas began to penetrate to all areas of culture and the arts. Artists’ desire to utilize them was as prevalent as the patrons’ desire to observe these styles. Eventually, the ideal of classical form and beauty that found a pairing with religious imagery of the time was rediscovered. This combination celebrated God’s greatest creation, man, and humanity’s devotion to its creator.

3. Panel Competition By this time, nude form had essentially vanished from artwork of the Middle Ages. It was viewed as obscene and idolatrous, a relic of the pagan past. Within religious imagery, however, it could be reinterpreted as a depiction of innocence. The commission to create the baptistery doors in Florence was the prize given to the winner of a contest in which several artists were given the task of creating a bronze panel relief depicting the sacrifice of Isaac by Abraham.

This contest came down to two finalists, the artist Brunelleschi and the actual winner, the artist Ghiberti. While Ghiberti’s submission was a much calmer depiction of the event, Brunelleschi’s work displayed much dynamism.

 EXAMPLE Below is Brunelleschi’s panel.

Sacrifice of Isaac Competition Panels by BrunelleschiSacrifice of Isaac Competition Panels by Brunelleschi

1401 AD

Bronze

You can see dynamic movement. Notice all the angels rushing in to stop Abraham from killing his son and Abraham’s clothes flowing back as he rushes towards Isaac.

 EXAMPLE Although there is still some sacrificing going on here, the panel below by Ghiberti is not as dynamic or energetic as the previous panel:

Sacrifice of Isaac Competition Panels by GhibertiSacrifice of Isaac Competition Panels by Ghiberti

1401 AD

Bronze

His rendering of Isaac as a male nude is particularly interesting. This could be the first example of a male nude since antiquity, which is a title usually given to the statue of David by the artist Donatello.

Ghiberti’s winning is largely attributed to the artist’s superior skill at casting compared to that of Brunelleschi. Brunelleschi went back to study architecture and eventually designed one of the most impressive domes in history, the dome of Florence Cathedral.

4. Masaccio The mathematical description of perspective was undoubtedly influential on the artist Masaccio and his Holy Trinity painting from the Church of Santa Maria Novella in Florence, Italy. Masaccio used his understanding of linear perspectivelinear perspective to near perfection in how he essentially creates extremely realistic depth in his composition. The entire image is a painting, a fresco in fact, which is an important form of painting in Italy and a medium suitable to its mild climate. You wouldn’t see fresco paintings in northern Europe.

 EXAMPLE Below is an image of the Holy Trinity painting from the Church of Santa Maria Novella in Florence, Italy.

Holy Trinity by MasaccioHoly Trinity by Masaccio

1427 AD

Fresco

The above image is divided into two sections. At the bottom is a crypt. The imagery and writing above it are a reminder of what is to come for all mankind. Above it are the patrons, a husband and wife kneeling and praying below the image of Christ crucified, flanked on either side by his mother Mary and by Saint John, and held by the image of God the Father. The vanishing pointvanishing point is below the feet of Christ. This entire scene is fixed within a triumphal arch of sorts with a coffered barrel vaulted ceiling that recedes believably back into space.

 DID YOU KNOW

It has actually been said that the overall mathematical execution of Masaccio’s use of perspective is so precise that the virtual dimensions of the architecture that recedes into space can accurately be calculated.

 TERMS TO KNOW

Linear PerspectiveLinear Perspective A form of perspective in which the lines of manmade objects (roads, buildings) are at right angles to the picture plane and converge toward a vanishing point

Vanishing PointVanishing Point The point on the horizon where the straight lines of linear perspective converge; the two sides of a road appear to come together at the vanishing point.

5. Donatello The artist Donatello is often credited with bringing back the male nude, specifically with his sculpture of David that was commissioned by members of the wealthy and influential Medici family to sit within their courtyard.

 EXAMPLE Here is the sculpture of David:

David by DonatelloDavid by Donatello

1440 AD

Bronze

This sculpture is depicted as a youth standing in the Grecian contrapposto style with one hand on his sword, one hand on his hip and one foot on the severed head of Goliath. Notice here the return to naturalismnaturalism that was so celebrated during the classical era. There is a clear understanding and deep appreciation for the mechanics of the human expressed in this sculpture.

