Psychology

A SURVEY OF MEASURES OF TRANSPERSONAL CONSTRUCTS

Douglas A. MacDonald Windsor,Ontario,Canada

Laura LeClair Windsor,Ontario,Canada

Cornelius J. Holland Windsor,Ontario,Canada

Aaron Alter Toronto,Ontario,Canada

Harris L. Friedman Fort Myers,Florida

It has been the contention of some researchers that transpersonal psychology should give serious consideration to the development, validation and use of standardized assessment instruments designed to measure transpersonal constructs as a means of facilitating the growth of the area as an empirical science (e.g., Friedman, 1983; MacDonald, Tsagarakis & Holland, 1994). In the spirit of this position, the authors of the present paper reasoned that one possible avenue of generating interest in such research tools would be to provide investigators with a comprehensive, accessible and easy-to-understand resource which presents information on measures currently available in the literature. To this end, we undertook two literature surveys to uncover measures which are available for use in transpersonally oriented research and we present our findings below. However, before discussing the nature and results of our literature searches, we believe it is important to outline the benefits and drawbacks of objective tests as well as their implications for the transpersonal domain.

STANDARDIZED ASSESSMENT INSTRUMENTS AND TRANSPERSONAL RESEARCH

Conventional quantitative research methodologies (which include standardized test- ing) have often been viewed by transpersonal theorists as an ineffective means of

Copyright© 1995TranspersonalInstitute

TheJournalof TranspersonalPsychology,1995, Vol.27, No.2 171

investigating not only the transpersonal domain (e.g., Grof, 1985; Washburn, 1988; Wilber, 1990) but also, people in general (Gilgen, Cho & Stensrud, 1980). In fact, much of the transpersonal perspective regarding objective testing can be summarized by Wilber (1990): "... once you have translated the world into empiric measurement and numbers, you have a world without quality, guaranteed" (p. 26). Indeed, given the great difficulties in simply describing and communicating transpersonal experi- ences (Wilber, 1977, 1990),it may seem that standardized tests, which tend generally to translate the individual into a number, have virtually no hope for furthering knowledge of the transpersonal domain.

Thoughwe are in agreementwith the common observation that transpersonal experi- ences are primarily trans-verbal and trans-logical and can only truly be understood throughdirect experiences(thus limitingall quantitativeand ultimatelyall qualitative methods), we believe that the value of testing for transpersonally oriented research can be better appreciated if it is viewednot as a means of accessingand understanding transpersonalexperience directly,but instead as a tool which can be used to explore the "expressions" of such experiences. By expressions, we are referring to the behavioral,physiological,psychological(cognitive/emotional),and sociologicalcor- relates of transpersonal experience as well as the theories (religious and secular) generatedto explain these experiences(MacDonaldet al., 1994).

This view of objective testing is consistent with the current understanding of the purpose,nature and limits of transpersonalpsychologyin three ways which we argue qualify psychometric testing as a research method worthy of consideration. First, Walsh and Vaughan(1993) define transpersonalpsychologyas "the area of psycho1- ogy that focuses on the study of transpersonalexperiences and related phenomena. These phenomena include the causes, effects and correlates of transpersonalexperi- ences and development,as well as the disciplinesand practices inspiredby them" (p. 203). Given this definition, it can be understood that transpersonal psychology involvesnot only the direct study of transpersonal experiencebut also the study of the expressions and correlates of this experience, a task for which psychometric tests could prove valuable.

Second,conventionalpsychologyhas been confrontedwith the difficulty of defining and measuring many of its central constructs including emotion, attitudes,personal- ity, intelligenceand psychopathology.In all cases, empiricalresearch has been made possible by linking (actually reducing) the construct to some behavior or verbaliza- tion which is viewed as embodying the construct (i,e., by operationalizing the construct).Moreover,with aUthe constructsmentionedabove, the developmentand use of standardizedquantitative assessmenttools has flourished largely because the expression of the construct has lent itself to quantification(e.g., it can be measured with anythingranging from simple frequencycounts of behaviors and verbalizations to the behavioral sequence leading to the proper completion of a behavioral task). Interestingly, one of mainstream psychology's most compelling and empirically robust theories of personality, the five factor model (Digman & Inouye, 1986; Goldberg, 1993; McCrae & Costa, 1987), has been partly developed through an examinationof natural languagedescriptorsthoughtto be associatedwith personality (e.g., Norman, 1963). In light of the fact that there are language descriptors which have been developedto expressaspects of transpersonalexperienceand identity(e.g.,

172 TheJournal of TranspersonalPsychology, 1995, Vol. 27, No.2

transcendental, mystical, spiritual, holy), as wen as generally predictable behaviors (and behavior changes) associated with such experiences, it appears that it may be possible to develop measures of various expressions of transpersonal experience based on how the experients use language in describing their experience and/or in how they behaved before, during and/or after the experience. Research has appeared which indicates that groups consisting of schizophrenics, individuals describing hallucinogenic drug states, individuals describing experienced mystical states, and individuals describing important personal experiences, can be differentiated based upon their use of language descriptors (Oxman, Rosenberg, Schnurr, Tucker & Gala, 1988)2.

Third, empirical research using conventional quantitative methodologies to examine the relationship of biopsychosocial and behavioral functioning to spiritual practice and experience is relatively well represented in the literature (e.g., Murphy, 1993). In addition, published research has been appearing which indicates that standardized measures of transpersonal constructs can be utilized effectively to support trans- personal theory (e.g., Cloninger, Svrakic & Przybeck, 1993; Friedman, 1983; MacDonald et at, 1994).

BENEFITS AND LIMITATIONS OF TESTS FOR TRANSPERSONAL RESEARCH

We strongly believe that the argument outlined above provides a rationale for pursuing the development and use of tests of transpersonal constructs in trans- personally oriented research. However, investigators opting to rely on paper and pencil measures which operationalize transpersonal constructs must be wary of their limitations both in the general sense and specifically in relation to the transpersonal area. Most of these limitations are interrelated but can be summarized as follows:

1) The operationalization problem (a.k,a. the problem of ineffability). The most obvious shortcoming of psychometric testing is the difficulty of developing tests which adequately operationalize a construct of interest. Though operationalization is inherently problematic because it results in the reduction of a phenomenon/construct to a highly constrained set of observable criteria, this limitation of testing derives most of its substance from the facts that a) in order for a test to be considered adequate, people who use a test and/or who are interested in the construct the test assesses, must come to some degree of consensus as to what type of expressions (i.e., behaviors, verbalizations) the construct embodies, and b) there has never been total agreement in any area of psychology regarding what universe of expressions consti- tute any given construct. This lack of agreement among scientific psychologists regarding the operationalization of any construct has contributed to the proliferation of tests for virtually every construct studied in the discipline (e.g., personality, intelligence, psychopathology; Comrey, 1988).

For the transpersonal domain, the problem of operationalization can also be seen as a major obstacle for psychometric testing. Insofar as the purpose of transpersonal psychology might be limited to the study of transpersonal experience, it has already been established that valid and complete knowledge about transpersonal states of consciousness cannot be obtained through conventional empirical methodologies.

A Survey of Measures of TranspersonalConstructs 173

Consequently, because such experiences are inherently ineffable, any attempt to operationalize and measure them through the use of psychometric tests, will ulti- mately prove insufficient in capturing their essence. Thus, a transpersonal test cannot measure anything more than an expression of spiritual experience.

2) The validity problem. Once a test has been constructed to measure a specific construct, there is then the problem of validity; how can test developers empirically demonstrate that their tests are measuring what they claim to be measuring? Though there are numerous methodologies and statistics available to help explore that question (e.g., see Anastasi, 1988; Cronbach, 1990), it is the position of modern psychometric theory that a test can never be validated in any absolute sense since the validity of any standardized measure is limited to the populations and contexts with which the measure has been empirically validated (i.e., limited external validity/ generalizability), For example, a test which has been validated on white, middle-class North Americans may not provide valid information on individuals belonging to a different race, culture, and/or socio-economic class. Accordingly, all psychometric tests are highly limited in what they can tell us about human functioning.

For transpersonal psychology, the task of establishing the construct validity of a psychometric measure is especially problematic for at least two reasons. First, if it is accepted that transpersonal experience is ineffable and beyond adequate operational- ization, it then is inevitable that there will be considerable skepticism regarding any claims to a test's validity regardless of the existence of any empirical support for the test. Second, if a test is ever going to gain any acceptance within the transpersonal movement, it will have to demonstrate that it can reliably differentiate between a) individuals who are known to have had spiritual experiences and people who are known to have not had such experiences, and b) individuals who are known to have had different types of transpersonal experiences. However, in order to complete such "known groups" validation, test developers need access to a sufficiently large popu- lation of people who are accurately judged as having had legitimate transpersonal experiences. As we are sure the reader can imagine, the activity of securing such a population (or a respectable sample from such a population) for test validation purposes will likely prove to be exceedingly difficult.

3) The "illusion" of spirituality problem (a.k.a., the response bias' problem or the spiritual materialism problem). This limitation derives its name from an article by Shedler, Mayman and Manis (1993) entitled "The Illusion of Mental Health." Shedler et al, (1993) demonstrated that paper and pencil measures of mental health/psychopa- thology cannot differentiate between psychologically healthy individuals and self- deceptive unhealthy individuals who reported on the tests that they were healthy. If psychometric testing in conventional areas of psychology is being challenged due to difficulties with response bias, then the validity of measures of transpersonal con- structs must also be called into question. The reason for this can be stated as follows: can any measure designed to assess constructs such as degree of spiritual realization differentiate between people who are truly spiritual and those who endorse test items indicating they are spiritual when in fact they are not? As a more specific instance, can a psychometric test differentiate between a spiritual person and an individual who might be guilty of spiritual materialism? (Spiritual materialists are those who "de-

174 TheJournaloj TranspersonalPsychology,1995, Vol.27, No.2

ceive [themselves]into thinking [they are] developing spirituallywhen instead [they are] strengthening[their] egocentricitythrough spiritual techniques" [Trungpa, 1973, p. 3].) Given the current state of knowledge about objective testing, it appears improbable that measures of transpersonal constructs would be any more successful in controllingresponse bias/style than conventionalmeasures. In considerationof the fact that there are no satisfactorypsychometric solutions to this limitation at present, alternative criteria (e.g., clinical judges) which aid in the reliable detection of test response bias/style should be utilized in conjunction with objective measures when- ever possible.

Despite these difficulties,we contend that the development and use of psychometric tests have numerous benefits for transpersonal research including the following: I) once adequate training in psychometrics and test construction is obtained, tests are relatively easy to construct, use, score and interpret; 2) tests can be completed in a relatively short period of time and can be administeredboth individuallyor to groups; 3) tests allow for standardizedmeasurementof a constructthereby making it easier to compare findings from different studies and easier to replicate existing findings; 4) tests allow for fast accumulation of empirical literature on a wide variety of theories and phenomena; 5) tests can be used to verify transpersonaltheory (MacDonaldet al., 1994); and 6) tests allow for easier comparison between transpersonal concepts and mainstream psychological concepts. Thus, psychometric tests could promote a dy- namic link between transpersonal concepts and the nomological net (Cronbach & Meehl, 1955) of mainstream psychologicalconstructs.

In conclusion, it is our position that the transpersonal area has much to gain in using standardized tests in research. However, we must emphasize that psychometric testing is a limited methodology which can only provide useful knowledge if used properly (e.g., by having an adequate knowledge ofthe limits of the validity of'a test and using the measure accordingly). Even though we are confident that testing research, as a quantitative research methodology, is capable of generating useful information relevant to the transpersonal domain, we recommend that it be used in conjunction with more qualitativeresearch strategies, such as the phenomenological method (Patrik, 1994; Walsh, 1995), in studying transpersonal states of conscious- ness.

LiteratureSearch:Parameters

This article reports the findings of two literature searches, one completedin 1992and a second in late 1994. The searches, undertaken at three Canadian universities, partially involved the use of the PsychLit and Dissertation Abstracts CD-ROM databases. The authors, however, also obtained numerous references from books and journals of which they had knowledgeat the time of the searches. In the computerized database searches,identical search terms were used. These keywords consisted of the following: spirituality, spiritual, spirit, mystical, mysticism, transpersonal, holistic, test, measure, form, questionnaire,survey, and inventory. These terms were used in combination with each other in order to ensure that as many references as possible were obtained. Note that we did not rely on any search terms explicitly involving

A Survey of Measures of Transpersonal Constructs 175

religion or religiosity. It was our intent only to survey the literature with regard to measures of transpersonal constructs which are not delimited by traditional notions of religion or religiosity.

Resultsof LiteratureSearches

The results of the searches were impressive; numerous measures were uncovered. However, when we made closer inspection of the literature obtained, we observed, as did Lukoff, Turner and Lu (1993) in their survey of spirituality assessment tools, that many instruments make use of terms involving religion/religiosity, most notably from a monotheistic Judeo-Christian perspective (e.g., belief in, or experience of, God). Though there are a few measures which do not rely on such terminology (e.g., Spiritual Orientation Inventory; Self-Expansiveness Level Form; Spirituality Assess- ment Scale) and others which do not use it in an explicitly denominational manner (e.g., Index of Core Spiritual Experience), it is reasonable to conclude that many measures of transpersonal constructs appear to be confounded with religion/religios- ity at least to some extent. Consequently, researchers must be skeptical of the construct validity of most of the tests designed to assess transpersonal constructs. In particular, investigators relying on these assessment tools should give considerable thought to the degree of construct purity and validity they need in a measure if they plan on using it in a study with any given subject population. For instance, it appears very likely that measures relying on theistic terminology will demonstrate greater empirical sensitivity to individuals who subscribe to a monotheistic faith than to those people who practice nontheistic or polytheistic forms of religion/spirituality (Lukoff et al., 1993). In light of this, investigators should exercise caution in their selection of measures since the validity of the measure may be compromised or enhanced by the subject population tested".

Notwithstanding the confound of religious and transpersonal constructs which limits many existing measures, we were still able to uncover a wide variety of question- naires which appear to have promise as research tools in the transpersonal area Tests which receive discussion in this article were selected because they demonstrated some, if not all, of the following characteristics: a) they seem to embody transper- sonal constructs in a manner which minimize or eliminate a confound with religious concepts; b) they appear to be assessing unique constructs relative to other measures; c) they appear to have satisfactory validity and reliability; and/or d) they have been used effectively in research. Table I provides summary overviews of the measures discussed.

In selecting questionnaires which assess unique constructs, it was our intent to present the broadest range of measures possible in order to help facilitate new lines of research. In keeping with this, we have included measures of intrinsic religious motivation and paranormal beliefs/experiences in this article. The inclusion of the former measures was done because they have exhibited robust empirical relation- ships with transpersonal phenomena and concepts. Conversely, measures of para- normal experienceslbeliefs have been included because they appear to hold potential for some areas of transpersonal research; though some theorists make a distinction between transpersonal and parapsychological phenomena (e.g., see Wilber, 1990, p.

176 TheJournal of TranspersonalPsychology, J995, Vol.27, No.2

73), others (e.g., Neher, 1990)assert that suchphenomenafall under the umbrellaof a psychologyof transcendence.

It is importantto notethat thereare a numberof measureswhichassessconstructsthat a) arenot entirelyreducibleto religionor religiousconstructs,and b) seempotentially useful for transpersonallyorientedresearch,which do not receivediscussionin this paper.These measures,andtheir primaryreferences,are listed in a table at the end of the article (see Table 2). Lastly,the paper concludeswith a table listing sources for additionalmeasuresand literaturediscussingissuesrelevantto testing (see Table 3).

Spirituality Assessment Scale (SAS; Howden, 1992)

The SAS was createdin responseto the absenceof measuresof spiritualityfor use in nursing research.

The SAS is designed to assess a conceptionof spirituality called the "spirituality model" which Howden(p. 6) developed"throughthe processesof conceptanalysis, synthesisand derivation.... as well as theoryconstruction"using variousdefinitions of spiritualityfoundin the philosophical,psychological,sociological,theologicaland nursing literature (e.g., Burkhardt,1989; Frankl, 1963;Hungelmann,Kenkel-Rossi, Klassen& Stollenwerk,1985;Jackson, 1980;Pilch, 1981;Reed, 1987;Sinnott,1969; Vaughan, 1986).

Accordingto the spiritualitymodel, spirituality"is the dimensionof one's being that is an integrating or unifying factor which is manifested through unifying inter- connectedness, purpose and meaning in life, innerness or inner resources, and transcendence"(Howden, 1992,p. 15).UnifyingInterconnectedness(UI) is referred to as "the feeling of relatednessor attachmentto others,a sense of relationshipto all of life, a feeling of harmony with self and others, and a feeling of onenesswith the universeand/or a universal element or Universal being" (Howden,p. 15). Purpose and meaningin life (PML) is defined"as the processof searchingfor or discovering events or relationshipsthat providea sense of worth, hope, and/or reason for living! existence"(p. 15).Innemess or innerresources(IN) is said to involve"the processof striving for or discovering wholeness, identity, and a sense of empowerment. Innerness... [is] manifestedin feelings of strength in times of crisis, calmness or serenity in dealing with uncertaintyin life, guidancein living, being at peace with one's self and the world, and feelings arability" (p. 15-16).FinaUy,Transcendence (TR) is seen "as the ability to reach or go beyondthe limits of usual experience;the capacity,willingness,or experienceof risingabove or overcomingbodily or psychic conditions;or the capacity for achievingwellness and/or self-healing"(p, 16). The SAS has been designedto assess spiritualityas demarcatedby this definition.

The SAS as it was originally designed consistedof 44 items and used a six-point Likertscale rangingfrom I (stronglydisagree)to 6 (stronglyagree).However,based upon an evaluationof the measure's reliabilityand the content validity, eight items were deleted.Thereafter,four more items were dropped from the SAS based upon interimreliabilitycalculationsusing the 36-itemversionofthe instrument.Finally,a principal componentsanalysis of the 32-item version of the SAS using a sample of

A Survey of Measures of TranspersonalConstructs 177

--....l 00

TABLE IA

~ CHARACTERISTICSOF MEASURESDISCUSSED ~

~ Spirituality Spiritual Orientation Index of Core Mystical Experiences Peak Experiences Intrinsic Religious Self-Expansiveness;: ~ Assessment Scale Inventory (SOl) Spiritual Experience Scale (M-Scale) Scale (PES) Motivation Scale Level Form (SELF) l::t (SAS) (INSPIRIT) (IRMS)-.. -a, Primary Howden (1992) Elkins, Hedstrom, Kass, Friedman, Hood (1975) Mathes, Zevon, Hoge (1972) Friedman (1983) ~ Reference(s) Hughes, Leaf & Leserman, Roter & Joerger ;::: Saunders (1988) Zuttermeister & (1982) {; Benson (1991)

~ Construct Assessed Spirituality Spirituality Core Spiritual Mystical Experience Peak Experiences Intrinsic Religious Self-expansivenessc ;::: Experience Motivation (self-concept) l::l-.. ~ Number of Items 28 85 7 (Item 7 consists 32 70 10 18 ~ of 13 parts)::s- c Subscales 1. Unifying L Transcendent None 1. Ego Quality (4) None None 1. Personal Subscale (5)

~ (Note: Numbers in Interconnectedness- Dimension (13) 2. Unifying Quality (4) 2. Middle Subseale (8)parentheses are the UI(9) 2. Meaning and 3. Inner Subjective 3. Transpersonal.... number of items 2. Purpose and Purpose in Life (10) Quality (4) Subscale (5) Ie -e belonging to each Meaning in Life- 3. Mission in Life (9) 4. Temporal/Spatial ,..... PML(4) 4. Sacredness in Life (15) Quality (4) ~ 3. Innerness-lN (9) 5. Material Values (6) 5. Noetic Quality (4) :- 4. Transcendence- 6. Altruism (7) 6. Ineffability (4) t-v TR(6) 7. Idealism (10) 7. Positive Affect (4) ;-.l

8. Awareness of the Tragic 8. Religious Quality (4)

~ (5) t-v 9. Fruits of Spirituality (10)

Response Fonnat Six-point Likert Seven-point Likert Items 1-6 are Five-Point Likert True/False Four-point Likert Five-point Likert Scale Scale (SD-Strongly Scale {I-Intensely Multiple Choice; Scale (+l-Probably Scale (A- Strongly (A- Very Willing; Disagree; D-Disagree; Disagree; 4-Neutral; Item 7: Four-point True; -l-Probsbly not Agree; B- Agree; B- Somewhat Willing; DM-Disagree 7-Intensely Agree) response scale True; +2-Definitely C- Disagree; C· Neutral; Moderately; (Definitely Disagree; True; -2- Definitely D- Strongly D- Somewhat AM-Agree Moderately; Tend to Disagree; Not True; ?-Cannot Disagree) Unwilling; A-Agree; SA-Strongly Tend to Agree; decide) E- Very Unwilling) Agree) Definitely Agree)

Time to Administer 10 minutes 30 minutes 10 minutes 15 minutes 20 minutes 5 minutes 10 minutes (Note: These times are approximate)

Norms No formal norms No formal norras; No focmalnorms; No fonnal norms; No formal norms; No formal norms- No formal norms; (Note: When Howden (1992) Elkins et al (1988) Kass, Friedman Hood (1975) does Mathes et al (1982) see Hoge (1972) MacDonald et al (1994) numbers are N=189: UI- 44.95, do not provide et al (1991) do not not provide N= 116 Males= for item score means N=209 Personal- 21.46, reported, they 4.86; descriptive statistics provide descriptive descriptive statistics SO.IS, 11.10; 2.92; Middle- 30.95, represent the PML- 20.38, 3.20; statistics Females> 52.10, 4.49; Mean and Standard IN- 45.63, 5.00; 10.96 Transpersonal- 14.58, Deviation, TR- 28.23,3.96 3.92 respectively) Total SAS- 139.18,

14.30

Reliability Internal consistency Internal consistency lnternal consistency hems and Subscale Internalconsistency Internal consistency Test-retest- two-week (alpha); Total= .92; (alpha); Subscales= (alpha)= .90 to Total Score (Kuder-Richardson) (Kuder-Richardson) .57-.83 and 12-week Subscales= .72-.91 .75-.95 correlations= .29-.64 .94 for men, =.90 .34-.57 for suhscales;

.92 f<lf women lntemal consistency- Coefficient alpha .58-.79 for subscales; Spearman-Brown- .66-.81 for Personal and Transpersonalsubscales only

::... Validity

~ (Note: The types of Content, Factorial, Content, Criterion- Criterion, Convergent, Face Convergent, Criterion, Criterion, Convergent, validity which have Criterion- see see Elkins et al Convergent, Factorial validity Discriminant Convergent, Discriminant, Factorial

~ received support are Howden (1992) (1988) Discriminant, questionnable Factorial ~ stated) Factorial- see Kass,

~ Friedman et al

~ (1991)

~ Controls for None 20 items are None Half of the items are Half of the items are None None ;:: Response Bias negatively worded negatively worded negatively wordediii '" Availability Howden (1992) Contact Sara Elkins, Kass et al (1991) Hood (1975) Eugene Mathes, Hoge (1972) Friedman (1983) ~ 33443 Cape Bay Place, Ph.D., Department of ~ Dana Point, CA 92629 Psychology, Western § illinois University, ~ Macomb,IL,61455.,. <::! Other References None Lee & Bainurn (1991); None Caird (1988); Campbell Morneau, Hood (1975); MacDonald, Tsagarakiss l::l Smith (1991); (1983); Fite (1981); Macfsonald, Powell & Thorson & Holland (1994) "- Zainuddin (1993) Hood (1977a, 197Th); Holland & Holland (1991) ~ Hood, Hall, Watson & (in press); tl Biderman (1979); Noble (1984) ::t Hood, Manis &;::

Watson (1990); Lukoff'"1;J" & Ln (1988); Noble (1984); Propst (1979)

--.l \0

..- QO <:::>

TABLE1B

;;l CHARACTERISTICS OF MEASURESDISCUSSED l'l>

?;;- Transpersonal Ego Grasping East-West Paranormal Beliefs Assessment Integration Boundary Questionnaire l:: Orientation to Orientation (EGO) Questionnaire Scale (PBS) Schedule for Altered Inventory (II) (BQ) ~ s, Learning (TOTL) (EWQ) States of Conscious-

~ ness (ASASC)

~ Primary Shapiro & Fitzgerald Knoblauch & Gilgen&:Cho Tobacyk & Milford van Quekelberghe, Ruffing-Rahal Hartmann(1991) Q Reference(s) (1989) Falconer (1986) (1 979a) (1983); Tobacyk Altstotter-Gleich &: {I 991)::I ~ (1991) Hertweck (1991) !I> ~ Construct Assessed Transpersonal Ego Grasping Eastern and Western Paranormal Beliefs Altered States Well-being Ego Boundaries c orientation to learning (Taoist Orientation) Worldviews Experiences Integration;:,; l::>- Number of Items 40 20 68 25 325 37 145 ~

"i! Subscales 1. Fantasy Techniques None 1. Man andthe 1. Traditional 1. Personal data (22) None 1. SleeplWakelDream (12)g.

c (Note: Numbers in Applied in Schools Spiritual (4) Religions Belief 2. Extraordinary 2. Unusual Experiences 0" parentheses are (10) 2. Man and Nature (4) Mental Process (22) (19) ~ number of items 2. Mysticism Preferred (16) 2. Psi Beliefs (4) 3. Parapsychology, 3. Thollghts/Feellngs/ "- belonging to each to Science as an 3. Man and Society 3. Witchcraft (4) own experiences (11) Moods (16) \0 subscale) Epistemology (10 (16) 4. Superstition (4) 4. Parapsychology, 4. Childhood! Adolescence! ,~ 3. Mystical/Occult! 4. Man and Himself 5. Spiritualism (3) own view (9) Adulthood (6)

