Essay #3

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viel tinhrssy tD ll.itrri rn(l dt Arnr.iin O)nxnln(y in l.ct)rrrh. I957-lrij2 r,iL e.!,. \rl, n\. r rr((!r (rhrrr /L r

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When Home Is Not the Homelancl: The Case ofJapanese Brazilian Ethnic Return Migration 'I a kq)u ki ( (;aku ) 7 st t da

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migmtion has incft:rscd.(,rsiderhly ir lhe pxsl tcr,(tccld("! rs milir(,rs of people ol (iernxrn, ttJixn, Spllllish, rnd Iewish decenl tjving in tixsrern ILr rope xncl l.rtin AIle .a ha\-e nrigr?lcd back to rhcn elhnic homc,lancls of Germany, Ihlv. Spxin, and Ismel (e9., see Miinz xnd Ohliger 2003j l,asrore 200rj Rcmennick rr8). In Easr Asii, over haff a rrilli(rn peop]e olKorcan and .Japlncsc desrent s.xtcreci across Solrrh A,)edca (nuinly Bmzil. l,cru, and Ar gentina) as \\'ell is RLrssix an.l China luve rerurn migmre.l 1.J Soulh Korea and .lapao (Lee 2003i Iruie 2000i Rolh 2002; llsuda 2003i yoo 2002). Even fbr sLrch elhnic retlrrn Drigmnts howc\er, honleland and horre mxy rem. n distindly cliftercnt pli.cs (see ,{ntcby Yeminir }tolscyr i\,t.rko$,j12; parriei ttis volune). Allholrgh thcy lur.e retumcd to then.erlnlic homeland, lheir diitspori. hoore comin:ts ilre often arnhivalenr, challenging fieir pre.viously nosralsjc teetinJts o .,u.l. rinr r, ll(I .o,r 1 .t ullrni onsin i;r ,Lr t-, irni, rrl.lla m grxnLs, lberefbre, lheir anceslr, homeland ntay nor feel tjke a hoD1elan.t. Ilowevct I argue rhrt tlris does n.n alurvs prevcnt il troln he!.xr)nrg a new

'l'his cll.rplcr will explorc lhe oiien .onrrudicrory rclatjonshjp bclween honeland and bonre hy xnrlyzing rhc elhnic return migration .,f second an.l drnd genll'ation Jxpancse Bmzilians t,oDr Bnzil ro Ixprn. Allhoush lhey are /rl{*err, (lap.rncse descen.l.rnrs bom and ised oulside of.lapan) who ha.l ..xpressed slrong atllchmenr io.lrprn in Brxzil, rhey art c(hnically excluded and so(iilly nrarginrlizcd as tbreigncrs in rhen ethnic homelan.t because of q.'hat lhe Iipanese per.oive rs the Br.rziiixn cultuml di*lrences rhcy hx\-e ar, quned Nhilc living.rl)roxd ti, Senemlions. As a resulr. ihe Bnzilian nikl(ei jnr are rlienated liom their counrry of erhnic origin, maknrs ir ctilficr l fbr rl.<.. rut\1(ri(n., rt J.,liur,,-lJ.lLJ U(,tik rt,i. t,^: .r rtrrr,it 1i t,o.r,(. land hoselet tircy h:r!.e made thcr)rselves .,a1 llome,'inJapm by hecornns lon!i1lnllll,lilinl\ilir|\Jnt|l\,1..llnc\,ll,.{lJln.'lJ rigranl encllr\e cor)nmrnities rhar ltal-e ir.ilirxrcd rheir tivcs .rnct compen- satcd fi)r lheir ethnic and social .tlienarion in hpan. In rhis manner this chap, ter will exaDrine hos. an alienxring place dmr docs not teet lihc a homellnd can srill becoDe .r home.

Bccause of .r scve.e Bl"azilian econonic .risis and a cipptins shorrge of ,.n.lll,.lr,l ui rn l,rnJ.r rl(.tan..r,.. B-rlit rn. t,.)r,n r(r rn n,,g,.,r.ng r. Jlpan in rre i:rte 1980s as remporxrv migmnr laborcrs llnd tbund \.ork pfl- mlr]ly in fr.lo es ofsmall in.l rncd[rm sizcrtJxpanese (onpxnies. Allhoush rl ') d., .,lJ \..1\ srll c.l r, rr,\l rn(l r,ont),rm.Lj,ttr,,r*t,r.kg,orn.t in Bri7il, tlrey e.rrn th,e to ten times iheir Bl',Lzilixn silades in.lapan as iacft,y $ukefs. Clrrrcnlly estimatcd al over 280.000, lhe Brazitian nikkeiiin hivc l)e come the sc.o.d l.rryesl popuhtion of lbreigner-", in Jinan afrer rhe Chinese ancl thelr nunrbers condnuc lo in(Iease xr a sready pr.c, Atihoush nx)sr of lnclr rr,!i,l( srrl. rl, rnr,n.,,nul r.iUrlirrtoBrrT.l inr.orrpr,,,r 1.rr..

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onny havc mllc(l(,vcr rh(nfu!)rilicsrrclllrcf,(xcss()fk)n!tlurnscllknent lus ltlrcrdy l)Ltun (scc'l:sud. l9r9j Yurunaka 2000)

'lhis chiptcr is I)ascd on over rsenly nronlhs ol fieldq,ork an(l p:riicipxnt ohsen.rlbn in l,olh liprn:rnd Brazil from 1993 Io 1995 Nine nl(lntlN Ne.. lirst spe.l nr B.a7il xnrong nvo separirte.lxpanese Brrzilirn connnunirics i. rhc ciLies of l)ono Alegre (Rio (.il:lnde do SLr]) and ttibeirno l,rero (S.io l,rukr. During rny one year slry in ]apan, I con([rcted fiel.lwork iJr Kx$as?ki (Kxnaga\r.r preii'c[rre) and Oizuri/Ol, cities (in aiulnna prefe.lxre), wherc I workcd lor fbLr. monlhs as a parlicipxnl obse&cr in a l ge electrical xp pliancc fa.bry Nith aboul ten thorNand sorkers, of \!ti.h one lhousxnd ircrelapanesc BraTilians. Ckrse lo one hun.lred in deplh rrneNiess (nr Por tulucse and Jafanese) $ere condudd *'iib laprnese Brazilixns rnd.lxprn lsc u,orkers. resideol.,j, enlployers, and offi(ials

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AMI]IVALENT HOMECoMIN(;S

Cultural Differences and Edlric Marai.alization jn Japan

AlthoLrgh the Jxpanese Brazilians hx\c l)ecn o lcially sel.omed by the .,apanesc govcrtuncnr. Nhich lr.l.s gunlecl lheln special reneE:rhle s'ork \,.isas

"s .Japxnese clescen(lxnts, lhey are elhnicxlly rejeded as fbrcigner\ incl s.)

cirll_v n rgrnalized in Ixpin becalrsc of drcir (rlurxl .liferences In lhis manner, despite heing adntittcd 1.) Japan be.ause Lhq are m.irlllhfanese, llley do n.rl speak.lepanese very \\,ell rnd l]llvc l).(unc .nllurally ]lrazilian jzed to vuious degrees. ,\s a resulq nbst Jxpxocsc I inrcniewed in Japan f iewed then as quile cultur.rlly fbreign and did n.rt ctlrnkially ac.ept lhenr rsJapllnese, indicxling the exclusionary nxturc of.lrpincsc cllnrc nationxl idenlily. 'lhe remrks of one locil rcsidcnt $,err iltritc rcprcsenlatn.! ol lhis genelai Japanese reaction

There's x l(f ol ,rakan lsent,)l ii(().grrityl lo$xtus rlx)se wlh 1u!e r Jxprnese 1x.. hut r(: r,,lt(tr.rlLy llrrTiliin. ll lhey hrve !.tuprrese he, !!e in rerpret rhis to Dexn they rre.lrprnesc, !) wc in(iNlly rppr)N(l) Urc oikkeilin dris $x) llut t|en \hen Nc lni (hq N,c (ult(ully (lill.renl, we sry, tliel arc

In fact, the.lxpanese Brazilirns rre consantly c.lled 'lga,rr" (foreigneN) by

Because ol their stahrs as .llturally diifarent fbreigne$, mosr of m_v lxpa- nese Brazilian infbanilnll tell socidly excluded nl.lapen ln fact, .r.cor.ling 10 onc rcscarch s(rNey. ,r1.3 per (--nt of the Bmzilian nikkeilin in.lxpan repofi rlxtl lhey have almost no socixl contacr with the lxpanese and 158 p.'rcenl

