U.SpoliciesonMiddleEast1CHECK.docx

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US POLICIES ON MIDDLE EAST

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Introduction

The United States has had some interest in the Middle East for a long time, and its successive administrators have strived to achieve some of these interrelated objectives. Some of the interests the US has in the Middle East include anti-terrorism interests, preventing the influence of the Soviet and Iranian, protecting Israel and Arab allies, minimizing the migration of refugees, securing energy sources, and promoting democracy in the region. Recently, the United States has downgraded its main goals in the Middle East to what they consider as intensified interests. Therefore, they are focusing on global issues such as fighting the covid-19 pandemic, slowing climate change and rebuilding global institutions. However, the establishment of the United States policy in the Middle East can be dated back to the 18th century in the first years of the United Nations existence, but it later intensified after World War Two. Its main aim was to prevent the Arab countries from Russian influence. The US also wanted to replace the United Kingdom, which safeguarded the Persian Gulf States in the 1960s and 1970s; thus, it wanted to ensure a stable flow of oil in the Gulf. Therefore, the US established diplomatic relations between all Arab countries except for Iran and Syria since the suspension of their relations during the Syrian civil war in 2012. However, their interests in the Middle East have lessened in recent years since the Arab spring protects. There are now focusing on ending the Arab-Israeli conflict and minimizing the spread of weapons of mass destruction. Following the United States’ involvement in the Middle East, this paper looks at policies and presidential initiatives, and actions that former administrations have created or supported. It also looks at the why and how these policies are important to USFP and Americans in general.

President Jimmy Cater in the Arab-Jewish War

For over half a century, the United States has played a key role in the Israeli-Palestinian conflict. Its decision to join the war happened in the aftermath of WW II, hence it collaborated with the United Kingdom In 1946, where they agreed on settling the 100 000 Holocaust survivors to Palestine.[footnoteRef:1] This prompted the United States to be the first country to declare Israel as an independent state in 1948. In 1967, after a six-day war, the United States, with United Nations and countries like Britain, Russia, and France, decided the arbitrate the conflict between the Arabs and the Israelites. The United States later in 1973 decided to take the lead negotiations after Israel defended itself for invading Egyptian and Syria, therefore, obliging the US to take the lead in future negotiations. President Jimmy Carter himself got involved in the peace negotiations between Egypt and Israel when they reached an impasse. Despite the fact that Israel emerged victorious militarily, the Arab states dealt Israel a huge psychological setback. The conflict was also a watershed moment in US foreign policy since it spurred Arab oil producers to decide on banning oil trade with the US. [1: Brooke Sherrard, "Power, Faith, and Fantasy: America in the Middle East, 1776 to the Present - By Michael B. Oren," Religious Studies Review 34, no. 3 (2008): xx, doi:10.1111/j.1748-0922.2008.00308_11.x ]

Major policies of President Jimmy Carter on Middle East showed that he was greatly interested in the Middle East. There are several successive policies he helped put in place. He intervened when Russia invaded Afghanistan and he responded to the Iranian hostage crisis. He also, chaired the handover of Panama Canal to Panama. Preident Jimmy Carter, in his one term of presidency played a great role in establishing peace in the Egypt-Isarel war. He also normalized relations with People’s Republic of China. All these, he achieved although he was being regarded as an outsider as he did not have much experience with foreign affairs.

President Carter, made peace resolution of the conflict between Arabs and Israel as central policy of his administration. He was so committed with this negotiations which made him to be very successful in peace making than his predecessors in almost six administrations. The other presidents negotiated on ceasefires and warned of engagement between Israel and other Arab States therefore, did not commit time, resources and policies on peace negotiations. Hence, by President Carter placing the negotiations at the centre of his administration, he committed a lot of time and resources on the conflict making his policy very successful.

Following the fighting, Henry Kissinger, US Secretary of State, functioned as the main mediator between the Arab governments and Israel in the months that followed. In 1974 and 1975, his shuttle diplomacy between Middle Eastern capitals helped reduce the intensity of the war and untangle the combatants.President Jimmy Carter of the United States convened the Camp David peace talks between Egypt and Israel in 1978, which resulted in two frameworks that laid the groundwork for future Mideast diplomacy. The first framework called for Palestinian self-rule discussions. The other framework called for Egypt and Israel to sign a peace treaty, which they did in 1979 in the White House. Jordan, while being a party to the 1973 war, did not participate in the discussions for fear of being condemned by other Arab countries.[footnoteRef:2] In 1994, Israel and Jordan signed a separate peace deal. [2: Reich, B. The United States and the Arab-Israeli Peace Process. In Confidence Building Measures in the Middle East (2019) (pp. 221-247). Routledge.]