~ Paranormal (16) 6. Extraordinary 5. Esoterics (16) 5. Interpersonal (15)

!"-- Techniques Applied 5. Rationality of Life Forms (3) 6. Positive Mystic 6. Sensitivity (5) N to Schools (10) Man (16) 7. Precognition (3) Experiences (40) 7. Neat/Exact/Precise (l1) _'1 4. Transcendent 7. Negative Mystic 8. Edges/Lines/

~ Consciousness (l0) Experiences (40) Clothing (20)

8.hna~tion(18) 9. Opinions About N 9. Dreams (44) Children and Others (8)

10. Dissociation (23) 10. Opinions Abouts 1L Hallucinations (15) Organizations (10) 12. Hypersensitiveness 11. Opinions About People

(12) Nations, Groups (14) 13. Changed Feeling 12. Opinions About

of Time and Space (23) Beauty (7) 14. Change (30)

Response Format Five-point Likert True/False Five-point Likert Five-point Likert Scale Five-point Likert Six-point Likert Scale Five-point response scale Scale (SA- Strongly Scale (I-Agree (I-Strongly Disagree; Scale (o-Not At All; Scale (I-Strongly (o-no, not at all, Agree; A- Agree; Strongly; 2-Agree 2-Moderately Disagree; I-lust a Little; Disagree,2-Moder- not true for me to 4- yes u, Uncertain; Moderately; 3-No 3-Undecided; 2- To Some Extent; ately Disagree, definitely, definitely true D- Disagree; Opinion; 4-Disagree 4-Moderately Agree; 3- To a Large Extent; 3-Slightly Disagree, of me) SD- Strongly Disagree) Moderately; 5-Strongly Agree) 4- Completely} 4-Slightly Agree

5-Strongly Disagree) 5-Moderately Agree 6-Strongly Agree)

Time to Administer 20 minutes 10 minutes 25 minutes 10 minutes 90 minutes 20 minutes 45 minutes (Note: These times are approximate)

East-West item None pairs constructed to neutralize response set

Hartmann(1991)

Adair (1990); Celenza (1986); Galvin (1990); Levin(1986);Levin,~

& Zywiak (1991)

Criterion, Convergent, Discriminant, Factorial

One-third of items are worded in the opposite

Intemal consistency (alpha)= .93 for total scale (138 items)

No formal norms- see Hartmann(1991) for descriptive statistics for a variety of different samples

None

Content, Convergent, Criterion- see Ruffing-Rahal (1991)

Internal consistency (alpha)« .91

No formal norms; Ruffing-Rahal (1991) N==182; 168.97, 23.04

Exclusion of neutral response option; Half of items are negatively worded

Ruffing-Rahal (1991)

Contact R. van Quekelberghe, Universitat Koblenz- Landau; Fachbereich 8: Psychologie; Im Fort 7; 6740 Landau, Germany

None

Content, Criterion, Discriminant, Factorial

Avoidance of pathological wording in items

Internal consistency (Guttman split-half, alpha)- .81-.86 and .80-.98 for subscales

Convergent, Discriminant

Tobacyk & Milford (1983)

Davies (1988); deBarbenza, Claribel & deVila (1989); Gagne & McKelvie (1990); Irwin (1990); Tobacyk (1984, 1985a, 1985b); Tobaeyk & Milford (1984, 1988); Tobacyk, Milford, et al (1988); Tobacyk, Miller, et a1(1988);Tobacyk & WiIki.nson (1990); Williams et al (1989)

Test-retest: .89 for total scale and .60-.84 for subscales

Norms available for PBS No formal norms- and PBS-R in Tobacyk see (1991); Tobacyk & vanQuekelberghe, Milford (1983) provide et al (1991) for descriptive statistics on descriptive statistics a sample of 424 subjects for subscales

Criterion, Convergent, Discriminant

Gilgen& Cho (1979a)

Cho & Gilgen (1980); Gilgen & Cho, (1979b, 1980); Gilgen, Cho & Stensrud (1980)

Knoblauch (1988, 1990); Knoblauch & Bowers (1989); MacDonald et al (1994)

Knoblauch & Falconer (1986)

No formal norms- see Gilgen & Cho (1979a, 1980) and Cho& Gilgen (1980) for descriptive statistics on a variety of different samples

Internal consistency Test-retest» .76 for (Kuder-Richardson, total scale alpha)= .79, .81; Test-retest- .72

Seven items are scored in the reverse direction

No formal norms; Knoblauch & Falconer(1986) x-ss-7.97, 4.43

Stewart B. Shapiro, Department of Education, University of California, Santa Barbara, CA 93106-9490

None

None

Internal consistency; Split-hal:F.98 for total scale; A l p h a = .96 for total scale and .82-.93 for subscales

Content, Criterion, Criterion, Convergent, Factorial Convergent, validity ambiguous Discriminant

Available from test author at address below. Shapiro & Fitzgerald(1989) report descriptive statistics for four samples

Availability

Other References

Validity (Note: The types of validity which have received support are stated)

Controls for Response Bias

Norms (Note: When numbers are reported, they represent the Mean and Standard Deviation, respectively)

Reliability

-00-

.... 00 N

TABLE IC

~ CHARACTERlSTlCSOF MEASURES DISCUSSED (II

~ Personal Philosophy Holistic Living Death Temperament and Phenomenology of Spiritual Well Being l:: Inventory (PPI) Inventory (lILI) Transcendence Character Inventory Consciousness Scale (SWBS)S I:l Scale (DTS) (TCI) Inventory (PCr)-.g, Primary Persinger & Makarec Stoudenmire, Batman, Hood & Morris (1983) Cloninger, Svrakic & Pekala (1982); Pekala, Paloutzian & Ellison ~ Reference( s) (1987, 1993) Pavlov & Temple Przybeck (1993) Steinberg & Kumar (1982); Ellison (1983) tl (1985) (1986) ;ll

~ Construct Assessed Presence of Temporal Holistic Living Death Transcendence Seven factor model of Dimensions of Spiritual Wen-Being ~ B Lobe Signs Psychobiological Phenomenological ::: Personality Experience l:l- Number of Items 140 80 23 226 53 20;;p 'IS Subscales I. Information related to 1. Physical (20) 1. Biosocial (3) 1. Novelty Seeking (40) 1. Positive Affect I. Religious Well-Being:..- 0 (Note: Numbers in Temporal lobe 2. Emotional (20) 2. Mystical (5) 2. Harm Avoidance (35) 2. Negative Affect (10)

~ parentheses are the functioning (20) 3. Mental (20) 3. Creative (5) 3. Reward Dependence 3. Altered Experience 2. Existential Well-Being number of items 2. Beliefs (30) 4. Spiritual (20) 4. Nature (5) (24) 4. Visual Imagery (IO)

..... belonging to each 3. Control/Mundane 5. Religious (5) 4. Persistence (8) 5. Attention 'C subscale) Experiences (14) 5. Self-Directedness (44) 6. Self-Awareness'C..... 4. Admission (9) 6. Cooperativeness (42) 7. Altered Awareness ~

5. Total Temporal Lobe 7. Self-Transcendence 8. Internal Dialogue r- Signs (56) (33) 9. Rationality ~ 10. Volitional Control .~ 11. Memory

~ 12. Arousal

(Number of items in ~ each scale not provided)

Response Format YesINo Five-point response Four-point Likert scale True/False Seven-point response Six-point response scale scale (A-Least Optimal (I-Strongly Disagree to scale (Anchors not (SA-Strongly Agree, to E- Most Optimal 4-Strongly Agree) provided) MA-Moderately Agre

A-Agree, D-Disagree, MD-Moderately Disagree, SD-Strongly Disagree)

Time to Administer 45 minutes 30 minutes 10 minutes 60 minutes 15 minutes 10 minutes (Note: These times are approximate)

Norms See Persinger No formal norms- see No formal norms; No formal norms- see No forma! norms- see Extensive norms (Note: When & Makarec (1993) for Stoudenmire et al (1985) Hood & Morris (1983) Cloninger et al (1993) Pekala et al (1986) for available- Bufford, numbers are information on norms for descriptive statistics do not provide for descriptive statistics descriptive statistics on Paloutzian & Ellison reported, they for each dimension descriptive statistics a variety of different (1991) represent the across sex and age samples Mean and Standard Deviation, respectively)

Reliability Test-retesr- .70-.90 for Internal Consistency Internal consistency Internal Consistency Internal Consistency Test-retest» .73-.99 TTLS; Internal (Spearman-Brown)> (alpha)= .53-,75 for (alpha)= .65-.89 for (alpha)= .65-.90 for Internal Consistency consistency (alpha)= .72-.91 for subscales subscales scales; ,47-.86 for scales (alpha)= .78-.94 .70 subscale

Validity Criterion, Convergent, Criterion, Convergent, Convergent, Factorial Criterion, Convergent, Criterion Content, Criterion, (Note: The types of Discriminant, Factorial Discriminant validity questionnable Discriminant, Factorial Convergent, Factorial validity which have validity questionnable received support are stated)

;:". Controls for Control and Lie scales None Some items are None None Half of the items are

~ Response Bias included to detect negatively worded negatively worded

~ unusual responding

'<! Availability CPELS and Control John Stoudenmire, Vandecreek & Nyc C. Robert Cloninger, Ronald J. Pekala, Ph.D., Paloutzian & Ellison ~ Cluster can be found in Singing River Mental (1993) Dept. of Psychiatry, Psychology Service (1982); Ellison & Smith

~ Persinger & Makarec Health Services, Washington University (l16B), Coatesville (1991) ~

(1987). For total PPI- 4507 McArthur St. School of Medicine, Veterans Administration Ii: Michael A. Persinger, Pascagoula, MI 39567 4940 Children's PI, Medical Center, !11 Behavioural St. Louis, MO, 63110 Coatesville, PA 19320 '" Neuroscience Laboratory, ~ Department of

if Psychology, Laurentian ~ University, Sudbury, ~ Ontario, Canada P3E 2C6 (\l

01 Other References Huot, Makarec & Stoudenmire, Batman, Vandecreek & Nye Svrakic, Whitehead, Pekala & Kumar (1984, see Ellison & Smith <:::> ::l: Persinger (1989); Pavlov & Temple (1993) Przybeck & Cloninger 1986) (1991); Ellis & Smith i:l-. Makaree & Persinger (1986); Stoudenmire, (1993) (1991) g (1985,1990);Persinger Stevens & Cumbest ~ (1988, 1991a, 1991b); (1989); Stoudenmire, '"~ Persinger & Valliant Temple, Pavlov & n (1985); Richards & Batman (1988) tt Persinger (1991); Ross

& Persinger (1987)

....- 00 w

189 adults aged 40-60 years, resulted in the deletion of four more items. The fmal version of the SAS consists of 28 items which make up the four subscales; 1) VI (9 items), 2) PML (4 items), 3) IN (9 items), and 4) TR (6 items). This version of the SAS still relies upon the six-point Likert scale. Subseale scores are obtained by summing responses to items belonging to each subscale. The total SAS score is obtained by summing the four subscale scores.

The psychometric properties of the 28 items of the SAS were examined by Howden (1992). Interitem consistency is shown to be satisfactory with coefficient alpha values ranging from .72 to .91 for the four subseales; the total SAS obtained an alpha of .92. Subscale-to-total SAS correlations were calculated and resulted in correlations ranging from .78 to .88. Subscale inter-correlations were found to range from .50 to .73. Factorial validity has been provided for the SAS by a principal components analysis which resulted in the extraction of six factors (using a varimax rotation) accounting for 64.8 percent of the total score variance. The PML and TR subscale items formed distinct factors. The VI subscale items made up two of the factors which were interpreted as reflecting connectedness to others and connectedness to life, community and the world. Similarly, the IN subscale items loaded heavily on two factors which were identified as "innerness expressed as harmony, balance, peace and relationship with Supreme Being, and . . . innerness utilized for guidance and strength, particularly in times of difficulty or struggle" (Howden, 1992, p, 124). Finally, the external validity of the SAS was examined by Howden (1992) who found that a) there is no significant relationship between the total SAS score and a recent experience of a crisisevent;b) there is a weak but significant relationship between total SAS scores and reported religiousness (r= .24, p<.OOI); and c) there is no relationship between frequency of attendance of religious events and total SAS scores.

The SAS is a measure of spirituality which does not rely upon any religious theory or terminology, Consequently, because of its nondenominational construction, this instrument shows great promise as a research tool for investigations into spirituality and its physical, psychological, and interpersonalI social correlates. The fact that the SAS is a fairly short measure also contributes to its appeal for research purposes since it would place minimal time demands on researchers and their subjects. Nevertheless, further examination of the construct validity of the SAS as wen as investigations into its relationship to other measures of similar and dissimilar constructs is needed.

SpiritualOrientationInventory (SOl,'Elkins,Hedstrom,Hughes,Leaf & Saunders,1988)

The SOl is "a measure of spirituality based on a humanistic model and designed to assess the spirituality of those not affiliated with traditional religion" (p. 5). The measure is the product of a content analysis of the works of numerous writers on religion and spirituality including James (1958), Jung (1964), Maslow (1970), Dewey (1934), Eliade (1959) and Frankl (1963), among others. Based on their review of the literature, Elkins et al. (1988) extracted a definition of spirituality and the spiritual person which consists of nine components. Briefly defined, these compo- nents are:

184 TheJournal of TranspersonalPsychology, 1995, Vol.27, No.2

I) Transcendent Dimension: "the spiritual person has an experientially based belief that there is a transcendent dimension to life" (p. 10); 2) Meaning and Purpose in Life: ''the spiritual person has known the quest for meaning and purpose and has emerged from this quest with confidence that life is deeply meaningful and that one's own existence has purpose" (p, 11); 3) Mission in Life: "the spiritual person has a sense of 'vocation'" (p. 11); 4) Sacredness of Life: "the spiritual person believes life is infused with sacredness and often experiences a sense of awe, reverence and wonder even in "nonreligious" settings" (p. 11); 5) Material Values: "the spiritual person can appreciate material goods ... but does not seek ultimate satisfaction from them nor attempt to use them as a substitute for frustrated spiritual needs" (p. 11); 6) Altruism: "the spiritual person believes we are our "brother's keeper" and is touched by the pain and suffering of others" (p. 11); 7) Idealism: "the spiritual person is a visionary committed to the betterment of the world" (p. 11); 8) Awareness of the Tragic: "the spiritual person is solemnly conscious of the tragic realities of human existence" (p. 11); and 9) Fruits of Spirituality: "the spiritual person is one whose spirituality has borne fruit in his or her life. True spirituality has a discernable effect upon one's relationship to self, others, nature, life and whatever one considers to be the ultimate" (p. 12).

Elkins et al. (1988) informally validated these nine components by having five persons they considered to be highly spiritual (from Buddhist, Catholic, Protestant and Jewish traditions) evaluate them. At their interviews, all of the evaluators supported the ELkins et al, (1988) definition of spirituality.

Based on their literature review, the interviews and their examination of existing measures of spirituality (e.g., Allport & Ross, 1967; Hood, 1970; Yinger, 1969), Elkins et al, (1988) initially constructed 200 items which, after being rated by experts, was reduced to l57 items. This served as the first research version of the SOL After eliminating those that were found not to discriminate between people rated as highly spiritual and a group of graduate students (Elkins, 1988; see below), only 85 items were retained to operationalize each of the nine components of their definition of spirituality for the final version of the SOL Respondents are provided with a seven- point Likert scale ranging from l-strongly disagree to 7-strongly agree to rate the extent to which they agree with each of the items. The SOl is scored by reversing response values for negatively phrased items and summing item responses for each subscale.

The SOl has been shown to be a reliable measure with the scales of the 85-item version producing coefficient alphas ranging from. 75 to .95 (Elkins, 1988; Elkins et al., 1988). Also, support for the criterion validity ofthe SOl has been provided; Laud and Elkins (1988) found that the mean scores of 24 adults judged as being "highly spiritual" were higher than those of96 graduate students on all SOl subscales except Idealism. Moreover, two additional studies which used the SOl demonstrated that the measure can be used to predict differences in spirituality in various subject popula- tions; Smith (1991) found that 172 polio survivors obtained notably greater scores than 80 non-polio subjects on all SOl subscales except Idealism. Similarly, Lee and

A Survey of Measures of TranspersonalConstructs 185

Bainum (1991) found that hospice workers scored significantly higher on the SOl than a sample of hospital nurses. Finally, as a point of interest, Zainuddin (1993) examined the relationship between the SOl and psychogenic needs and found that autonomy and aggression needs were the best negative predictors of spirituality. Zainuddin also found that self-actualization needs conld also predict level of spiritu- ality.

Even though the reliability of the SOl has been shown to be satisfactory, much more knowledge regarding its validity is needed before confidence can be warranted in its use in research. This is especially true with regards to construct validity (including factorial validity) and the relationship of the SOl subscales to other measures of similar constructs. Elkins et al. (1988) state that future psychometric research focus- ing on reliability and factorial, content and concurrent validity is to be completed. However, to our knowledge, no such work has appeared in the literature. Despite this, as was the case with the SAS, the SOl is a measure of spirituality which was designed to eliminate the confound with religious concepts and terminology. In light of'this, as well as its success in differentiating between known groups of subjects, the SOl may prove to be a good instrument for research comparing/contrasting groups of individu- als who are hypothesized to differ in spiritual orientation.

Index of Core Spiritual Experience (INSPIRIT; Kass, Friedman, Leserman, Zuttermeister & Benson, 1991)

According to Kass et al, (1991), the INSPIRlT was developed in response to three considerations: a) measures of spiritual experience (e.g., Hood, 1970, 1975; Ring, 1984) indicate that such phenomena are fairly prevalent (e.g., Davis & Smith, 1985; Ring, 1984); b) the occurrence of spiritual experience may be associated with psychological well-being (e.g., Hay & Morisy, 1978; Hood, 1977b; Ring, 1984); and c) based on their research and clinical experiences (e.g., Benson, 1975, 1987; Bowen, Justyn,Kass, Miller, Rogers, Rogers & Wood, 1978), Kass et al. (1991) developed a notion of spiritual experience which did not seem to be accounted for by existing measures. Kass et al. (1991) add that existing measures of spiritual experience do not appear to define the construct adequately enough to account for and expose the intrinsic religious variables (Le., spiritual experience) which are linked to health.

The INSPIRlT is a measure of "core spiritual experience," a construct which Kass et al. (1991) state is made up of two discernable elements, namely,

1) a distinct event and a cognitive appraisal of that event which resulted in a personal conviction of God's existence (or some form of higher power as defined by the person); and 2) theperceptionof a highlyinternalizedrelationshipbetweenGod andthe person(i.e., God dwellswithin and a correspondingfeelingof closenessto God) (p. 204).

The INSPIRlT was created to overcome the limitations of existing measures of spiritual experience in uncovering a link between spiritual experience and health.

The INSPIRlT is a paper and pencil measure that consists of seven items which are used to operationalize the two characteristics of the core spiritual experience. Items

186 The Journal of Transpersonal Psychology, 1995, Vol. 27,No.2

one through six ask respondents multiple choice questions regarding the occurrence and nature of spiritual experiences and the impact of these experiences on beliefs and religious motivation. For item seven, respondents are provided a four-point rating scale to rate twelve statements describing various types or aspects of spiritual experience. Kass et at (1991) assert that items 1,2, 4 and 6 identify behaviors and attitudes which would be present in a person who felt close to God and who held the perception that God dwells within. Items 3, 5 and 7 are understood as identifying experiences which had led to a conviction of God's existence. Items one through seven of the INSPIRIT are scored by numerically coding item responses from 1 to 4, summing them and then dividing by the total number of questions. For item 7, only the highest scoring statement of the twelve statements is used for calculating the total INSPIRIT score. The greater the INSPIRIT mean score, the more likely it is that the respondent has had, and been affected by, a core spiritual experience.

Kass et al, (1991) performed several analyses on the INSPIRIT to examine its psychometric properties and found that the measure seems to have good reliability as suggested by an alpha coefficient of .90, and satisfactory validity as suggested by the following: a) a principal components analysis resulted in the extraction of one factor on which all seven INSPIRIT items loaded heavily; b) the INSPIRIT correlated significantly with the Intrinsic scale (r= .69, p<.OOOI),but not the Extrinsic scale, of the Religious Orientation Inventory (Allport & Ross, 1967); c) multiple regression analyses revealed that the INSPIRIT is positively and significantly related to in- creased life purpose and satisfaction as measured by the Inventory of Positive Psychological Attitudes to Life (Kass, Friedman, Leserman, Caudill, Zuttermeister & Benson, 1991), and inversely related to average symptom frequency as assessed by the Medical Symptom Checklist (Leserman, 1983); and d) the INSPIRIT discrimi- nated between outpatients with longer versus shorter histories of using meditation to elicit a relaxation response.

There are three strengths of the INSPIRIT which support its use in transpersonal research. First, the notion of core spiritual experience which the measure has been designed to assess was developed based on both the clinical and research experience of the test constructors. Most other measures of spiritual experience operationalize definitions of the construct which are grounded almost exclusively on theory and not on direct observation. Second. the INSPIRIT is a parsimonious measure of spiritual experience. Since it consists of only seven items, the measure can be administered quickly and easily. Third, as the above research indicates, the INSPIRIT demon- strates a significant empirical relationship between spiritual experience and both psychological and physical health. Consequently, the INSPIRIT may serve as an excellent measure for use in research focusing on transpersonal experience and its impact on functioning.

Despite these strengths, the INSPIRIT can be criticized on at least two accounts. First, though it attempts to use them in non-denominational ways, it nonetheless relies heavily on monotheistic terms, especially "God." Resultingly, as was discussed earlier in this paper, the INSPIRIT may be more sensitive to individuals who adhere to monotheistic religious systems than to those who practice nontheistic or polytheis- tic faiths. Second, the current scoring procedure for the INSPIRIT results in the loss of a fair amount of data from item seven. Some effort should be made to develop a

A Survey of Measures of TranspersonalConstructs 187

more effectiveprocedure for using responses to item seven (e.g., instead of using only the highest scoring rating for calculationof the total INSPIRIT score, the mean rating of the twelve parts of item seven could be used).

Mystical Experiences Scale (M-Scale: Hood, 1975)

Hood (1975) states that the M-Scale was created in order to provide an empirical means of investigatingphenomena,namely religious and spiritual experience, which up to that time had very little empirical work done on them. The M-Scale can be understood most simply to be an operationalizationof the eight dimensions of mystical experience delineated by Stace (1960).These dimensions are labelled and defined by Hood (1975) as follows:

I) Ego Quality: "... the experience of a loss of sense of self while consciousnessis nevertheless maintained. The loss of self is commonly experienced as an absorption into something greater than the mere empirical ego" (Hood, 1975,p. 31); 2) UnitYingQuality: "... the experience of the multiplicity of objects of perception as nevertheless united. Everything is in fact perceived as one" (p, 31); 3) Inner Subjective Quality: "... the perception of an inner subjectivity to all things, even those usually experienced in purely material forms" (p. 32); 4) Temporal/Spatial Quality: "refers to the temporal and spatial parameters of the experience.Essentially both time and space are modified with the extreme being one of an experience that is both 'timeless' and 'spaceless'" (p. 32); 5) Noetic Quality; "refers to the experience as a source of valid knowledge. Empha- sis is on a nonrational,intuitive, insightful experiencethat is nevertheless recognized as not merely subjective" (p, 32); 6) Ineffability: "refers to the impossibility of expressing the experience in conven- tional language, The experience simply cannot be put into words due to the nature of the experience itself and not to the linguistic capacity ofthe sugject (sic)" (p. 32); 7) Positive Affect: "refers to the positive affective quality of the experience. Typi- cally the experience is of joy or blissful happiness" (p. 32); and 8) Religious Quality: "refers to the intrinsic sacredness of the experience. This includes feelings of mystery, awe, and reverence that may nevertheless be expressed independently of traditional religious language" (p. 32).

Hood (1975) indicates that Stace's (1960) criterion of'paradoxicality was not used in tbe M~Scale because Hood did not consider it an essential aspect of mystical experience and because it did not "effectively discriminate"(p. 31) in his preliminary work.

The M-Scale is a paper and pencil test which consists of 32 items. Though Hood (1975) began with an item pool of 108 items which operationalized Stace's (1960) categories, he chose to retain only those items which "proved to be the most clearly understood while retaining face validity in terms of Stace's conceptualizations"(p. 30). Moreover, Hood (1975) asserts that the 32 items of the final M-Scale demon- strated the most satisfactoryempiricalvalidity as reflected in "discriminationindexes calculated on the basis of the ratio between mean responseper item by the top quartile and the lower quartile of respondents to initial forms of" the M-Scale (po 30-31).