 EXAMPLE The sculpture of St. Mark by Donatello was another impressive example of the artist’s understanding of human form and human mechanics. Take, for instance, the contrapposto stance and perspective in the sculpture below:

Saint Mark by DonatelloSaint Mark by Donatello

1411-1413 AD

Marble

 THINK ABOUT IT

The realism is striking, for example, in the veins that can be seen in the hands of the saint. This is a realism that possibly was not repeated until later work by the artist Michelangelo.

Donatello mastered perspective, and he incorporates it into the proportions of the statue. It was intended to be viewed in a niche well above eye level, and so Donatello adjusted accordingly. From straight on, the statue looks slightly disproportionate, particularly with the head, but these adjustments were made so that from the original vantage point, where the person would be below the statue, the statue appears perfect.

 TERMS TO KNOW

NaturalismNaturalism An artistic approach that involves reproducing objects as they appear to the eye; this term is often used in art history as a substitute for realistic, to avoid any confusion with realism as an artistic movement.

OrthogonalOrthogonal In mathematics, two lines or curves are orthogonal if they are perpendicular, or at right angles, at the point of intersection.

 SUMMARY

Early Renaissance artwork of Italy had many influences, with one of the greatest being the princely courts of Italy. Artists began to use both perspective and naturalism in their works. In this lesson, you learned about the period and location of the Early Renaissance in Florence.period and location of the Early Renaissance in Florence.

The princely courts of ItalyThe princely courts of Italy were influential on artists and art of this time. These term princes were often enormously wealthy and strong supporters of the arts.

As the lesson went on, you learned about the panel competitionpanel competition. The commission to create the baptistery doors was the prize given to the winner of a contest in which several artists were given the task of creating a bronze panel relief depicting the sacrifice of Isaac by Abraham. The two finalists were Brunelleschi and Ghiberti. While Ghiberti’s (winning) submission was a much calmer depiction of the event, Brunelleschi’s work displayed much dynamism.

Finally, you explored the artists MasaccioMasaccio and DonatelloDonatello. Masaccio used his understanding of linearlinear perspectiveperspective to near perfection in his depiction of the Holy Trinity. The artist Donatello is often credited with bringing back the male nude. His sculpture of David that was commissioned by members of the wealthy and influential Medici family sat within their courtyard.

Source: THIS WORK IS ADAPTED FROM SOPHIA AUTHOR IAN MCCONNELL.

 TERMS TO KNOW

Linear Perspective

A form of perspective in which the lines of manmade objects (roads, buildings) are at right angles to

the picture plane and converge toward a vanishing point.

Naturalism

An artistic approach that involves reproducing objects as they appear to the eye. This term is often

used in art history as a substitute for realistic, to avoid any confusion with realism as an artistic

movement.

Orthogonal

In mathematics, two lines or curves are orthogonal if they are perpendicular or at right angles at the

point of intersection.

Vanishing Point

The point on the horizon where the straight lines of linear perspective converge. The two sides of a

road appear to come together at the vanishing point.

Evaluating Works of Art by Sophia Tutorial

 WHAT'S COVERED

The princely courts of Italy had a great impact on Italy's early Renaissance artwork. During this time, innovations in perspective and naturalism began to occur in works of art. This lesson covers:

1. Period and Location: The Early Renaissance in Florence 2. The Princely Courts of Italy 3. Panel Competition 4. Masaccio 5. Donatello

 BIG IDEA

The spread of humanism, a growing emphasis on individual achievement, and the princely courts of Italy were all highly influential on the early Renaissance artwork of Italy.

1. Period and Location: The Early Renaissance in Florence This lesson focuses on 1401 to 1440 AD in Florence, Italy, as highlighted in the timeline below.

 EXAMPLE One example of a term prince is the Duke of Urbino, pictured below.

Portrait of Duke of Urbino by Piero della FrancescaPortrait of Duke of Urbino by Piero della Francesca

1470

Tempera on wood

 DID YOU KNOW

 EXAMPLE Below is Brunelleschi’s panel.

Sacrifice of Isaac Competition Panels by BrunelleschiSacrifice of Isaac Competition Panels by Brunelleschi

1401 AD

Bronze

You can see dynamic movement. Notice all the angels rushing in to stop Abraham from killing his son and Abraham’s clothes flowing back as he rushes towards Isaac.

 EXAMPLE Although there is still some sacrificing going on here, the panel below by Ghiberti is not as dynamic or energetic as the previous panel:

Sacrifice of Isaac Competition Panels by GhibertiSacrifice of Isaac Competition Panels by Ghiberti

1401 AD

Bronze

 EXAMPLE Below is an image of the Holy Trinity painting from the Church of Santa Maria Novella in Florence, Italy.

