Post a brief description of the program being evaluated in the article you selected. Explain which evaluation approach was used in the evaluation and why it was appropriate for the task. Finally, explain benefits and challenges to applying this type of ev
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TraumaticStressSocioeconomicStatusandAcademicAchievement.pdf
Traumatic Stress, Socioeconomic Status, and Academic Achievement Among Primary School Students
Rachael D. Goodman George Mason University
M. David Miller and Cirecie A. West-Olatunji University of Florida
Students from lower socioeconomic status (SES) families continue to underachieve within the educa- tional setting; however, little research has examined how psychological trauma may be related to this problem. Using a sample of 5th-grade students from the nationally representative Early Childhood Longitudinal Study, Kindergarten Class of 1998 –99 database, we used regression analyses to determine whether traumatic stress and SES influenced achievement. Results showed that low SES and traumatic stress predicted lower educational outcomes. This study has implications for counselors and educators because trauma is often overlooked or misunderstood in children.
Keywords: traumatic stress, academic achievement, socioeconomic status, students
The impact of trauma on children and adolescents is now well documented. Indeed, researchers have noted the multitude of effects that trauma can have on children in terms of their social, psycholog- ical, and academic functioning (Boney-McCoy & Finkelhor, 1995; Graham-Bermann & Levendosky, 1998; Kaplan, Pelcovitz, & Labruna, 1999). Only recently has the prevalence of trauma been acknowledged, engendering a need for all service providers working with children to be aware of the importance of addressing this com- plex issue with their clients. Mental health professionals and educators who are unaware of a child’s trauma history or its impact may aggravate the situation by holding a child to unrealistic expectations or misinterpreting the child’s symptoms as indicative of bad conduct or another disorder (Levine & Kline, 2007; van der Kolk, 2005).
It is clear that marginalized individuals and communities are often at higher risk for trauma-causing events (Farquhar & Dob- son, 2004), but psychological trauma is often overlooked in chil- dren (Levine & Kline, 2007), leading counselors and educators to fail to address this potentially important factor in psychological and academic development. In particular, the academic under- achievement of students from lower socioeconomic status (SES) backgrounds is an ongoing and unresolved concern, as these stu- dents continue to be significantly less successful academically than their middle and upper class peers (Sirin, 2005; Von Secker, 2004). Over the years, there has been considerable research on how to
address disparities in academic achievement of students (Ford & Grantham, 2003). The majority of this research has been guided by a deficit-oriented approach, especially for socially marginalized students (Rodriguez & Morrobol, 2002). Such deficit-oriented approaches have not succeeded in improving the academic out- comes of students and may actually contribute to the problem (Ford, Harris, Tyson, & Trotman, 2002). Using the lens of psy- chological trauma, we sought to further the understanding of trauma among lower SES students and their academic functioning to provide a non– deficit-oriented approach to this issue. The purpose of this study was to explore whether SES and traumatic stress predict academic achievement for fifth-grade students.
Review of the Literature
Academic Achievement
Educational research has consistently found that SES has a significant impact on student academic achievement (Sirin, 2005). According to the 2009 National Assessment of Educational Prog- ress, 17% of fourth-grade public school students eligible for free or reduced lunch (FRL) were found to be at or above proficient in reading achievement, whereas 45% of students not eligible for FRL tested at or above proficient (National Center for Education Statistics, 2009b). In mathematics, the gap was similar, with only 22% of students eligible for FRL at or above proficient, whereas 54% of ineligible students were in this same category (National Center for Education Statistics, 2009a). Schools with a high per- centage of FRL-eligible students also have lower graduation rates than schools with a low percentage of FRL students (Orfield, Losen, Wald, & Swanson, 2004).
Students from lower SES backgrounds face additional barriers to academic achievement. Across the United States, states spend an average of $900 less per student each year in school districts with the most poor students versus districts with the fewest poor students (Education Trust, 2005). At the secondary level, an av- erage of 24% of teachers lack either a major or minor in their subject area; in high poverty schools, this number increases to
This article was published Online First August 22, 2011. Rachael D. Goodman, Counseling and Development Program, College
of Education and Human Development, George Mason University; M. David Miller, Research Methods and Evaluation, Collaborative Assess- ment and Program Evaluation Services, School of Human Development and Organizational Studies in Education, University of Florida; Cirecie A. West-Olatunji, Counselor Education Program, School of Human Develop- ment and Organizational Studies in Education, University of Florida.
Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Rachael D. Goodman, Counseling and Development Program, College of Education and Human Development, George Mason University, Krug Hall 201C, Mail Stop 1F5, 4400 University Drive, Fairfax, VA 22030. E-mail: [email protected]
Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, and Policy © 2011 American Psychological Association 2012, Vol. 4, No. 3, 252–259 1942-9681/11/$12.00 DOI: 10.1037/a0024912
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34%, putting low-income students at greater risk for underachieve- ment due to poor teacher quality (Jerald, 2002). For students, the results of academic underachievement reach beyond the educa- tional setting, often leading to deviant behaviors, fewer opportu- nities in life, and difficulty earning a living wage (Masten & Coatsworth, 1998; Orfield et al., 2004).
Traumatic Stress
Symptoms of traumatic stress in children differ from those in adults, causing them to be overlooked, misinterpreted, or mistaken for other disorders (DeVoe, Klein, Bannon, & Miranda-Julian, 2010; Halpern & Tramontin, 2007). Often traumatic stress symp- toms are evident in classroom behaviors, but they are likely to be mislabeled as attention or conduct problems (Goodman & West- Olatunji, 2010; Levine & Kline, 2007). Empirical studies on trauma among children and adolescents have found five common symptoms of traumatic stress for this population: reexperiencing, avoidance, arousal, internalizing behaviors, and externalizing be- haviors (Boney-McCoy & Finkelhor, 1995; Briscoe-Smith & Hin- shaw, 2006; Schuster et al., 2001; Vernberg, La Greca, Silverman, & Prinstein, 1996; Wozniak et al., 1999). Reexperiencing is char- acterized by flashbacks, nightmares, or psychological reactivity (American Psychiatric Association [APA], 2000). Emotional de- tachment, diminished affect and interests, and evading possible traumatic reminders are features of avoidance (APA, 2000). Arousal is characterized by difficulty concentrating, hyperactivity and restlessness, and irritability (APA, 2000; Elliot, 1997). Prob- lem behaviors including aggression, delinquency, and acting out are known as externalizing behaviors (Graham-Bermann & Lev- endosky, 1998). Internalizing behaviors include anxious or de- pressed mood, withdrawal, and somatic complaints (Graham- Bermann & Levendosky, 1998).
Identification of traumatic stress is complicated by the similarity between these symptoms and other disorders, including depres- sion, anxiety, and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (APA, 2000). Furthermore, similar behaviors have been found to be common among underachieving students in school settings, in- cluding aggression, low self-esteem, lack of attention, and hyper- activity (Arnold et al., 1999). Research in the field of trauma indicates that there are significant neuropsychological impacts related to this experience, including the reduction in size of the hippocampus (Lindauer et al., 2004; Vythilingam et al., 2005), the area of the brain that helps regulate emotion and memory. Studies of trauma and brain development in children are more recent, but indicate disruptions in developmental experiences that may lead to psychological, behavioral, and cognitive difficulties; for children, the neuropsychological response to trauma has been linked to compromised abilities in cognitive functioning as well as attention and emotional regulation (Wilson, Hansen, & Li, 2011).
Children of lower socioeconomic backgrounds may be at greater risk of experiencing traumatic stress because of to the vulnerability of marginalized groups (Burstow, 2003; Farquhar & Dobson, 2004). As such, it is important to ascertain whether students from lower SES backgrounds exhibit more symptoms of traumatic stress. Traumatic stress theory allows for ecosystemic factors to be included in an understanding of academic achievement, which engenders a strength-based view of students (Carlson, 1997; Good- man & West-Olatunji, 2008). Therefore, we used a large-scale
nationally representative data set to conduct an exploratory study that examined a cluster of traumatic stress-related symptoms and the relationship with SES and several academic achievement mea- sures. We used traumatic stress theory to investigate the question, “Do traumatic stress and SES predict academic achievement?”