188 TheJournalof TranspersonalPsychology,1995,Vol.27,No.2

Each of the dimensions of Stace (1960) are represented by four items (two positively expressed and two negatively expressed). Based on a factor analysis Hood (1975) also delineates two subscales; a general mysticism factor which includes twenty items (which completely embody the dimensions Unifying Quality, Temporal/Spa- tial Quality, Inner Subjective Quality and Ineffability; it also includes three items from Ego Quality and one item from Positive Quality) and a religious interpretation factor made up of the remaining twelve items. Respondents are provided with a five- point Likert scale, ranging from -2; "this description is definitely not true of my own experience or experiences" to +2; "this description is definitely true of my experience or experiences", to rate the extent to which the item accurately describes the person's experience. Respondents are also provided with a "I cannot decide" option, which is recorded as a "?" on the questionnaire. However, the M-Scale instructions encourage respondents to provide answers to all of the items. Item responses are numerically coded as -2, -1 +1 and +2, respectively and are recorded by the respondent on the questionnaire as such. The scoring of the M-Scale consists of reversing the sign of the item response for negatively phrased items, adding three to all item score responses (a response of? is assigned a value of three) and then summing them to obtain the dimension scores and the total M-Scale score. Total scores can range from 32, meaning the least mystical, to 160 which is the most mystical. Scores of the two M- Scale factors can also be obtained by summing the converted item responses as per the procedure above for the items belonging to each factor.

Evidence of adequate, but not exceptional, reliability of the M-Scale has been provided by Hood (1975) who intercorrelated the individual items, the eight dimen- sions, and the two factors, respectively, to the total M-Scale score. Correlations for the items ranged from .29 to .55. Correlations for the eight dimensions ranged from .39 to .64. Correlations for the factors are .86 for the general mysticism factor and .66 for the religious interpretation factor. Hood interpreted these correlations as indicat- ing that the M-Scale has satisfactory internal consistency. In addition, Hood intercorrelated the positive (i.e., summed the positively expressed items) and nega- tive (i.e., summed the negatively expressed items) expressions of all eight conceptual categories and found numerous significant relations. He interpreted this latter finding as indicating "that the form of expression does not alter the meaningfulness of the measurement of these categories and hence the mixed nature of this scale is of significance in avoiding problems of response set when correlating this scale with other measures" (Hood, 1975, p. 33).

The validity of the M-Scale has been relatively well examined and satisfactory support for the measure has been provided. Hood (1975) performed a principal components factor analysis (using a varimax rotation) and found two mtereorrelated factors (r= .47, p<.OI), which support the construct validity of the M-Scale as a measure of Stace's concepts. Additional evidence in support for this factor structure is provided by Caird (1988) who replicated Hood's (1975) factor structure when employing a two-factor solution in a principal axis factor analysis. Interestingly, when a three-factor solution was utilized, Caird fonnd that the religious interpretation category split into two factors indicative of two types of interpretation, noetic and religious. For both solutions, Caird found that the factors were highly intercorrelated. Alternatively, Campbell (1983) performed a principal components analysis on M- Scale item scores which resulted in the extraction of eight factors. She goes on to state

A Survey of Measuresof TranspersonalConstructs 189

that "although these results are not necessarily incompatible with those of Hood, the present results at least appear to suggest that the Mysticism scale is a good deal more complex than Hood's previous work implies" (Campbell, p, 77).

The M-Scale has also demonstrated adequate convergent validity as reflected in the pattern of correlations between the two M-Scale factor scores, the total M-Scale score and other measures of theoretically related constructs found in research. For example, Hood (1975) found significant correlations between the M-Scale total and Hoge's (1972) Intrinsic Religious Motivation scale (r= .81, .68 and .58, p<.Ol for M-Scale total, factor one, and factor two, respectively), Hood's (1970) Religious Experience Episodes Measure (1=.47 and p<.Ol for M-Scale total and factor two; r= .34, p<.05, for factor one), and Taft's (1970) Ego Permissiveness Scale (r= -.75, -.75 and -.43, p<.O1 for total, factor one and factor two).

The M-Scale has been used fairly extensively in research. Though most of this work was not done with the intent to examine the psychometric properties of the measure, it nonetheless provides further insight into the validity of the instrument. In light of this, the authors of this paper surmised that a brief overview of the findings of the literature we obtained would be in order. These findings consist of the following:

1) Relationship of the M-Scale to other measures: a) Hood (1975) correlated the M- Scale and its two factors to the MMPI clinical and validity scales and found significant correlations between the M-Scale total, factor one and factor two scores and the MMPI Lie (L), Hypochondriasis (Hs) and Hysteria (Hy) scales. He inter- preted the relations between the M-Scale and the latter two MMPI scales as being consistent with the "concern with bodily processes and intense experiential states" (p. 39) typically associated with mystical consciousness; b) Fite (1981) also correlated M-Scale scores to the MMPI but obtained a very different pattern of correlations. Non-significant correlations were found with the MMPI L, Hs and Hy scales; however, he observed numerous significant correlations between the M-Scale total and factor scores and MMPI Correction (K). Depression (D), Psychopathic Deviate (Pd), Paranoia (Pa), Schizophrenia (Sc), Hypomania (Ma), Social Introversion (Si) and several specialized MMPI scales including the Subtle-Obvious Clinical scales, Phobias (Pho), Ego Control (Ee), Acting-out Ratio (AOR) and Internalization Ratio (lR). Moreover, Fite (1981) correlated the M-Scale to the Millon Multiaxial Clinical Inventory (MCMI; Millon, 1977) and found significant negative correlations be- tween the M-Scale total and factor scores and the MCMI Asocial scale. Conversely, significant positive relations were found between the M-Scale and MCMI Gregari- ousness. The M-Scale religious interpretation factor also correlated significantly with the MCMI Avoidant and Narcissistic scales. Fite concluded that his evidence was inconclusive in providing support for the hypothesis "that persons reporting more mystical experience will also demonstrate greater capacity for 'regression in service of the ego' than persons reporting less mystical experience" (p. 123); c) Hood, Hall, Watson and Biderman (1979) found many meaningful relations between the M-Scale and the fifteen personality dimensions of the Jackson Personality Inventory (JPI; Jackson, 1976). They also observed a number of sex differences in the pattern of significant correlations obtained. Nevertheless, based on their findings and ignoring the obtained sex differences, Hood et al (1979) assert that the person reporting mystical experience as indicated on M-Scale factor one,

190 The Journal of Transpersonal Psychology. 1995, Vol. 27, No.2

may be describedas one with a breadthof interests,creativeand innovative,tolerantof others, social adept, and unwilling to accept simple solutionsto problems. This person is likelyto be criticalof tradition.However, a person reportinga religiouslyinterpreted mysticalexperience[as indicatedon factortwo] is likelyto be traditionallyorientedand concerned with the welfare of others (p. 806).

As Hood et al. (1979) indicated, these findings reveal stable and healthy personality correlates to reported mystical experience; d) Campbell (1983) found significant correlations between the M-Scale and the Thinking-Feeling scale of the Myers- Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI). The M-Scale general mysticism factor also correlated with MBTI Sensation-Intuition whereas the religious interpretation factor produced a significant negative relation with MBT! Extraversion-Introversion. In addition, using stepwise multiple regression, Campbell found that the MBTI scales of Feeling, Intuition and Sensation best predicted M~Scale factor one scores whereas factor two scores were best accounted for by MBTI Feeling, Judging and Perception as well as age. The total M-Scale score was best predicted by MBT! Feeling, Intuition and Judging and subject age. Finally, using discriminant function analysis, Campbell observed that both the M-Scale and the MBTI could discriminate between group of people reporting mystical experience from a group who did not; e) Noble (1984) obtained significant relationships between the M-Scale total and factor scores and the Peak Experiences Scale (PES; Mathes, Zevon, Roter & Joerger, 1982; r= .66, .63, .58, p<.OOlfor M-Scale total, factor one and factor two, respectively) and with numerous scales of the Perceived Self Questionnaire (Heath, 1968), a measure of psychological health and maturity; these findings were consistent with Noble's expectations; f) Hood (I 977a) found significant relations between the M-Scale and Self-actualization as measured by the Personal Orientation Inventory (Shostrom, 1964), especially the general mysticism factor. Hood observed that individuals high in self-actualization appeared more likely to have mystical experiences caused through the use of drugs or sexual activity whereas mystical experiences seemed to be precipitated by religious or nature settings in persons low in self-actualization; g) Hood (1978) reported a notable correlation between the M-Scale and the Adjective Check List suggesting there is a relationship between reports of mystical experience and a healthy orienta- tion to self.

2) Experimental or Quasi-experimental Research: a) Hood, Morris and Watson (1990) used a modified M-Scale to assess the experience of 73 university students classified as either intrinsically religiously motivated, extrinsically motivated or indisoriminantly pro-religious who were subjected to an isolation tank experience under either religious or non-religious set conditions. Tiley found that the three religious types did not differ on factor one as a function of set conditions. However, indiscriminantly pro-religious subjects had higher factor two scores under the reli- gious set conditions, whereas factor two scores were unaffected by set conditions for intrinsics and extrinsics. Intrinsic subjects had higher factor two scores while extrin- sic participants had lower factor two scores regardless of set conditions. Hood et al. (I990) also found that subjects classified as intrinsically motivated reported their isolation tank experiences in religious terms whether prompted to do so or not whereas indiscriminately pro-religious subjects were more likely to do so when prompted and extrinsics did not regardless of prompting; b) Propst (1979) found that increased antisocial behavior was exhibited by subjects who had external locus of

A Survey of Measures of Transpersonal Constructs 191

control and a low M~Scale score, c) Hood (1977b) observed that individuals engaged in a high stress nature experience obtained significantly greater M-Scale scores than persons involved in a low stress experience, suggesting that an anticipated stressful event may serve as a trigger for mystical experience. (The reader is referred to Lukoff and Lu [1988] for a more detailed discussion of Hood, 1977a, 1977b. They also present a study of marginal quality by Finney & Maloney [1985] which utilizes the M-Scale.)

The M-ScaLe can be viewed as a relatively well designed measure of mystical experience which appears to have found much success to date. However, there are some inconsistencies and apparent oversights in the empirical literature which bring the validity and reliability of the instrument into question. First, there is no knowl- edge about the stability of M-Scale scores. Even though the M-Scale has been in existence for about twenty years, we were unable to locate any studies which examine the test-retest reliability of the instrument. Given that there is a dynamic relationship between the reliability and validity of any standardized test, it would seem prudent to obtain more knowledge about the reliability of the M~Sca]e than is currently avail- able. Second, even though there are indications that sex differences may affect M - Scale scores (e.g., Hood, Hall, Watson & Biderman, 1979), there has not been any research that we could find which explicitly and systematically addresses this pos- sible shortcoming.

Third, the factor analytic work on the M~Scale does not allow for complete confi- dence in the two-factor model that Hood (1915) constructed. Additional research confirming the robustness of the general mysticism and religious interpretation factors may be highly valuable in establishing the factorial complexity of the instru- ment. Lastly, there are indications that respondents, especially older persons, have difficulties differentially responding to the M-Scale items (Hood, 1975). Thus, there is some question as to the validity ofM~Scale scores obtained from some populations on the basis of age. Nevertheless, we are in support of Rood (1975) who contends that the M-Scale "is a potentially useful instrument for persons interested in the investiga- tion of mystical experiences, especially within a religious context" (p, 39).

Peak Scale (PES: Mathes, Zevon, Rater & Joerger, 1982)

The PES is a measure of the tendency of a person to have peak experiences as conceptualized by Maslow (1970). Test construction began with the development of 143 true-false items directly derived from Maslow's detailed description of peak experiences. Based on item to scale-total correlations calculated using data from two samples consisting of230 subjects, Mathes et at (1982) dropped 73 items, leaving a total of 70 items. Mathes et at noted that the remaining items were all scored in a positive direction (i.e., in the direction of a true response). In order to prevent the confounding of scale scores due to acquiescence, the PES creators reworded half of the items in the negative. To ensure that the rewording of items did not affect internal consistency, Mathes et at administered the revised items to 63 males and 104 females and correlated the item scores to the score total They found that all but seven of the items did not obtain significance for men and five did not obtain significance for

192 TheJournal of'TranspersonalPsychology,1995, Vol. 27, No.2

women. However, based on the fact that interitem consistency was found to be satisfactory, these items were retained in the final version of the PES. The PES is scored simply by summing the item responses which endorse aspects of peak experiences.

In terms of its psychometric properties, the PES has demonstrated good reliability as found in Kuder-Richardsonreliability coefficients of .94 for men and .92 for women (Mathes et al., 1982)and adequate validity as suggested by the following; significant correlations between PES scores and the number of peak experiences reported by subjects (r= .24, p<.05 for males; r= .24, p<.05 for females); numerous significant correlations between PES scores and subject ratings of three passages describing a mystical experience on such criteria as the interestingness of passages, meaningful- ness of passages, feelings of being emotionally moved by the passages, enjoyment of reading, the ability of readers to "get into" the passages and arousal of "mystical feelings" in the subjects; and theoretically consistent correlations between the PES and measures of related constructs including the Absorption scale (Tellegen & Atkinson, 1974; r= .50, p<.005, for men; r= .54, p<.005, for women), a measure of Being-value achievement devised by Mathes et at (1982) (r= .37, p<.005, for men; r= .23, p<.05, for women), and numerous scales of the Personal Orientation Inventory (Shostrom, 1964), a measure of self-actualization (for males: Self-regard:r= .24, p<.05; Nature of Man, Constructive: r= .29,p<.025; for females: Inner-directedness: r= .28, p<.025; Self-actualizing value: r= .31, p<.025; Self-acceptance: r= .27, p<.025) (Mathes et al., 1982). Additional evidence in support of the validity of the PES has been provided by Noble (1984) who found that the measure significantly correlated to Hood's (1975) Mystical Experiences Scale (total score- r= .66, p<.OOI; factor one- r= .63, p<.OOl; factor two- r= .58, p<.OOI) and with numerous scales of the Perceived Self Questionnaire (PSQ; Heath, 1968), a measure of psychological health and maturity (PSQ total- r= .18, p<.OI; Intellectual Skills- r= .19, p<.Ol; Values- r= .14, p<.05; Symbolization- r= .22, p<.OI; Allocentrism- r= .13, p<.05; Integration- r= .17, p<.Ol). Lastly, Morneau, MacDonald, Holland and Holland (in press) found significant relations between the PES and a measure of complex partial epileptic signs (Persinger & Makarec, 1987, 1993; see below; r= .35, p<.OOI) and several scales of the revised Paranormal Beliefs Scale (PBS-R; Tobacyk 1991; see below) including the total PBS-R score (r= .36, p<.OOI) and subscales assessing Traditional Religious Beliefs (r= .30, p<.Ol), Psi Beliefs (r= .27, p<.Ol), Spiritualism (r= .32, p<.OOI), Precognition (r= .30, p<.Ol) and Extraordinary Life Forms (r= .20, p<.05).

Based on their analyses of the PES, Mathes et al, (1982) concluded the following:

Although individuals who report having peak experiences are also likely to have experi- ences involving intense happiness, they are even more prone to report having cognitive experiences of a transcendent and mystical nature. This suggests that although the peak experience involves positive affect, it is primarily a cognitive (mystical) event. Individuals who report having peak experiences are more likely to report living in terms of Being- values, such as truth, beauty, and justice than individuals who do not report having peak experiences. Finally, self-actualizing individuals are more likely to report having peak experiences than less self-actualizing individuals, though the relationship is not a very strong one. In general, this picture is consistent with the theorizing of Maslow (p, 107).

A Survey of Measures of TranspersonalConstructs 193

The greatest strength of the PES lies in its grounding in Maslow's theory. In fact, given that many items of the PES are borrowed directly from Maslow's (1970) own writing, and the findings reported above, it is very likely that the PES is a measure which is an acceptable operationalization of what Maslow originally meant by peak experiences. Thus, the PES appears to hold promise as a measure for research examining peak experiences and their relation to psychological health. However, no investigations have been undertaken which examine the factorial validity of the PES. Until such an analysis is completed, investigators using this scale must be sensitive to the possibility that the scale may be a multidimensional (i.e., multi-factorial) operationalizaticn of the construct and thus not a homogeneous measure of peak experiences.

IntrinsicReligiousMotivationScale (IRMS;Rage, 1972)

Hoge (1972) states that the development of the IRMS was prompted by the existence of conceptual diffuseness in existing notions of intrinsic and extrinsic religion and by the questionable validity of measures of the same. The IRMS operationalizes and assesses the aspect of intrinsic religious motivation identified and defined by Runt and King (l971) as ultimate versus instrumental religious motivation. In order to remain consistent with Allport and Ross (1967), Hoge defined this aspect of religious motivation as a bidirectional dimension with intrinsic motivation at one end and extrinsic motivation at the other. Hoge contends that the IRMS is not a measure of behavior, perception or cognitive style but of religious motivation from an American Christian perspective. He adds that test items asking about specific religious behavior were excluded from the IRMS for two reasons: a) such behavior does not serve as a reliable indicator of intrinsic religious motivation, and b) it was desirable to keep religious behavior separate conceptually and operationally from the notion of intrin- sic religious motivation.

The IRMS is a paper and pencil test made up often items which consist of statements about the people's orientation to religion in their lives. Respondents are provided a four-point Likert scale ranging from strongly agree (numerically coded as one for scoring), and agree, (coded as two), to disagree (coded as four) and strongly disagree (coded as five) to rate the extent to which they agree with the test items. Item responses are summed and the mean calculated to obtain the IRMS score. The lower the IRMS score, the higher the respondent's intrinsic religious motivation.

The IRMS has demonstrated good reliability as indicated by a Kuder-Richardson reliability coefficient (using formula 20) of .90 (Hoge, 1972). In terms of validity, the IRMS appears to have adequate factorial validity (Hoge, 1972) as well as good convergent and discriminant validity; the IRMS has produced strong correlations with other measures of intrinsic religious orientation including Feagin's (1964) (r= .85 for total scale; r= .87 for intrinsic scale) and Allport and Ross' (1967) (r= .87 for total scale; r= .86 for intrinsic scale; Hoge, 1972) and with the Mystical Experiences Scale (Hood, 1975; r= .81, p<.OI). Moreover, evidence of satisfactory criterion validity has been found by Hoge (1972) who obtained a correlation of .585 between IRMS scores and minister's ratings of 51 subjects as either intrinsically or extrinsi- cally motivated. Finally, Powell and Thorson (1991) observed a strong relationship

194 TheJournalof TranspersonalPsychology,1995, Vol.27,No.2

between the IRMS, scores on a death anxiety scale and constructions of death among 145 people.

Given the findings reported above, it appears that the IRMS could serve as a satisfactory brief measure of intrinsic religious motivation. In fact, given the magni- tude of the correlations between the IRMS and the scales of Allport and Ross (1967) and Feagin (1964), it appears that the IRMS is assessing constructs virtually identical to these other measures. However, as is the case with most measures of this concept, the IRMS is limited by its operationalization of intrinsic religious motivation from an exclusively American Christian perspective. Nonetheless, the strong correlation between the IRMS and a measure of mystical experience which was obtained by Hood (1975) suggests that the JRMS could be used as a Christian-oriented measure of the extent to which peoples' religious orientation is grounded in the occurrence of spiritual experiences.

Self ExpansivenessLevel Form (SELF;Friedman,1983)

The development of the SELF was prompted by Friedman's (1983) perception that transpersonal psychology was lacking adequate measures of relevant concepts which would allow for the development of a cumulative body of empirical knowledge based upon a shared technique. The general concept that the SELF is designed to assess is self-expansiveness, a construct defined by Friedman (1983, p. 38) as "the amount of True Self which is contained within the boundary demarcating self from not-self through the process of self-conception." More specifically, self-expansiveness has been operationalized as three distinct levels based upon a spatial-temporal cartogra- phy of self-concept (Sampson, 1978; Shostrom, 1968). The three levels are the personal, middle and transpersonal. Each level of self-concept corresponds to a subscale on the SELF. The Personal Subscale, made up of five items, was included to assess the degree of identification that a person has with the "here-and-now" level of the self. Friedman (1983) states that the personal subscale can best be understood as measuring Western conceptions of positive mental health. The Transpersonal Subsoale, also consisting of five items, was designed to assess a person's "degree of identification with aspects of reality beyond that which is ordinarily conceived as being part of the individual" (Friedman, 1983, p. 40). Further stated, the transpersonal subscale assesses the degree of "extension of the self-concept beyond the here-and- now such that there [has been or] is a dissolution of the individual's perception of self as an isolated biosystem existing only in the present time" (p. 39). The Middle Subscale, made up of eight items, is said to serve as a bridge between the personal and transpersonal levels of self-expansiveness. Friedman (1983) states that research into the meaning of the middle subscale has been minimal and no knowledge of what it measures has been obtained. The middle subscale was included to increase the overall face validity of the SELF.

The SELF is a paper and pencil test that consists of 18 randomly ordered self descriptive statements which are rated by an examinee on a five-point Likert scale, ranging from A: "very willing to use to describe my sense of self or identity" to E: "very unwilling to use to describe my sense of self or identity," for the degree of willingness of the examinee to identify with the test items. SELF scale scores are

A Survey of Measures of TranspersonalConstructs 195

obtained by numerically coding and summing the item responses (A=5, B=4, C=3, 0=2, E=I). The higher the score on a given subscale, the more True Self is incorpo- rated into a person's self concept.

The SELF has demonstrated satisfactory reliability; Friedman (1983) found two- week test-retest correlations of .83 and .80 for the personal and transpersonal subscales respectively, while MacDonald, Tsagarakis and Holland (1994) found two week test-retest reliabilities of .57 for both the personal and middle subscales and .69 for the transpersonal scale, and three-month test-retest correlations of .36, .34 and ,57 for the personal, middle and transpersonai subscales,In terms of inter-item consis- teney, Friedman (1983) found Spearman-Brown reliability coefficients of .81 and .78 for the personal subscale and .66 and .68 for the transpersonal subscale. MacDonald, Tsagarakis and Holland (1994) found coefficient alpha values of.72 and .75 for the personal scale, .58 and .67 for the middle subscale, and. 79 and .65 for the transper- sonal subscale.

Examination of the validity of the SELF has been fairly comprehensive and satisfac- tory support has been provided. To briefly elaborate, the results of four principal components analyses have provided support for the factorial validity of the personal and transpersonal subscales (Friedman, 1983; MacDonald et al., 1994). Moreover, the SELF personal and transpersonal subscales have been shown to have adequate convergent and discriminant validity as demonstrated in correlational findings con- sistent with expectation between the SELF subscales and measures of theoretically related and non-related constructs (e.g., the personal subscale has been found to significantly correlate with the Time Competence Scale and the Inner Supports Scale of the Personal Orientation Inventory, the Total Positive Score ofthe Tennessee Self Concept Scale [TSCS; Fitts, 1965J, the Self-Descriptio» Inventory, the Ego Grasping Orientation and numerous scales of the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator [MBTI] and the NEO Personality Inventory [NEO-PI] whereas the transpersonal subscale has been shown to significantly correlate to the M-Scale [r= .32, p<.005J but not the MBTI and only weakly with the Openness to Experience domain of the NEO·PI; both subscales have not been found to correlate with intelligence, social desirabilhy, a number of measures of response style from the TSCS and each other; Friedman, 1983; MacDonald et al., 1994). Also, evidence for the criterion validity of personal and transpersonal subscales was obtained by Friedman (1983) who was able to use these subscales to differentiate between groups of individuals known to vary in the extent to which they identified with the transpersonal and "here-and-now" levels of self (e.g., students, yoga practitioners, members of the Association for Transpersonal Psychology).

Outside of the Temperament and Character Inventory, the SELF is the only measure available which is designed to assess aspects of transpersonal identity. In light of its uniqueness as well as the favorable findings supporting the validity and reliability of the personal and transpersonal subscales, it appears as though the SELF holds much potential for use in research exploring the relation of conventional and transpersonal aspects of identity to spiritual practice/experience. Moreover, as was suggested by MacDonald et al. (1994), the lack of notable relations between the transpersonal subscale and the MBTI and NEO·PI suggest that this subscale may be useful in investigating the possible existence of a "sixth" factor of personality/identity (in

196 The Journal of Transpersonal Psychology, 1995, Vol. 27, No.2

addition to the commonly accepted five factors in conventional personality psy- chology) which could incorporate the spiritual into mainstream conceptions of personality.

However, despite its potential usefulness, the SELF is currently limited in at least three ways. First, Friedman (1983) did not focus any of his attention on the theoretical and empirical development of the middle subseale. As a result, outside of Friedman's claim that the sub scale is a bridge between the personal and transpersonallevels of self-expansiveness, little is known about what the subscale is assessing. Fortunately, some work has been done to further explore this aspect of the SELF. In their detailed examination of the instrument, MacDonald et at (1994) state that "the middle level can be understood as encompassing aspects of sel f-concept which have some aspects of spatial-temporal expansiveness but are not expanded to the point which results in the dissolution of separate egoic identity" (p. 179). This can include identification with behaviors, memories, body parts or movements and social behavior/relations. MacDonald et al. also examined the psychometric properties of the middle subscale and found that it has adequate reliability (coefficientsreported above) and some degree of validity as suggested by significant correlations between the middle subscale and both the personal and transpersonal subscales (r= .34 and .41, p<.OI, respectively), and by the replicated finding of a multidimensional factor structure. In addition, MacDonald et at (1994) obtained a number of significant correlations between the middle subscale and the scales on the MBTI and NEO-PI suggesting that it may be assessing a construct which is relatively well represented in existing personality tests.

Second, there are no specific interpretive criteria available to indicate the meaning of the magnitude of a given subscale score or to indicate the meaning of subscale scores in comparison with each other (e.g., what does a high personal subsoale score and a moderate transpersonal subscale score tell us about the test taker?). Even though SELF scores could be simply understood as reflecting greater self-expansiveness with increased magnitude in the subscale scores, a more definitive interpretive system might be developed in order to make the measure more useful, both for individual assessment and group use in research.