Holy Trinity by MasaccioHoly Trinity by Masaccio

1427 AD

Fresco

 DID YOU KNOW

 TERMS TO KNOW

Linear PerspectiveLinear Perspective A form of perspective in which the lines of manmade objects (roads, buildings) are at right angles to the picture plane and converge toward a vanishing point

Vanishing PointVanishing Point The point on the horizon where the straight lines of linear perspective converge; the two sides of a road appear to come together at the vanishing point.

 EXAMPLE Here is the sculpture of David:

David by DonatelloDavid by Donatello

1440 AD

Bronze

Saint Mark by DonatelloSaint Mark by Donatello

1411-1413 AD

Marble

 THINK ABOUT IT

The realism is striking, for example, in the veins that can be seen in the hands of the saint. This is a realism that possibly was not repeated until later work by the artist Michelangelo.

 TERMS TO KNOW

OrthogonalOrthogonal In mathematics, two lines or curves are orthogonal if they are perpendicular, or at right angles, at the point of intersection.

 SUMMARY

The princely courts of ItalyThe princely courts of Italy were influential on artists and art of this time. These term princes were often enormously wealthy and strong supporters of the arts.

Early Renaissance Architecture by Sophia Tutorial

 WHAT'S COVERED

Early Renaissance architecture includes examples such as the Florence Cathedral, Santo Spirito, and Palazzo Medici. During this period, some engineering design obstacles were overcome. This lesson covers:

1. Period and Location: Early Renaissance Architecture 2. Florence Cathedral 3. Santo Spirito 4. Palazzo Medici

 BIG IDEA

The Gothic and Renaissance design elements of the Florence Cathedral mark a turning point in the architecture of Italy, moving from a medieval to a classical architectural style.

1. Period and Location: Early Renaissance Architecture This lesson covers architecture from the years 1420 to 1487 in Florence, Italy, as highlighted in the timeline below.

2. Florence Cathedral The architect and artist Brunelleschi was the runner-up in the panel competition for the Florence baptistery doors. Later this accomplished artist was hired to solve a major problem with the final construction phase of the Florence Cathedral, shown below. There was a huge open span, some 140 feet in length, that needed to be covered. It was an engineering nightmare, and it was up to Brunelleschi to create a solution by devising new building methods.

Florence Cathedral Dome by Filippo BrunelleschiFlorence Cathedral Dome by Filippo Brunelleschi

1420-1436 AD

Florence, Italy

 DID YOU KNOW

The distance of the span was about half the distance of an American football field, which is quite large!

Rather than using a hemispherical dome, Brunelleschi turned to a previous generation for his solution. Essentially, he took an ogival, or pointed, arch and spun it around its axis to create an ogival domeogival dome.

 THINK ABOUT IT

Something interesting to consider is how the Florence Cathedral, which came to be so closely associated with the Renaissance in Florence, had its most notable feature designed using Gothic techniques.

The design by Brunelleschi was inherently stronger because the outward thrust was limited. To conserve weight, he designed the dome as a double-walled shell with a ribbed, semi-hollow interior. The eight primary supports can be seen on the outside, but there are 24 ribs all together. There is also a heavy lantern on top that anchors the entire structure.

 TERM TO KNOW

Ogival DomeOgival Dome A primary quality of Gothic architecture; also seen in Islamic architecture, and characterized by the pointed arch

3. Santo Spirito Although Brunelleschi’s work on the Florence Cathedral was quite ingenious, it was essentially Gothic in its

execution. The Church of Santo Spirito in Florence, Italy, (shown below) gave Brunelleschi the opportunity to incorporate the classic rationality found in the Renaissance, such as:

Rounded arches Modular floor plan References to basilicasbasilicas

Santo Spirito by Filippo BrunelleschiSanto Spirito by Filippo Brunelleschi

1444-1487 AD

Florence, Italy

The term modularmodular refers to the way in which a defined mathematical constant is repeatedly used throughout the design, therefore creating a sense of mathematical harmony. This was similar to the classical, architectural temple designs of ancient Greece, such as the Parthenon, which used a similar approach.

Take, for example, the main arcade in the clerestory seen above. These are equal in height, and their combined height is twice that of the width of the nave. This was a marvel of classical influence, and the church stands as perhaps the greatest example of Brunelleschi’s Renaissance-styled architecture.