Method
Data Source
Data for this study were drawn from the Early Childhood Longi- tudinal Study, Kindergarten Class of 1998 –99 (ECLS-K), a data set collected by the National Center for Education Statistics (NCES; Tourangeau, Nord, Lê, Pollack, & Atkins-Burnett, 2006). ECLS-K is a nationally representative, longitudinal study designed to measure children’s cognitive, social, emotional, and physical development, as well as children’s home and school environments, curriculum, and teacher qualifications. This study used data from direct child assess- ments, parent interviews, and teacher assessments. Data were col- lected in the following intervals: fall and the spring of kindergarten (1998 –1999), fall and spring of first grade (1999 –2000), spring of third grade (2002), spring of fifth grade (2004), and spring of eighth grade (2007). This study used data from the fifth-grade data collec- tion, which has an unweighted sample size of 11,820 students.
Measures
Indicators for SES, traumatic stress, and academic achievement were identified from the ECLS-K 1998 –99 longitudinal study. Names for each variable are shown in parentheses. SES was measured through the composite variable of parents’ occupation, parents’ education level, and household income (W5SESQ5). The latent independent variable, traumatic stress, was determined to be present through identification of the following symptoms of trau- matic stress: (a) reexperiencing, (b) avoidance, and (c) arousal, as well as either (d) internalizing behaviors or (e) externalizing be- haviors. Reexperiencing was indicated if the child had difficulty with self-control in relationships with peers (T6CONTRO). Avoid- ance was indicated by any of the following: the child had trouble making friends (C6SDQPRC), the child had trouble relating to other children (P6BEHAVE), or the child had trouble getting along with others and forming and maintaining friendships (T6INTERP). Arousal was indicated if the child was more active than other children (P6ACTIVE) or had trouble paying attention (P6ATTENI). Internalizing behaviors were indicated if the child appeared to be sad, lonely, or anxious (C6SDQINT). Externalizing behaviors were indicated if the child fought, argued, or disturbed others (C6SDQEXT). The reliability scores for the scales used ranged from .77 to .89 (Tourangeau et al., 2006). A dichotomous indicator of traumatic stress was created from these measures:
Traumatic stress � (T6CONTRO � 3) &
[(C6SDQPRC � 3) or (P6BEHAVE � 2) or
(T6INTERP � 3)] & [(P6ACTIVE � 2) or
(P6ATTENI � 2)] & [(C6SDQEXT � 2) or
(C6SDQINT � 2)].
253TRAUMA, SES, AND ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT
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Detail on the measures used is presented in Table 1. Thus, traumatic stress was defined when the child met the high-stress condition on four variables: reexperiencing, avoidance, arousal, and internalizing or externalizing behaviors.
The latent dependent variable, academic achievement, was mea- sured by three observed dependent variables: (a) reading cognitive achievement, (b) mathematics cognitive achievement, and (c) sci- ence cognitive achievement. The study also examined the relation- ship between two related academic indicators: low-ability tracking (Townsend, 2000) and disengagement from school (Alexander, Entwisle, & Horsey, 1997). Reading, mathematics, and science cognitive achievement were scaled using item response theory (IRT) on the cognitive assessments for reading (C6R3RSCL), mathematics (C6R3MSCL), and science (C6SR1SSCL), respec- tively. Low-ability tracking was indicated if the student had an individual education plan (IEP) on file (U6RIEP). Disengagement was measured by total absences (U6ABSTOT).
The questions for the cognitive assessments were developed through consultation with experts in the field of education to determine questions that reflect content areas that are typically taught and developmentally important, which provided content validity (Pollack, Atkins-Burnett, Najarian, & Rock, 2005; Tourangeau et al., 2006). The reliability scores for the reading, mathematics, and science assessments were .93, .94, and .87, respectively (Tourangeau et al., 2006).