Third, there are indications that SELF scores, especially the personal and middle subscales, may be affected by gender (MacDonald et al., 1994). This finding needs to be kept in mind when using the SELF in research with both men and women and in developing an interpretive system (e.g., separate systems may be required for males and females).

TranspersonalOrientationto Learning(TOTL;Shapiro& Fitzgerald,1989)

The TOTL is a measure of the extent to which a person's attitudes about learning are transpersonal in nature. Shapiro and Fitzgerald (1989) state that "according to the Transpersonal Orientation, schools and other settings for learning are environments for the development of spiritual potential. . . . Intuitive and receptive modes of consciousness are considered equal in importance to cognitive, rational, logical and active modes" (p. 374-376). They add that the TOTL was constructed because there

A Survey of M~!asures of TranspersonalConstructs 197

was no prior empirical work in existence which applied the transpersonal perspective to education.

Development ofthe TOTL began with the construction of 222 test items based on the content analysis of the writings of twenty-five well-known transpersonall humanistic psychologists. This item pool was subjected to independent screenings by a number of judges who rated each item for clarity and relevance. Based on inter-judge agreement and on pilot study data, the item pool was reduced to 67 items. Using a five-point Likert scale ranging from l-strongly disagree to S-strongly agree, this 67- item version of the TOTL was administered to 166 graduate students. Using the results of an item analysis of this data, 19 items were eliminated. Eight more items were dropped on the basis of the findings of a factor analysis. These procedures reduced the overall TOTL to 40 items. Based on a second factor analysis which used an equamax rotation (a procedure which divides the variance accounted for by each factor equally across the factors), the TOTL is broken down into four subscales each containing 10 items. The subscales are labelled 1) Fantasy Techniques Applied in Schools, 2) Mysticism Preferred to Science as an Epistemology, 3) Mystical/Occult/ Paranormal Techniques Applied to Schools, and 4) Transcendent Consciousness. TOTL total and subscale scores are obtained by simply summing the item responses. The greater the TOTL score, the greater the person's transpersonal orientation to learning.

Evidence in support of the reliability of the TOTL has been provided. For the entire TOTL, Shapiro and Fitzgerald (1989) found a split-half reliability of .98 and a Cronbach's alpha of .96. For the subscales, alphas values were found to range from .82 to .93 with a mean alpha of .88.

In terms of validity, Shapiro and Fitzgerald (1989) assert that the content validity of the TOTL was established during test construction by basing item development directly on the work of transpersonal thinkers and by having judges rate the items. Criterion validity ofTOTL has been supported by findings indicating that the TOTL could differentiate among known groups. In particular, it was found that mean TOTL scores were significantly higher for students in confluent (humanistic) education, followed by students in counseling psychology, who, in tum, scored higher than two groups made up of students from single and multiple subject credential programs (Shapiro & Fitzgerald, 1989). Moreover, the TOTL has demonstrated adequate convergent validity; Shapiro and Fitzgerald correlated the TOTL to a number of measures which assess similar constructs, and obtained significant correlations with the Orientation to Learning (OTL; Shapiro, 1985), a measure of humanistic orienta- tion to learning (r= .46, p<.OS), the Intuitive-Feeling temperament scale of the Kiersey Temperamental Sorter (Kiersey & Bates, 1978), a short form of the Myers- Briggs Type Indicator (r= .38, p<.05), and the Concrete Experience Scale of the Learning Style Inventory (Kolb, 1976; r= .22, p<.05). Lastly, evidence for factorial validity has been provided through two principal components analyses. The first analysis, which used a varimax rotation, resulted in all TOTL items loading on a single factor, whereas the second analysis, which used an equamax component rotation, uncovered the four factor structure which partitions the TOTL items into the four subscales mentioned above (Shapiro & Fitzgerald, 1989).

198 TheJournal of TranspersonalPsychology, 1995, Vol.27, No.2

The TOTL is unique in that it is the only transpersonal measure which has direct relevance to educational research: "the contribution of an objective scale such as the TOTL lies in its availability as a reliable and valid measure of a transpersonal orientation to education" (Shapiro & Fitzgerald, 1989, p. 383). In terms of the application of the TOTL, Shapiro and Fitzgerald (1989) state that,

this scalecouldprovidea usefulway of assessingparent,teacherand studentattitudesand changesin theseattitudesinfluencedby certaineducationalregimes.In addition,the TOTL scalesfurtheropenup a lineof scientificinvestigationof the correlatesof suchattitudesand their effectson learningand development(p. 383).

However, anyone who uses the TOTL at this time should be sensitive to the fact that all of the items are worded in such a manner that subjects strongly endorsing an item indicate their responses in the same positive direction. Thus, the researcher should be sensitive to the impact of response bias on test scores. In addition, the factor structure of the TOTL may be unstable. Shapiro and Fitzgerald caution against the use of subscale scores since they are likely to be unstable due to the use of the equamax factor rotation. Resultingly, researchers should exercise discretion when using the subscales until further research can ascertain whether the construct is unidimensional or multidimensional, since the results of the factor analyses indicate that both may be correct. At present the TOTL appears to be best used as a measure of a general orientation towards the transpersonal approach to education.

Ego Grasping Orientation (EGO; Knoblauch & Falconer, 1986)

The EGO is a measure of Taoist orientation that assesses ego grasping, a construct defined as "a dualistic stance that is marked by the person's attempts to make things more positive while striving to eliminate the negative aspects of human experience" (Knoblauch, 1985, p. 55). The notion of ego grasping was developed by Knoblauch and Falconer based on the psychotherapeutic adaptation of the Taoist concepts of yin- yang, wu-wei and teoTest items were constructed by extracting statements made by clients in audio-taped therapy sessions which seemed to affirm or support the concept of ego grasping. Knoblauch (1985) states that an individual high in ego grasping would, according to the Taoist perspective, be highly motivated by egoic idealism and ego centeredness,

The EGO takes the form of a twenty-item true/false questionnaire which is scored in the direction of ego-grasping. The greater the EGO score, the greater the ego grasping by the individual.

Research has shown that the EGO has good inter-item consistency and test-retest reliability, obtaining coefficient alphas of .81 and .82 (Knoblauch & Falconer, 1986), a Kuder-Richardson reliability of. 79 and a three-month test-retest con-elation of. 72 (MacDonald et al., 1994). Moreover, the EGO has demonstrated satisfactory validity (Knoblauch & Falconer, 1986; MacDonald et al., 1994) and, based on the pattern of correlations obtained by Knoblauch and Falconer (1986) between the EGO and ten measures of psychopathology, it appears that elevated EGO scores are associated with anxiety, poor self-esteem, depression and impaired socialization skills. EGO

A Survey of Measures of Transpersonal Constructs 199

scores have also been associated with high risk variables for problem drinking in adult children of alcoholics (Knoblauch, 1990); marginal functioning in alcoholic college students who were adult children of alcoholics (Knoblauch & Bowers, 1989); and psychological characteristics present in a sample of female alcoholics which differentiated them from their male counterparts (Knoblauch, 1988).

The authors ofthis article are in agreement with Knoblauch and Falconer (1986) who state that "the strength of the inventory lies in its ability to measure a person's place on [the continuum ranging from observational acceptance or te to fighting against the Tao, or ego grasping], which, in tum, indicates a strong relationship with Western personality dimensions" (p. 80). However, as the test developers have noted, the EGO "is not a measure of personality since, from a Taoist perspective, personality is an alien concept" (Knoblauch & Falconer, 1986; p. 80). Thus, researchers should make efforts to not equate ego-grasping with any personality or psychological variable. Moreover, one must be equally cautious when using the EGO to assess concepts such as degree of spiritual realization, since despite the fact that low scores suggest that a given individual may "be relatively free from anxiety, depression, low self-esteem, and low socialization skills, it does not suggest anything more than an orientation towards observational acceptance or teoIt is not a measure of enlighten- ment" (Knoblauch & Falconer, 1986, p. 80).

In terms of general applications, the EGO could prove useful in psychotherapy and meditation outcome research. In addition, it could be a useful measure for contribut- ing diagnostic information to clinicians and researchers which conventional tests do not provide. Following from this, the EGO could also serve as a tool for selecting clients or subjects for specific therapeutic interventions.

East-West Questionnaire (EWQ; Gilgen & Cho, 1979a)

Cho and Gilgen (1980) state that "the EWQ [is] designed to reflect the basic monism of [Eastern] thought and the dualism inherent in traditional Western philosophy and religion" (p, 1093). Stated differently, the EWQ has been developed to " ... measure traditional Eastern and Western perspectives on reality, '" man-in-the-world" (Gilgen & Cho 1979a, p. 835), and belief systems (Gilgen, Cho & Stensrud, 1980). "By Eastern is meant the basic assumptions common to Buddhism, Taoism, Confu- cianism and Hinduism; and by Western, the Judeo-Christian and Greek underpin- nings of European and American thought" (Gilgen & Cho, 1979a, p. 835).

According to Gilgen and Cho (1979a), the Eastern perspective is defined as a non- dualistic view of reality which produces the following beliefs or assumptions: humans are not separate from nature but are one with it; physical, mental and spiritual realities are one; humans should recognize their essential unity with nature, mind and spirit rather than expend energy analyzing, labelling, categorizing, manipulating, or exploiting them; as a result of their oneness with the universe, humans should experience a sense of comfort and belongingness in any place and with any person; science and technology are not an effective means of improving the human condition; "enlightenment" directly concerns achieving a sense of oneness with the universal;

200 TheJournal of TranspersonalPsychology, 1995, Vol.27, No.2

enlightenment is a state where all dichotomies vanish; and, meditation is the principle vehicle for achieving enlightenment.

The Western perspective, conversely, is defined by Gilgen and Cho (l979a) as a dualistic view of reality which generates the following beliefs: humans have traits which set them apart from nature and the spiritual; the human being is divided into a body, a spirit and a mind; there exists a personal God who is above the realm of humans and nature; humans must control and exploit nature to ensure their survival and prosperity; rationality and analytic problem solving are valued and should be emphasized; science and technology have provided beneficial things for humans and will continue to do so in the future, and; competition and activity are seen as valuable and should be reinforced.

The EWQ is a paper and pencil test that consists of 68 items (actually, 34 East-West item pairs) which are rated by respondents on a five-point Likert scale for the degree to which they agree with the content of the test items. The 34 pairs of items are unequally divided among five categories: 1)man and the spiritual, 2) man and nature, 3) man and society, 4) man and himself, and 5) the rationality of man. Gilgen and Cho (1979a) explain that East-West item pairs were constructed in order to "neutralize response set" (p. 837).

In terms of scoring, Gilgen and Cho (1979a) state that "while the questionnaire can be scored in a number of ways, the selected scoring procedure involves computing a percentage Eastern thought score" (p. 839). They state that this score can be derived using the following procedure: a) assign a weight of two to "strongly agree" re- sponses and one to "agree but with some reservations" responses, b) compute scores of agreement for the Eastern and Western statements, c) divide the Eastern agreement score by the agreement score which is the sum all of the items and, d) multiply by 100. Gilgen and Cho (1979a) contend that while their recommended scoring procedure does not utilize all of the test data (e.g., 3, 4, and 5 responses are discarded), it is advantageous in that it provides a score scale which ranges from 0 to 100. Generally, when using tile above procedure, score elevations can be interpreted as reflecting the extent to which belief systems of respondents which are more Eastern in nature.

The EWQ has demonstrated satisfactory reliability as reflected in a two-week test- retest correlation of .76 (Gilgen & Cho, 1979a). Evidence has been provided which supports the convergent and discriminant validity of the instrument (Gilgen & Cho, 1979b). For example, as the researchers expected, the EWQ was found to signifi- cantly relate to the Consciousness I, II and III scales (Krus & Tellegen, 1975) and the Zen Scale (Krus & Krus, 1978) (Gilgen & Cho, 1980). Moreover, the EWQ appears to have excellent criterion validity as has been shown in its ability to differentiate between groups of subjects known to vary in the "Easternness" in their thinking. The EWQ has demonstrated such differences with Buddhists, transpersonalpsycholo- gists, arts and business college students and business people (Gilgen & Cho, 1979a), Korean and American college students and Korean Buddhists and Korean Christians (Cho & Gilgen, 1980), and transpersonalpsychologists and middle management business executives [Gilgen, Cho & Stensrud, 1980).It is important to note that some sex differences have been observed on the EWQ (Gilgen & Cho, 1979b).

A Survey of Measures of Transpersonal Constructs 201

On the surface, the EWQ can be understood simply as a measure of some gross differences in cultural world view as expressed in Eastern versus Western societies, or, more exactly, the degree of Eastern or Western enculturation that a person has experienced. Following from this, the EWQ can be severely criticized for relying on highly reductionistic and impressionistic definitions of Eastern and Western world views. However, in consideration that it is a measure of belief systems and not transpersonal experience per se and given the existing research supporting the validity of the measure, especially its ability to differentiate between subject popula- tions of different cultures, religions and world views, it appears that the EWQ could be effectively used in research involving heterogeneous subject populations in which a plurality of cultures, religions and world views are represented. Moreover, the EWQ may prove useful in applied research as both a screening tool to aid in the assignment of subjects/therapists to various treatment conditions involving an East- ern orientation (e.g., Eastern-influenced therapies and techniques versus traditional Western-based psychotherapies) and as a measure of treatment outcome for subjects who have undergone an Eastern-based therapy or technique (e.g., to determine if there is an increase in Eastern or Western thought in individuals who experienced Vipassana meditation versus conventional psychotherapies).

ParanormalBelieft Scale (PBS; Tobacyk& Milford, 1983)

The PBS is a self-report paper and pencil questionnaire which is designed to assess a factor analytically derived multi-dimensional conception of paranormal beliefs. Impetus for the construction of the PBS was derived from Tobacyk & Milford's (1983) perception that existing measures of paranormal beliefs are limited due to their reliance on untested assumptions about the structure of paranormal beliefs (e.g., many measures of paranormal beliefs such as Randall & Desrosiers' [1980] were constructed under the assumption that belief in the paranormal is a unidimensional construct without any empirical support for such an assumption). The test authors surmised that "a more valid procedure in the construction of a paranormal belief- assessment instrument might be first, to assess the structure of paranormal belief in a sample and, second, to base the construction of an assessment instrument on the paranormal belief structure obtained in that sample" (Tobacyk & Milford, 1983, p. 1030).

Based on this strategy, Tobaeyk and Milford devised an item pool of61 items which they either borrowed from existing assessment instruments or constructed them- selves. This item pool was assumed to be a comprehensive representation of the content domain encompassed by the construct of paranormal beliefs. Thereafter, these 61 items were administered to a sample of 391 university students who used a five-point Likert scale (ranging from 1- "strongly disagree with this item" to 3- "undecided or don't know" to 5- "strongly agree with this item") to rate the extent to which they agreed with the content ofthe items. Following this, Tobacyk and Milford (1983) subjected the item scores to a principal axis factor analysis (varimax rotation) which resulted in the extraction of 13 factors. After examining the obtained factors for interpretability and stability, seven were retained and used to form the basis of a multidimensional definition of paranormal beliefs. In addition, items which produced

202 The Journal of Transpersonal Psychology, 1995, Vol. 27, No, 2

the highest loadings on these factors were kept and used to operationalize each component of paranormal beliefs. In the end, a 25-item measure of paranormal beliefs which consists of seven subscales was developed. The seven subscales consist of the following: 1) Traditional Religious Belief (i.e., traditional Christian belief), 2) Psi Beliefs (e.g., psychokinesis, mental telepathy), 3) Witchcraft (e.g., black magic, voodoo, spells, witches), 4) Superstition, 5) Spiritualism (e.g., communication with the dead, astral projection, reincarnation), 6) Extraordinary Life Forms (e.g., belief in the existence of controversial life forms such as the Loch Ness monster, Big Foot and the Abominable Snowman) and 7) Precognition (i.e., belief in predicting the future through paranormal means). The first four subscales are made up of four items each whereas the latter three subscales are made up of three items each. Respondents are provided with a five-point Likert scale ranging from l-strongly disagree to 5-strongly agree, to rate each item for the extent to which they agree that it embodies a belief they have. PBS subscale and total scores are obtained by summing item responses. The higher the score on a subscale or the total PBS, the more strongly the person holds beliefs about the existence of paranormal phenomena.

The PBS and its subscales have been shown to have satisfactory reliability; the total PBS obtained a four-week test-retest reliability of ,89 while the seven subscales produced reliabilities ranging from .60 (for the Precognition subscale) to .84 (for Psi Belief). Moreover, evidence of satisfactory validity has been provided. For example, intercorrelations between the PBS subscales revealed that the seven components of paranormal beliefs appear to be largely independent of each other. Also, convergent and discriminant validity has been supported as suggested in the findings of expected correlations between the PBS and its subscales and a measure of locus of control (indicating that persons who have a more external locus of control tend to have greater belief in the paranormal), a measure of death threat (interpreted as indicating that individuals who score higher on Traditional Religious Belief tend to have less fear of death), a measure of self-esteem and adjustment (indicating that most aspects of paranormal beliefs are not related to level of adjustment; as hypothesized, Tradi- tional Religious Beliefs significantly correlated with this measure suggesting that people who score higher on this subscale show better self-esteem), a measure of uncritical inference making (suggesting that Spiritualism is more associated with uncritical inferences whereas Traditional Religious Beliefs are not), a dogmatism scale (indicating that only Witchcraft is associated with a dogmatic orientation), and a measure of irrational beliefs (indicating that Superstition and Spiritualism are associated with irrational beliefs) (Tobacyk & Milford, 1983). Finally, Tobacyk and Milford (l983) found that females scored significantly higher on the PBS subscales of Traditional Religious Beliefs and Precognition while males scored higher on the Extraordinary Life Forms subscale; outside of these relationships, no other notable sex differences were found.

The PBS has met with some measure of success as reflected in the number of published studies using the scale (e.g., Davies, 1988; defsarbenza, Claribel & deVila, 1989; Gagne & McKelvie, 1990; Irwin, 1990; Tobacyk, 1984, 1985a, 1985b; Tobacyk & Milford, 1984, 1988; Tobacyk, Milford, Springer & Tobacyk, 1988; Tobacyk, Miller, Murphy & Mitchell, 1988; Tobacyk & Wilkinson, 1990; Williams, Taylor & Hintze, 1989).

A Survey of Measures of TrarlspersonalConstructs 203

Tobacyk and Milford (1983), based on their findings, state that the PBS may be useful in the study of the implications that paranormal beliefs have for "personality func- Honing, especially that which concerns locus of control, death threat, self-concept, inference making, dogmatism, and irrational beliefs" (p. W36). The PBS has been included in this review because it seems to be a soundly constructed measure of paranormal beliefs which may prove useful for investigations into the relationship between belief systems and how people organize their experience (e.g., how do people who have spiritual experiences or who have a spiritual orientation to life relate to paranormal beliefs? Do they believe in out-of-body experiences, extra-sensory perception and the like?).

It is noteworthy that a revised version of the PBS has been developed (PBS-R; Tobaeyk, 1991). The PBS-R differs from the PBS in that it utilizes a seven-point rating scale, is made up of 26 items, and contains revised items in the Precognition, Witchcraft and Extraordinary Life Forms subscales, Tobacyk (1991) states that "these improvements resulted in greater reliability [four-week test-retest reliability of .92 for total PBS-R] and validity, less restriction of range, and greater cross-cultural validity in Western cultures" (p. 2). (A copy of the PBS-R can be obtained by writing Jerome J. Tobacyk, Box 10048 Behavioral Sciences, Louisiana Tech University, Ruston, LA 71272). To date, we are only aware of two studies which utilize the PBS~ R. In the first, Tobacyk (1992) confirmedhis hypothesis that "relationships between paranormalbeliefs and locus of control are moderated by both self-monitoring and idealism" (p. 2). Second, Morneau, MacDonald, Holland and Holland (in press) found significant relationships between the PES (reported above) and a measure of complex partial epileptic signs. In both of these instances, the findings suggest that the PBS-R may prove to be as effective as the PBS in research.

Assessment Schedulefor Altered States of Consciousness (ASASC;van Quekelberghe,Altstotter-Gleich& Hertwick; 1991)

The ASASC is an rnultiscaledinstrument which was designed to serve as a compre- hensive measure of altered states of consciousness (ASCs). The test authors state that the development of the ASASC and its subscales was guided by various definitions and taxonomies of ASCs including Tart's (1975, 1977), Gowan's (1978-1979) and Fischer's (1975). However, they cite Ludwig's (1966) definition of ASC as being most central to test construction. Ludwig (1966) defines ASCs as

any mental state(s), inducedby various physiological,psychological,or pharmacological maneuversor agents,which can be recognizedsubjectivelyby the individualhimself(or by an objectiveobserverof the individual)as representinga sufficientdeviationin subjective experience or psychological functioning from certain general norms for that individual during alert, waking consciousness(p. 226; taken from vanQuekelbergheet at, 1991, p. 377).

VanQuekelberghe et al, (1991) assert that their intent in creating the ASASC "was to construct an instrument for assessing any altered-states experiences a person may have had and is able to recall at the time of questionnaire administration" (p, 378- 379).

204 The Journal of Transpersonal Psychology, 1995, Vol. 27, No.2

The ASASC is comprised of 325 items which are unequally divided into 14 subscales,Respondents are provided a five-point rating scale (O-not at all, 1- just a little, 2- to some extent, 3- to a large extent and 4- completely) to rate the extent to which the items apply to themselves and their own experiences and beliefs. Vanquekelberghe et a1. assert that "the items were formulated carefully so that respondents would not get the impression that such extraordinary experiences could be viewed as psychopathologic" (p. 379). Moreover, they comment that each subscale has its own instructions and thus can be administered independently of each other.

The fourteen subscales of the test were devised based upon interview data with experts in ASCs, literature reviews, and upon the nature of the items themselves. These subscales consist of the following: 1) Personal data (22 items): this subscale consists of questions which asks respondents to provide general demographic data (e.g., sex, age, education) as well as information pertaining to their experiences with any activities (e.g., psychotherapy, meditation) or substances (e.g., drugs) associated with ASCs; 2) Extraordinary Mental Processes (22 items): "this subscale is used to assess unusual trains of thought, strange ideas, or extraordinary experiences" (p. 380); 3) Parapsychology, own experiences (11 items): assesses the respondent's personal parapsychological experiences (e.g., precognition, telepathy); 4) Parapsy- chology, own view (9 items): "in this subscale, the subject estimates the probability of the occurrence of typical ESP" (p. 380); 5) Escterics (16 items): "the relatively broad area of esoteric practices [e.g., ranging from everyday practices such as horoscopes and superstitions to spiritual healing and participating in seances] and 'supersensory perception' are covered in this subscale' (p. 380); 6) Positive Mystic Experiences (40 items): this subscale measures ecstatic states of consciousness akin to peak experiences; 7) Negative Mystic Experiences (40 items): this subscale is designed to assess intense negative experiences "such as those that may be encoun- tered on a bad trip. Fear of dying, fear of disintegrating or losing control over oneself or feeling surrounded by 'evil forces' are a selection of the topics covered ... " (vanQuekelberghe et al, 1991, p. 380); 8) Imagination (18 items): assesses imagina- tion and visualization ability; 9) Dreams (44 items): this subscale taps two areas; " ... the extent to which the subject is preoccupied with his/her dreams and . . . the occurrence of different types of dreams (e.g., lucid dreams, nightmares, dreaming of paradise, etc.)" (vanQuekelberghe et al., 1991, p. 381); 10) Dissociation (23 items): "this subscale assesses information pertaining to the intensity of experiences of the trance or hypnotic type, as well as tendencies toward dissociation. Deep concentra- tion, comparable to inner contemplation, as well as suggestibility, are important aspects of this subscale" (p. 381); 11) Hallucinations (15 items): concerns "hallucina- tory images and mental processes resembling megalomaniac ideas and delusions of being influenced by alien forces" (p. 381); 12) Hypersensitiveness (12 items): "this subscale covers two areas synesthetic experiences and abilities, such as perceiving the notes of a tune in colors [and] perceptual sensations of an extreme nature and heightened body sensitivity" (p. 381); 13) Changed Feeling of Time and Space (23 items): this subscale assesses altered body sensations and perception of time as well as the perception of object transformation; and 14) Change (30 items): this subseale assesses the long-term effects of experiences (positive and negative ones) on personal development.

A Surveyof Measuresof Transpersonal Constructs 205

The ASASC has been shown to have good reliability with the fourteen subscales producing alpha coefficients ranging from .80 to .98 and Guttman split-half coeffi- cients ranging from .81 to .96. The validity of the measure also appears to be satisfactory; vanQueketberghe et al. (1991) obtained favorable factor analytic results suggesting that each subscale "seemed to fit to the experiential area for which the items were constructed" (p. 386). Moreover, no age, education or religious denomi- national effects were found to effect ASASC subscale scores. However, some sex differences were observed; women were found to score higher on three subscales (Parapsychology, own experiences, Parapsychology, own view and Dreams). In addition, individuals actively practicing their religion obtained significantly greater scores on three subscales (Parapsychology, own view, Esoterics and Dissociation).

Additional analyses completed on the ASASC which support its validity include the following; Intercorrelations of subscale scores reveal correlations ranging from .40 to .82; analysis of ASASC subscale scores pertaining to personal experiences through nonmetric multidimensional scaling produced an orthogonal two dimensional solu- tion. The first dimension is described as supersensory experiences/ecstasy whereas the second is said to embody imagination/existential experiences/spirituality. Finally, the subscale scores have been used to devise distinct profile types for specific groups of individuals including those who have had extensive drug experiences, persons who engage in esoteric practices and people suffering from schizophrenia, major depres- sion and heroine addition (vanQuekelberghe et al., 1991).