 DID YOU KNOW

Sadly, Brunelleschi never saw the completion of the main arcade, as he died before it was finished. Construction continued and was completed after his death in 1446.

 TERMS TO KNOW

Modular DesignModular Design In architecture, an approach that divides a system into smaller parts that can be created and used in different systems with much functionality

BasilicaBasilica

A columned meeting hall in ancient Rome, later a church with columns

4. Palazzo Medici Although it wasn’t designed by Brunelleschi, the Palazzo Medici (shown below) by Michelozzo de Bartolommeo, was definitely inspired by his style. In the classic Roman house design, the house is centered around an open, colonnaded courtyard.

Palazzo Medici by Michelozzo de BartolommeoPalazzo Medici by Michelozzo de Bartolommeo

1445-1460 AD

Florence, Italy

The exterior is hardly ostentatious, and yet it is far from plain. It expresses Michelozzo’s understanding of classical design while at the same time creating something that was uniquely modern.

Three distinct horizontal bands are combined to create a sense of visual weight that decreases as you move upwards, and this is partially accomplished by the use of finished and unfinished stone. Notice how the stone begins as unfinished on the bottom, and is progressively smooth as you move upward. Finally, to balance the overall appearance, a heavy cornice roof is affixed on the very top. A cornice is the ledge that you can see on the top.

Here is a view of the interior courtyard:

Interior courtyard of Palazzo MediciInterior courtyard of Palazzo Medici

Notice the rounded arcade that goes around the central courtyard. This was a common feature in the housing designs in ancient Rome.

 SUMMARY

Florence Cathedral, Santo Spirito, and Palazzo Medici are all excellent examples of Early Renaissance architecture. In this lesson, you learned about the period and location of Early Renaissanceperiod and location of Early Renaissance architecturearchitecture.

In doing so, you explored architectural structures such as: Florence CathedralFlorence Cathedral Santo SpiritoSanto Spirito Palazzo MediciPalazzo Medici

Not only did you look at images of these structures, you also learned in detail what made each unique. Remember, Brunelleschi had to create a solution to fill the large gap in the Florence Cathedral by devising new building methods. The Church of Santo Spirito in Florence, Italy, gave Brunelleschi the opportunity to incorporate the classic elements of the Renaissance back into architecture. The Palazzo Medici, by Michelozzo de Bartolommeo, was inspired by Brunelleschi. The house is centered around an open, colonnaded courtyard.

Source: THIS WORK IS ADAPTED FROM SOPHIA AUTHOR IAN MCCONNELL.

 TERMS TO KNOW

Basilica

A columned meeting hall in ancient Rome, later a church with columns.

Modular Design

In architecture an approach that divides a system into smaller parts that can be created and used in

different systems with much functionality.

Ogival Dome

A primary quality of Gothic architecture; also seen in Islamic architecture characterized by the pointed

arch.

Unit 3 Tutorials: Early Christian Through Early Renaissance Art: 401 AD - 1450 AD

INSIDE UNIT 3
Early Christian and Byzantine Art and Architecture
Islamic Art
Early Asian Art
The Ancient Americas
Early Mediveal, Romanesque, and Gothic Art
Late Gothic/Early Renaissance Art
Early Christian Art and Architecture
1. Time Period and Location: Early Christian Art and Architecture
2. Early Christianity
3. Catacombs

IN CONTEXT

4. Synagogue at Dura-Europos
Images of Christ
1. Time Period and Location: Images of Christ
2. Early Christian Art
3. Christ as Good Shepherd #1
4. Christ as Sol Invictus
5. Christ as Good Shepherd #2
Early Churches
1. Time Period and Location: Early Churches
2. Early Churches

IN CONTEXT

3. Santa Costanza
4. Old St. Peter’s
5. Santa Sabina
Byzantine Art and Architecture
1. Time Period and Location: Byzantine Art and Architecture
2. Emperor Constantine
3. Rise of Christianity
4. Hagia Sophia
5. San Vitale and the Mosaics of San Vitale