Weights
A series of design weights were included to account for the multistage stratified sampling design used in the ECLS-K. Longi- tudinal NCES studies, including the ECLS-K, require the use of weights to compensate for both unequal probabilities of selection and nonresponse effects. The researchers weighted all of the anal- yses using the child–parent–teacher base weight (C6CPTR0) and
Table 1 Traumatic Stress Indicators With Early Childhood Longitudinal Study, Kindergarten Class of 1998 –99 (ECLS-K) Detail
Traumatic stress symptom ECLS-K variable
(instrument) Scale/question information Response scale
Traumatic stress present for responses
Reexperiencing (Boney-McCoy & Finkelhor, 1995)
T6CONTRO (SRS) Four items that indicate the child’s ability to control behavior by respecting the property rights of others, controlling temper, accepting peer ideas for group activities, and responding appropriately to pressure from peers.
1. Never 2. Sometimes 3. Often 4. Very often
�3
Avoidance (Schuster et al., 2001) C6SDQPRC (SDQ) Six items on how easily the child makes friends and gets along with children as well as her/his perception of her/his popularity.
1. Never 2. Sometimes 3. Often 4. Very often
�3
P6BEHAVE (PI) CHQ.325 Would you say [child] behaves and relates to other children and adults . . . [compared with others]?
1. Better than 2. As well as 3. Slightly less well 4. Much less well
�2
T6INTERP (SRS) Five items that rate the child’s skill in forming and maintaining friendships; getting along with people who are different; comforting or helping other children; expressing feelings, ideas, and opinions in positive ways; and showing sensitivity to the feelings of others.
1. Never 2. Sometimes 3. Often 4. Very often
�3
Arousal (Streeck-Fischer & van der Kolk, 2000)
P6ACTIVE (PI) CHQ.080 Thinking about [child’s] overall activity level, would you say [he/she] is . . . [compared with others]?
1. Less active 2. About as active 3. Slightly more active 4. A lot more active
�2
P6ATTENI (PI) CHQ.020 Does [child] pay attention . . . [compared with others]?
1. Better than 2. As well as 3. Slightly less well 4. Much less well
�2
Internalizing (Graham-Bermann & Levendosky, 1998)
C6SDQINT (SDQ) Eight items on child’s internalizing problem behaviors such as feeling sad a lot of the time, feeling lonely, feeling ashamed of mistakes, feeling frustrated, and worrying about school and friendships.
1. Never 2. Sometimes 3. Often 4. Very often
�2
Externalizing (Graham-Bermann & Levendosky, 1998)
C6SDQEXT (SDQ) Six items on child’s externalizing problem behaviors such as fighting and arguing with other children talking and disturbing others, and problems with distractibility.
1. Never 2. Sometimes 3. Often 4. Very often
�2
Note. SRS � Reading Teacher Social Rating Scale; SDQ � Direct Child Assessment Self-Description Questionnaire; PI � Parent Interview on Child Health and Well-Being.
254 GOODMAN, MILLER, AND WEST-OLATUNJI
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replicate weights (C6CPTR1–C6CPTR90), normalized to preserve the nationally representative sample size for statistical testing.
Data Analysis
SPSS version 11.5 was used for data management and AM version 0.06 was used for data analysis. To account for missing data, we performed imputation using NORM version 2.03. Anal- ysis began by reporting descriptive statistics for all variables. Next, t tests were conducted to ascertain whether the presence of trau- matic stress symptoms differed by SES. Finally, linear regressions were performed for the continuous dependent variables: absences and academic achievement in mathematics, reading, and science. A logistic regression was performed for the dichotomous dependent variable: low-ability tracking. The model used was as follows: Y(Reading IRT) � B0 � B1 � Traumatic Stress � B2 � SES � E.
Results
Descriptive Statistics
The total weighted sample size was 3,387,565 fifth-grade stu- dents. White students made up 58.9% of the sample, with African American, Latino American, and Asian students making up 14.4%, 19.3%, and 2.9%, respectively. The remaining 4.5% of students identified as Native American, Pacific Islander, or multi-cultural. Boys were 50.4% of the sample. Percentages of students in each of the five SES categories were as follows: low SES, 16.9%; mid-low SES, 19.2%; mid SES, 21.4%; mid-high SES, 21.2%; and high SES, 21.3%. An IEP was on file for 11.8% of the students. Yearly absences, measured in whole and partial days, among the sample of students were as follows: 17.6% had less than one absence, 11.3% had one to fewer than two absences, 26.4% had two to fewer than five absences, 24.9% had five to fewer than 10 ab- sences, and 19.8% 10 or more absences.