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i

i

I lo lithr kl knlxt)'lt tkl (llnn groUps lnrl js ir stxl lll( riIrilcslirli, )lu )l l l)ll)l(tr,, l]xu.lr) ol so( ill].tnnrp s(Ar!l+'li(rr 'llk s(trill.r(lrsloll (,1 tltr.lnlzililn llikt(.iinr t)y llt,Jlll)Jncsc is u ''n(n'nnl" r(r( li()n,r lr)"gInrt) llruIl)rN ro,r,lllsi(t('t},,, whn.tr is sinrpty exr.cr l)rrcd in lhis.xsc ,x1.l(lr(,rlR gr(,Ut) (tiflc,cn($ .rc n]tl(h itrcxtcrl

i)uring my ll(ldwork, ir xlso l)c.x0rc xpfxrcnl rhlr lhc cthoic rvokt.rn.e hch:rvior ol rhe.jllpxncsc is nor just t)xscd ()n cx(tusionxry grolrp dynamics o. simple rehrdrncc Io o\,crcor))e l)l eft of (Itrual di|i,ence. Ar inncs, jr scened motivrted l)y latcnl pre,udi.e towarct lhe nikkciijn, which is based on negativ. precon.cprions oftlteir nigmtjon legacy, social clxss st.rtlrs, rnd Bmzilian culturll l)ehaviorr iuany ol ny.lapanesc infbrmds vi!,v,ed the Brxzillan nikkcijin as des.cndanrs of o ginafly poor an.l uncducated Japan ese of Lo$ social class hackgolrn t Eho .olrld nor su.rivc or endure eco- nomic diflicullies in.hpxn and thus ahandonecl thef own counhv xncl emi_ 8r.,r<J,o llruzil lh'. <lnnr' lr n <tlion or tl,< ni,+(ri,.n i, IInhcr sor,erreJ by their crrrrent retu.n migrxrion ro Japan as migranr workerc. Since most of n1y Japmese infbrDrants associateLl migrrnt worlcrs \\,ilh pove(y an.l did not know thrt thc Japanese Bruzilians are of niddlc class bacLground in Bmzil, thly sa\r' dre nikkeiiin as poor pcople who couid not survi\,e eco- nomic.rlly nr Brazil and $,ere fius for.cd to comc !o Japan ro earn noney.'therefbre, the nikkeilin rnigr.rnts arc subjecre.l ro a double stigma-rhc cte s.cndants of rhose r,.ho inithlly fled to Bnzil hccause they slrpposedly could nor surwive inJapxn lravc no$, rerurne.l to.lap,rn t)ecause they could nor sur vive economically in 8ruzjl eitller. ]'his nMgc of migmnt po!-erty is cxacer_ bated by a genenlly low per.eption of tsrazil jtsef as a poor an.l underde, r.eloped Third Vtnld counny. Iew of my Jlpanese intarflnanrs we.e awarc tl1at nrcst nikkeijin come liom developed and nbdcmized Bnzilian cities.

There is xlso consklerahlc social class stigma airrched !o lhe Lrffldll€d facrory iobs lhar rhe.Japanese Brazilians perfbrn nr Japan, which are een-tlJlh (n.hn J. bllp,/ 'JJnp, r.U\,. htta'@ 'in|| cnJ prsrl,Ji.ti.;rtr) The social stisma etrached to such ,JK, s.orking ctass iobs inJapanese so ciety has grox.n in recenr ycars as an inc.easingly he(er-e.lucaled popu la.e lur come ro acriveiy sltun such dcgrading ancl demeaning *-ork lrow eveq even my Japanesc informanrs u,tlo wcre pall of this stigmarized \\'orking class looked do$n on nikkejjin n gran$ as mcmhers of an even loBer so.iai clxss thm rhenNeh,es. Becalrsc immigmnrs seem ro evoke im, rges of econonic .lespe.rrion in Japan, I was surprisccl by the nu,rber of .lap.nesc factory $r,rkers v,,ho seemed to assume rhxr rhe_lapanese Bmzil ials livc very poorly in lapa., errning low i,ages and confined lo miser able housing.i Inrally, fie Japxnese r inteniewecl genenlly ha.i negati\-e ofrnr,n,or rl'r -Bfdzr rJ1 .,.lrIJl l" h.r!.ror or rtrs Jlrkk,.ijin ,,orJl \\ ,,rn the hcbry ind in publi., rn.l $crs elhnicatly dis:rppoinled becausc rhey r\fc,l.J (a, nJ.,pJr,i.u(....r.1:,nI. l,orn rt{uJJ lu.,1Jin,,,orrJ.,pr <..

T \l htl llrrr

^ Nt,l ll| l ltn t k hl tll

'Ilr( (\t,r,Ii( Inrlrilllllrxli(nr,,1 llri Jlt)ln.s. Ililrzillirns ls l ll(rll,l. irrl r.r(lily (lisp()stll)l( ril.lrxrn lxl!tr l(n.. irlso so(iirlly rlrrinllizcs lltr1ll (xr Ilr, hd(ry fl(xn. Sin.c risl lltuzilIrn Iikk(iiin tlrc inli)nIll, l(!)it),)rrr)r.(nrtIr(1 w,kcrs who lrc 'bor1)!,icd linr (nrlsi(le lllx, l,r,kcr ll'rns, llr(,y xr. n,,l crnpk)yees who bck,n8 lo lhc.(tr prnics \\herc thcy w(,k rn(l xrc tlxrrli nc scprruled fiom regul.rr.l.rpancse enrpbyees. In 1l(i(lilion, Lrs (rsuxl :rn(l (lls pr)sable wo&for c(j, thcy .rre (I)nsl, ntly transfercd l)y llrcir lxlxn. l)r )kcr tit ,r I I r)ne conrpany to anothcr depeftling on clmnginS fro(lLrctj(D n(.lrds. As l r( sult, most of the.llip.rncsc hazilians rt'I'oyann did n()l stly in rhc lir( l{,ry li, |lore than a fir$ to severdl 1rDnlhs. Nlost.lxprncsc \{()&e,rs (li(l n(,t l)oll(r l(, $socjatc wjth such nigrrnt lahorers Nho arc oulsi(k{s k) lhr.()nrl)xrry lrxl (onstanlly (ircul.te in.rnd olrt. "You nrighl lry k) ll(in,n(l ir nlkhcijill wo.ker,'a Toyanra ernployec explained, ")Irt thcn rhcy so(l([1rly (lisxt)txlr rllo next day without n?rning. so I ir$l clon't lxrhcr will) lhu lnylxnl ()n lheir side, the lapa.ese Brazilians found li[le usc in cstll)lislrill8 r( i rlllt,irl xnd long-tenn relationships s iih jxpancsc \\o.l(cN lx\ Lrs( ol llr( ir srltlls Is lransient outsiders $,llo could leave d rny tirnc ln lhis llrxllnu. llr'(r,, noDric confinement of migr.rnt \lorkel.s to lhc pcith(lll hlxn | krt ln. comes n sigrificant social banier that lnakes hoLh rnilt(llls In(l tlx.h lrrrs unwilling to interact with each other (cl. ttollr 20021 7).

Feelings ofAlienntion i11 Jrpan

The socioeconomic nurginalizxlion that.lepanesc Brizilian i|nlligrurts.x ped--nce in Jlpan is qLrile .lisconcefinrg for many of lhc,n rvhr) nr llrrzll llr(l a snong klentific.tion ivifi Japan ancl therelbre expe.rc(l 2n clhnl( lx,nr( coming in Japan r' -Although few expect to be embra.cd iust lik( irn,,rll(1 Japanese. many hopc lo he sociallv a(cepred. As a rcslrlt, $4x,n su.h (xp(\ talions are sorcly clisappointed bv their erhdc cxcllrsion ,nd socill selrrrrrr lion in Japxn, lfu resull is a profbund sense of social alienatior, whi(,r wls manifested in rcx.Ibns ot' dirconle , displeasur, and cven clisrnxy l)or1k1 ing on outrlrlle.

A good number of my lnfornunls claimecl fiat they di.l not dpc.l sr[1r strong socid separation hetwecn dtcmselves :rnd dleJapanese xnd lclr (tLrlt( de.eivecl. Those with elen s!onger p.ior expecLations of sociil .r(ccplxn.(, irn.l inch$ion in Japan reLrtd to rhcir so.ial nra€inalization .rs li,risn(ls nol only :ls a flrpdse, but.N a "sho.k, indicating a Dore porve ul expcri ence ol so.ixl alienation. My .oo,nnute, Rodrey, $as ccruhly one oI lhe r:

ln llrxzil, $e were dltlrys prul ( )l ou. Jrprnese xn esrr!- .rnd (trr ries t,).lrprn xnd drarght ol the Japh.,se pcoplc io tx)silive rays. Aidnugh i donl stx.xk Jrpanese th.t wetl, I dn[ght thc Jrpanese wou]d x.ept us bceus. wc rre J.paoese des.endants. (l,.lnjj l()Japrn rnd heing tre e.lxs. ftrignc. dcsl)il(,

ll,J ,th[t"|\tkl t (;lllt ) ,t\ tltt o)y,it)rd({.1:r(1,wrs r t,i8 slr(k lin.rr.,. stk(.k II n.vfr iir.B{1. r ltriit ir.smlriL thil we dr Nn *{ii ty i((i1n(rt trci, sinrtry lt.rus( wc v;(, t,(r1rDC (,rl-lrnllv rtilJi!r!n

I w.ls also srruck try th! nun)t)er of lhes rhe Bl.uilian nikkeijin rcf.erred totheir social sepir,rlion in jllpan as .dis.ri,Iina1ion' or evcn LL5ed d1e more ethnically charyed rerm of .,rlcisln., For exampte, .onsider rhe colnmcnls of an older nisei mxnr

nre Jdprner xlways keeP us sep2rate.t irom fiem hccausc of rtic preildices dt.r drel lave. r was oticn te.l \hen r tusr saw rljc a)drr