The ASASC is an ambitious and unique instrument in its attempt to be a comprehen- sive measure of altered states of consciousness. Given the evidence in favor of its validity and reliability, the ASASC appears to hold much promise for use in research concerning the occurrence and subjective nature of non-ordinary experiences. Even though the entire measure is somewhat long, vanQuekelberghe et at. (1991) empha- size that testing time can be minimized by administering only those subscales which are needed in a specific study. Furthermore, they mention that a 100-item short form of the ASASC is available (no validity or reliability data is presented). Despite this, knowledge regarding the instrument's construct validity, especially convergent and discriminant validity, and its empirical relationship to other measures of theoretically similar and dissimilar constructs is completely absent. Thus, the instrument should be used with caution until additional psychometric research is completed.

Integration Inventory (II; Ruffing-Rahal, 1991)

The II is an instrument designed to assess well-being or, more specifically, well- being integration in older persons. The measure was developed to address the need "for validated instruments in clinical practice to facilitate the appraisal and tracking of well ness in holistic, experiential and personalized tenus" (Ruffing-Rahal, 1991, p. 10).

Based upon a grounded theory analysis of several interviews with older adults deemed to exhibit well-being, Ruffing.Rahal devised a conception of wellness that consists of three core themes labelled Activity, Affirmation and Synthesis which she describes as follows:

206 The Journal of TranspersonalPsychology, 1995, Vol. 27, No.2

· .. Activityaddressedthe individual's selectionand structuringof meaning-investedrealms of activity in everyday life (physical,psychological,spiritual, intellectual),as well as the capabilityto successfullyperformthem. The secondcore theme.Affirmation,relatedto the individual's perception of a continuity of life meaning, past and ongoing, and expressed specifically in such positive assertions as satisfaction, hopefulness, and religiosity. The third core theme, Synthesis, referred to the individual's reconciliation of painful life experiences and resilient capacity to incorporate and unify the full diversity of past experienceinto an individualframeworkof meaning(p. 11)

Ruffing-Rahal (1991) adds that her model of well-being seems to be consistent with the Jungian notion of individuation (i.e., the consciousness differentiation and inte- gration of aspects of the psyche or personality into itself); "accordingly, integration connotes the attainment of well-being in terms of the meaningfulness of daily life" (p. 11).

After devising her model of well-being, Ruffing-Rahal constructed an initial item pool of forty items from the transcripts from the aforementioned interviews. She reports that the forty items were revised and refined based upon four years of clinical work and community health research to establish their content and face validity. Following this, the forty refined items were reviewed by eight gerontology and community health experts for their relevance in the assessment of well-being. All the items were judged as having representative content.

The II is a 37-item measure which utilizes a six-point Likert scale ranging from 1- strongly disagree to 6- strongly agree. Ruffing-Rahal states that half of the items are negatively phrased as a strategy to minimize the effects of response bias. Moreover, she indicates that the Likert scale was designed without a neutral response option in order to evade "any tendency to influence response patterns" (p. 13). Though the II could be group administered, Ruffing-Rahal states that the measure can be completed in a personal interview in about twenty minutes. The II is scored by reversing the responses on negatively phrased items and summing the item responses.

The reliability of the II has been shown to be satisfactory as reflected in an internal consistency (alpha) coefficient of .91 (Ruffing-Rahal, 1991). The content validity of the instrument was established through the refinement and review process discussed above. The construct validity (actually convergent validity) of the instrument was evaluated by examining its relationship to two measures of theoretically related constructs, namely the Philadelphia Geriatric Center Morale Scale (POeMS; Lawton, 1972, 1975) and the Spiritual Well-Being Scale (SWBS; Paloutzian & Ellison, 1982), using a sample of older adults (mean age= 77 years). Ruffing-Rahal obtained significant correlations between the II and the total and subscale scores of both the PGeMS and the SWBS (total SWBS: r= .52, p<.OOOI; Religious Well-Being scale: r= .31, p<.OOOl; Existential Well-Being: r= .73, p<.OOOl). Lastly, subject ratings of their own well-being in the areas of health, comparison with others, satisfaction with life and happiness, all produced significant correlations with the II, providing further evidence for the validity of the instrument.

The II appears to be a potentially useful instrument for the assessment of well-being from a developmental perspective. Though the instrument has been designed to

A Survey of Measures of TranspersonalConstructs 207

assess well-being integration in older populations and has been validated as such, it seems that it may lend itself for use with populations of varying ages. However, given that the II has not been empirically validated or systematically utilized with younger persons, researchers should be cautious in their interpretation of II scores obtained from such populations. Research investigating the relationship of age to II scores would prove valuable ill establishing the external validity of the measure. In addition, further work on the validity of the II, especially in terms of factorial validity needs to be examined before strong confidence in the measure can be had. Despite this, the II may be useful for "tracking health and wellness interventions [such as meditation or psychotherapy] on an interview or self-administered basis" (Ruffing-Rahal, 1991, p. 13). The II might also be used to generate unique insights into the relationship of well-being to transpersonal experience.

BoundaryQuestionnaire(BQ;Hartmann,1991)

The BQ is a measure of the thinness or thickness of boundaries. The development of the BQ was precipitated by Hartmann's research and clinical work on nightmares, dreaming and sleep disorders. In particular, Hartmann devised a theory of personality boundaries through interview and projective test (primarily Rorschach) data obtained from hundreds of research participants and clients seeking treatment for sleep disorders. Hartmann contends that his concept of boundaries, though not necessarily a new one, allows for an explanation of behavior which has not been adequately captured by personality theories to date (e.g., individual differences in ego strength, consistency of use of defense mechanisms, perception of self, other, and environ- ment, ability to experience non-ordinary states of consciousness, prevalence of psychopathology and the like; the reader is referred to Hartmann, 1991 for a more detailed discussion). Though he applauds his qualitative approach to the study of boundaries as being valid and insightful, he reasoned that information on boundaries could bemore simply obtained through the use of a standardized questionnaire.

In general, boundaries can be understood as the psychological area which separates one component or dimension of the psyche from another andlor from the external world. Stated differently, boundaries refer "broadly to the degree of connection or separation between any two entities, processes or functions in the mind" (Hartmann, 1991, p. 233). The specific types of boundaries which Hartmann (1991) has concep- tualized are operationalized in a 145-item questionnaire. There are twelve categories of boundaries that are included in the BQ. These consist of the following: 1) Sleep/ Wake/Dream (12 items) (e.g., "when I awake in the morning, I am not sure whether I am really awake for a few minutes"; Hartmann, 1991, p. 58); 2) Unusual Experi- ences (19 items) (e.g., "I have had deja vu experiences"; p. 59); 3) Thoughts, Feelings, Moods (16 items) (e.g., "Sometimes I don't now whether I am thinking or feeling"; p. 59); 4) Childhood, Adolescence, Adulthood (6 items) (e.g., "I am very close to my childhood feelings'; p. 59); 5) Interpersonal (15 items) (e.g., When I get involved with someone, we sometimes get too close"; p. 59); 6) Sensitivity (5 items) (e.g., "I am very sensitive to other people's feelings"; p. 59); 7) Neat, Exact, Precise (11 items) (e.g., "I keep my desk or worktable neat and well organized"; p, 59); 8) Edges, Lines, Clothing (20 items) (e.g., "I like houses with flexible spaces, where you can shift things around and make different uses of the same rooms"; p. 59); 9)

208 The Journal of Transpersonal Psychology, 1995, Vol. 27, No.2

Opinions about Children and Others (8 items) (e.g., "I think a good teacher must remain in part a child"; p, 59); 10) Opinions about Organizations (10 items) (e.g., "In an organization, everyone should have a definite place and a specific role"; p. 60); 11) Opinions about People, Nations, Groups (14 items) (e.g., "There arc no sharp dividing lines between normal people, people with problems, and people who are considered psychotic or crazy"; p. 60); and 12) Opinions about Beauty, Truth (7 items) (e.g.• "Either you are telling the truth or you are lying; that's all there is to it"; p. 60). Hartmann asserts that the items within each category are designed to "cover as wide a range as possible" (p. 60). In addition, he indicates that about two-thirds of the items are worded so as to measure thinness of boundaries while the remaining third are worded in the reverse (i.e., to assess for thickness of boundaries).

In order to complete the BQ, respondents are provided a five-point scale ranging from o(no, not at all or not at all true of me) to 4 (yes, definitely or definitely true of me) to rate the extent to which they agree with each item (or find the item to be descriptive of themselves). Scoring is completed by reversing the response scores for the items assessing boundary thickness (i.e., 0=4, 1=3,2=2, 3=1 and 4=0) and summing the item responses. Scores are obtained for each of the 12 boundary categories. As well, the first eight categories above are summed to obtain a Personal Total score, the latter four categories are summed to obtain a World Total score and all categories are summed to generate a total boundary score (called SumBound). For all categories and total scores, scores can be interpreted as measures of boundary thinness such that the greater the score, the thinner the boundaries.

Hartmann (1991) reports that a preliminary version of the BQ was revised based upon detailed comments obtained from thirty colleagues and students who completed the questionnaire. Thereafter, the measure was administered to over 800 individuals and correlations of items to SumBound scores were calculated. Hartmann found that most of the items con-elated well with the total boundary score. However, seven of the items were found not to con-elate adequately. Consequently, when he completed an analysis of the psychometric properties of the BQ, he decided to not include these items. Thus, all reliability and validity data are based upon 138 items.

The reliability of the BQ has been found to be good, as reflected in an internal consistency coefficient (alpha) of .93 (Hartmann, 1991). The validity of the instru- ment has also been examined and favorable evidence provided. For instance, a principal components analysis of BQ item scores resulted in the extraction of a 13- factor solution of which the first twelve appeared to support Hartmann's concep- tion of boundaries. Moreover, Hartmann (1991) found that the criterion validity of the BQ is satisfactory; the BQ successfully differentiated between groups of in- dividuals known to vary in the thinness of their boundaries (e.g., artists vs. naval officers). Further evidence of criterion validity has been provided by Celenza (1986) who hypothesized and found that individuals diagnosed with borderline personality disorder demonstrate thinner boundaries as assessed by the BQ and by Levin (1986) who found that nightmare sufferers had notably thinner boundaries than individuals not experiencing such problems. Hartmann notes that some age and sex differences have been observed with the BQ such that women scored slightly thinner on a consistent basis whereas older subjects scored thicker than younger respondents.

A Survey of Measures of TranspersonalConstructs 209

In addition to the above psychometric support for the BQ, several investigations have been undertaken which look at the relationship of the instrument to other measures including the MMPI validity and basic clinical scales (Hartmann, 1991), special index scores measuring boundaries on the Rorschach and instruments assess- ing schizotypal personality (Adair, 1990; Levin, 1986), measures of hypnotizability such as the Harvard Group Scale of Hypnotic Susceptibility, the Absorption Scale and the Field Inventory (Barrett, 1989) and instruments designed to assess the maintenance of emotional distance and defense against affect (Celenza, 1986). This research suggests that the BQ is assessing constructs which a) seem to be largely independent of existing measures of personality, neuroticism and gross psychopa- thology but associated with some personality disorders such as borderline and schizotypal personality, b) are related to a measure of boundary deficit on the Rorschach, c) are significantly correlated with a person's degree of hypnotic suscep- tibility (with the strongest relationship produced with the Absorption scale, r= .54, p<.OOl), and d) are negatively related to measures of defense against affect and emotional distance such that thicker boundaries are associated with greater emo- tional distance from others and greater defense against strong emotionality. Further- more, Hartmann (1991) reports the results of a study looking at the relationship of BQ scores to performance on a neuropsychological test battery; as expected, persons with thick boundaries approached problems in a systematic manner but demon- strated little variability or flexibility in their approach, whereas individuals with thin boundaries were less systematic but more flexible and adaptable in their approach to problem solving. Lastly, the BQ has been successfully used in investigations exam- ining the relationship of boundary thinness to autonomic nervous system arousal, the frequency of dreaming, and to a variety of sleep disorders (the reader is referred to Hartmann [1991J for his discussion of this research).

The BQ appears to be an instrument which has tremendous potential for deepening our understanding of the role of boundaries on virtually all aspects of human functioning, including the transpersonal dimensions. Outside of the studies men- tioned above, the BQ has been used in research on dreaming (both lucid and nightmare) and creativity (Galvin, 1990; Hartmann, 1989; Levin, Galin & Zywiak, 1991), areas of which have drawn attention in the transpersonal area. Additional applications of the BQ include use in research examining the relationship of bound- ary thinness to the occurrence of transpersonal experiences and non-ordinary states of consciousness and, conversely, in investigations on the impact of such experiences on an individual's boundaries.

PersonalPhilosophyInventory (PPI;Persinger & Makarec, 1987, 1993)

The PPJ is an instrument which is designed to assess the presence of behaviors generally associated with anomalous temporal lobe activity as found in temporal lobe epilepsy (i.e., temporal lobe signs). The main impetus behind the construction of the measure was to "study the existence of temporal lobe signs within the normal population" (Persinger & Makarec, 1987, p. 181), in order to explore the hypothesis (Persinger, 1983, 1984a, 1984b; Persinger & Valliant, 1985) that anomalous transient electrical foci in the temporal lobe structures (most notably the amygdaloid and hippocampal structures) which has come to be associated with conditions, beliefs and

210 The Journal oj TranspersonalPsychology, 1995, Vol. 27, No.2

states of consciousnesssuch as glossolalia,peak experiences,paranormalbeliefs and experiences,and temporal lobe epilepsy/psychosis(e.g., Mahl, Rothenberg,Delgado & Hamlin, 1964;Makarec & Persinger, 1985, 1990;Neppe, 1983;Persinger, 1984b; Persinger& Valliant, 1985),is a normally occurringphenomenonwhich differs in its pathological (e.g., temporal lobe epilepsy) and nonpathologicalmanifestations only in terms of its frequency,duration and intensity.

The PPI is an instrument consisting of 140 yes/no items. Persinger and Makarec (1987) report that "in addition to a variety of control and informationstatements, it contains items that were designed as less intense equivalents of the most frequent experiences of behaviors that are reported by patients who were diagnosed with complex partial epilepsy. Many of the signs are also reported by patients during [direct] electrical stimulation [of the temporal lobe]" (p. 181). Twenty items ask for information which the test constructors reasoned may be relevant to temporal lobe functioning (e.g., church attendance, hand preference). Persinger and Makarec (1993) state "there are two items per theme to check consistency" (p. 36). Thirty items are described as assessing beliefs that range from "exotic beliefs to extreme religious opinions, egotistical references and fear" (Persinger & Makarec, 1993, p. 36). Fourteen items of the PPJ are used to make up a control or "mundane experi- ences" scale which is included "to control for 'yes' responding" (Persinger & Makarec, 1993,p. 36). Also, an admission scale which containsnine MMPI Lie scale items is incorporated to identify "silly" responders. Lastly and most importantly, fifty-six items comprise the Total Temporal Lobe Signs (TILS) scale. The TTLS scale is broken down into several subclusters including Complex-PartialEpileptic- Like Signs (CPELS), Interictal-Like Behaviors (ILB) and Temporal-LobeRelevant (TLR) indicators. Persinger and Makarec (1993) describe these item subclusters as follows:

The CPELS items refer to experiences that are very similar or analogous to those most frequently reported by patients during limbic seizures, while ILB items refer to behaviors that are similar to those reported by patients when (scalp) EEG- detectable seizures are not occurring although interictal spikes may be visible. The TLR indicators compose a cluster of items that are similar to behaviors that traditionally have been associated with temporal lobe epilepsy (p. 37).

The various PPJ subscale scores are calculated as a percentage of yes responses, a procedure which involves summing the number of yes responses for each subscale, dividingthe sum by the number of items belongingto the subscale and multiplyingby 100.

The reliability of the TTLS scale and its componentitem subclustershas been shown to be satisfactoryas suggestedin test-retestcorrelationsof .90, .85 and. 70 for IO-day. Zl-day and IOO-dayretest intervals, respectively. The control subscale has also generated comparable test-retest correlations over the 10- and IDO-dayretest inter- vals (Persinger & Makarec, 1987). In addition, the TTLS subscales have produced inter-item reliability coefficients(alpha) of about. 70 (Persinger & Makarec, 1993).

The criterion validity of the PPJ has been shown to be adequate. Makarec and Persinger(1985, 1990)obtainedcorrelationsof moderate strengthbetween scores on

A Survey ofMeasures of TranspersonalConstructs 211

temporal lobe item clusters and religious beliefs and specific electric patterns in the temporal lobes, but not the occipital lobes, ofa sample of normal subjects. Moreover, the TTLS subscale clusters, especially CPELS, has been successfully used to differ- entiate between groups known to differ ill the frequency, intensity and duration of transient temporal lobe activity they experience (i.e., groups known to vary in the extent to which they report experiencing temporal lobe signs; e.g., temporal lobe epileptics, meditators, artists, and persons reporting paranormal and religious experi- ences; Morneau et al., in press; Persinger, 1984a, 1984b, 19840, 1993; Persinger & Makarec, 1993). As well, Persinger and Makarec (1993) state that they have observed consistent CPELS score elevations in "patients referred for mild to moderate anxiety, depression and career (self-identity) crisis ... " (p. 34). Evidence for the factorial validity of the PPI has been much more equivocal but is still supportive of the instrument; Persinger (1984c) factor analyzed the TTLS and control cluster items and produced a two factor solutions (TILS items loaded on the first factor; control items loaded on the second factor). Conversely, Persinger & Makarec (1993) obtained four factor solutions for men and women separately when they factor analyzed the 56 TTLS items (which they labelled Sensory Enhancement, Affective-Dissociation, Ego-alien Intrusion and Literary Interests).

The PPI has been used to examine the relationship of temporal lobe signs and a variety of psychological constructs in norma) individuals (with normality being defined by MMPI criteria). Persinger and Makarec (1993) assert that

normal volunteers ... who display elevated CPELS are also significantlymore: (1) suggestible(Ross & Persinger, 1987) accordingto Spiegel's (Spiegel & Spiegel, 1978) HypnoticInductionProfile;(2) subjectto dissociativestates(Richards& Persinger,199I); (3) prone to subjectiveparanormalexperiencesand beliefs (Persinger& Valliant, 1985); and (4) likely to endorse multiple childhood fantasies and imaginingsaccordingto the Wilson-Barberscale (1978) (p, 34).

Persinger and Makarec (1993) add that the notable relationship between the CPELS and imagination, fantasy and suggestibility, factors which have been proposed as facilitating therapeutic interventions (e.g., Rossi, 1986), suggest that the instrument may be useful in clinical settings.

The PPI is a distinctive instrument which has served Persinger and his colleagues well in providing evidence in support of their continuum model of temporal lobe functioning (Persinger & Makarec, 1993). Even though the measure is based on a highly reductionistic view of numerous experiential states and behaviors (i.e., that experiences such as mystical, religious and paranormal experiences as well as temporal lobe epilepsy arc a function of the same type of transient brain activity), it nonetheless appears to lend itself for use in transpersonally oriented research. For instance, the PPI could be used to in exploratory research to examine the relationship between types of transpersonal experiences and temporal lobe functioning.

Holistic Living Inventory (HLl; Stoudenmire, Batman, Pavlov & Temple, 1985)

The HLIwas constructed in an attempt to eliminate the lack of clarity that the notion of holistic living (i.e., holism), was receiving in the literature during the 1970s and

212 TheJournal of TranspersonalPsychology, 1995, Vol.27, No.2

1980s. According to Stoudenmire et al, (1985), the HLI delineates specific dimen- sions of holistic living which are defined in operational terms. On the HLI, the assessment of holistic living is grounded on behaviors which are seen as leading to optimal functioning. The inventory focuses on reported behaviors and not on thoughts or feelings of people nor on what they think or feeL This was done under the assumption that, "if people engage often enough and accurately enough in the relevant activities, sooner or later they will achieve their desired ends" (Stoudenmire et al., 1985, p. 303).

The authors of the HLI selected four components or dimensions of holistic living which are in accord with the conceptions of holism held by such groups as the American Holistic Medical Association and the Institute of Religion and Health. These dimensions, and the definitions of optimal functioning which apply to each of them, are as follows:

a) physical dimension: optimal functioning is defined as the enhancement of physical fitness through responsible exercise and weight control, temperate use of non-nutritive substances, and the regular monitoring and regulation of the physical functioning; b) emotional dimension: optimal functioning is defined as the enhancement of emotional satisfaction through responsible pleasure seeking in all areas of people, places and things including attention to sexuality; the avoidance and/or early remediation of unpleasant emotions such as anger, depression and anxiety; c) mental dimension: optimal functioning is defined as the enhancement of mental development through pursuits of reason and knowledge, the cultivation and depreciation [sic] of aesthetics and the avoidance andlor remediation of any irrational attitudes about the nature of mankind; d) spiritual dimension: optimal functioning is defined as the enhancement of spiritual "oneness" with whatever a person considers to be higher than himself as an individual through the use of reason, experience and intuition; the ongoing development of and the adherence to a responsible ethical system (Stoudenmire et al., 1985, p. 303-304).

The HLI has eighty multiple choice items, twenty for each of the four dimensions. Each item has five choices ranging from the least optimal (A), to the most optimal (E). Scoring for each item is one point for A, two points for B, three for C, four for D and five for E. Scores consist of the item sums for each of the four dimensions. The higher a score is on a given dimension, the more optimal a respondent is functioning on that dimension.

Research exploring the psychometric characteristics of the HLI has shown that the inventory has adequate reliability as indicated in Spearman-Brown split-half reli- abilities ranging from .72 for the emotional dimension to .91 for the mental dimen- sion (Stoudenmire et al., 1985). Satisfactory validity (including a demonstrated ability to differentiate between known groups) for each of the four dimensions has also been shown (Stoudenmire et al., 1985; Stoudenmire, Batman, Pavlov & Temple, 1986), though a significant relationship between the mental and spiritual dimensions has been observed (r= .33, p< .01; Stoudenmire et al., 1985). Also, a significant age effect has been found on the spiritual dimension indicating that older persons (e.g., forty years and over) report engaging in more optimal spiritual behaviors than do younger persons (Stoudenmire et al., 1985).

The HLI has been used effectively in research as a tool for assessing treatment improvement in forty-five personality disordered residents of a six-week alcohol

A Survey of Measures of TranspersonalConstructs 213

treatment program (Stoudenmire, Stevens & Cumbest, 1989). In addition, the items of the HLI have been successfully used as a basis for developing a repertoire of positive modelling behaviors for disturbed children (Stoudenmire, Temple, Pavlov & Batman, 1988).

HLI is unique among the measures reported in this paper in that it is the only one which assesses four recognized aspects of well-being, including the spiritual. This should make the HLI a particularly appealing test since a researcher interested in the relationship between spirituality and mental or physical health, for example, would only have to administer the HLI instead of using a battery of measures, thereby saving time while also assessing a wide range of constructs. In terms of applications to transpersonal research topics, the HLI could be used to assess the relative impact of psychotherapy (i.e., the differential effects of various therapies, including medita- tion) or spiritual experience, on people's level of functioning. The HLI may also be used to show differential change in areas of optimal functioning in clients across different therapeutic modalities (e.g., bioenergetics versus mindfulness meditation).

Death Transcendence Scale (DTS; Hood & Morris, 1983)

The DTS was constructed to assess a conception of death transcendence devised by Hood and Morris (1983) which, in turn, is based on the work of Lifton (Lifton, 1976, 1979; Lifton & Olson, 1974). The primary motivation behind the construction of the instrument was the perception of Hood and Morris that empirical work on death has been hindered by a lack of an organizing principle or theory which lends itself to fruitful scientific investigation. At that time, death research, especially those areas focusing on attitudes toward death, appeared "to be influenced, directly or indirectly, from denial theories that postulate a universal 'death anxiety'" (Hood & Morris, 1983. p. 355), which continued to dominate the area "despite repeated failures of investigators to identify such manifest concerns across diverse samples using a wide variety of measures" (Hood & Morris, 1983, p. 355; Kastenbaum & Costa, 1977). Hood and Morris wanted to devise a theory and empirical assessment tool which allowed for a cognitive as opposed to attitudinal approach to the study of death and death transcendence. The DTS is a 23-item paper and pencil measure which operationalizes Lifton's five modes of death transcendence. Four of these modes are described by Hood and Morris (1983) as being primarily cognitive (i.e., beliefs) while the fifth is said to be an experiential/mystical mode. The test constructors add that "the experiential basis of the mystical mode in conjunction with one or more of the basic cognitive modes gives it a special status in which death transcendence is 'experienced' and not merely 'believed'" (Hood & Morris, 1983, p. 357). Altema- tively, Hood and Morris (1983, p. 357) describe the cognitive modes as follows:

The four basic cognitive modes are biosocial, creative, religious and the nature modes. Each of these modes provides symbols and meanings for a cognitive confrontation with and hence transcendence of death. For instance, in the biosocial mode, we perceive ourselves to be part of our children, family and other groups, and this provides a continuity to our lives despite our own personal death. Similarly, the creative mode includes work and projects with which one identifies, and this too provides continuities transcending the individual life. The religious mode includes specific religious traditions that provide cognitively meaning-

214 TheJournal of TranspersonalPsychology,1995, Vol.27, No.2

ful orientations to death. . .. The nature mode involves an identification with natural processesthat transcendthe particularindividual.