Analysis of the data found that the percentage of students who met the criteria for traumatic stress generally decreased as SES increased: 16.1% of low-SES students had traumatic stress, 10.6% of mid–low- SES students, 11.2% of mid-SES students, 8.1% of mid– high SES
students, and 6.9% of high-SES students (see Figure 1). Significant differences were found between the percentage of students with traumatic stress in the low-SES category versus students in all other SES categories: low SES, p � .006; mid-low SES, p � .036; mid SES, p � .001; mid-high SES, p � .001; and high SES, p � .000 (see Table 2). The differences between the percentage of students with traumatic stress in mid SES and high SES were also significant ( p � .027).
Mean IRT scale scores were lower for students with traumatic stress than students without traumatic stress. The average reading IRT scale score was 142.4 for students without traumatic stress, whereas for students with traumatic stress it was 127.6, a signifi- cant difference ( p � .001). In mathematics, students without traumatic stress had an average IRT scale score of 116.3, signifi- cantly different from the 103.0 average of students with traumatic stress ( p � .001). The science IRT scale scores were also signif- icantly different for students with traumatic stress versus students without: 59.0 versus 51.5, respectively ( p � .001). Of the students without an IEP on file, only 10.0% met the criteria for having traumatic stress, whereas 26.6% of students with an IEP met the criteria. This difference was statistically significant ( p � .001).
In examining the academic indicators for disengagement and low-ability tracking, traumatic stress was a significant factor. The percentage of students with traumatic stress generally increased as the number of absences increased (see Figure 2). The percentages of students with traumatic stress by absence are as follows: 6.9% of students with less than one absence, 10.6% of students with one to fewer than two absences, 11.3% of students with two to fewer than five absences, 9.8% of students with five to fewer than 10 absences, and 12.5% of students with 10 or more absences. In terms of the absence rates, the only significant differences were between students with less than one absence and the following two groups: (a) students with two to less than five absences ( p � .007) and (b) students with 10 or more absences ( p � .006). Whereas only 8.6% of students without an IEP on file had traumatic stress, 23.4% of students with an IEP on file had traumatic stress. This difference was significant ( p � .001).
Regression Analysis
Linear regression analyses showed that SES positively predicted the academic achievement indicators, whereas traumatic stress was a negative predictor (see Table 3). A 1-point increase in SES corresponded to an increase of 6.810 on reading IRT scale score ( p � .001). Children with traumatic stress had a mean reading achievement that was 11.932 points lower than students without traumatic stress ( p � .001). In mathematics, a 1-point increase in SES corresponded to a 5.800 increase in the scale score ( p � .001). Children with traumatic stress scored an average of 10.883 scale score points lower on mathematics achievement ( p � .001). In science achievement, a 1-point increase in SES corresponded to a 4.362 increase in science IRT scale score ( p � .001). The mean science achievement was 5.689 points lower for students who had experienced traumatic stress ( p � .001).
Regression and logistic regression analyses of academic engage- ment and low-ability tracking had similar results (see Table 3). An increase of 1-point in SES corresponded to a decrease of 0.094 in absences ( p � .001). However, traumatic stress was not a signif- icant predictor of absences, with an estimate of 0.167 and p �
8.1% 6.9%6.9% 10.6%
8.1%
91 9% 93.1%91 9% 93.1% 89.4% 88.8%
91.9%91.9% 88.8%
Percentage of Students with Trauma�c Stress by SES Level
100%
6.9% 10.6% 11.2%
8.1% 11.2%95%
16.1% 90%
93.1%91.9% 85%
89.4% 88.8% 80% 83.9%
75% Low SES Mid-Low SES Mid SES Mid-High SES High SESLow - -
T i Low - --
No Trauma�c Stress Trauma�c Stress
Figure 1. Percentage of students with traumatic stress by socioeconomic status (SES) level in fifth-grade students from the Early Childhood Lon- gitudinal Study, Kindergarten Class of 1998 –99 (ECLS-K) database.