""pr,,,ri - ,i rl,y",*.Ther de sone Jrprnce who snnply d()n,t like us an,l d,_I t"," ""

;:'.;,;;sr,r B. z.lirn,I ).,-.r.. r..n,lr1.JnJ J: t,.,-<f . rt.._. rJ,. u.r t.t, .t _r,fJtu\i. thr,) Jn,njri)-r" rx-.n\ ).i, dn\, \,,. ..rn. u...,r.l.cr!r., I Ttje Jrprncsearc m.isLs, j) e\en tlrc iixpaDesel lJrazilians e"p".i"n." ,_Ix,i,"in,ri ,n here. In Bezil, rhts type otdis.rnninrdon exisrs iDjy ru*".t t tr"t..

i" ,1,: "1,"*, .r rnJ,olq ,,r m) inromranr, $r n.q Ir( I,ort-<rr(r J.ru ,rr:lr,,l'(Lll) rlrirr (rhJx. <r.t,r.jon rn tJnJn. m,Jj"rrngJn,L,rt, l (ns*otJ.rJr( oJ ..jr.rl ilulJrron Dtn"t 4r rhr.rtk J,c,trnJivr.tr,.rt su,trr(r:n8, ut

allcnarion nEke ir nnpossilre fbr mrny Japanese Bmzjlians !o rcnrinue iden- tilyinil $ith Japan, leading ro a loss ot ihei. ethnic homeland. A homehnJ i.sn-l.rn,tly r. or.rrr) ot ori8rl rn rn ut,t-. li\i.(n:r rl rrlr\r h irrt ._J q, tl no\rlr\( \,nurron.rt a ,1 I d. :r rjtJ,,.or ,t(.:.rr "nJ ianSins ro s,,i, h urc .nltirro r.rl rrtl: J ,bnnc .(n,i uf nr,.urur ta.hrrtrrt Jntt(trrotrunrl JtIiLJtron B. (,r * crurn nro ,rron hJ, ( JU,.LI rlrc J/fJn(:c Bril:tr-n. ro i (t ioLiaflvJIrrnJr,ll Jrn",r l,r. l<tor .e J ptJt,L.Jt .t,1r,1r,"rnr .,nJ."rcns"_.nr ,n' steid of afiachnenr and identif]cation .rnd n. t"ng..

"""t"" tlr.i..fi"g" ;faftlliation and tondness rlnr nake hometancLs su[.,i".ty .*oingt,t,.- --

I\tr{KING ONESEI,FAT HOME

Thc Settlement ofJapnnese Brazilian rmmigrants nr Japan

_ Altho gh Japan cenai y does not fiL,t likc a homelancl fbr fie JapaneseBraziliarx, ir is sraring ro fecl a tor like homc fbr a mrmber of rtrem. ihe main reason lir dis is that a goocl numbcr of thera hav. n".t. Jrpr. 1lr; ;;;-r\.'m. rr not tcrmdncnr rerrJr n,. flrr, indj,.Jr(. tlrr. ,f* ...,"f ,f,.

"ri;"" 3,crhnic return mignnrs in rheir ancestrai hometands does not n.*"d;; lcnt them fiom m.akng it a srable horne b€orNe immisr.rnr seritemeff is dc ,(rnlr)<(l l\ orhu iL nnurni, . Ja.nr,iJt. JnLJ ,o. irt n..,.,n. .,n,f no| t,y

" tr ;;r

ilrxnigrants develop an e orional atrachment ro the host countru Althorrgh a good nunfier of fie tsrazitixn nikkeijin wi remain sojourners

and "targd earners" s,ho wiU rcturn in the near firlu.e ro Bnz,l, a sir;' ;;;_

\t'ttrh tht r ts Nt,t tlr lkr .L kl t.J.J tbn of lhc l llll8rxnl polnrtuln)n is scr1tn18 k)I)g_term.rn!t rr))lDently in .hpirn.i Ahhough virlUilly alt ot tho.,xpancse l]lizilirrrs iniriatly nrigrnre ro Jrpan as sojorrrneli, rcsc.r.ch sur,.eys jndicate ther {t pcrcent lirveitready b!+n in Jep:rn for o!.er J ,ear.s, ,r0 perenl inrend to rernatn in.lapan for ovei lhree nrcre ycals or clkl no1 knol\,, .rnd roughly 50 nercent rish to seftlc luns-tr.,rrr in Lr14n,hrt/z.rs.r t,,,'-:,u,, trl t,b, ,r^<\,.,,n.tUddinrte (.rd\ nirdk. :hus 0ut nsrhJn. lJ ro Jn Fn t.nl Jr-t, Jtr<Jdy.i,, iLI<J tu r<- ru.n rn(l(rin.r, l) ur p rmrnrn,tl in t.rnrn \t.rlJn srJt,rt(. R,:..,r!h tnj r k I993i Kitagawa 1992, 1993)

Mos!.J.rpanese Blazilians have deciclecl to p.otong Ltreir sta,vs inJapan be- cause of economic reasons. Alrhough rhey inilially tntenct to rerurn tL Brazil in a couple ofyears after rhcy have anrassed considcr.ibte savings, most find rr JrlriUh,o.ar< monc\ h,1r,rk ot rtrc t,iEr,,o,r or JlinJr,n i,trr. tn:.i .l,l!,n.tlk.Lrc.'J,h, lonB tJtrnr\i ., or on,i. rrLr\ron lr1r.t<\.ria5r.t rh(1r,n comes by redu.ing hourly wages and orennne, forcins nunv to extend then..ur',1 lJtrn rn.r.t I ru sJv! rht ,i<.ir..l,rnorr.rr or rrrorey

h ad.lition, despire the seio s recession in.lapan, rhe.hprnese Brazitians have been able to conlinue ro find llrcralive emplolncnr because the (le- mrnd fbr their nrmigranl labor tlas become sructutatty e,Ibedcte.t jn fi-- l.tpJn('( c.on,,my. crn.s rh. (Jrlv to.0:. tJn,n tr.r,.,rt;.rt,tlu n Jn J,, rc labor shofage cause.i by de.acles of unprececlented and unb dled eco- nomic expansion, unhvorllblc demog.aphic cbanges (a .lecliflins bi(h mte Jn,lJsrng pufulr.i^n, Jnll rtrc 11,,c.r!n!j U qr insn-s of h- rir (dU. rr(\l and sociallv mobjle Japanese yourh to do unskillccl jobs.m ln addirion, mral labor supplies werc deplered, tu{her targe incrcxses in the empb}'tnetu of $,onen xnd elderly became unjirasible, and lah.,r saving me(h;nisms such as auto arion ancl lxrhcr mtionalizatlon of produciion had besun b shoE,n o,\ lir, rrron. A\ J r(:.rtr. L,lor Lr, tr!.:rnr lirn,r hi(.rqE.trn(nJrnt , n fbreign $.orkers as lhe onty realisric and cost,efficien sorrrce of tabor oo.rver therJh!,,nort.,rsnJstLrljruu,.nrt,.lhrnJ.,tong..l ,.,.,.,on. .,1," i, ty in small and mediun-sized firms in tl]c nunuhcrurtng section *here |rany Bmzilian nikkeiiin arc empk yed.

Because nikkeijin migranl labor lus bccome a strrcturallv necess,rilv .omponent of the .Iapanese economy, fie country,s ..".." ..a p..,rung.if recession has had only a relarivety milcl eftircl on rhe.tapanese nraiilians iina has not provoked a mass exoclus fronrJapan. They hare not heen lxid offen mJ.'c Jn.ltlro.r $l,o luv. t,,:l ll,r ;.t\ l \r t,.rn J ,., to trn(t ottru L1n. ployment (even if ir is at lower v,n!I.'s with worse working condfions). In id- dition, the Rmzili.in nikkeijin havc been generally insuhre.l from the re.cs.ron. wur,t , fii.l-. t,e,.r^c ot ,,,c.r pnirt.u.U p".irror on rJ,. InrnrB nr Lr,or Ir ,.k<r. lhc\ J.r.on| o, he rrn g orrps nr IrgJ t) r!tnu.r(1t, ,rn.(i !\t lonl{n qorks, rnJ,fJn -r,t.rr. rh. .no*r -irnr.a y prctrr.,t Jlrorr! rn- nrrrrxnr sulcr. l\(..ru.. ur ll.,rr.t:,trn<, Jc,,nt /nLJ prL.:ur..t,,.tr,||-l affinilies i,ilh ihe Japanese I