Items were writtento assess each of Lifton's cognitivemodes of death transcendence (i.e., nature,biosocial,religiousand creative)as well as his fifth experientialmode of mysticism.The mysticismitems were taken from the factor assessinggeneralmysti- cism on Hood's (1975) M-Scale.Item responsesare providedon a four-pointLikert scale ranging from I-strongly disagree to 4-strongly agree. Vandecreek and Nye (1993) state that "scores on each subscaledescribethe level of investmentattributed to them by the respondent"(p. 279).

Using a sampleof 587 people, Hood and Morris (1983) examinedthe reliabilityand factorial validity of the DTS and found adequate support for both. In terms of reliability, they obtained coefficientalphas ranging from .53 (nature mode) to .75 (religious mode) (average alpha= .62). Alternatively, the results of a principal components analysis (using a quartimax rotation) produced a five-factor solution which correspondsto each of the modes of death transcendence.In addition to the above, Hood and Morris (1983) investigatedthe relationshipof the five subscalesof the DTS to measuresof relatedconstructsincluding Spilka's (Spilka, Stout, Minton & Sizemore, 1977)Fear of Death and Death Perspectivescales and the measure of intrinsicand extrinsicreligiositycreated by Allport and Ross (1967).In all cases, the expected relationships were found (e.g., Intrinsic religiosity positively correlated with the Religious, Mysticism and Biosocial subscales and negatively with the Creative and Nature scales; Extrinsic religiosity correlated significantly with the Creative, Nature and Biosocial subscales but not the Religious and Mysticism modes).

In a follow-upstudy, Vandecreekand Nye (1993) administeredthe DTS (with three itemsthey constructedwhichwere addedto the Biosocialscale)to two differentadult samples for the purpose of complementingHood and Morris' (1983) work with college students.With the first sample,which consistedof 166subjects,Vandecreek and Nye (1993) performed a principal components analysis using a quartimax rotationto determineif the factor structureof the DTS was robust. An initial analysis resultedin the extractionof eight factors,the last three of which were determinedto be insubstantial(only two items loaded on each). Thereafter,the researchersreana- lyzed the DTS item scoresusing a five-factorsolution.However,they foundthat only the first three factorswere replicationsof those obtainedby Hood and Morris (1983); the itemsbelongingto the Natureand Biosocialsubscalestendedto load on morethan one factor.In addition,Vandecreekand Nye (1993)calculatedinter-itemconsistency coefficients for the DTS scales and obtained Cronbach's alphas ranging from .55 (Nature) to .84 (Mystical). The mean alpha was .79. Using a second sample of consistingof 132individualsfroma tertiarycare hospitaland 141familymembersin a surgery waiting room, Vandecreek and Nye (1993) performed a second factor analysisusing the same proceduresand obtained a five-factorsolutionmore akin to Hood and Morris (1983). Coefficient alphas were again calculated for the five subscales(withthe threenew Biosocialitems being includedin the analysis).Alphas ranged from .51 for theNaturemode to .79 for the Religiousmode(mean alpha=".74). Vandecreekand Nyc concludedthat the Religious,Mysticaland Creative subscales appear to be reliable whereas the Biosocial and Nature modes are more fluid.

A Survey of Measures of TranspersonalConstructs 215

Furthermore, they noted that subjects had difficulties understanding the mystical subscale items (especially the negatively phrased ones). Consequently, many sub- jects did not respond to these items. Alternatively, Vandecreekand Nye observed that the subjects who did complete the mystical subscale items tended to obtain higher mean scores on the DTS subscales, a finding interpreted by them as suggesting that when "mystical experiences occur, they have a lasting effect that creates a strong sense of death transcendence" (Vandecreek& Nye, 1993, p. 283).

TIle DTS is a relatively interesting measure in its claim on measuring a multifaceted cognitive conception of death transcendence. Following from this, the instrument seems to hold some potential for research focusing on such areas as death-perceptions and near death experiences. However, the evidence in favor of the reliability and validity of the measure appears to be equivocal at best. Thus, until additional psychometric work is done on the scale, investigators should be cautious of their interpretations of DTS subscale scores, especially those scores involving the Nature and Biosocial modes.

Temperamentand CharacterInventory (Tel; Cloninger,Svrakic & Przybeck;1993)

The TCl is an instrument designed to assess a seven-factor psychobiological model of personality developed by Cloninger and his colleagues (e.g., Cloninger, 1987; Cloninger, Svrakic & Przybeck, 1993).

This instrument, and the model of personality it is designed to operationalize, first took the form of a three-factor model of temperament which was assessed with a 100- item measure called the Tridimensional Personality Questionnaire (TPQ; Cloninger, Svrakic & Przybeck, 1991). However, based upon the observed limitations of the three-factor model (e.g., Cloninger, Sigvardsson & Bohman, 1988; Sigvardsson, Bohman & Cloninger, 1987; Waller, Lilienfeld, Tellegen & Lykken, 1991), a more comprehensive seven-factor model has been developed which "supersedes models with fewer factors and is formulatedto allow differential diagnosis of personality disorder subtypes from one another and from other psychiatric disorders" (Cloninger et a1., 1993, p. 976).

The TCI is a 226 true-false item paper and pencil self-report inventory which operationalizes the seven-factor model, Included amongst these items are 107 items from the TPQ which are used to measure the four temperament dimensions of Novelty Seeking, Harm Avoidance, Reward Dependence and Persistence. Moreover, developed from an initial item pool of 195 items, the TCI includes 119 items used to operationalize the three character dimensions of Self-directedness, Cooperativeness and Self-Transcendence. (Note that the temperament dimensions are generally de- scribed as biologically based components of personality which are said to be "inde- pendently heritable, manifest early in life and involve preconceptual biases in percep- tual memory and habit formation" [Cloninger et al., 1993, p. 975]. Conversely, the character dimensions are consciously learned components of personality which "mature in adulthood and influence personal and social effectiveness by insight learning about self-concepts" [Cloninger et al., 1993, p. 975]). All of the TCI

216 TheJournal of TranspersonalPsychology, 1995, Vol.27, No.2

dimensions except Persistence (which was originally thought of as a component of Reward Dependence and is defined as a temperament factor which is a heritable bias that involves persistence despite frustration and fatigue), are comprised of several subscales, Basic descriptions of the remaining six general personality dimensions along with their component subscalesare as follows:

1) Novelty Seeking: This temperament dimension "is viewed as a heritable bias in the activation or initiation of behaviors such as frequent exploratory activity in response to novelty, impulsive decision making, extravagance in approach to cues of reward, and quick loss of temper and active avoidance of frustration" (Cloninger et al., 1993, p. 977). It is made up offour subscaleslabelled Exploratory Excitability vs. Rigidity, Impulsiveness vs, Reflection, Extravagance vs. Reserve, and Disorderliness vs. Regimentation; 2) Harm Avoidance: "is viewed as a heritable bias in the inhibition or cessation of behaviors, such as pessimistic worry in anticipation of future problems, passive avoidant behaviors such as fear of uncertainty and shyness of strangers, and rapid fatigability" (Cloninger et al., 1993, p. 977). There are four subscales labelled Anticipatory Worry vs. Optimism, Fear of Uncertainty vs. Confidence, Shyness vs. Gregariousness, and Fatigability and Asthenia vs, Vigor; 3) Reward Dependence: This temperament factor is conceived of as "a heritable bias in the maintenance or continuation of ongoing behaviors, and is manifest as sentimentality, social attach- ment, and dependence on approval of others" (Cloninger et al., 1993, p. 977). This dimension is made up of three subscales called Sentimentality vs. Insensitivity, Attachment vs. Detachment and Dependence vs. Independence; 4) Self-Directed- ness: This is a character dimension which "refers to self-determination and 'will- power' , or the ability of an individual to control, regulate, and adapt behavior to fit the situation in accord with individually chosen goals and values" (Cloninger et al., 1993, p, 979). This factor is comprised of five components labelled Responsibility vs. Blaming, Purposeful vs, Goal-Undirected, Resourcefulness vs. Apathy, Self-Accep- tance vs. Self-Striving and Congruent Second Nature; 5) Cooperativeness: This concerns the "individual differences in identification with and acceptance of other people" (Cloninger et al., 1993,p. 980).Cooperativenessis made up of five subscales defined as Social Acceptance vs, Intolerance, Empathy vs, Social Disinterest, Help- fulness vs, Unhelpfulness, Compassion vs. Revengefulness and Pure-Hearted vs. Self-Serving; 6) Self-Transcendence: This character dimension "refers generally to identification with everything conceived as essential and consequential parts of a unified whole" (Cloninger et al., 1993, p. 981). It is made up of three subscales entitled Self-Forgetful vs, Self-Conscious Experience, Transpersonal Identification vs, Self-Isolation and Spiritual Acceptance vs. Rational Materialism. In the case of the three character dimensions, the suhscales are conceived as various aspects of developmental processes which result in the manifestation of these personality traits.

The reliability ofthe Tel factor scales and subscales has been shown to be adequate, at least in terms of interitem consistency. The seven major TCI scales obtained coefficient alphas ranging from .65 (Persistence) to .89 (Cooperativeness) with a mean alpha of .81. The TCI subscalesproduced alphas ranging from .47 (Empathy vs. Social Disinterest) to .86 (Compassion vs. Revengefulness). The mean alpha for the subscales was .67 (Cloninger et al, 1993). Alphas of comparable magnitudes were also obtained using a sample of 136 psychiatric patients (Svrakic, Whitehead, Przybeck & Cloninger, 1993)

A Survey of Measures of Transpersonal Constructs 217

The validity of the TCI has been examined in terms of its factorial, convergent and discriminant and criterion/predictive validity. In all three instances, support for the instrument has been obtained. For example, in terms of the former, Cloninger et al. (1993) performed two principal components analyses using promax rotation to first examine the structure of the character scales and then to investigate the factor structure of the entire TCI. The first analysis resulted in the extraction of three factors which corresponded to the three character dimensions. In the second principal components analysis, Cloninger et al. (1993) obtained a seven-factor solution which confirmed their seven dimensional model of personality and supported the validity of the seven TCI scales and their corresponding subscales. Turning to convergent and discriminant validity, Svrakic, Whitehead, Przybeck and Cloninger (1993) report data from an earlier unpublished work showing that the NEO-PI obtained strong multiple correlations with all of the TCI factors (multiple correlations ranging from .63 to .83) except for Persistence and Self-Transcendence (multiple r= .36 and .30, respectively). This finding is supportive of the validity of the TCI and especially the Self-Transcendence dimension since the five-factor model of personality does not have any components which address the humanistic and transpersonal aspects of personality (Cloninger et al., 1993). Lastly, as per expectation, Svrakic et al. (1993) found that all of the dimensions of the TCI save Self-Transcendence could be successfully utilized to differentiate between personality disorder clusters/subtypes. Self-Transcendence was found only to negatively correlate with the presence of symptomology for schizoid personality disorder (r= -.23, p<.05).

The TCI is the only major personality instrument currently in existence which explicitly incorporates a transpersonal component. Though additional examinations of its psychometric properties are needed, the measure readily lends itself to research exploring the relationship of personality to spirituality and transpersonal states of consciousness.

Phenomenology of Consciousness Inventory (PCI;Pekala, 1982; Pekala, Steinberg& Kumar, 1986)

The PCI is an instrument designed to assess various dimensions of phenomenological experience. More specifically, the measure is a revision and refinement of the Dimensions of Consciousness Questionnaire (DCQ; Pekala & Wenger, 1983) which is used "to assess phenomenological state effects associated with specific stimulus conditions (e.g., hypnosis, drugs, meditation)" (Pekala, Steinberg & Kumar, 1986, p, 983). The test constructors state that although the DCQ demonstrated satisfactory reliability and validity, a shorter instrument was needed for research purposes.

The PCI is composed of fifty-three items that were taken from a version of the DCQ which was modified to include the four primary emotions of anger, fear, sadness and joy postulated by Plutchik (1980). Items which were retained were kept because they significantly contributed to the homogeneity of the constructs assessed (i.e., they enhanced the internal consistency of the measure). The items of the PCI encompass twelve major dimensions of phenomenological experience including Positive Affect, Negative Affect, Altered Experience, Visual Imagery, Attention, Self-awareness,

218 The Journal of TranspersonalPsychology; 1995, Vol. 27, No. 2

Altered Awareness, Internal Dialogue, Rationality, Volitional Control, Memory and Arousal. Furthermore, the first five dimensions contain a number of minor aspects. For Positive Affect these are Joy, Sexual Excitement and Love; Negative Affect embodies Anger, Sadness and Fear; Altered Experience includes Body Image, Time Sense, Perception, and Meaning; Visual Imagery incorporates Amount and Vivid- ness; and, Attention contains Direction (Inward) and Absorption.

Pekala, Steinberg and Kumar (1986) report that two forms of the PCI were con- structed using the identical items arranged in different sequences.

The reliability of the PCI has been shown to be satisfactory. For instance, before creating the two forms of the PCI, Pekala et al, (1986) examined the internal consistency of'the instrument and found coefficient alphas ranging from .70 to .90 for all the major and minor dimensions (mean alpha for major dimensions> .80). They also obtained an average reliability index of.85 across all subjects who completed the measure. Thereafter, the internal consistency of the two forms was examined using data gathered from subjects under different stimulus conditions who obtained reli- ability index values of two or less; form 1 produced alphas ranging from .65 to .85 (mean= .76) for the major dimensions and form 2 obtained alpha coefficients ranging between .74 and .85 (mean- .80).

The validity of the PCI has mostly been examined in terms of criterion validity (i.e., its ability to predict differences between stimulus conditions). Pekala, Steinberg and Kumar (1986) found that significantly different PCl scores were obtained by groups of subjects undergoing different stimulus conditions (eyes open, eyes closed and hypnotic induction); similar findings were obtained in an earlier study by Pekala, Wenger & Levine (1985). Moreover, Pekala and Kumar (1984) found that the PCI could successfully predict hypnotic susceptibility. In general, these findings suggest that the PCI is a valid measure which can adequately differentiate between phenom- enological states.

Though the PCI could use additional psychometric investigation to provide a better picture of its validity, this instrument seems to show promise for phenomenological research. Walsh (1995) states that the development of quantitative measures such as the PCI is the next step of research to provide a systematic empirical basis for making distinctions between various transpersonal states of consciousness.

Spiritual Well Being Scale (SWBS; Ellison, 1983; Paloutzian & Ellison, 1982)

The SWBS is a measure of spiritual well-being which was created in response to the observation that little attention had been given to the impact of spirituality and religiosity on well-being and quality of life. Based on Moberg's (Moberg, 1971; Moberg & Brusek, 197&)conception of spiritual well-being as a two dimensional construct consisting of a vertical dimension (i.e., "our sense of well being in relation to God"; Ellison, 1983, p. 331), and a horizontal dimension (i.e., "a sense of life purpose and life satisfaction, with no reference to anything specifically religious," Ellison, 1983, p. 331), Paloutzian and Ellison (l982) constructed an instrument which

A Survey of Measures of Transpersonal Constructs 219

could be used to investigate empirically the spiritual component of well-being. As Ellison (1983, p. 332) states, " ... Paloutzian and Ellison (1979) began development of [the SWBS so as to] provide a general measure of spiritual well-being while not getting bogged down in specific theological issues or a priori standards of well-being which may vary from one religious belief system or denomination to another."

The SWBS is a twenty-item paper and pencil measure which utilizes a six point response scale ranging from 1- strongly disagree to 6-strongly agree. The instrument is divided into two subscales consisting of ten items each which are used to operationalize of Moberg's dimensions of spiritual well-being. The first scale, called Religious Well-Being (RWB), is used to assess Moberg's vertical dimension whereas the second subscale, Existential Well-Being (EWB), is used to measure the horizontal dimension. In order to ensure adequate differentiation between the RWB and EWB items, all of the RWB items contain references to God while the EWB items do not. In addition, half of the items from both subscales are worded in positive and negative directions so as to control response bias (Paloutzian & Ellison, 1982). Scores can be obtained for RWB and EWB by reversing the response values for negatively worded items and summing the item responses. A total Spiritual Well-Being (SWB) score is obtained by summing the RWB and EWB scores.

The psychometric properties of the SWBS have been examined in a number of studies and strong support for its reliability has been provided. The SWBS and its subscales have produced test-retest correlations ranging from .73 to .99 for one, four, six and ten-week retest intervals. Moreover, internal consistency coefficients (alpha) have been obtained which range from .78 to .94 (Brinkman, 1989; Kirschling & Pittman, 1989; Paloutzian & Ellison, 1982).

Alternatively, extensive empirical examination of the validity of the SWBS has resulted in mixed support for the instrument. In support of the measure, Paloutzian and Ellison (1982) claim that the SWBS has adequate face validity as can be demonstrated by an inspection of item content. Evidence of construct validity has been provided through the finding of significant correlations between the SWBS, its subscales and a wide variety of instruments and criterion measures including the Purpose in Life test (see Table 2) (r= .52, .28, .68, p<.OOl for total SWBS, RWB and EWB, respectively) and Allport and Ross' (1967) Intrinsic-Extrinsic Religious Moti- vation scale (r= .67, .79, p<.OOl, and .19, p<.Ol for SWBS, RWB and EWB with Intrinsic motivation; r= .26, .26, p<.Ol and .15, p<.05 for SWBS, RWB and EWB with Extrinsic motivation) (Ellison, 1983). Moreover, evidence supporting the SWBS as a measure of well-being has been impressive. The instrument and its subscales have been found to correlate positively with "several standard indicators of well-being, including a positive self-concept, finding meaning and purpose in life, high assertiveness and low aggressiveness, good physical health and good emotional adjustment. In contrast, SWBS is negatively correlated with indicators of ill health, emotional maladjustment, and dissatisfaction with life" (Bufford, Paloutzian & Ellison, 1991, p. 57-58).

Despite this supporting evidence, the validity of the SWBS has been seriously challenged for at least two major reasons. First, there is a question as to its factorial

220 The Journal of'TranspersonalPsychology,1995, Vol.27, No.2

validity. Paloutzian and Ellison (1982) report the findings of an item factor analysis which resulted in the extraction of three factors (using a varimax rotation); the first factor contained all the RWB items while the second and third factors contained the EWB items and were described as reflecting life direction and life satisfaction. Conversely, in detailing the results of the same analysis, Bufford, Paloutzian and Ellison (1991) and Ellison (1983) indicate that three factors were found but report that only two factors were retained, the first of which contained the RWB items and the second which contained most of the EWB items. In all three articles, it is claimed that the obtained results support the validity of the instrument. Ledbetter, Smith, Fischer, Vosler-Hunter and Chew (1991) note that these findings are difficult to interpret because each of the articles, most notably Ellison (1983), report them in an ambiguous manner (e.g., how many factors actually were retained?). Also, Ledbetter, Smith, Fischer et al. (1991) question why a varimax factor rotation was used when Ellison (1983) has postulated that EWB and RWB may be components of a higher order spiritual well-being construct. They argue that if RWB and EWB are indeed aspects of a higher-order factor, then the factor analysis should have used an oblique factor rotation. In light of their critique of the factor structure of the SWBS, Ledbetter, Smith, Fischer et a1.(1991) performed two confirmatory factor analyses to test the goodness of fit of both one- and two-factor models. Though they found that the two-factor model explained the SWBS significantly better than the one-factor model, Ledbetter, Smith, Fischer et a1. (1991) concluded "neither model provided a good conceptualization of the factor structure of the Spiritual Well-Being Scale.... These results suggest that, contrary to Ellison's two-factor conceptualization and a postulated general factor model, the SWBS may be factorial complex. This complex- ity makes interpretation of scores ambiguous" (p. 94).

Second, when used with certain subject populations, most notably religious samples, the SWBS has been shown to be limited by ceiling effects such that its ability to differentiate between individuals and samples high in spiritual well-being is compro- mised (Ledbetter, Smith, Vosler-Hunter & Fischer, 1991). Ledbetter, Smith, Vosler- Hunter and Fischer (1991) assert that "the psychometric implications [of these findings] suggest that previously reported relationships between the SWBS and other variables are underestimated for religious samples. In addition, these results indicate that the clinical usefulness of the SWBS is limited to low scores" (p. 49).

Notwithstanding the problems surrounding the validity of the SWBS (which also includes the problem of a confound between spirituality and religiosity), the instru- ment has been employed in a relatively large number of studies utilizing subjects from varied populations (i.e., not just religious samples; see Bufford, Paloutzian & Ellison, 1991; Ellison & Smith, 1991) and has found much success. In consideration of the strong connections that the SWBS has developed with the "nomological net" of constructs, the instrument appears have some value to transpersonal research as an "empirically anchored" measure of general spiritual well-being. However, we agree with Bufford, Paloutzian and Ellison (1991) who state that "the scale [is] not useful in distinguishing among individuals for purposes such as selection of spiritual leaders. The scale is useful for research and as a global index of lack of well-being" (p. 56). Thus, investigators using this SWBS should exercise caution in how they interpret its scores, especially with subjects who are judged as being highly spiritual.

A Survey of Measuresof TranspersonalConstructs 221

TABLE 2 MEASURES OF RELEVANCE TO TRANSPERSONAL RESEARCH NOT DISCUSSED

Name of Measure/ConstructAssessed

Mystical Experience

Mystical Experience

Mysticism Scale

Inclinationtoward Mysticism

Mystical Experience

Mystical Experience- Psychedelic Experiences Questionnaire

Experiences of Transcendent Ecstasy

Birth Experiences Inventory

General Index of Reality

Life Change Inventory

Boutell's Inventory for Identifying Nurses' Assessmentof Patients SpiritualNeeds

Spiritualand Religious Concerns Questionnaire

Spiritual Assessment Inventory

Armstrong Measure of Spirituality

Spiritual Belief Scale

Spiritual Well-being Questionnaire

Spiritual Perspective Scale

SpiritualitySelf-AssessmentScale

Brown-PetersonRecovery Progress Inventory

Spiritual Gifts Inventory

Inventory of TranspersonalHealing

TranspersonalExperiences in Childhood

Dimensions of MeditativeExperience

ConsciousnessI, II and III Scales

Zen Scale

Harvard Group Scale of Hypnotic Susceptibility

Ego PermissivenessScale; Experience Questionnaire

Absorption Scale

Non-doctrinalReligious Scale

Religious Experience Episodes Measure

Intrinsic-ExtrinsicReligious Orientation Scale

Intrinsic-ExtrinsicReligious Motivation

Religious/SpiritualBeliefs and Experiences

Levels of Attribution and Change Scale

Ways to Live Scale

ChristianLife Assessment Scale

Psychic Experiences

References (Note: First reference is primary)

Clark & Raskin (1967)

Davis & Smith (1985); Greeley (1974)

Heisler (1975); Lukoff & Lu (1988)

Fulgosi (1979)

Hood (1973a)

Pahnke (1963, 1967, 1970);Pahnke & Richards (1969); Richards (1978); Dahlin (1991); Lukoff & Lu (1988)

Laski (1961); Lukoff& Lu (1988)

Vaughan & Maliszewski(1982); Lukoff & Lu (1988)

Whiteman (1986); Lukoff & Lu (1988)

Ring (1984, 1992);Lukoff, Turner & Lu (1993)

Boutell & Bozett (1990); Lukoff, Turner & Lu (1993)

Silber & Reilly (1985); Lukoff, Turner & Lu (1993)

Hall & Edwards (1995)

Armstrong (1995)

Schaler(1995)

Moberg (1984); Butman (1990)

Reed (1987); Howden (1992); Lukoff, Turner & Lu (1993)

Whitfield (1984); Corrington (1989); Lukoff, Turner & Lu (1993)

Brown & Peterson (1991); Lukoff, Turner & Lu (1993)

Hocking (1975); Ledbetter & Foster (1989)

Cooperstein (1992)

Hunt, Gervais, Shearing-Johns& Travis (1992)

Osis, Bokert & Carlson (1973)

Krus & Tellegen (1975)

Krus & Krus (1978)

Shor & Orne (1962, 1963);Barrett (1989); Hood (1973b)

Taft (1969, 1970)

Tellegen& Atkinson (1974)

Yinger (1969)

Hood (1970, 1973a, 1973b);Holm (1982); Lukoff & Lu (1988)

Allport & Ross (1967); Genia(1993); Kahoe(1974)

Feagin (1964)

James (1904/1987)

Norcross, Prochaska & Hambrecht (1985); Norcross, Prochaska, Guadagnoli & DiClemente (1984)

Monis(1951,1956)

Smith (1986)

Shafer (1982)

222 The Journal of Transpersonal Psychology, 1995, Vol. 27, No.2

Feelings, Reactions and Beliefs Survey

NEO PersonalityInventory-Revised'

Personal OrientationInventory'

Purpose in Life Test (Note: the citations provided are only a partial listingof studieswhich use or evaluate the measure)

Myers-BriggsType Indicator'

Singer-LoomisInventoryof Personality'

Jungian Type Survey'

Jones, Russell& Nickel (1977)

Blum & Blum (1974)

Randall & Desrosiers(I 980)

Scheidt (1973)

Killen, Wildman & Wildman (1974)

Spilka, Stout, Minton & Sizemore(1977)

Florian& Kravetz (1983)

Nystul (1993)

Thauberger(1976); Thauberger& Sydiaha-Symor (1977)

Crumbaugh& Maholick (1964, 1969);Crumbaugh (1968, 1972, 1977); Dyck (1987); Meier & Edwards (1974); Pearson& Shefield(1974, 1975);Reker (1977); Sharpe& Viney (1973); Shean & Fechtmann(1971); Shefield& Pearson (1974); Yarnell (1971)

Cartwright& Mori (1988); Cartwright,deBruin& Berg (1991)

Briggs& Myers (1987); Myers & McCaulley(1985)

Singer & Loomis(1984); MacDonald& Holland (1993)

Wheelwright,Wheelwright& Buehler (1964); Mattoon & Davis (1995)

Costa & McCrae (1992)

Shostrom(1964, 1968);Welch, Tate & Medeiros (1987)

NOTE: The first reference given for each test is the primary citation providingeither the test or a means of gettingthe test. Additionalcitations involvethe useof the test in research or make mention of the measure in some evaluativecapacity.