255TRAUMA, SES, AND ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT
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.084. The logistic regression performed to assess low-ability track- ing found that SES had a negative relationship with having an IEP on file ( p � .001). The estimate of 1.111 for an IEP on file ( p � .001) translates into an odds ratio of 3.03. Consequently, the odds of having an IEP on file was more than three times as large when the students had experienced traumatic stress.
Discussion
Academic Achievement and Socioeconomic Status
Results of the study showed that academic achievement scores, as measured by IRT scale scores, were significantly lower for lower SES students. Furthermore, regression analyses found that SES positively predicted IRT scale scores. As such, it appears that higher SES students have greater success with standardized testing in schools. In terms of low-ability tracking, regression analysis found that SES had a negative relationship with having an IEP on file, indicating the low-SES students are more likely to be diag- nosed with a learning disability or behavior disorder. An increase in SES predicted a decrease in absences, suggesting that higher SES students are more engaged in education, perhaps because of fewer economic barriers to attending school. Finally, the results of this study indicate that the rate of traumatic stress is significantly higher among lower SES students, suggesting that low-SES stu- dents experience trauma at a higher rate or have fewer resources with which to ameliorate the effects of trauma.
Academic Achievement and Traumatic Stress
The IRT scale scores of students exhibiting traumatic stress symptoms were significantly lower than those of students without traumatic stress. Furthermore, regression analysis showed that traumatic stress negatively predicted these scores. These results indicate that traumatic stress impairs student performance on stan- dardized tests. Among students experiencing traumatic stress, the percentage of students with an IEP was more than double that of students not experiencing traumatic stress. Logistic regression showed that the odds of a student having an IEP were more than three times as large if the student had traumatic stress symptoms. The implication of these significant results is that students exhib- iting symptoms of traumatic stress are at risk for being labeled with a learning disability or a behavior disorder. Although this may be accurate for some students, there is concern that students may
be incorrectly diagnosed and therefore may not receive the appro- priate services.
The results for the analysis of traumatic stress and school disengagement, as measured by absences, were somewhat mixed. As absences increased, the rate of traumatic stress generally in- creased, although results were only significant when comparing students with less than one absence and students with between two and five or students with 10 or more absences. In addition, regres- sion analysis found that traumatic stress was not a significant predictor of absences. This suggests that more research is needed to determine factors influencing absences and other school disen- gagement behaviors to ascertain the impact of traumatic stress.
Implications for Practice
The results of this study indicate that traumatic stress appears to be a significant factor in academic achievement, broadening the discussion about the need for counseling interventions in schools and alternative perspectives on the deficit-oriented view of low achievement among marginalized students. Using the results of this exploratory study, counselors and other clinicians working with schoolage children can incorporate screening for psycholog- ical trauma, particularly when working with lower SES students and students who are having academic difficulties. Awareness that children exhibiting certain behaviors, such as acting out or disen- gaging from activities, may actually be symptoms of traumatic stress can enable counselors and educators to make more accurate assessments of children’s abilities and needs that do not mistak- enly attribute all academic problems to low ability or behavior problems. Indeed, traumatic events are frequent in individual’s lives, and counselors in all settings must develop an understanding and ability to treat these issues (Gold, 2008). Counselors with competence related to psychological trauma can provide children with appropriate interventions that ameliorate the effects of trau- matic stress and ideally improve academic performance.
Counselors working in schools need to develop treatments that ameliorate traumatic stress within school settings, as these are the most likely intervention point for students, particularly those who may not have resources to obtain outside psychological assistance.
Figure 2. Percentage of students with traumatic stress by number of yearly absences in fifth-grade students from the Early Childhood Longi- tudinal Study, Kindergarten Class of 1998 –99 (ECLS-K) database.