I

I. lithytn |(ntk ) tttklt

Mcxnwhile, x,rl1r(hrxl lllrl)r()vcnrcnl in lhc Itlx/llIro (.(on,n[v trxs nor(n.1{rx!u(l tlrI lrr:r/rli.rrr nilkIitrn t,, r(1.||n ilnr!.in.rBnrti.rnl n rl\1] cither. Sin(c lhc jnrplc r(,nlxri()n of rhc l,llno ltcll l)y rhc lJ,.xrili.rn qov ('rnrni'rr ir i9,rr. intl.rtr,,n lu\ tran t.ro 8trt .rnll(.r !,,,nlrot .rnu tl.r r..,n omy lus be.oNc nx)rc sl!l)lc, (onlp.rrsct lo rhe crisis years of rhe 1980s. Nonctheless. cconomic un.€dxinly lus detinirely contiruecl in Brazil wirh rlrr p, r,i,r.n.( ot 'o\ u.,br\ r1(t t r,,.J c 1nI, )nrrnr offorlrnirie\j an increase in the cost .,t' living lbr rhe mjddle class (Nlares 2000: 54), as well as t$o major cuffency crises in receni yexrs. Regardless of sholl rerm itnp.ovements in fie Brazilian e.onomyj rnany of my nikkcijin inform anls in Japan renrained quite pessiDristic about rheir long_rcrm economic prospects ba(k honle and felt more econonically secure io lrpan be cause ot' fie much greater employment oppotunites at nruch higher

BecaLrse of the continued a\,?jtabilit,v of johs in Japan and e.onornic un- ceflainly in Br.rzil, most Jrpancse Buzilians luvc renainsd in rhe counrtr Js'nrr. rlr. r..(.,un. l.r lr,r. th(ir Lout ilrnLiyJ-lt FJn 'ru.,n.onlrnuc: ro increase, indicxling tlut :r gro$,irlg numbe. of nikkeijin arc making Iapan a long-tcrm and srable inxnigranr home ri i\ iDporrxn! to rcmember,lrrmever, that inn granr setrlenrenl is no1 shply a resulr of econonric facrors Ovei time, irnmigrants ilso become ,.socixlly enbe.t.led,, in rhe host countrv. mak r.rS:r irs lk(l) rlr.) sill q,ri kt), rt .\ , l nr.1 tron..

As theJapancse Brazilixns havc protongcd rheir srays injapan because of economic reasons, an incrersiry! nunber of Lhem have broLrghr their families to.Japan. OlheN rre now mjgraljng to Japan i,ith lheir firmities in andciD.r tion of longcr stays. In 1990, 35 percem of ltre irnrnigrants nere alrcaclv iiv- rnd $ih rl, ir lrrnrlrr.. A t<w )c-r\ trt,1. lhr tU,,rc hJ,t .!sn.o oU tcrLrnr and remins at fie level.r,'Ihe presence of rtlc hnriy produces a griatcr so ,_Jl ,onrnlrlrrnr JIritu I mr]rrxnr\ to tl, n,,:l:o.k1). rt,r,,toie rnr\irg then ntore nilling lo beconre settl.jrs and pomr.nenr residenrs. As their chil: dren attcnd .l.rpanese schoots and acculrurate to Japanese society, nrany Brrzilian nikkeiiin have increased dreh so.ial connecrioN ancl inv;tvemenr in the sunounding Jrpanese commtnity. Since a good number of thcir chit- (lren have forgotkn l,orruguese end kno\-norhins abour Brazil. mxnv ha\,e l.r, {,rr 1l,h.rJnl lo r.nIflJte sin.r th..i r<Jli,/r tt(ir rhr,rtrcn [r.t h.r\r .r-

ous problcrns readapring to ltrxzilirn sociery. As rhev lace rhe prcspecr of an cxkndcd sr"y jn Japan with their fan lies, the Japanese Sr.rzitiaff have also become less willing to cndure tonli working houls an.l economic rus terity in an effbn to mrxnnize their eamings lnd have insreacl begun to de- sire mo.c so.ially lirlfllhrg lives inJapan. This shifi fion pureiy economic ro social priodtjL's rherefore reduces rheir ircomes ancl incrcases rhe cosl of ljv ing, nnking it even more difilurlt to sxve the amounr of Donev neessarv ro 11lIrnlramr.A. rn rn,-rJ.rng nun,t\.r ot tJnJnc,c B.JTilun rn,rnitsmrrs'.sr

lt lrrl llrlr ls Nt,t I't,In, itt'tl

llc in lll) rr li,r Iks( vrrious rcls(,rs, rhc (rnrnlry hls t)c(onrc a longlemr, strble lxrrxr l(, rlxrn

The Development of lmmigmt Ethnic Communities

In addition Io lhejr immigrnni settlemer!, Japan has in..exsinstv bccomei l,omrt..nr.r,r) lrnJn.i.nr.r/iLJn.l\./,r,cot rt,r,m.rd(n,Eot,otje.i\c xnd sef'conlajned imrnigranr edrnic communities, which has nnde (hem more accusto,ned and co'nfo able lil,ing in Iapan (cf. Rolh 2002 5-6) These immigmnt (or nlrnities are especially prominenr in areas $41erc the nikkei- jin arc highly con.entmted, and are sLrpporred hy a vasl arr.ry of Braziiian restaurants, snack shops, fbod stores, enleflainmenl renters, .loihing slores, ba$eN, houtiques. and nikkeijln .hu.ches. lirge labor brokcrs as vefl as nikkci,in assistan.e cenlels are cspecially acrivc in such co nnuniljes, pro- r'l.ling extensive cmploymenr, housing, and ottter social sefl,n.cs, meinLy in I)ortu$rese. local governnrenls in cilies wilh ]a€e njkkeijin popularionr hxve aLso bcen very reccplive io the.)apanese Bmzitians, providing nrany ser,,i.es for them, including national hxlth inslrmncc, Japanese lansrnse ,1.,jr.. rrriu(hook. Ir l,or.rqrrr\r..,,rn.Ehnp en,r^,rr(.r n,.|\o.l.,r \(.^ <!, as \.ell as assistance (in l,orruguesc) s,ith alien rcgisration inct even iob plxcemcnt. In a.ldition, nlkkeijin wirh tunilies in.laDan trave becn stronelv cn. u,,rJr(rl ro <nroll rl{ ir !l,JJr, n ir J. pJn<:r s. ho,t. ,nrt rt o.e u rrt' t. i"t nun$e$ of nikkeiiin studenls lu\'e crcxrecl speclalJ.rpanese classes fir rhenr llnd spccial teachers have been hired as peNonal tutors and assjsDnls The Japanese Bmzilixns have xlso been Eelcomed br .lapxnese Clxjstian (hurdlcs and a good murl,er have joinecl (heir cong.egations.

Such cohesive, tull scn ice nnn granr connnunirics luve greatty fa.iljlate.l the lives ol lhe Bmzjlian nikkeiiin inlapan. Even il they are elhnicalty sesre- S rr,1l .rnJ .o, rJr\ .rlicnrrrJ k, {n.t,nrnc\ \, cr). mrrv, 1 rtr(,r tu\r,\. come lery accuskrmed to living in.Japan l)y nrking themselves at home in tltcse "little Brazils" ihat allow lhe,n ro conducr lhei livcs in erhnicallv xnd , r.l ur.,lh tJrnr.iJr {,rrurrr(trnJr, r(rriri\, cnt ur rhrir nor.c .orrnrrl ot Br.rrr, In fact, mos! of the .)apanese Bmzilians' occLrparional, coxjlurer, infomra tional. ancl recreational needs can be met within lhese self-containecl rmni- gt"ant communities without n)r.h co.rad \,rirh Japanese sociery. i\,tore rh.n x fcw of my lnfornunts living in Oizumj remarked ltlar thcv clo nor really fael like they xre li\'ing in a foreign country since much of rheir daily inleraction hkes placc anrong compalriols, otten h tamiliar Brazilian culrlrral selings, enxbling rhem to malntain dleir former lifesryle ro a cel12in extcnt

In additio., an active e(hnic nuss rnedja has develope.t anong the txpan ese Bnzilixns ioJxpan shich center around 1luee $eekly Pofluguese ne\!.s pape$: tl\a International Pr.'ss, Folba MundidL an(l Tu.ta Bem. Onc su ,ey lo n,i J,Jr 80 Il(rrrnt ,n nis^ciirn r11n gr.rnr. rc-Lj nn( ol rlrc.r lJn(.. all or

nrrtr {)l llr, lirrr( (N(rrr,l(, (1 ,rl ti),)i) N()l {}Il} is rx.\s lrrnl ltr.rzil irrxt | | I ,. | | , | , . , I , , | , 1 | | , | | | -, t,.,tx1\ ttr l ,t..,t,l,ti.l.,r..r,,.,.,t,,,, .,,rIrti..., .L.l,r'r'. t{. l,l(.rF..,rrlt!.,"{,.,J,\J(1k.rri.s,rrrrr.l..t..,,n._.t{r.r/ r. F )\I.(nrs prrls (, ,Il)l,r '11tr. t)irlxla rts(, .r,nlin inisj ess rD(t serrn.(. ann(,r!xcr cnls, enl(rrinrllclll NUi(t(.s, inlirlriIirI llxnrl Upc(nni08 clcnls, lr) ads,xnd I sc(ln,r ir wtti(.t) (,ldc,s,(tuc{n,rs .Uc Lrnsw .(d. 1n actciirion ro nrrvq,pxpen, Ioaugucsc mdn) p.(,gl,iuns, txrackast ltrrm srxrbns in Shizrloka,rukv,., Jn.l NJr-,{.r.tj.,r,.r,.^.\,ur,,1.t,.,1 or rtr- 1,,11;r.rnl ,,,,,,,,,.J;;