IN CONTEXT

6. Christ Pantocrator
Icons and Iconoclasm
1. Time Period and Location: Icons and Iconoclasm
2. Virgin and Child with Saints and Angels
3. Transfiguration of Christ
4. Iconoclasm
5. Virgin (Theotokos) of Vladimir
Islamic Art
1. Time Period and Location: Islamic Art
2. Basic Tenets of Islam
3. Rise of Islam
4. Aniconic
Islamic Architecture
1. Time Period and Location: Islamic Architecture
2. Basic Features of Islamic Architecture
3. Dome of the Rock
4. Great Mosque, Qayrawan
5. Great Mosque at Cordoba
6. Mosque at Isfahan
Ceramics, Textiles and Calligraphy
1. Time Period and Location: Islamic Ceramics
2. Small Objects and Calligraphy
3. Bowl with Kufic Border
4. Macy Jug
Alhambra
1. Time Period and Location: Alhambra
2. Alhambra
3. Courtyard of the Lions
4. Muqarnas Vault
Asian Art and Architecture
1. Location: Asian Art
2. China and Japan
3. Buddhism
Chinese Buddhist Art and Architecture
1. Time Period and Location: Chinese Buddhist Art
2. Tang Dynasty
3. Longmen Caves
4. Pure Land Buddhism
5. Chinese Pagodas
Song Dynasty Landscape Painting
1. Time Period and Location: Song Dynasty Landscape Painting
2. Neo-Confucianism
3. Landscape Painting
Art and Architecture of Buddhism in Japan
1. Time Period and Location: Art and Architecture of Buddhism in Japan
2. Chinese Cultural Influences on Japan
3. Examples of Japanese Art and Architecture
The Hindu Temple
1. Time Period and Location: The Hindu Temple
2. Hinduism
3. The Hindu Temple
4. Vishnu Temple at Deogarh
5. Khajuraho Temple Complex
6. Shiva Nataraja
The Ancient Americas
1. Time Period and Location: The Ancient Americas
2. Colossal Head From La Venta
3. Ceremonial Axe
4. Teotihuacan
5. Mural From Teotihuacan
The Maya
1. Time Period and Location: The Maya
2. Maya Culture
3. Maya Stylistic Traits
4. Tikal
5. Palenque
South America
1. Time Period and Location: South America
2. Nazca Line Images
3. Moche Portrait Bottles
4. Moche Ear Ornaments
5. Tiwanaku
Art and Architecture of Ancient American Civilizations
1. Time Period and Location: South America
2. Nazca Line Images
3. Moche Portrait Bottles
4. Moche Ear Ornaments
5. Tiwanaku
Early Medieval and Romanesque Art
1. Time Period and Location: Early Medieval and Romanesque Art
2. Vikings and the “Dark Ages”

IN CONTEXT

3. Sutton Hoo Burial Mound
4. Fibulae
5. Oseburg Burial Ship
6. Illuminated Manuscripts
Romanesque Architecture
1. Period and Location: Romanesque Architecture
2. Pilgrims and Pilgrimage Routes
3. Cathedral of Saint-James
4. Romanesque Architecture
5. The Church of Saint-Etienne
6. Durham Cathedral
Romanesque Art
1. Period of Time and Location: Romanesque Art
2. Bayeux Tapestry
3. Last Judgment Tympanum at Autun

IN CONTEXT

4. St. Foy Reliquary at Conques

IN CONTEXT

Gothic Architecture
1. Period and Location: Gothic Architecture
2. Influences of the Development of Gothic Style
3. Characteristics of Gothic Architecture
Chartres Cathedral
1. Period and Location: Chartres Cathedral
2. Exterior of Chartres
3. Numeric Symbology

IN CONTEXT

4. Interior of Chartres
Late Gothic/ Early Renaissance in Italy
1. Period and Location: Late Gothic/Early Renaissance
2. The Developing Renaissance
3. Late Gothic Art
4. Cimabue and Giotto
5. Siena and Florence Cathedrals
Early Northern Renaissance Art
1. Period and Location: Early Northern Renaissance
2. Two Philips
3. Very Rich Hours
Fifteenth-Century Flemish Painting
1. Period and Location: Fifteenth-Century Flemish Painting
2. Flemish vs. Italian Renaissance Painting
The Early Renaissance in Florence
1. Period and Location: The Early Renaissance in Florence
2. The Princely Courts of Italy
3. Panel Competition
4. Masaccio
5. Donatello
Evaluating Works of Art
1. Period and Location: The Early Renaissance in Florence
2. The Princely Courts of Italy
3. Panel Competition
4. Masaccio
5. Donatello
Early Renaissance Architecture
1. Period and Location: Early Renaissance Architecture
2. Florence Cathedral
3. Santo Spirito
4. Palazzo Medici