When Carter entered the Office in January 1977, his first policy was to convene the Geneva Middle East Peace Conference. It was a multi-lateral meeting which was being chaired by the two super powers; United States and Russia. His main aim of holding this meeting was to bring all the stakeholders involved in the Arab-Israel conflict together so that they could discuss on a comprehensive peace. For four months, President Carter himself visited all the stakeholders state’s decision makers so that they could explain to him their decision s and so that he could immerse himself in the conflict details. His main aim was to reach to some agreement although they highlighted some differences as the parties wondered what was the agenda of the meeting.

While attempting to mediate a compromise between the parties, the US has sheltered Israel from international criticism, which some argue has hampered diplomatic efforts to end the war. Because it perceives the United Nations as a biased platform against Israel, the US has used its veto power as a permanent member of the UN Security Council to block scores of resolutions censuring Israel since 1970. Since 1980, the US has only permitted the Security Council to censure Israel for settlement development once, in late 2016, when the Obama administration refrained from voting on the issue.

President Roosevelt involvement with Operation Torch

The other policies and presidential initiatives were based on torch, the first American offensive operation in the European war which was under Roosevelt’s presidency. Operation torch was important in determining the war’s future trajectory and eventual victorious ending.[footnoteRef:3] Torch also deserves to be recognized for its pivotal role in establishing the conditions of the Usa’s long relationship with the governments and citizens of the Middle East, as if that was not enough. Operation Torch was a major risk both politically and militarily. President Franklin D. Roosevelt was trapped between the recommendations of his generals, who persuaded an early and huge attack of Nazi-held France, and Winston Churchill’s post-Dunkirk caution, who feared that his embattled nation was just one defeat away from collapse, as he was pressed to open a second front to relieve the strain of Hitler’s push into the Soviet Union.[footnoteRef:4] FDR, siding with his British partner, backed Churchill’s alternate plan, a daring proposal to avoid continental Europe and begin the long march to Berlin by invading the Vichy French’s North Africa dominion, which was then held by Germany’s allies. [3: Brooke Sherrard, "Power, Faith, and Fantasy: America in the Middle East, 1776 to the Present - By Michael B. Oren," Religious Studies Review 34, no. 3 (2008): xx, doi:10.1111/j.1748-0922.2008.00308_11.x] [4: Thomas, Martin. "Operation Torch and Free French imperial supremacy in Africa, 1942–45." In The French empire at war 1940–45. Manchester University Press, 2017.]

Two landmark policies are associated with forming the US Middle East policy. The first one was marked in 1945 with President Roosevelt meeting King Abdul Azziz ibn Saudi, Saudi Arabia’s ruler. This conversation led to strategic bargaining, which meant that the Saudi’s would exchange energy in return for security. That was a move that the US had long awaited to have relations with world’s largest oil producer. The other policy was in May 1948 by President Harry Truman who overturned a recommendation by secretary of state George Marshall on declaring independence on the state of Israel. Hence, President Truman made America not to be associated with the conflict between Arabs and Israel.

Roosevelt’s determination to preserve official contacts with Vichy worsened Anglo-American disputes over the Middle East. The President promised to cover North Africa’s essential food and fuel demands, even to support the colonial administration, via his chosen agent, the pale and middle-aged but seemingly unending Robert Murphy.[footnoteRef:5] The Vichy administration was supposed to stop cooperating with Germany to allow American agents to work with diplomatic protection. According to one intercepted Nazi communication. When American forces ultimately landed on North African soil, the intelligence provided by these operatives proved invaluable. Therefore , although some actions such as operation Torch under President’s Roosevelt spurred more disputes in the Middle East,it was a very essential for America as a country. The victory in the war helped to establish the long relationship between countries in the Middle East and the USA. [5: Thomas, Operation Torch and Free French imperial supremacy in Africa, 1942–45, 23]

President Truman’s Policies on the Middle East

One of the most remarkable presidents in making policies in the Middle East is President Truman. His determination and interest in the Middle East were similar to how he addressed other overseas issues. One factor that influenced his altitudes in the Middle East is his experience in world war 1and his participation in the Democratic party.[footnoteRef:6] He also had extensive knowledge of the historical roles of great people. Another factor that led to this great determination for the Middle East is his knowledge of the scripture. Like many former presidents, Truman had detailed geography of the Middle East. Due to his religious beliefs, he believed in civil rights and advocated for democracy. Therefore, a man who had such an altitude in the Middle East is what the United States had longed for. [6: 6 AMANAT, ABBAS. "Sykes: Portrait of an Amateur (1975), London and the Invention of the Middle East: Money, Power and War, 1902–1922 (1995), and Churchill and the British Impact in the Middle East (2009). He is presently writing Truman to Bush: The Impact of the Middle East on the US Presidency."]