.Urps\., r,i.,J,Jst\ tcrt,I, n,.,ur n.JnJn,1\, Hrrar.r,r,LL.i..,nJ,1fli_,t,,l<rkr.Jrnr,,r lan-n,.,.8r./jtun,<j\punn.rnF,t,t,..1 I.\ n t.,p,n. B;-/,,.;nl.h1-.,.nhJ..rhJl$olrn.lJ utttrc LrS.rrr l.rlrnBrr/il soap opcrus, corrredies. and v.rdery shows a;e rcc.rrdedon videorap.-xnd scnt ro nikkeijin{q,ned storcs in.lapin fbr rcnt. Suning inO.L$er 1996, Bnzilixn satellire teicvision has atso hecone nid.ly

^,rjfii;r.r,lJr nrtn.j,rn rn L,n,r rt n qtr J (ir-rrrt rrrrr h: I n.t hrcJrt, -, ;nS *rvi r,,lJr.l'i','ls l\ B\ \,tJr. I tlrau.-r.t nr.J.ui.rn Lur\hoJJ. l,r(i ..rlF,r:'.<.lrurlr..rr\n<,\,.,1-k/00t: r{ir tirrl,trJ,r rl.w.nJDLr\ r,,!J/in/s Jn,. r r.., I( ,.\o,(J(Ir) .,\.,rLl,r, rtuo,,xh

" .k.,r" t;.ll ,;,.:;.Japan. Although rMny.lrpanese Bnzilians do not ii". tn g.og.rpbi."t4, .or.,-(entrted ilnmjglllnt (onnDun ies rnd irc sca[ered tGughnur j"fr,n inrou'r,.,nJ.ir.. \\rrr rtn ,rc. r,n ,rrr.rit ,,rr,,,,) ,,,"., ", ,t..lrl ;,;rL'rJ\ .,,,.\ t,,{h\ -trrnr! Ir,,,l,J J,nr ,,,n,rr1ct^.( ,L1run.,1I1,..r(,t ,,,I'.r'x, r rn,.rB,n,

" l . ur. ,,,I1i,) ot nik\, ijrn .r,rrrrr. I r\ r..,JfJnIr rUln.n c\11j trlrl Ll .nu, r<.i.t. rn,nrc ot !n.,I! tI t. Br.rr(,

'rr .l Br.,/rlr.,I nr,,((rt . .rrr I\ r.r -t , olr..i!( , rnn . r.tq.rx .,,Irn irn:,ri.\ ulIrn'\ ,clJ'r\s. l,;,r,t, r,Lt-,it,r.,rn r.,..qhr,r, ,J(r.tInr tt\tJr tJ,.

I ,},,o r'l( rir E rlr .ju, i.rl J.i n rrrol Irr\ r\n,.,rrn ( I I rf-n \4on ;, f. J t

ll lll,. " *',, r. .tr prt.,r.r ,i rh, r.,n,,) rn r..p.,n r:h,-. n,rr..7'n *rro llll ,lr,- ";",, rr. rn r.r-n I,r,j.r.nr,\ ..u,i,nrJ.ri.r o,,rr r,,.rl nc:,,

I r..,iJ,r n rh, \ c\n,1r.n, u,ra. J rr{,tt .r.rt,rJr:o1 lrulr ll'(ir i nr'r(\. nt.,rir,\. Jn.t Irtrr.t. stjo qu. I( l{t,rn(r irdrr/-l ln.rll.Irrar . ,'r.rn\ .,{r,,.r c 1,, h< n,..,orJll) JnJ cJ,.tr.1rlt! JtLf,. r,(..1 ro ll.,r nonr,.. ft-nrt rr,t'l t.,.Lrpnorl knr..rn,t.rr...,n,,.ni.l,rqo LrrIt,l{rnlnr. r.1,.1,r..,',.,n ul rl.,,r . t,t tr<. $no,js t\1nE r.,i.rJ $i,,,,..;.; ;,:(nr L, 1,, .1.^, r, u0 Fr., n, ^r rtl t:rFn_,!. t\trzni.n, _t( \rtia,tu,lror '.r\ni\. l, n;lrnr,.,. llr..trjr,rq.r .n.1.t t,^,,t,.m ..\ tr|llrrn,r r1 hp.rn (sc.' Kitagx\-.r 19921 Jxpin Sturisri.:s Rescxrcf, r.ot,*. iqq:i. rr.,rr*.,i.r .qtJrt i,rrnr:orrrrl.(ir tJhit.r,r, JJn!n.{..I .mor,,nJt LlrJti r.tr.(..r.lJ l.'l,l-rF{1hJ..,1!'tlr() t.rtlr,,frr..,nJ.t) J J,rtrr,t,,r ,1, lro. (. u, nlr\. \, rl" ir lorrrn! rn,,rrItr.L kn,-. to. trrJlrt .,IL.nU-t,.dn,r r,,_1 ..n., ,,l-('i Iri-q(.lJ !t,..I-.t ,n.l.unJ^,r. 1( l:,rnNrntrfJn { rr, to,c<l r,.hrr,)re rh( n,!I( Ur.nr t^+1n,.

\thtl, ttnrt t\ \\t llr ttatrlt,ttl tl,. 'll( ,ilIlly,rls,) lr({(hs ltx. trr. litirl Iittt(ijiI $irtr s,nilIy lx,lr)trutUI

lll)(l irlir)rlrtr.IIIili,rl 11hri,nlstriJ)s lt)lr trtp nculrrtizc rtn,n.g"rtu..*1i"ri. (1)(r's rllcy l)lv(, i tirt)lll ls :r s, tr ,r! (,rnntri.ir v nnrgin:rtizc(t ir)nnigrlni nri norily. ,\ nu|rl)(1 ()l Ir) rrikl{ctjin ln(nrnlnrs spoke rbout how the prescn(: (,1their t:rnrilil's llr lx,nc .rlk^vs lhcr. ro ijr lheir crrnplatnrs aoct gitevrnces in.hpan, thus reljc!ing rhcnr ol lhc irsrr.rrions tirxl i..unnrllrle in lheir.t.jtvL\(. !.,1,.t ,.,1,.( B,J,,tr.n rl. hr! r.,(:, r) .fuk, ,,r .hr.,.,. r-t r ,t< ot his iar)ilv as lbltows:

I s(tr d hxfc norhint her-- in Japrn tr.irh()!( rny ltnrih. \x/i lheI]r. he((rn(.s-,tr|..!, ,.n, r,til/ t,- J.r ,tj"., ..,t..', q,.t,.(.\ in8 in.l2prn \ie or seprrfie oul (trrr lliLTjlirn h,cs in l1r t.roril, ]j.(nn l|e rn+, .'n. ,,,, f,,in '1,, lrt.rt,,.ri .,.. t,.t,,. t,.,.t.r i .,f,rrjo ,i rljrnc widr nr) wile l.ttiing:Lllrt dr prfilerns $e cncounter |.fe in.t{|)a.

AIorrr' .n.1\:.1,',1 rn' rrnrr l..rl !,..rt.I,\Fn,n.,,

]t is rnu.h exsier t() ()vc(rnc ru pnr)lems in ,xD.n with rhe l.irmih, vr{,(.xn n,,rF.r\r-.' .,1 1.,,|, Srir",. rnr.,.....,t, '..'t( rt,. hll-culries ar \ork.n(lwhrt \!c do.l like rboul rhe.lrpaner vtend Lpli,.lins dLt our tn)hleDs hde t)ecn rltevi.rre(t. vith rhe U,rily. w. Qn pr,rcct,*ri selvrs m()(. Nidlnlt nrl wIc here. I $o&l tE nxr(.influcn.c(t hv rtn: hi! ur-. tr.r,.1r..,\. 1 .r e i..t..,.e{ -,.re.'