Table 2 Significant Differences in Percentage of Students With Traumatic Stress by Socioeconomic Status (SES)
SES level
Students with traumatic stress
(%) SES level
Students with traumatic stress
(%) p
Low 16.1 Mid-low 10.6 .006��
Low 16.1 Mid 11.2 .036�
Low 16.1 Mid-high 8.1 .001��
Low 16.1 High 6.9 .000���
Mid 11.2 High 6.9 .027�
� p � .05. �� p � .01. ��� p � .001.
256 GOODMAN, MILLER, AND WEST-OLATUNJI
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There are a number of school-based interventions for mental health issues, including traumatic stress and depression, that have been found to be effective (Layne et al., 2008; Shirk, Kaplinksi, & Gudmundsen, 2009). In fact, interventions such as cognitive– behavioral intervention for trauma in schools have decreased symptoms and increased adaptive coping (Goodkind, LaNoue, & Milford, 2010), critical outcomes for students to be able to engage in the learning environment and succeed academically, socially, and psychologically.
Counselors in schools will most often be alerted to a student who is disrupting the classroom through behaviors such as hyper- activity and aggressiveness with peers. In response to requests from teachers or administrators to assist with such a student, counselors can screen for the presence of traumatic stress before moving to behavioral solutions to improve classroom behavior. Included should be an understanding of the neuropsychological effects of trauma on children based specifically on their develop- ment level (Wilson et al., 2011). If traumatic stress is present, the counselor can then provide trauma counseling or make an appro- priate referral. Students with traumatic stress who exhibit behav- iors such as withdrawal or sadness may not be as likely to cause problems in a school setting. Therefore, counselors and other supportive adults should be aware of any changes in behaviors and also refer for appropriate screening and treatment.
Furthermore, this study raises concerns about the appropriate placement of students in low-ability programs; the neuropsycho- logical impact of trauma must be differentiated from actual cog- nitive ability (Wilson et al., 2011). As such, it is critical that the expertise of counselors in traumatic stress and psychological health be used in such decisions. Counselors need to insert them- selves into the process whereby students are tracked for low-ability placement to provide information and advocacy for students. School personnel need education about the similarity of psycho-
logical trauma and the many other issues or diagnoses that they might encounter in the school setting. Screening is needed before students are given an IEP so that there can be a differential diagnosis for traumatic stress.
Given the higher rate of traumatic stress among lower SES students found in this study, counselors need to be proactive in indentifying symptoms of traumatic stress for these students. As mentioned, the increased risk for low-SES students and the limited economic resources of their families make it critical that counsel- ors serve as advocates so that low-SES students receive the ap- propriate services. Counselors can offer group interventions for students exhibiting symptoms of traumatic stress within the school setting, particularly for students whose families may not be able to obtain outside services. Counselor education programs can train counseling students to be able to deliver such interventions, as well as to identify traumatic stress and to serve as advocates for mar- ginalized, low-SES students.
Implications for Policy
Policymakers may have an interest in the results of this study as it can potentially have an impact on how standards and account- ability are viewed, particularly in low-resourced schools that so often serve low-SES as well as culturally diverse students (Lip- man, 2006). Moreover, policymakers may wish to contextualize disproportionate educational outcomes with historical inequities in economic spheres when reconsidering allocation of resources (King, 2005). Central to the issue of educational policy is the concern for social justice and advocacy in which policymakers ensure that public interests align with student needs (Gillborn, 2006). Assessment of low-income and culturally diverse students is often informed by poor conceptualization because of lack of familiarity with diverse groups of people. Policymakers can be-
Table 3 Regressions Analyzing Prediction of Academic Achievement Indicators From Socioeconomic Status (SES) and Traumatic Stress
Parameter name Estimate SE t p
Regression 1: dependent variable � reading IRT scale score R2 � .223 SES 6.810 0.324 21.035 .000���
Traumatic stress �11.932 1.563 �7.635 .000���
Regression 2: dependent variable � math IRT scale score R2 � .191 SES 5.800 0.312 18.570 .000���
Traumatic stress �10.883 1.625 �6.699 .000���
Regression 3: dependent variable � science IRT scale score R2 � .213 SES 4.362 0.231 18.879 .000���
Traumatic stress �5.689 1.099 �5.175 .000���
Regression 4: dependent variable � total absences R2 � .012 SES �0.094 0.016 �5.975 .000���
Traumatic stress 0.167 0.095 1.746 .084 Logistic regression 5: dependent variable � IEP on file
SES �0.185 0.05 �3.703 .000���
Traumatic stress 1.111 0.177 6.273 .000���
Note. IRT � item response theory; IEP � individual education plan. ��� p � .001.