5: Refer to end note number five.

ParanormalBeliefs

ParanormalBeliefs

Paranormal Beliefs

ParanormalBeliefs

Paranormal Beliefs

Fear of Death and Death PerspectiveScales

Fear of Personal Death Scale

Nystul Turning Point Survey

Avoidanceof ExistentialConfrontationScale

TABLE 3 SOURCESOF ADDITIONALMEASURES AND/ORLITERATUREFOCUSINGON THEORETICALCONSIDERATIONS

OF TESTING OR EMPIRICALFINDINGSGENERATEDTHROUGHTHB USE OF TESTS

Reference

Stoll (1979)

Lukoff & Lu (1988)

Lukoff, Turner & Lu (1993)

Spilka,Hood & Gorsuch (1985)

Butman (1990)

Silverman (1983)

Wulff (1991)

Robinson & Shaver(1973)

Robinson,Shaver & Wrightsman(1990)

Chun, Cobb & French (1975)

Goldman & Osbourne (1985)

Buras (1974)

Mental MeasurementsYearbook

Anastasi (1988)

Cronbach (1990)

Messick (1995)

Type of Measures!AssessmentIssues Discussed

Spirituality

Mystical Experience

Spirituality

Religion/Mysticism

Religious Development

Religion/Religiosity/Mysticism

Religion/Religiosity/ReligiousExperience

General

General

General

General

General

General

General

General

General-Validity

A Survey of Measures of Transpersonal Constructs 223

NOTES

'The authorswish to thank ClementinaIampietro,CatherineTsagarakis,JeffKuentzel and the anonymous reviewer for their assistancein the completionof this project. The first author would also like to thank MoriahR. A. MacDonaldfor her supportandenthusiasmduringthelatterstagesof manuscriptpreparation.

2However,wheneverwe rely on languageand languagedescriptorsto devise a theory,phenomenological mapor self-reportinstrument,we mustkeep in mindthat word meaningsandusagevary as a functionof the culturaland historicalcontextin which the words/descriptorsare being used (Collier,Minton & Reynolds, 199t ; Derrida, 1976;Gergen, 1985).Moreover,the sampleof descriptorsused in devisingany of the above will directly influencethe form and completenessof the theory, map or test (e.g., if a phenomenological map of an experientialstate is devisedfrom a sampleof 100child experientsvs, 100adults,it is reasonable to assumethat the resultingmapswill differ tremendously.In turn, this differencecan be attributedin large part to the mannerin whichsubjectsfromthe two samplesuse language).Consequently,it wouldseemthat differencesobserved in languagedescriptorsused mayor may not reflect objective differencesbetween theoriesand/or testing instruments.

lBy responsebias we are includingany and all identifiedresponsesets and/or styles which may have an influenceoverthe validityof a psychometricmeasure.This wouldincludefakinggood, fakingbad, socially desirableresponding,and deviation.The reader is referredto Anastasi (1988)and Cronbach(1990) for a discussionof this topic.

4However,another stance can be taken to the apparent confound between religion and transperscnal constructs in many psychometric instruments. Based on Cronbach and Meehl's (1955) notion of nomologicalnet has any merit, then it can be argued that the meaningof any giventest or questionnaireis foundnot just from the theory on whichit was built but equally so from its establishedempiricalrelations with other constructsand behaviorswhich are already a part of the nomologicalnet. Followingfrom this, if a measure shows itself to have many robust relations with other instrumentsand behaviors,then the meaningof that measurecan be reinterpretedin light of suchrelations.Thus,withinthe contextof this line of reasoning,measuresof transpersonalconstructswhich appearto be confoundedwith religion/religiosity can be viewedas being as valuablefor researchas instrumentswithout sucha confound,providedthat they produce strong and reliable empiricalrelationshipswith other concepts,behavior and phenomenawhich are of interestand relevanceto a given researchdomain.In considerationof this argumentand the apparent importance of establishing a nomological net of constructs, we have made every effort to report the correlationsbetween the measures discussedor mentioned in this article whenever the information was available.

"Thesemeasureshave been includednot because they assess transpersonalconstructsper se, but because they appear to have value for transpersonalresearch,especiallyin terms of the relationshipof personality (Jungian Type Survey, Myers-Briggs Type Indicator, Singer-LoomisInventory of Personality, NED PersonalityInventory-Revised)and self-actualization(PersonalOrientationInventory)to various trans- personalpracticesand experiences.

REFERENCES

ADAIR,H. (1990). Therelationshipof theRorschachand IQ scoresto BoundaryQuestionnaire scores. Unpublished manuscript, Tufts University School of Medicine.

ALLPORT,G. W. & Ross, J. M. (1967), Personal religious orientation and prejudice. Journalof Personalityand SocialPsychology,5(4),432-443.

ANASTASI,A. (1988). Psychologicaltesting (6th ed.), New York: Macmillan. ARMSTRONG,T. D. (1995, August). Developmentof the ArmstrongMeasure of Spirituality

(AMOS).Paper presented at the 103rd AnnualConference of the American Psychological Association, New York.

BARRE1T,D. (1989, April). The relationship of thin VB. thick boundaries to hypnotic susceptibil- ity. Paper presented at the meetings of the Eastern Psychological Association, Boston, MA.

BENSON,H. (1975). Therelaxationresponse.New York: Morrow. BENSON,H. (1987). Yourmaximummind.New York: Random House. BLUM,S. & BLUM,L. H. (1974). Do's and dent's: An informal study of some prevailing

superstitions. PsychologicalReports,35, 567-571.

224 TheJournal of TranspersonalPsychology,1995, Vol.27, No.2

BOUTELL,K. A. & BOZETI,F. W. (1990).Nurses' assessmentof patients' spirituality:Continu- ing education implications.Journal of Continuing Education in Nursing, 21(4), 172-176.

BOWBN,M., JUSTYN, J., KASS,J., MILLBR,M., ROGERS,C., ROGERS,N. & WOOD,1. (1978). Evolving aspects of person-centeredworkshops. Self and society, 6(2), 43-49.

BRIGGS,K. C. & MYERS,I. B. (1987). Myers-Briggs Type Indicator-Form G. Palo Alto, CA: Consulting PsychologistsPress.

BRINKMAN,D. D. (1989). An evaluation of the Spiritual Well-Being Scale: Reliability and response measurement Dissertation Abstracts International, 50, 220m.

BROWN,H. P. & Peterson,1. H. (1991).Assessingspiritualityin addictiontreatmentand follow- up: Developmentofthe Brown-PetersonRecovery Progress Inventory (B-PRPI). Alcohol- ism Treatment Quarterly, 8(2), 21-50.

BUFFORD,R. K., PALOUTZIAN,R F. & ELLISON,C. W. (1991). Norms for the Spiritual Well- Being Scale. Journal of Psychology and Theology, 19{1),56-70.

BURKHARDT,M. A. (1989). Spirituality:An analysis of the concept. Holistic Nursing Practice, 3(3),69-77.

BUROS,O. K. (l974). Tests in print II. Highland Park, NJ: Gryphon. BUTMAN,R E. (1990). The assessment of religious development: Some possible options.

Journal of Psychology and Christianity, 9(2), 14-26. CAIRn,D. (1988).The structureof Hood's mysticismscale: A factor analyticstudy.Journal for

the Scient~fic Study of Religion, 27(1), 122-127. CAMPBELL,O. M. (1983). An investigation into the distinguishing personality correlates of

mysticism. Doctoral dissertation.University of Texas at Austin. CARTWRIGHT,D. & MORI,C. (1988). Scalesfor assessingaspects of the person.Person Centered

Review, 3(2), 176-194. CARTWRIGHT,D., DEBRUIN,J. & BERG,S. (1991). Somescales for assessingpersonalitybased on

Carl Rogers' theory: Further evidence of validity. Personality and Individual Differences, 12(2), 151-156.

CELBNZA,A. (l986). Empathy, ego boundaries and deficits. Doctoral Dissertation. Boston University.

CHO,1. H. & GILGEN,A. R. (1980).Performanceof Koreanmedical and nursing studentson the East-West questionnaire.Psychological Reports, 47, 1093-1094.

CHUN,K., COBB,S. & FRENCH,J. R. P. JR.(L975).Measures for psychological assessment, Ann Arbor, MI: Institute for Social Research.

CLARK,W. H. & RASKIN,M. (L967).LSD as a means of expLoringthe nonrational conscious- ness. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American PsychologicalAssociation. Washington, DC., September.

CLONINGER,C. R (1987). A systematic method for clinical description and classification of personalityvariants. Archives of General Psychiatry, 44, 573-588.

CLONINGER,C. R., Sigvardsson, S. & Bohman, M. (1988). Childhood personality predicts alcohol abuse in young adults. Alcoholism, 12,494-505.

CLONINGER,C. R., SVRAKJC,D. M. & PRZYBECK,T. R. (1991). The TridimensionalPersonality Questionnaire:US normativedata. Psychological Reports, 69, 1047-1057.

CLONINGER,C. R, SVRAKJC,D. M. & PRZYBECK,T. R. (1993). A psychobiologicalmodel of temperamentand character.Archives of General Psyoniatry, 50,975-990.

COLLIER,G., MINTON,H. L. & REYNOLDS,G. (1991). Currents of thought in American social psychology. New York: Oxford University Press.

COMREY,A. L. (1988).Factor-analyticmethods of scale developmentin personalityand clinical psychology.Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 56(5), 754-761.

COOPBRSTEIN,M. A. (1992). The myths of healing: A summary of research into transpersonal healing experiences. Journal of the American Society for Psychical Research, 86(2), 99- 133.

CORRINGTON,J. E. (L989),Spiritualityand recovery: Relationshipsbetween levels of spiritual- ity, contentmentand stress during recovery from alcoholismin AA. Alcoholism Treatment Quarterly, 6(3/4), 151-165.

A Survey of Measures of Transpersonal Constructs 225

COSTA,P. T. JR.& MCCRAE,R R. (1992). NEO PI-R: Professional manual. Odessa, FI: PsychologicalAssessment Resources.

CRONBACH,L. J. (1990). Essentials of psychological testing (5th ed.), New York: Harper & Row.

CRONBACH,L. J. & MEEHL,P. (1955). Construct validity in psychologicaltests. Psychological Bulletin, 52, 281-302.

CRUMBAUGH,J. C. (1968). Cross-validationof Purpose in Life test based on Frankl's concepts. Journal of Individual Psychology, 24, 74-81.

CRUMBAUOH,J. C. (1972). Aging and adjustment: The applicability of logotherapyand the Purpose in Life test. Gerontologist, 12(4),418-420.

CRUMBAUGH,J. C. (1977).The Seekingof Noetic Goalstest (SONG):A complementaryscale to the Purpose in Life test (PIL). Journal of Clinical Psychology, 33,900-907.

CRUMBAUGH,J. C. & MAHOLICK,L. T. (1964). An experimental study in existentialism:The psychometric approach to Frankl's concept of neogenic neurosis. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 20, 200-207.

CRUMBAUGH,J. C. & MAHOLlCK,L. T. (1969). Manual for instructions for the Purpose in Life test. Munster: PsychometricAffiliates.

DAVIES,M. F. (1988). Paranormal beliefs in British and southern USA college students. Psychological Reports, 62(1), 163-166.

DAVIS,1. A. & SMITH,T, W. (1985). General social surveys, 1972-1985.Chicago: National Opinion Research Center.

DEBARBENZA,C. M. CLARIBEL,M. & DE VILA,N. C. (I989). Belief in paranormalphenomena: Socioculturalimplications.ArquivosBrasileirosde Psicologia, 41(3), 41-51.

DIlRR1DA,1.(1976). Of'grammatology. Baltimore: John Hopkins Press. DEWEY,J. (1934).A common faith. New Haven: Yale UniversityPress. DIGMAN,J. M. & INOUYE,J, (1986). Further specificationof the five robust factors of personal-

ity. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 50, 116-123. DOBLIN,R. (1991). Pahnke's "Good Friday experiment":A long-term follow-upand method-

ological critique. Journal of Transpersonal Psychology, 23(1), 1-28. DVCK,M. J. (1987). Assessing Logotherapeutic Constructs: Conceptual and psychometric

status of the Purposein Life and Seekingof Noetic Goals tests. Clinical Psychology Review, 7(4), 439-447.

ELIADE,M. (1959). The sacred and the profane. New York: Harper & Row. ELKINS,D. N. (1988). The SpiritualOrientationInventory:An item delimitationstudy. Unpub-

lished manuscript. ELKINS,D. N., HEDSTROM,L. J., HUGHIlS,L. L., LEAF,J. A. & SAUNDERS,C. (198&).Toward

phenomenologicalspirituality: Definition, description and measurement. Journal of Hu- manistic Psychology, 28(4), 5-18.

ELLIS,J. B. & SMITH,P. C. (1991). Spiritual well-being, social desirability and reasons for living: Is there a connection?International Journal of Social Psychiatry, 37(1), 57-63.

ELLISON,C. W. (1983). Spiritual well-being:Conceptualizationand measurement. Journal of Psychology and Theology, 11(4),330-340.

ELLISON,C. W. & SMITH,J. (1991). Toward an integrativemeasure of health and well-being. Journal of Psychology and Theology, 19(1),35-4&.

FEAGIN,1. R. (1964). Prejudice and religioustypes: A focused study of southern fundamental- ists. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, 4, 3-13,

FINNEY,1. & MALONEY,H. (1985). An empiricalstudy of contemplativeprayer as an adjunct to psychotherapy.Journal of Psychology and Theology, 13(4), 284-290.

FISCHER,R. (1975). Cartographyof inner space. In R. Siegel& L. West (Eds.),Hallucinations: Behavior, experience and theory (p. 197-239). New York: Wiley.

FITE,R. C. (1981). A psychological study of persons reporting mystical experience. Doctoral Dissertation.Northwestern University.

226 The Journal of Transpersonal Psychology, 1995, Vol. 27, No.2

FlITS, W, (1965). Manualfof TennesseeSelf Concept Scale. Nashville: Counselor Recordings and Tests.

FLORIAN,V. & KRAVETZ,S. (1983).Fear of personaldeath: Attribution,structureand relationto religiousbelief. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 44(3), 600-607.

FRANKL,V. E. (1963) Man's searchfor meaning.New York: WashingtonSquare. FRIEDMAN,H. L. (1983). The Self-ExpansivenessLevel Form: A conceptualizationand mea-

surementofa transpersonalconstruct Journal of TranspersonalPsychology, 15(1),37-50. FULGOSI,A. (1979). GSM-l: A questionnairefor investigatinginclinationtoward mysticism

and the factor structureof this inclination.(Srcr)Revija az Psihologiju;9(1-2), 21-31. GAGNE,H. & McKELVIE,S. 1. (1990), Effects ofparanonnal beliefs on response bias and self-

assessment of performancein a signal detection task. Australian Journal q( Psychology, 42(2),187-195.

GALVIN,F. (1990).The boundarycharacteristicsof lucid dreamers,SixthAnnual International Conferenceofthe Associationfor the Studyof Dreams (1989,London,England).Psychiat- ric Journal of the Universityof Ottawa, 15(2),73-78.

GENIA,V. (1993). A psychometric evaluation of the Allport-RossliE Scales in a religiously heterogeneoussample.Journalfor the Scient~fic Study of Religion, 32(3), 284-290.

GERGEN,K, J. (1985). The social constructionistmovementin modem psychology. American Psychologist,40, 266-275,

GILGEN,A. R. & CHG,J. H. (1979a). Questionnaireto measure Eastern and Western thought. PsychologicalReports, 44, 835-841.

GILGEN,A. R. & CHG,J. H. (1979b). Performanceof Eastern and Western-orientedcollege studentson the value survey and ways of life scale. PsychologicalReports, 45, 263-268.

GILGEN,A. R. & Cac, J. H. (1980). Comparisonof performanceon the East-West Question- naire,Zen-scaleand ConsciousnessI, II and III scales.PsychologicalReports, 47, 583-588.

GILGEN,A. R., CRO,J. H. & STENSRUD, R. (1980). Eastern and Western perspectives in transpersonal belief systems. PsychologicalReports, 47, 1344-1346,

GOLDBERG,L. R. (1993).The structureof phenotypicpersonalitytraits.AmericanPsychologist, 48(1), 26-34.

GOLDMAN,B. A. & OSBORNE,W. L. (1985). Directory of unpublished experimental mental measures. New York: Human Sciences Press.

GOWAN,J, C. (1978-1979).Altered states of coasciousness: A taxonomy. Journal of Altered States of Consciousness,4, 141-156.

GREELEY,A (1974). Ecstasy: A way of knowing. EnglewoodCliffs, NJ: PrenticeHall. GROF,S. (1985).Beyond the brain: Birth. death and transcendencein psychotherapy. Albany,

NY: State Universityof New York Press. HALL,T. & EDWARDS,K. J. (1995, August). Development and psychometric analysis of' the

Spiritual Assessment Inventory. Paper presented at 103rd Conference of the American PsychologicalAssociation,New York.

HARTMANN,E. (I989). Boundariesof dreams,boundariesof dreamers:Thin and thick bound- aries as a new personalitymeasure.PsychiatricJournal of the UniversityofOttawa. 14(4), 557-560.

HARTMANN,E. (1991).Boundaries in the mind. USA: Basic Books. HAY,D. & MORISY,A. (1978). Reportsof ecstatic,paranormal,or religiousexperiencein Great

Britain and the United States: A comparisonof trends. Journalfor the Scientific Study of Religion, 17(3),255-268.

HEATH,D. H. (1968), Growing up in college:Liberal education and maturity. San Francisco: Jessey-Bass.

HEISLBR,G. (1975).The effects of vicariouslyexperiencingsupernaturalviolent events: A case study of the Exorcist's impact.Journal of Individual Psychology, 31(2),158-170.

HOCKING,D. L. (1975). Spiritualgifts. Long Beach, CA: Sounds of Grace Ministries, HOGE,D. R. (1972). A validated intrinsicreligious motivationscale. Journaljar the Scientific

Study of Religion, 11,369-376.

A Survey of Measures of TranspersonalConstructs 227

HOLM,N. (l982). Mysticism and intense experiences. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, 21(3), 268-276.

HOOD,R. W. (1970). Religious orientationand the report of religious experience.Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, 9(4), 285-29L

HOOD,R. W (1973a). Forms of religious commitmentand intense religiousexperience.Review of Religious Research, 15, 29-36.

HOOD,R. W. (1973b).Hypnoticsusceptibilityand reportedreligiousexperience.Psychological Reports, 33(2), 549-550.

HOOD,R. W. (1975). The construction and preliminary validation of a measureof reported mystical experience.Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, J4, 29-41.

HOOD,R. W. (1977a). Differential triggering of mystical experience as a function of self- actualization.Review of Religious Research, 18(3),264-270.

HOOD,R. W. (1977b). Eliciting mystical states of consciousnesswith semi-structurednature experiences.Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, 16(2), 155-163.

HOOD,R. W. (1978). Anticipatoryset and setting: Stress incongruitiesas elicitors of mystical experiencein solitary nature situations.Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, 17(3), 279-287.

HOOD,R. W., HALL,J. R, WATSON,P. J. & BIDIlRMAN,M. (1979). Personalitycorrelatesof the report of mystical experience.Psychological Reports, 44(3), 804-806.

HOOD,R. W. & MORRIS,R. J. (1983). Toward a theory of death transcendence.Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, 22(4), 353-365.

HOOD, R. W., MORRIS,R. J. & WATSON,P. J. (1990). Quasi-experimentalelicitation of the differenna!report of religiousexperienceamong intrinsicand indiscriminatelypro-reli- gious types. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, 29(2), 164-172.

HOWDEN,1. W. (1992). Development and psychometric characteristics of the Spirituality Assessment Scale. Doctoral Dissertation.Texas Women's University.

HUNGELMANN,1., KENKEL-ROSSI,E., KLASSEN,L. & STOLLENWERK,R. M. (1985). Spiritualwell- being in older adults: Harmoniousinterconnectedness.Journal of Religion and Health, 24, 147-153.

HUNT,H. T., GERVAIS,A., SHEARING-JOHNS,S. & TRAVIS,F. (1992). Transpersonalexperiences in childhood: An exploratorystudy of selectedadult groups. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 75, 1135-1153.

HUNT,R. A. & KING,M. (1971). The intrinsic-extrinsicconcept: A review and evaluation. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, 10, 339-356.

HuOT,B., MAKAREC,K., & PERSINGER,M. A. (1989). Temporal lobe signs and Jungian dimensionsof personality. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 69, 841-842.

IRWIN, H. 1. (J 990). Parapsychologycourses and students' belief in the paranormal, Journal of the Society for Psychical Research, 56(821),266-272.

JACKSON,D. N. (1976). Jackson Personality Inventory, manual. Goshen, NY: Research Psy- chologists Press.

JACKSON,G. (1980). Spirituality:A process theologyperspective.Studies in Formative Spiritu- ality, 1(3),407-418.

JAMES,W. (1904/1987).Answers to a questionnaire.In W. James. Writings: 1902-1910.New York: Library of America,p, 1183-1185. '

JAMES,W. (1958). The varieties of religious experience. New York: New American Library. JONES,W., RUSSEI.L,D. & NICKEL,T. (1977). Belief in the paranormal scale: An objective

instrumentto measure belief in magical phenomena and causes. JSAS Catalog of Selected Documents in Psychology, 7, 100. (Ms. No. 1577)

JUNG,C. G. (Ed.) (1964). Man and his symbols. Garden City, NY: Doubleday. KAHOH,R. D. (1974).Personalityand achievementcorrelatesof intrinsicand extrinsicreligious

orientations.Journal ofPersonality and Social Psychology, 29(6), 812-818. KAss,J. D., FRIEDMAN,R., LESERMAN,1., CAUDILL,M., ZUTTERMEISTER,P. & BENSON,H. (1991).

An inventory of positive psychological attitudes with potential relevance to health out- comes: Validationand preliminarytesting. Behavioral Medicine, Fall.

228 The Journal of Transpersonal Psychology, 1995, Vol. 27, No.2

Kxss, J. D., FRIEDMAN,R, LESERMAN,J., ZUITERMEISTER,P. C. & BENSON,H. (1991). Health outcomes and a new index of spiritual experience. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, 30(2), 203-211.

KASTENBAUM,R. & COSTA,P. T., JR. (1977). Psychologicalperspectives on death. Annual Review ofPsychology, 28, 225-249.

KlERSEY, D. & BATES,M. (1978). Please understand me. Del Mar, CA: PrometheusNemesis. KILLEN,P., WILDMAN,R. & WILDMAN,R. (1974). Superstitiousnessand intelligence. Psycho-

logical Reports, 34, 1158. KlRSCHLING, 1. M. & PIITMAN,1. F. (1989). Measurement of spiritual well-being: A hospice

caregiversample. Hospice Joumal, 5(2), 1-1l. KNOBLAucH,D. L. (1985). Applying Taoist thought to counselingand psychotherapy.Ameri-

can Mental Health Counselors Association Journal, 7,52-63. KNOBLAUCH,D. L. (1988). A psychological component of women's alcoholism. Alcoholism

Treatment Quarterly, 5(1-2), 219-229. KNOBLAUCH,D. L. (1990). The theoreticaland treatmentimplicationsof high-risk variablesfor

adult children of alcoholics.Journal of College Student Psychotherapy, 5(1), 87-10L KNOBLAucH,D. L. & BOWERS,N. D. (1989). A therapeuticconceptualizationof adult childrenof

alcoholics,Journal of College Student Psychotherapy, 4(1), 37-52. KNOBLAUCH,D. L. & FALCONER,1. A. (1986),The relationshipof a measuredTaoist orientation

to Westernpersonalitydimensions.Journal of Transpersonal Psychology, 18(1), 73-83. KOLB, D. A (1976). Learning Style Inventory. Boston, MA; McBer & Co. Ksus, D. J. & Ksus, P. H. (1978). Contributionsto psychohistory:III. Measuringvalue systems

as related to societalchange. Psychological Reports, 43, 3-9. Ksus, D. 1. & TULLEGEN,A. (1975).ConsciousnessIII: Fact or fiction?Psychological Reports,

36,23-30. LASKI,M. (1961).Ecstasy: A study ofsome secular and religious experiences. London:Cresset

Press. LAURI,S. & ELKINS,D. N. (1988, March). The Spiritual Orientation Inventory: Validity and

reliability studies to date. In D. N. Elkins (Chair), Humanistic perspectives on existential issues: Death, dying, aging and spirituality. Symposiumconducted at the meeting of the California State PsychologicalAssociation,San Diego.

LAWTON,M. P. (1972).The dimensionsof morale. In K. D. Kastenbaum & R Sherwood(Eds.), Research planning and action for the elderly (p, 144-165). New York: BehavioralPublica- tions.

LAWTON,M. P. (1975). The PhiladelphiaGeriatricCenter morale scale: A revision.Journal of Gerontology, 30, 85-89.