The lirnily ilso serves as x s()rrrce of srarus. fresrigc, !n.J resped 1tr:rt :rt Io$'s_lhe Bmzilian nikkeijnr t() disrxn(e thernsetves fiom thcir low orcUp.r lionll stxlxs as unskilled imnrtgmnt $orkers outsictc rhe horne uegarlcss of lhe s.xirlly dL,.lirading nntlrrc of their fa.t(,I j.rbs, the.hpanesc Brrzitjans ,..nlFrrL.rt,Lr\rtljnronL ,r.nLlr.,.Jr.tirE,_ttjrr.o$n,,lt .t. r'1.r..,!r. a'i.rJts hr,$rrlI1 rl,,r ,IrLith*.rtr.,,t(..r1raBrl,r \,.:.,t !.tr -,r,1..r tn rrct :rnd cohcsive famities provkje a conrdr ibr dtc.ltlprr.s(, Brxritjrns r() pefoflu their respectc.l so.ixl .des rs firhcr or m(nher liilU| lbcir (trfus .lnd ohliSatioiN as econonic pro ders an.l c.rrerxhers, rn.i s..rc rN p()pcr role models for lheir childrcn. As rhe Br.rzitjrn .rnthroFrogist, ri(n)elk) Da\htta notes (1991 61, 66), prcper social (rcs rn(t hie l'(|ics hrsf(t o|r resped and considerlriion arc n ntainecl inside rlle home (..r.!z,). in.onlnst r,, rl.( .r ,.-jlh.. qork .,rJ.,J,.h r<,,rr) ,, trt( \rrt.t ,t llr(

Ilany.Japanese Bmziliani .lle atso xbte ro rcty on cohesilc nelworks ol ret rlivcs, fiiends, and aqlininr,,r(es rhal sene a si itar tirnclion lrs lhe ri,rih, by alle|i.uin:t rhe social scgregirbn and xtienatk)n they fi,et tiorn lrrprncsi society -^ nun$cr ol my infbrrnarrs felr thrt thcrc s,rrs rreatcr cot)esion rn(j ,r ,rl) JIr aJ rlr Ir,cl\-. r ' l.rl,.rr rl.rn 'r rlr r/it t\,.-I\ r-rr!r^r..L.lt{run.r.\n -,r,, ,Lr\.. (!oron,i, s'.r,',. rn,t ...i,..,riun..t .,1.1 .,,, n,,t ,,p.nl)

tltLx t t1^ t I t ntL\t ) I \ thl

rl)l).1(!'l sirx. (^(1 ')l) tn.r((1rt ,'l llx. ltr,r/ili. rilil(.rii|, (..Irtnoyc(l irs lrrrsl(illc( l:r(1,!y wrh(1s iI I.rt):rI. llr(y liv. i,r ir l(liIilrty.g]tiltlriln lrxt horrrogcrtrr11s r orrrrrrrrrritlr, p(!loflllins th( sjIr(,tyt)r (n r))ln xt t]tnn, wexr ing thc srnrc unili)rlls, cllrillg ((nrprrxlrc slgcs, rnd tiving nt sU)ritxr xpannrent.or)rPlcxcs

This sensc of increrscd .ollecrive soli.hrily rnrl Lrniry rrn(nrg rhir.lxpancsc Bmzilians pmdu.e.i b! thcir so.ial c(nnrnomlirics in.laprn $,as cxpressed nrosl dircdly by one i i)nnant:

In Bfuzil, $e were less .(i(sive anLl inkJtmted l)e.Irn, there wek l()ls {)f dit lern cs Ninong us. Ni tcnd.{ ro av)cixle r)nty wirh rlr)s., of rle srm. so.ia] lcvel rod t(rn lhe sdrne (rion uere, rle Nrc all united Wi are a rlrxziiians. doinS the same work xnd s,rlrrl]inite n) n,cJapaoesc. v( hrve similrr expc$ cnces xnd sui]cr honr the samc l](rrc s lninS nr I i)reign (ouDtry. when I sce klk^v [tr|rn.{,] llfuzllirDs in Jrpin, I li\:t tite goinJt ()\cr rnd s.eetur thcm lo Il0zil. iL \!xs.ever lik. this

A nur)rher of Bmzilian nikkeijin specificirlly mcnrjored ihe grealer ease of sociil relalionships .ncl hiendships \1.irh orher nikkeiijn in Japln coDpared Io Brazil becrusc stxlus differen(es no longcr ilnerfere ,tn llrazil, an edu .,lecl, dch Urplinese Bnzilj.rnl do.tor li.nn Sio l,xulo would never tnleract '!!ith a lcss cclLrdted irrnrer fiom thc corDltrlside., one of rhem noted. 'Bur hrrc in lapan. qe doo r care aholr sl(:h lhnrgs t)ecxuse we,re all c$rats n h.) ,ll fa.c ihe srme djliliculries in lrpan ancl are.r11 in (he s:rme boxr. So s,e Ie rll unitcd rnd so.ializc rnore ficel)."

Despite lhe itincrant lrnd tempomry nattrrt of mosr oi rhcJaprnese Brazil i.tns and tlleir 11,1g hours ln rltc laclory (in.ludjng ol,e Ine on neekcnds), thc lrnrount of so.ializing rhal occLns among drem in loc.rl con llxriics is qlrilr rcnurkable, cspecially in cilics with lrgh nikkeiiin nnmigEnr conccn tm&)ns Inlbmnl gathernrgs in apallmenrs \lere freqlrent, especialy on \\'eckends, r,hen relaln'es and fiends woul.l congregarc ti)r no specilic pLtr: pose except 1() soci:rllze and lrlk. SoDrtnDes, when t.onclucred inrcrvicEs. other nikkcijin q,oukl bc g.rlhered ar rttc same epannenr or \vouLd he sum mone(l 1br lhe orcasion. Al olher ri es, sflxll pxftics, dnrnerc, or informal nexls, and even cburrascos (Bratilian ba$ecues), \I,ere rranged. Gxthcr nrgs at locxl l]razililrn restaurants or eatcies I\.ere also .luile fiequenr and rhe trx)st popular restiuflnls in Oizrxlli \|l)uld liequenrly be packed bcl,()ncl ca- px.ity on $,eekends.

In lhis rrlnner . rhough lhe .,.rpancsc Bmzililns are separrred aod ex- cluded fiornlxp:rnese soricly, lhei crn rcly on rheir own cohesive ,nnriA.a nr connnrnities rnd (jlhnic networts through $hic| Lhey are

^blc lo obtain thc

.ornp.rnionship rnd so(ial support ne.essxry r() overcom( lhen socixl ntar gin. izrlion in.Jiprn. By colldu.ii,r:l lheir livcs !Inost e)rchrsiv--t) in flnilixr setlings s.jlh linlilv a.d (o-crLnn:s in lheir ncishborhoods. iaclo es. .rsso.i

rlit)rrs, rrr)(l k.snr.rx,\. llr) lIr\( ((,rl.,l :r s(xilllls.(r|(,i kt (,,Irlirlxtnr l!rr(. lin rll(lrsclr(s irr :Ir irli( xtiIg s,n.n l),.

(lON(ILUSION:TRANSN{ IONAL MI(iRATION.ArIENATION,ANI) HoME

'll)e rcccnt interest in hnerarionrl nigrlrior hrs lelt some crili(s oi rhe ap proach k) qenlv won.lcr \litrt is so nc$ ahour tmnsnalionxlism (c.g, see Foner 1997i Minlz 1918). Of rourse. the consBnt nrovenlent ot teoples l.ross nalionnl hor.lers as \\-ell as rhe developmcnl of rransn:rrbnxt ronnnu- niiies l13s been o.curing lbr ccntLrries (Glick Schiller Bis(.h, xnd BI:rnc 1995: Ironcr 1997i .\,linrz 1998: l,ores and Runn)alrt 1196). trndoul)tedty, ll1losna- lioml migranl (ommLrnilics Mve been flrnchnlentalLy rc.onfisLrred t)v rhe rrl\- r ol .\jrc. .,rJ lr/q\n, rL,lrurr r., II t.1$..,.t,i.r, have increased the speecl, eft]cienry, rn(l votumc ol hnsn.rtionxl flows across national borders (.f Foner 1997: 362). AllhoLrsh rtris does urrkc (nr rent irrnsnational com nrnities appcer difterent ioln past ones (c1. tltinLz 1998: r24), rhe diflercn.e is mainlv a nralkr of dL'grcc and nol of l'inct.

lnsicxd, Elmt is ncu, abour the rrinsnarionil peispeclirc ts its cr)rph:rsis oi),'tr \rl{(r.r'r .^.rfll.,cc r1 .,nJ Ll,rJr nS 1.r.,rr ot !r.t ,ro.! hofdcr proces$s (c.U., see Apprdlai 1996i Basch. ailtck S.lrltcr. and Bl:rn. t994: 290; Gli.k S(iiller and l.Nron 1998t ()o^niza 799f: Kea.,rey 1991: I,ortes 1996) T.ansnational pfuclices and tro(esses s ch .ls inlenrtional lri gmtion xrc fiequently sccn as enrp.,wctur!. becausc rhcy prcvide sircs tir rcsisrancc, sl.rtggle, .rnd adaplive responses lhat slrb!crr the donrin.rnt hege moni( orde. For instxncc, lhe tmnsnrtionalism of slrlDrdin;rte(l miilfunl Uroups is somelimes seen as the bxsis for social rrovenrcnls and strugglcs of resistan.c against dre nrijon srare xncl gl$al cepiral (see Besclt, Glilk Schillcr, and Bhn. l9r4: 290) tn a sinrilar I'enr, rJtrn Appadur.ri 0996) clanns that "postnalional imrginanes emerge horr ttunsnati.nrl prlrct(.es, produ.ing ne$.lbrnrs of alle.qiance, social org:inizark)n. an(t discursivc con s.blrsness lh.t es..rpc .rnd t,.rnsccncl rhe hegemonic confines ot thc mln)n stalc, rlt1Lking possiblc en enun.ip:rr()ry posrnation.tl t()tiri.il ortcr. ror Ai It\\'2 Ong (1999). the pm(lice olllcxilre cilizenshit on a tr.nsn.r )nal s(rle h $hi.h indivi(ln.ls obhnr polilic: righrs and rcsidcntixl brsis in mutlipte countries is a personally rdvxnrrgcous adlpratjon 10 rhe vi(issitudes of gl.rl)il capitrlisn xncl shitiing inrcrnirional politicxt (ondilions. Likei.ise, Rogcr Rouse argucs tlut lmnsmrionll miSmnt comrnrlnities, by xllos.ing nr- divi(llrals ro mainlxin rctilc socj;rl .ehrbnships oler lxryc geograthi.al .lis l-rnces, enable then to respond efie(tileh to chxnging e.onor c constrii r and linited opportunitics in vrd(nrs ]olxles bv (orslantly cir.ulxling br rween these plxccs ( lr9l: l' lj).