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come better informed by relevant research when taking action to ensure high-quality education for underperforming students. Coun- selors can serve as social justice advocates within schools and community agencies to promote education policies that are in the best interest of marginalized students.
Limitations
This study used a nationally norm-referenced data set compiled by the NCES. Therefore, the findings are generalizable from the sample to the population. However, there are limitations concern- ing validity due to the use of precollected data for ad hoc analyses in which the variables measured were indicators of traumatic stress symptoms, not a measure of trauma exposure. First, construct underrepresentation needed to be addressed to ensure that trau- matic stress is indeed measured by the variables selected from the database. Second, the variables may be vulnerable to the problem of construct irrelevant variance if they contain content that they are not intended to measure. To address these validity concerns, the items were examined in relation to the literature on traumatic stress and achievement in order to deem them appropriate (see Table 1).
Future Research
Research is needed that examines additional factors influencing traumatic stress and academic achievement. Different grade levels could be examined to further the understanding of how learning deficits might change over time due to cumulative or continued traumatic stress for developing children and adolescents. Addi- tional factors might include culture/ethnicity and gender, as both culturally diverse and female individuals are vulnerable to trauma (Breslau et al., 1998; Burstow, 2003). Furthermore, culturally diverse students, in particular African American, Latino American, and Native American students, continue to underachieve as com- pared with their White counterparts despite decades of efforts to address this issue (Orfield et al., 2004). In addition to analysis of gender and culture, analysis of the intersection of gender, culture, and SES is needed so that these identities are not essentialized but understood as multidimensional and interconnected parts of an individual’s life experiences. Large-scale, nationally representa- tive data sets such as the ECLS-K can be used to perform quan- titative analysis to further the understanding of traumatic stress for students who are marginalized because of gender and culture, as well as SES.
Qualitative research is needed to develop greater understanding of how schoolage children experience traumatic stress. As tradi- tional trauma has focused on one-time, identified events, research into the impact of long-term, systemic trauma, such as systemic oppression and transgenerational trauma, is needed among this population (Carter, 2007; Goodman & West-Olatunji, 2008). Stu- dents may also experience traumatic stress within the school setting, which requires further research to ascertain how these experiences impact school performance and engagement. The voices of lower SES students, as well as other socially marginal- ized students, need to be heard so that counselors can provide preventive and remedial interventions for these students that ad- dress their unique concerns and experiences.
Finally, studies of counseling interventions and programs should be developed to determine effective trauma treatments.
Such interventions can be evaluated using outcome measures of academic achievement as well as measures of psychological well- being. For socially marginalized students, it is critical that inter- ventions be created and evaluated using culturally appropriate methods that incorporate the lived experiences and intersecting identities of these individuals. Research in this area can provide counselors with effective, evidence-based practices, which coun- selor educators can incorporate in counselor training. Building on already effective interventions (Goodkind et al., 2010), and the emergent knowledge of the neuropsychological impact of trauma (Wilson et al., 2011), intervention research can help counselors develop expedient, holistic, and effective school-based treatments.
In summary, the researchers’ investigation found that traumatic stress and SES impact the academic achievement of primary school students. The results show that lower SES students are at greater risk for traumatic stress and academic underachievement, and that traumatic stress itself predicts underachievement. Impli- cations of this study are that counselors need to develop interven- tions to ameliorate the effects of traumatic stress in order to improve the educational success of low-SES students. Further- more, counselors can serve as advocates for students to ensure that differential diagnoses for educational problems include traumatic stress and that marginalized student receive the necessary services.
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Received November 7, 2010 Revision received March 11, 2011
Accepted May 16, 2011 �
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