The first issue in Middle East that Truman faced and had to take some action was Syria. The French government had refused to honur their pledge to respect the Syrian independence. The French had refused to remove their garrisons in Syria, and when protest arose, they retaliated with fire. Since Truman did not want to engage in war against British and French forces, he first requested that the French Troops live the country[footnoteRef:7]. However, the French still refused to move, and then President Truman agreed to use pressure and force to move the French. The US considered Syria as its ally, and therefore, it had to protect it from any attack. He was later confronted with the Libya crisis and vowed to return it back to its Italian colonizers. He crushed the Russian over Libya. Still, at the same time, the British and the US troops decided to get out of Iran and respect the country’s sovereignty, but the Russians refused to. Therefore, Truman vowed to ouster the Russians out of Iran and the Gulf. These conflicts culminated in the Cold war where the Soviet Union clung to Turkey, Iran, and Iraq. The main reason for the fight was the energy resources in the Gulf since, it has the largest oil production. President Truman wanted to develop diplomatic relations with Gulf counties where they wanted to exchange security for energy. According to President Truman and the United States, the Middle East was a desirable area for so long has been interested in expanding United States territories to the gulf countries.[footnoteRef:8] [7: Brooke Sherrard, "Power, Faith, and Fantasy: America in the Middle East, 1776 to the Present - By Michael B. Oren," Religious Studies Review 34, no. 3 (2008): xx, doi:10.1111/j.1748-0922.2008.00308_11.x ] [8: Simpson Jr, George L. "Revisiting the US Role in Three Middle East Crises." Middle East Quarterly (2018). ]

Conclusion

Therefore, there are policies and presidential initiatives that former administrators have created or supported and are important to USFP and Americans in general. The United States has been interested in the Middle East for a long time, making its successive administration strive to achieve these objects. US target on the Middle East is; anti-terrorism interests, preventing the influence of the Soviet and Iranian, protecting Israel and Arab allies, minimizing the migration of refugees, securing energy sources, and promoting democracy in the region[footnoteRef:9]. Therefore, the United States had to help arbitrate the conflict between Israel and Palestine, although it did not favor either side. [footnoteRef:10]The country also involved itself with the operation torch, thus applying some policies on the Middle East. One remarkable President interested in the Middle East was President Truman, who contributed to some policies that were beneficial to America. Therefore, the United States has continued to involve itself with the Middle East since it has some interests in some of the countries in the Gulf. [9: 9 Brooke Sherrard, "Power, Faith, and Fantasy: America in the Middle East, 1776 to the Present - By Michael B. Oren," Religious Studies Review 34, no. 3 (2008): xx, doi:10.1111/j.1748-0922.2008.00308_11.x] [10: Brooke. S. Power, Faith, and Fantasy:America in the Middle Easr, 1776 to the present (2008)]

Bibliography

Brooke Sherrard, "Power, Faith, and Fantasy: America in the Middle East, 1776 to the Present - By Michael B. Oren," Religious Studies Review 34, no. 3 (2008): xx, doi:10.1111/j.1748- 0922.2008.00308_11.x

AMANAT, ABBAS. “Sykes: Portrait of an Amateur (1975), London and the Invention of the Middle East: Money, Power and War, 1902–1922 (1995), and Churchill and the British Impact in the Middle East (2009). He is presently writing Truman to Bush: The Impact of the Middle East on the US Presidency.”

Damis, John. “The United States and North Africa.” In Polity and Society in Contemporary North Africa, pp. 221-240. Routledge, 2019.

Karlin, Mara, and Tamara Cofman Wittes. “America’s Middle East Purgatory: The Case for Doing Less.” Foreign Aff. 98 (2019): 88.

Thomas, Martin. “Operation Torch and Free French imperial supremacy in Africa, 1942–45.” In The French empire at war 1940–45. Manchester University Press, 2017.

Reich, B. (2019). The United States and the Arab-Israeli Peace Process. In Confidence Building Measures in the Middle East (pp. 221-247). Routledge.

Simpson Jr, George L. “Revisiting the US Role in Three Middle East Crises.” Middle East Quarterly (2018).

Sherrard, Brooke. "Power, Faith, and Fantasy: America in the Middle East, 1776 to the Present - By Michael B. Oren." Religious Studies Review 34, no. 3 (2008), 223-223. doi:10.1111/j.1748-0922.2008.00308_11.x.