litk i'tltl t t,itl ) t\tnl,l l\ l\\t llah t\,\tt tl\,lta rhhht lrl .i 6i (i pl:r iln(l li.r$rs,rr t,),)l ,) i l.r.t(s{, t{)95, t-ar l\4rrliit{i i()()2 25i M:rssry l')92 l2 la)

'lhc lrrnsnllnDirl lxlspr(li!(. is rhc.clirr .hixr.lcr.izc(l t)! xn inhercnl rcrNn)n. l1 ltunsorlk)nll rr(r)itil).is .les(:rl)itizing lnd .tjsoricnling. ln)s, c()o1d it.rlso he lil)emring xnd crnan(ipxr(ry?.t1lc j.on).is lhit it is prc.isety.lis pl.r.ement and unroorcdncss rhar makes transnxtionrtisnr cnrpoic.ing Bc(ilrse (lclcrftc,rixlized transnrigrxnrs (onsaotly up.oot rltonseh,cs a;t re firse to bc spatlilly.onined, rh.y ll.e sutposedlv freect irfr the heeemonv ' ' r.rr.r^riJh,?r J n. -or) .t., c,. ., ,,qnp rt(i,r ro .t,rJI. m,.tt,fJ_ . rtil, r.,,rfi. residen(es. incl homelands, hecome cuhu1ly hybrid anrl :tlepr:rhle crx_ nlopolitans, lite lhen inaginarons rnd p.actl(cs fiom lrc,gelron,r: proccsses, and resist fie cloniDarion ol gtohal capilal.

'lhjs chaprcr nrggcsrs that ihe enUrusis on lhe rcrrirorixlly deslabil,zing ,nd liberating rspe.rs of rransoarionxt nigrarion is a hit rrrisph.ccl he' caLrse n is based on a tendcnq b rcnflate lhe concepts ,)f honcland ,nct home nligmrion certalnly enrrils a disorienthg toss ol rhe narxl honleland .rs nriglanls moyc away from ihcir counlry ol l)ifltr. ln xd.lition, ertrni. re 1'rrn migranis ofien expc.iencc x toss of lheir etlnric homelxnd wllen rhey Und thcmselves alienarccl strangcN in the (olrnrry of clhnic orillin lt()s cveq this does nor mcan ihir lhe) are itso deprived of I st.rbtc irnd Ienrit iir pl.r.e of rcs encc drat rhcy rcg.rrd

"s:r honre tren lhough.lapan does

not.ftcl like a horrel.lnd ibr 1he lap.rnese BraTitiins. Lhis .t,,", n"t p.. clude tlrem lionr nuking it rhejr homc as fte) |aIe .tccicle(t to seuie i;dre (olrnlry' because ol cconomic xnd fallritiat rersons ltn.t are able 1(] concluct thcir iives in suppofive and f:uritixr scfiings t)y relving on .ohesjvc so(ial ,retworks of co ethni(.s in well dereloped inrnrigmnl cdnnnrnitics ((L Margolis 1991i l\frdro\1.ilz 1993). Un(knrtxedll., I place does not hrve to be expeden.ocl as a horneland ior ii ro t)e.o.si(irrcd x hornc. Vh e lhe Brazillan nikkeiiin $ill delinirelv r.nrxin ,,lxrmeixnd less., in Jap.rn, thev \\rl, l\_ni,,,r<J .r<r Jrn t. r te* r1 y,r,n In.,,tr tr.n in n*tur- r, rI,Li'-rr,.n-tron rn l,(.r it,,r i, h,,rr-i.rr,J llr,l r.errgr,"nrr,.r",i,,.tr.n,t tics to Brazil and en.l up .ealizing rhat their (ounrry of t)irth is rheir rrue homehnd (see IsLrda n.d )

lhcrefbre. altllough rmnsnarionxl migmtbn and (lcrcrftorirlization m:ry lexd to a scnse of l47roorcdness caus.d by a toss ot honrehnct, il docs n; neccssa ly troducc a pemrxnent srale ot' ,rrooredness. sin(.e rnrnv nri jrr,rnr:Jrc,,r'lil..rrJ,,.\tJ,rc.ln't.u tu{, l,li rv l-.r ,turrrr,I\,lr<! in fineign (oLrnlrics and rhlrs r.rcatlorixljze rhe|Nclves in lhese nes, lo .xles Vhen viewed fiom thrr pcnpecrivc, rransnalionxl r)rigr:rtion xppexrs much less destahilizing an.t dete]Tilon:rtizjng rhan on ilsr iighr ,nlrhoush tr"r, r-rron.,1 r ol{ l\ lrr\ rul r's ,\, Lt\ r. r< nlS,rnr. l-., , r.,,,, ,.,1i,, ing hegemories. ir does arrcsl ro rheir ability to.rcale homcs in. icnrring.

lrr llris r)rrDrnr, llk,(llr(nlrI(( r)t triIrsrrrli(xrxl slU(lk\ k\1Is l() lx,r(rr nc.re(i l(, rlr'(lcsirc lin.rr) 1, riIx.it)xl(n.y Ir)lill(:\, (lIllin]t s(nllc s.tr(rrrs l() .clcblltlr lltc iil)crxling p()l(ntirl (, rrrl)sn li()rrrlis r. cv!n il.thc lhnsrni grxnls thc|$elves (k, n(,1 trirrc xny p{,liri(.ll nnnives o. c(nrs(i()trs inrenlkfs to resjsr lheir sulrr(hul(n ((;rnrjrizo irnd Smilh l9r8: 5) ,the J.rpanesc B.aziliin (rse indiclres ll)rl rlrc incrcxsing l]ow ol pcolnes arross mLional bordcrs is nol als,.rys empowe ng rr cio xlso prcduce dis)denring experi ences ol unrco(edncss, ungroundcdness, an.l soci.rl atien.r&rn, resJringtn e loss of stible idenriries and x fir sensc of ph.c (cf l,orres .rncl numbaur 1996: 158 159). lteiore tlle Japanese ts.aziiiins rerurn niSmkd ro.,epan, m.rny of rheln emptrslzed rheir.lapanesc des.cnr rnd rrcntige anti retined .r strong senrimcnral .t(rchnenr ro lhcir ancesrEl holnelend. As i,.e have sccn. hou eveq s'hen rltcy a.rlrilly rerurn nigrule to lapan,.l.tpan docs not lcel likc ao aurhentic homeland. Inslcad of in expectecl ,,horDecoming, lt- iltling.l2pancsc descendints who hrvc returned to tlreir ancesrral rtxrts, they coniir)nl elhnic r.-jccrion .rn.t mltji.rtily as ronigners bc.ause or UreiL aii: Lrent cultural praclices, exchisionary dynan G of laprnese cr]tnj.i1y and so- cirl gftnrps, crhnic prejud_icc, an(l their lor socioe()nolni(. status. Bel.,l!,: return nlgft&rn results in rlienrri()n nom lhe erlmic homeland. ir hrs n.s, I'e.u,." nrpu.., '1. t^, lrreJnnJnr.r HjJ/i'i.,n.,J no.rirr.i,.,rr) inusrnc rn i(lealizsd anccsrml lxncl on whi(h io base rheil sen"e ot arhnic roo;dness. Indee.l, feelings of ettnic disodenl.uion caused bv lhe dislocxrions ot flri- ruJlror $rrr lr( tr.rrn,) ,),nn ..-\t t.) rn\ rnt, .m rnt, in trnJn .t:.Jn,nJr.on. , migr.rtior can be destd)ilizing and diso.ieniing as murh as ir can bc enabling ?n.l cnranciparo{.

alf.ourse, sLrch dclerrilorialized irstabitity is now reSxrde(l as a perrrE nenl .onditbn oI poslmo.lcrnily. rn te rts of n grerory groLrps, rlte (Dnccpr of diasp.xa is nolv irlcrcxsingly jnloked lo describe rhc nlol.erDents .rncl dis- ldbution ol ethnic poputarions aroun.t rhe wold in order ro crnttre rhe ,tr,-Lrri. ,t L[.t.<rsJt rnJ Jr.!\.,rron ,r,t,^rnUJnc.] ar.r , nrol,r..ur.* The constantly .shitiing and rcrritodally rransgressive naturc of diaspou is undersrood to destxbitire and ctullcnge iedro al sprces, n.rrionat lDrderls, l1nd bounded cultlnxl disourses. Olhers hlve takcn rhis nolion of (liaspori; unrootedncss furthcr, arguilU th.I rhe mnsnatn)nal connecrions rhar ieep (liaspodc corDnunilies togelher need n()r he rn:utaied prinnriiy th,rugh ; rcal or symholi. homdxnd bur rhrough st red expericnres of displaccnienr. sufteinrj, and rcsisrrncc (C!fibrd 1997, 2t9-250) A.cordhg ro iliflb.cl, di_ $I,oms re rhus decenrcrcd rncl bascd on shifiine mrhilocal atra.hnrenrs ' t't'-: 2,^ 2 r," Lrk( i... / n.IrrV ot ..,,,,'.,,. ,,.,r. .1. rnc.t tt, rl r,,.rJ Loly rx)vemenb llavc desr.rbilized rlre norion of e fixed -home.,, whni lr.! be.ome a consr.rtulv shifting or nn.rrrne.t hxbitar rhar is no longcr lr singulxr,.,nrr'r.nt rL,e.,,rtrn(Jru.tr.,iri, t.r, urLl ho,rn.lJric, L, ri,r,,n.,, r,r.r,