LEDBEITER,M. F. & FOSTIlR,J. D, (1989). Measuring spiritual giftedness: A factor analytic study of a spiritualgifts inventory.Journal of Psychology and Theology, 17(3), 274-283.

LEDBETTER,M.F.,SMITH,L. A., FISCHER,J. D.,VOSLER-HUNTER,W. L. & CHEW,G. P. (1991).An evaluationof the construct validity ofthe Spiritual Well-BeingScale: A confirmatoryfactor analyticapproach.Journal of Psychology and Theology, 19(1), 94-102.

LEDBEITER,M. F., SMITH,L. A" VOSLER-HUNTER,W. L. & FISCHER,1. D. (1991).An evaluation of the research and clinical usefulness of the Spiritual Well-Being Scale. Journal of Psychology and Theology, 19(1),49-55.

LEE,J. R. & BAINUM,B. (1991). Spiritualorientation in hospital workers, crisis help workers and college students.Unpublishedstudy. Northern Pacific Union College.

LESERMAN,J. (1983).The Medical Symptom Checklist. Developedat the Divisionof Behavioral Medicine,Beth Israel Hospital, Boston,MA,

LEVIN,R. (1986). Ego boundary impairment and thought disorder in frequent nightmare sufferers:Evidencefor a proposed pathognomonicrelationshipto schizophrenia.Doctoral Dissertation.Universityof Buffalo.

LEVIN,R., GALIN,J. & ZYWIAK,B. (1991). Nightmares,boundaries and creativity. Dreaming Journal of the Association for the Study of Dreams, 1(1), 63-74,

A Survey of Measures of Transpersonal Constructs 229

LIFTON,R. J. (1976). The life of the self: Toward a new psychology. New York: Simon and Schuster.

LIFTON,R. J. (1979). The broken connection. New York: Simon and Schuster. LIFTON,R. J. & OLSON,E. (1974). Living and dying. New York: Praeger, LUDWIG,A. M. (1966). Altered states of consciousness.Archives of General Psychiatry, 15,

225-234. LUKOFF, D. & Lu, F. (1988). Transpersonal psychology research review topic: Mystical

experience.Journal of Transpersonal Psychology, 20(2),161-184. LUKOffI D,., TURNER,R. & Lu, F. G. (1993). Transpersonalpsychology research review:

Psychospiritualdimensionsof healing.Journal of Transpersonal Psychology, 2S(l), 11-28. MACDONALD,D. A & HOLLAND,C. J. (1993). Psychometricevaluation of the Singer-Loomis

Inventoryof Personality.Journal of Analytical Psychology, 38, 303-320. MAcDONALD,D. A, TSAGARAKIS,C. L & HOLLAND,C. J. (1994). Validation of a measure of

transpersonal self-conceptand its relationshipto Jungianand five factor model conceptions of personality.Journal of Transpersonal Psychology, 26(2}, 175-201.

MAHL.G. F., ROTHENBERG,A., DELGADO,J. M. R. & HAMLIN, H. (1964). Psychological responsesin the humanto intracerebralelectricalstimulation.Psychosomatic Medicine, 26, 337-368.

MAKAREC,K. & PERSINGER,M. A. (1985). Temporal lobe signs: Electroencephalographic validity and enhancedscoresin specialpopulations.Perceptual and Motor Skills, 57, 1255- 1262.

MAKAREC,K. & PERSINGER,M. A. (1990). Electroencephalographicvalidation of a temporal lobe signs inventory in a normal population.Journal of Research in Personality, 34, 323- 327.

MASLOW,A (1970). Religions, values and peak-experiences. New York: Viking. MATHES,E. W., ZEVON,M. A, RaTER,P. M. & JOERGER,S. M. (1982}. Peak experience

tendencies: Scale development and theory testing. Journal of Humanistic Psychology, 22(3),92-108.

MATTOON,M. & DAVIS,M. (1995). The Gray-WheelwrightsJungian Type Survey: Develop- ment and history. Journal of Analytical Psychology, 40, 205-234.

McCRAE,R. R. & COSTA,P. T. JR. (1987). Validationof the five factor model of personality across instrumentsand observers.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 52,81-90.

MEIER,A. & EDWARDS,H. (1974). Purpose in Life test: Age and sex differences. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 30, 384-386.

MESSICK,S. (1995). Validity of psychological assessment: Validation of inferences from persons' responses and performancesas scientific inquiry into score meaning, American Psychologist, 50(9),141-749.

MILLON,R. (1977). Millon Multiaxial Clinical Inventory Manual. Minneapolis: National Computer Systems.

MOBERG,D. O. (1971). Spiritual well-being; Background and issues. Washington,DC: White House Conferenceon Aging.

MOBBRG,D. O. (1984). Subjective measures of well-being. Review of Religious Research, 25(4),351-359.

MOBERG,D. O. & BRUSEK,P. M. (1978). Spiritualwell-being:A neglected subject in qualityof life research. Social Indicators Research, 5, 303-323.

MORNEAU,D. M., MACDONALD,D. A, HOLLAND,Co 1. & HOLLAND,D. C. (in press). A confirmatory study of the relation between self-reported complex partial epileptic signs, peak experiencesand paranormalbeliefs. British Journal of Clinical Psychology.

MORRIS,C. (1951). Comparativestrength of life-idealsin Eastern and Western cultures, In C. Moore (Ed.), Essays in East-West philosophy. Honolulu:Universityof Hawaii Press, 353- 370.

MORRIS,C. (1956). Varieties of human value. Chicago:Universityof Chicago Press. MURPHY,M. (1993). The future of the body: Explorations into thefurlher evolution of human

nature. Los Angeles, CA: Jeremy Tarcher,

230 The Journal of Transpersonal Psychology, 1995, Vol. 27, No.2

MYERS,L B. & MCCAULLEY,M. H. (1985). Manual: A guide to the development and use of the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator. Palo Alto, CA: ConsultingPsychologists Press.

NEHER.A. (1990). The psychology of transcendence. Toronto, ON: Dover. NEPPE,V. M. (1983). Temporal lobe symptomatology in subjective paranormal experiences.

Journal of the American Society for Psychical Research, 77, 1-31. NOBLE,K. D. (1984). Psychological health and the experience of transcendence. Doctoral

Dissertation. University of Washington. NORCROSS,J. C., PROCHASKA,J. 0., HAMBRECHT,M. (1985). Levels of Attribution and Change

(LAC) Scale: Developmentand measurement.Cognitive Therapy and Research, 9(6), 631- 649.

NORCROSS,J. C., PROCHASKA,J. 0., GUAPAGNOLT,E. & DICLEMENTE,C. C. (1984). Factor structure of the Levels of Attribution and Change (LAC) Scale in samples of psychothera- pists and smokers. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 40(2), 519-528.

NORMAN,W, T. (1963), Toward and adequate taxonomy of personality attributes: Replicated factor structure in peer nomination personality ratings. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 66,574-583.

NYSTUL,M. S. (1993), The Nystul Turning Point Survey:An assessmentinstrumentto analyze Adlerian tasks in life, individual Psychology, 49(2), 185-198.

OSIS,K., BOKERT,E. & CARLSON,M. (1973). Dimensions of meditative experience.Journal of Transpersonal Psychology, 5(2), 109-135.

OXMAN,T. E., ROSENBERG,S. D., SCIINURR,P.P., tuCKER,G, J. & GALA,G, (1988), The language of altered states. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 176(7), 401-408.

PALOUTZIAN,R. F. & ELLISON,C. W, (1979). Developinga measureof spiritualwell-being.In R. F, Paloutzian (Chair),Spiritual well-being, loneliness and perceived quality of life. Sympo- sium presented at the annual meeting of the American Psychological Association, New York.

PALOUTZIAN,R. F. & ELLISON,C. W. (1982). Loneliness,spiritual well-beingand the quality of life. In Peplau & Perlman(Eds.), Loneliness: A sourcebook of current theory, research and therapy (p. 224-237). New York: John Wiley.

PAHNKlJ,W. (1963). Drugs and mysticism:An analysisofthe relationshipbetween psychedelic drugs and the mystical consciousness.Ph.D. dissertation, Harvard University.

PAHNKE,W. (1967), LSD and religious experience.In R. DeBold & R. Leaf'(Eds.). LSD, man and society. Middletown,CT: Wesleyan University Press, 60-85.

PAHNKE,W. (1970). Drugs and mysticism, In B. Asronson& H. Osmond (Eds.), Psychedelics: The uses and implications of hallucinogenic drugs. Garden City, NY: Anchor, 145-164.

PA1INKE,W. & RICHARDS,W, (1969). Implicationsof LSD and experimentalmysticism,Journal of'Transpersonal Psychology, 1(2),69-102.

PATRIK,L. E. (1994). Phenomenologicalmethod and meditation. Journal of Transpersonal Psychology, 26(1), 37-54.

PEARSON,P. R, & SHEFIELD,B. F. (1974), Purpose in Life and the Eysenck Personality Inventory.Journal of Clinical Psychology, 30, 562-564.

PEARSON,P. R. & SHEI'lF.LD, B. F. (1975). Purpose in life and social attitudes in psychiatric patients,Journal of Clinical Psychology, 31,330-332.

PEKALA,R. J. (1982). The Phenomenological of Consciousness Inventory (PCI). Thorndale, PA: PsychophenomenologicalConcepts.

PEKALA,R. J. & KUMAR, V. K. (1984), Predicting hypnotic susceptibilityby a self-report of phenomenologicalstate instrument.American Journal of Clinical Hypnosis, 27, 114-121.

PEKALAR. 1. & KUMAR, V. K. (1986). The differential organization of the structures of consciousnessduring hypnosis and a baseline condition.Journal of Mind and Behavior, 7, 515-540.

PEKALA,R. J., STlllNBERG,1. & KUMAR, C. K. (1986). Measurement of phenomenological experience: Phenomenologyof consciousnessinventory. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 63, 983-989.

A Survey of Measures of Transpersonal Constructs 231

PEKALA,R. J. & WENGER,C. F. (1983). Retrospectivephenomenologicalassessment:Mapping consciousnessin reference to specific stimulus conditions. Journal of Mind and Behavior, 4,247-274.

PEKALA,R. J., WENGER,C. F. & LEVINE,R. L (1985). Individual differencesinphencmenolcgi- cal experience: States of consciousnessas a function of absorption.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 48, 125-132,

PERSINGER,M. A. (1983). Religious and mystical experiences as artifacts of temporal lobe function: A general hypothesis. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 57, 1255-1262,

PERSINGER,M. A (1984a). Striking EEG profiles from single episodes of glossolalia and transcendentalmeditation. Perceptualand Motor Skills, 58, 127-133.

PERSINGIlR,M. A. (1984b), Propensity to report paranormal experiences is correlated with temporal lobe signs, Perceptualand Motor Skills, 59,583-586.

PERSINGIlR,M, A. (1984c). People who report religious experience may also display enhanced temporal-lobesigns, Perceptual and Motor Skills, 58, 963-975.

PIlRSINGER,M, A (1988), Temporal lobe signs and personality characteristics.Perceptualand Motor Skills, 66, 49-50.

PERSINGER,M. A. (1991a), Subjective pseudocyesis (false pregnancy) and elevated temporal lobe signs. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 72,499-503.

PERSINGER,M. A. {l991b). Canonical correlation of temporal lobe signs with schizoid and hypomania scales in a normal population: Men and women are similar but for different reasons. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 73,615-618.

PERSINGER,M. A. (1993). Transcendentalmeditationand general meditationare associatedwith enhanced complex partial epileptic-like signs: Evidence for "cognitive" kindling? Percep- tual and Motor Skills, 76, 80-82,

PERSINGER,M. A & MAKAREC,K. (1987). Temporal lobe epileptic signs and correlative behaviors displayed by normal populations. Journal of GeneralPsychology, 114(2), 179- 195.

PERSINGER,M. A. & MAKAREC,K. (1993). Complex partial epileptic signs as a continuum from normals to epileptics:Normative data and clinicalpopulations.Journal of ClinicalPsychol- ogy, 49(1), 33-45.

PERSINGER,M. A. & VALLIANT,P, M. (1985). Temporal lobe signs and reports of subjective paranormal experiencesin a normal population:A replication.Perceptualand Motor Skills, 60,903-909.

PILCH,J. (1981). Wellness:Your invitationto a/uillife. Minneapolis: Winston Press. PLUTCHIK,R. (1980). Emotions:A psychoevolutionalJ'synthesis. New York: Harper and Row. POWELL,F. C. & THORSON,J. A (1991). Constructions of death among those high in intrinsic

religious motivation: A factor analytic study. Death Studies, 15(2), 131-138, PROPST,L. R. (1979). Effects of personality and loss of anonymity on aggression: A reevalua-

tion of deindividuation,Journal of Personality, 47(3), 531-545. RANDALL,T. & DIlSROSIERS,M. (1980). Measurement of supernatural belief: Sex differences

and locus of control. Journal of PersonalityAssessment, 44, 493-498. REED, P. G. (1987). Spiritualityand well-beingin terminallyill hospitalizedadults.Research in

Nursing and Health, 10, 335-344, REKER,G, T. (1977). The Purpose in Life test in an inmate population:An empirical investiga-

tion. Journal of ClinicalPsychology, 33(3), 688~693. RICHARDS,W. (1978). Mystical and archetypal experiencesof terminalpatients in DPT-assisted

psychotherapy.Journal of Religion and Health, 17(2), 117~126. RICHARDS,P, & PERSINGER,M. A. (1991), Temporal lobe signs, the dissociative experiences

scale and hemisphericity, Perceptual and Motor Skills, 72, 1139-1142. RING,K. (1984), Heading toward omega. New York: William Morrow. RING,K. (1992). The omega project: Near death experiences, UFO encounters and mind at

large. New York: William Morrow. ROBINSON,J. P. & SHAVIlR,P. R. (1973).Measures of socialpsychologicalattitudes.Ann Arbor

MI: Institute for Social Research.

232 TheJournal of TranspersonalPsychology. 1995. Vol, 27, No.2

ROBINSON,J. P., SHAVER,P. R. &-WRIGHTSMAN,L. S. (Eds.). (1990).Measures of personality and social psychological attitudes. San Diego: Academic Press Inc.

Ross, J. & PERSINGER,M. A. (1987). Positive correlations between temporal lobe signs and hypnosis induction profiles: A replication. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 64, 828-830.

ROSSI,E. L. (1986). The psychobiology of mind-body healing. New York Norton. RUFFINO-RAHAL,M. A. (1991). Initial psychometric evaluation of a qualitative well-being

measure: The Integration Inventory. Health Values, Health Behavior, Education and Promotion, 15(2), 10-20.

SAMPSON,E. (1978). Personality and the location of identity. Journal of Personality, 46, 552- 568.

SCHALHR,J. A. (1995, August). Spiritual thinking in addiction treatment providers: The Spiritual Beliefs Scale. Paper presented at the 103rd Annual Conference of the American Psychological Association, New York.

SCHEIDT,R. (1973). Belief in supernatural phenomena and locus of control. Psychological Reports, 32, 1159-1162.

SHAFER,M. G. (1982). Self-actualization, mysticism and psychic experience. Doctoral Disser- tation, University of California, Irvine.

SHAPIRO,S. B. (1985). The development and validation of an instrument to measure student orientation to humanistic instructional values. Educational and Psychological Measure- ment, 45, 869·880.

SHAPIRO,S. B. & FITZGERALD,L. F. (1989). The development of an objective scale to measure a transpersonalorientation to learning. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 49, 375-384.

SHARPE,D. & VINEY,L. L. (1973). Weltanschauung and the Purpose in Life test. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 29, 489-491.

SHEAN,G. D. & FECHTMANN,F. (1971). Purpose in Life scores of student marihuana users. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 27, 112-113.

SHEDLER,J., MAYMAN,M. & MANIS,M. (1993). The illusion of mental health. American Psychologist, 48(11), 1117-1131.

SUEFIIJLD,B. F. & PEARSON,P. R. (1974). Purpose in life in a sample of British psychiatric patients. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 30, 459.

SHOR,R. E. & ORNE,E. C. (1962). The Harvard Group Scale of Hypnotic Susceptibility. Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press.

SHOR,R. E. & ORNE,E. C. (1963). Norms on the Harvard Group Scale of Hypnotic Susceptibil- ity, Form A.fnternational Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis, 11(1),39-47.

SHOSTROM,E. L. (1964). An inventory for the measurement of self-actualization. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 24(2), 207-218.

SHOSTROM,E. L. (1968). EfTS manual for the Personal Orientation Inventory. San Diego, CA: Educational and Industrial Testing Service.

SILBER,T. 1. & REILLY,M. (1985). Spiritual and religious concerns of the hospitalized adolescent. Adolescence, 20{77), 217-224.

SIGVARDSSON,S., BOHMAN,M. & CLONINGER,C. R. (1987). Structure and stability of childhood personality: Prediction of later social development. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 28, 929-946.

SILVERMAN,W. (1983). Bibliography of measurement techniques used in the social scientific study of religion. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association (APA Psycho- logical Documents Ms. 2539).

SINGER,J. & LOOMIS,M. (1984). The Singer-Loomis Inventory of Personality: Experimental Edition. Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press.

SINNOTT,E. W. (1969). Spirit. In W. Burnett (Ed.), The spirit of man. New York: Books for Libraries Press,

SMITJf,D. E. (1986). The Christian Life Assessment Scales: Christian self perception. Journal of Psychology and Christianity, 5(3), 46-61.

A Survey of Measures of Transpersonal Constructs 233

SMITHD. W. (1991). A study of power and spirituality in polio survivors using the nursing model of Martha E. Rogers. Doctoral Dissertation,New York University.

SPlIlGEL,H. & SPIEGEL,D. (1978). Trance and treatment: Clinical uses of hypnosis. New York: Basic Books.

SPILKA,B., HOOD,R. & GORSUCH,R. (1985). The psychology of religion: An empirical approach. Englewood, NJ: Prentice-Hall.

SPILKA,B., STOUT,L., MINTON,B. & SIZEMORE,D. (1977). Death and personal faith: A psychometricinvestigation.Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, 16, 169-178.

STACE,W. T. (1960). Mysticism and philosophy. Philadelphia:Lippincott. STOLL,R. 1. (I979, Sept). Guidelines for spiritual assessment. American Journal ofNursing,

1574-1577. STOUDENMIRE,1, BATMAN,D., PAVLOV,M. & TEMPLE,A. (1985). Validationof a holistic living

inventory. Psychological Reports, 57, 303-311. STOUDENMIRE,J., BATMAN,D., PAVLOV,M. & TEMPLE,A. (1986). The holistic living inventory:

Correlationswith MMPI. Psychological Reports, 58, 577-578. STOUDENMIRE,J., STEVENS,M. & CUMBEST,S. (1989). Personality factors in holistic living:

Improvementamong inpatientalcoholics.Journal of Social Behavior and Personality, 4(4), 457-462.

STOUDENMIRE,J., TEMPLE,A., PAVLOV,M. & BATMAN,D. (1988). Modeling of holistic living behaviorsin therapeuticsummer camps.Journalof SocialBehaviorand Personality, 3(1), 141-146.

SVRAKIC,D. M., WHITEHEAD,C., PRZYBECK,T. R. & CLONINGBR,C. R. (1993). Differential diagnosis of personalitydisordersby the seven-factormodel of temperamentand character. Archives of General Psychiatry, 50, 991-999.

TAFT,R. (1969). Peak experiences and ego permissiveness:An exploratoryfactor study of their dimensions in a normal person. Acta Psychologico, 29, 35-64.

TAfT,R. (1970). The measurement of the dimensionsof ego permissiveness. Personality: An International Journal, 1, 163~ 184.

TART,C. T. (1975). States of consciousness. New York: Dutton. TART,C. T. (1977). Discrete states of consciousness.In P. R. Lee, R. E. Ornstein, D. Galin, A.

Deikman & C. T. Tart (Eds.), Symposium on consciousness (pp. 89-175). New York: Penguin.

TELLHGEN,A. & ATKINSON,G. (1974). Openness to absorbing and self-altering experiences ("absorption"), a trait related to hypnotic susceptibility.Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 83,268-277.

THAUBERGER,P. C. (1976). The avoidance of existential confrontation: A psychometric re- search scale. Unpublished manuscript.

THAUBERGER,P. C. & SVDlAIIA-SVMOR,D. (1977). The relationship between an avoidance of existential confrontation and neuroticism: A psychometric test. Journal of Humanistic Psychology, 17(1), 89-91.

TOBACYK,J. (1984). Paranormalbelief and college grade point average.Psychological Reports, 54(1),217-218.

TOBACYK,J. (1985a). Paranormal beliefs and identity achievement. Psychological Reports, 56(1),26.

TOBACYK,J. J. (1985b). The Paranormal Belief Scale and social desirability. Psychological Reports, 57(2), 624.

TOBACYK,lJ. (1991). A revised paranormal belief scale. Unpublishedmanuscript. TOBACYK,J. J. (1992). Self-monitoring and idealism moderate relationships between para-

normal beliefs and locus of control. Unpublishedmanuscript. TOBACYK,1.& MILFORD,G. (1983). Belief in paranormal phenomena: Assessment instrument

development and implications for personality functioning. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 44(5), 1029·1037.

TOBACYK,1. & MILFORD,G. (1984). Superstitious belief and intensionality. Psychological Reports, 55(2), 513-514.

234 The Journal of Transpersonal Psychology, 1995, Vol. 27. No.2

TOBACYK,1. J. & MILFORD,G. (1988). Beliefs about complexityand variability of human nature and paranormal beliefs. Perceptual and MOUJt'Skills, 66(1), 226.

TOBACYK,J., MILFORD,G., SPRINGER,T. & TOBACYK,Z. (1988). Paranormal beliefs and the Barnum effect. Journal of Personality Assessment, 52(4), 737-739.

TOBACYK,J., MILLER,M. J., MURPHY,P. & MITCHELL,T. (1988). Comparisons of paranormal beliefs of Black and White university students from the SouthernUnited States.Psychologi- cal Reports, 63(2), 492-494.

TOBACYK,1.1. & WrLK[NSON,L. V. (1990). Magical thinking and paranormal beliefs.Journal of Social Behavior and Personality, 5(4), 255-264.

TRUNGPA,C. (1973). Cutting through spiritual materialism. Boston: Shambhala. VANDECREEK,L. & NYE,C. (1993). Testing the Death Transcendence scale. Journal for the

Scientific Study of Religion, 32(3), 279-283. VANQUEKELBERGHE,R., ALTSTOTTER-GLElCH,C. & HERTWECK,E. (1991).AssessmentSchedulefor

Altered Statesof Consciousness:A brief report, Journal of Parapsychology,55, 377-390. VAUGHAN,F. (1986). The inward arc. Boston: New Science Library. VAUGHAN,B. & MALISZEWSKI,M. (1982).Ecstatic components of childbirth: A psychological

and phenomenologicalstudy. Birth Psychology Journal, 3{I), 2-15. WALLER,N. G., LILIENFELD,S. 0., TELLEGP,N,A. & LYKKEN,D. T, (l991). The Tridimensional

Personality Questionnaire: Structural validity and comparison with the Multidimensional Personality Questionnaire. Multivariate Behavioral Research, 26, 1-23.

WAr~SH, R. (1995). Phenomenologicalmapping: A method for describingand comparing states of consciousness.Journal of TranspersonalPsychology, 27( I), 25-56.

WALSH,R. & VAUGHAN,F. (1993). On transpersonal definitions. Journal of Transpersonal Psychology, 25(2), 199-207.

WASHBURN,M. (1988). The ego and the dynamic ground. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press.

WELCH,I. D., TATE,G. A. & MEDEIROS,D. C. (1987). Self-actualization: An annotated bibliography of theory and research. New York: Garland Publishing.

WHEELWRlGlIT,J., WHflELWRIGHT,J. & BUEHLER,J. (1964). Manual: Jungian Type Survey. Sixteenth Revision.

WlIlTEMAN,J. (1986). The mystical way and habitualization of mystical states. In B. Wolman & M. Ullman (Eds.), Handbook of states of consclousness(pp. 613-659). New York, NY: Van Nostrand Reinhold.

WHITFIIlLD,C. L. (1984). Stress management and spirituality during recovery: A transpersonal approach. Part I: Becoming. Alcoholism Treatment Quarterly, 1(1), 3-54.

WILBER,K. (1977). The spectrum of consciousness. Wheaton: Quest. WILBHR,K. (1990). Eye to eye: The questfor the new paradigm. Boston: Shambhala, WILLIAMS,R. N., TAYLOR,C. B. & HINTZE,W. J. (1989). The influence of religious orientation

on belief in science, religion and the paranormal. Journal and Psychology and Theology, 17(4), 352-359.

WILSON,S. C. & BARBER,T. X. (1978). The creative imaginationscale as a measure of hypnotic responsiveness: Applications to experimental and clinical hypnosis. American Journal of Clinical Hypnosis, 20, 235-249.

WULFI:',D. (1991). Psychology of religion: Classic and contemporary views. New York: John Wiley and Sons.

YARNELL,T. D. (1971). Purpose in Life test: Further correlates.Journal of Individual Psychol- ogy, 27, 76-79.

YINGER,J. M. (1969). A structural examination of religion. Journalfor the Scientific Study of Religion,8,88-89.

ZAINUDDlN,R. (1993). Needs as determinants of orientationtowards spirituality.Journal of the Indian Academy of Applied Psychology, 19(1-2), 31-38.

Requests for reprints to Douglas A. MacDonald, Department of Psychology, University of Windsor, Windsor, Ontario N9B 3E2 Canada.

A Survey of Measures of Transpersonal Constructs 235