I r.l ,^r,t,,Ll t(itlrt) t\fitl

llli:*, ll].i : , ,,,.,k,rx rt,(1r ,i*,t(,,n xll.,i,,.r ,r,(. s, \ ,.,r ser(,!i,ri.,,. (r|r{.,.rrrl,'r).ur(,,lr,irnr\r,l\nL.srrtrrt lr.lry lr.r).(.\ncrn,rrc ritrrrr, i;,,,,,...,,,,,i"A,rr,\'rL,.,rL.tt.I ltk lr, n(tilln.s,,t $tr(r.,,n,j. tFIx., l(.Jrt, rn(l l(..Urh lie

NOTES

the icf:l(.h lbr_rhis chpter was or<te possjbte by ri Fulbqthr-Hays Do.k)tuI Di!-.r.ri f \ey,r.t c{,,,.r r(..,,q.n.n. J \r,.mcrurrD t,r,t,\l{Jt Lir,rn.. rnJ t.tr.u!t f\t.,,mrtr<.,i.ar\tarrrcFri,..r1,r,i,r,qL trt.\.\t(u!rn Srudies at (rC sxn DieS(). I wouid like ro rhank lran Ma&(Nitz lD.l _{nder Sle;s_$n n, dren derailed rfld insighdi,l cotunients on an eartic. dtui, whn.h !ve.e.riti.alin imprornu rhe Lluprer.

l. Ihis is ex.tuding the aptroxinarely 650,000 K(trc!.Jxpanese \lio rre sriti rcgir,pJrnt.J,rn F.,rcrlnF.- {r,.,,urh.0k.,rr \err,.,.ni-lrnJr,.rhr,,-(.,.r ':..rL,J t,f, .t\r\ rl,n.t,if rn r.,n) t ,"n,i r,.,r.-,./rJ

2. see TnKla (1998) lbr a {ltueflcrive xnatysis of rhe meth()doi()gical impti.a,ri, h.,tra uLl\,.^dF..r.-,.*.r-t.t1J,Jn,1tri.,,.r:rrt,rr..,.,.:nrtr,rut,,

r Ir . r\ i .rrren r r! r, , n, , ( n-k I I L xenJer LrE.\iJLin xi r(.:t\ Ll,t_,n eri.r. rn i A l(. Llr'7ilun nrlk. i',n

. .1 see Tldr (2003, chapre.2) lbr.n exteDsive rnllysis oflrpanese cthntc prej-udi(e r,rwxrd rhe nikkeijin. < AllJ,n.,1.,, F a,nN.rh.n t,-,,r.fr..n_L,L nd,^<rn c.,fn ,,xt u,Sr.Jn.,Ji<

te.errll\ fnrl,lrd $ rt,q,u r\ tr,unnA. '. te l...LlI rz/10<..LJf ,, I, I {,n jnb rj.,, t.. r,, n,n ,,n,,,rluj, ri,.n U(

.Lrpanek llrxziliars nr Btuzil hxve .lelchped ;i Ureir erhnic hom.Ilnd ,

-. A\\1,'rlr. l,'n,,,1,,t{i tr,.rhcr(1 \cq ,t d n,d I ,- . ,,t,r." ,.t r,{.r.Si, r, {,ir-q /r5L lr mrl., .rt jI rt n. J.-' \ dn t\. ". LI$(t.,,., ( .\Fr "n. (.I \re 1..,1,, lor,' 1.,.,n .n Jrttn jnd,\\n i,, t.,. \e t(,m, nr o, n k\"rir. urrr

,-.1, ll'1,'::,'t:',^l-. "* ''es r r -v' ' ' '+ ' rr 't 'eJ r r rr'iA '| ra'2' .n! | ,r r.,r.,nr.ern!rri,rf ,,t

t-rti f r1fr,.\ .t,1rt L .,.h 2 L, - p-, r,r,,r dj,. 8rJlur- "*-r,"..';;"rolnd rrad'('tE\ .\J-.J,, n.^. t.I.rnrt..,rpe r4.en. li.nr

.,. r,0-

l,:: :dririre tr:l:lu,rr , Lr t\ Jtm.i .2 r,,enr r.,m 2 I I \h r,rrrn per rJ,.,r) r tr\ li, t.iC n l.,jir.re ,{tLl\,,,{e{ Lnill, r,rr Jat,r n". It.,,..({ -,-"il.1.tr',ri,nu.Ji,iJ,r,.,.r,ftr.,.rri,trl.J.,.,r_.rh.rr.. 1.,,1.,,,,.,,, ,..Pn-r.rrr,i(r tr rqe.r.rtr.i!eIr\sir,,.r -tl]"r.i,nr In to-o,, iOrt,"r,.n, ,n1985 .r ren junped k) 1.1.5 pcrcenl in 1995. ,ll lJt

r., " !" itcj,rt .nmi)]r.rnt n..tt.rrn,,lfl.t,.,,J,ue ,"erJ^0uOOrnJiir.tr{'.Utr1rJr',rr,",L,n,I.,r,,,.,,n.krt,it.{.rrn.,,i*.."t.,,.rr,r,t. (rntry w,th v,ious prctessbral vis,s (.s ,,cnrerr!iners,,, t.nSuage "$kions," ,nd\nines ) hut actually $ok as manuat labores (.,r n.tNpan,s sex indusEv). rft)sr orJ't-i.irrri!'Jnr.Jr"tr,{n.it,.t,{Ar..\,rrnlrir.,,-,ty,,.",.;ji,.r.._,

".,varn{s S(urheast Asian.r)unrries.

\'t\\t lht ! h Ntn th lk ,trhtlkl I t1 I2 lll,{. lilrrcs ik.li1!D srrvrys dnrl(tr.k{t t)y KlliH.wi ,){).1, t()r) irnl lltr,lil).n Sl.lisli(s lk,s.l,(h Lr.ritLrt. i ti,xt3t.

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tl.:1|:iI 1J,.,"

!.r., 4l, rt t d\t t at.\.,t r, . a,br. ol Gt.hlttzrhtnt urlert.rF: untr, ^rr\

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_rn ' .I rl" 1 .. a.,t tL , "n,u,r' Dr,I.,J u rt1 .tt./,7, \a5-taC rk \.lrller \r-.r. Iir,Lr t!.,,' rn- (.Nr.J \/rnt,,n l,,rr\ ..tj,1.r tr.rr.ilrJnt 1,Trd..n.Irrnr fl,"ri-ntTrJn.n.,ri.. rt Vi)Ir.,r,, ,Ut*,,t,,,t.t, ,t,,,r,i,'_iii"",n., I (199i) []- al

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"rJrjr"11,,1.,.,*,1'.v,!Jr.,..d,.{rxn..n,inL.nri,n{J,rh,,,,..r,..,.,,,..,,,t,iotyr4a\ t4. ttlttpdh I pot,, .. Lu .iito4-,. 2r1 .r22. Guarnizo, ruis Etur o, and N{i.haet peer S,ni ). ,,,r,|x. trx.rllltrN,)l .tansoarnDat-

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GLpla, AkhrllndJames l,e.guson. ,,llel()nd ,Cutlu.(: st,fir,, r,[1n(y. rn(ldic r,(iitn.s,.r'l,irr'1.-.,! . Llt,tt tr,nroF,tarJ.- n,, t yl2r h rl,.,1;^)l:.,:,,1 'rnr.,.r,r \d,(r D, +r. R,\r,^r,x k, N,rrtr,,r,.,,,n/,r ,uraTrrrr,l ,,

r'4' /o{a?J ui'. \r\- _, I I rI)Jr {L Re'r'rvi s' rh t, t L, ^t, a h t, ft)2 | u+- ) ^,tr,.. ut th! |t4-htq!. ti.tl,itnr lt ,tt.,rt .t trda ChktltnthrnrAirl , 'i Chrarr, ]'es lri

Jx.ksm, Mi.hael- r r rork, tn tbe ntottd. Dti nt. Nt.l)irt\r, Irne6i{.Pres,i tr/)tr,n,,lr:.';:,i.,lrJ'.. \ihp.th. ttad6ha uJ kt l \twtLt,\ , . \,r,o K,Lklt ttttt I ,,"''l' ."4"', \.]rr In.r r 1na, { m,.nr (xrcrl1n,\,,r \1.t..r ,, ,,,..t er.t .li*},,

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I