Design Considerations Now and in the Future

Towards virtual ergonomics: aviation and aerospace

J. Sanjog and Sougata Karmakar Department of Design, Indian Institute of Technology (IIT), Guwahati, India

Thaneswer Patel Department of Agricultural Engineering, North Eastern Regional Institute of Science and Technology, Nirjuli, India, and

Anirban Chowdhury Department of Design, Indian Institute of Technology (IIT), Guwahati, India

Abstract Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to highlight state-of-the-art digital human modeling applications in aviation and aerospace industry, generate research interest and promote application of digital human modeling technology among audience of diverse background including researchers, students, trainees, etc. in academia and industry; designers; engineers; and ergonomists associated with aviation and aerospace sectors. Design/methodology/approach – Comprehensive literature search was performed and, subsequently, all publications identified were studied thoroughly at least by abstracts. Available information has been segregated under different headings and depicted systematically for easy understanding by readers. Findings – Virtual human modeling technology has been used in assessing reach and accessibility in aircraft cockpits, creating accurate posture libraries, performing vision analysis for pilots, determining design modifications to accommodate female users, predicting probable pilot behavior in proposed cockpit design, simulating air flow and heat transfer in fighter plane’s cockpit, assessing comfort of airplane passenger seats, maintenance studies, human spaceflight training, verifying component accessibility, investigating impact of space suit parts and harnesses, etc. Traditional approach for ergonomic investigations (involving costly physical mockups and trials with real humans) can be effectively replaced by evaluations facilitated by digital mockups and digital humans. Research limitations/implications – Being a review paper, the present manuscript is purely academic in nature. Originality/value – The present paper represents critical review (with up to date references), leading to a comprehensive knowledge body about application of digital human modeling in aviation and aerospace industry. Avenues still to be explored have been identified and future research directions have been given aiming at aviation and aerospace completely human centric.

Keywords Aviation and aerospace industry, Computer-aided ergonomics, Digital human modeling (DHM), Virtual ergonomics

Paper type Literature review

Introduction The “Free Flight” concept is expected to raise airspace capacity by at least a factor of three (Ruigrok and Hoekstra, 2007). Growing world population will enforce enhanced demand for air travel, resulting in exponential growth of aviation industry. Aerospace industry is set for higher growth due to need for continual improvements in jet aircrafts, communication satellites, Internet, global positioning systems and unmanned aircraft for defense purposes (Deloitte, 2012). For maintaining steady augmentation in aerospace and aviation sectors, adoption of ergonomics principles/practices has become inevitable. International Ergonomics Association defines ergonomics (or human factors) as the scientific discipline concerned with the understanding of the interactions among

humans and other elements of a system, and the profession that applies theoretical principles, data and methods to design to optimize human well-being and the overall system performance (IEA, 2000). Because human is always coupled to an environment, be it at office, home, etc., the thought of ergonomics should not be found lacking in any discussion related to humans and their immediate working environment. This calls for development of an interdisciplinary research approach incorporating ergonomics/human factors to address research concerns in any industry.

Computer-aided ergonomics through digital human modeling “Digital human model” is a computer-generated two- or three-dimensional (3D) structure of a human used to represent complex physical and to some extent cognitive aspects of human beings. Simulations using digital mockup and digital human models are economical in the long run when compared with traditional ergonomic evaluation

The current issue and full text archive of this journal is available on Emerald Insight at: www.emeraldinsight.com/1748-8842.htm

Aircraft Engineering and Aerospace Technology: An International Journal 87/3 (2015) 266 –273 © Emerald Group Publishing Limited [ISSN 1748-8842] [DOI 10.1108/AEAT-05-2013-0094]

Received 15 May 2013 Revised 12 December 2013 17 December 2013 Accepted 17 December 2013

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process in a typical product/process development scenario (Chaffin, 2005). Digital human modeling (DHM) facilitates inclusion of human considerations in engineering decisions and always provides design assistance (Li, 2009). DHM is an unavoidable tool for inaccessible and hazardous environments where trial with living human is risky and unethical. DHM has emerged as state-of-art technology for ergonomic evaluation of product and/or workstations in virtual environment and is on the verge of becoming an integral part of computer-aided ergonomics and computer- aided engineering.

Need for ergonomics application and research in aviation and aerospace industry Aviation’s human link is reported to be the reason for about two-thirds of aircraft accidents (Berninger, 1991). National Aeronautics and Space Administration’s (NASA) statistics revealed that 70 per cent of aircraft accidents could be due to inefficient performance of man. Thus, it is signifying the need of human factor research in aviation industry from perspective of engineering design with digital human taking the place of pilots (Zheng and Fu, 2011). At present, the majority of research in human factor related to aviation industry is done keeping the concept of aviation psychology in mind (Zheng and Fu, 2011). Common tendency is to permit ergonomically bad but financially economical design on flight deck in expectation that pilot will be able to adjust and manage due to the flexible nature of humans (Green et al., 1999). Increased likelihood of error, discomfort and fatigue may occur, even though pilot is able to cope with physically incompatible design. A list of risk factors along with its description and literature source has been provided by Chang and Wong (2012) with ergonomics being mentioned as a key factor under comfort of cockpit design. Thus, the aviation and aerospace sector cannot be exempted from continual improvement aided by technology/software with respect to ergonomics/human factors.

Aims and objectives The past four to five decades have been witnessing ample scientific activities involving DHM, related to the advancement in design and the virtual evaluation of products and workstations associated with the aviation and aerospace sectors. It is observed that all these information are currently in discrete form. Single knowledgebase encompassing whole body of relevant literatures in compact form has been felt to be very much essential by the present authors. Hence, in the present review, the aim is to bring together the available information regarding the application of virtual DHM technology in aviation and aerospace industries and organize that information in methodical manner to promote and encourage further DHM-based applied ergonomics research in these sectors.

Ergonomics in aviation and aerospace industry Aerospace industry was the first to adopt the DHM technology (Preston and Lofurno, 2008), and the majority of users are presently found in the automotive and aerospace engineering sectors (Lämkull et al., 2009). It is deemed appropriate at this juncture to highlight few examples using the traditional/conventional ergonomic approach in aviation and aerospace sectors. This endeavor is intended to help readers apprehend the fact that the traditional/conventional approach, which mainly involved use of costly physical mockups and trials with real humans (see Figure 1), can be effectively replaced by evaluations facilitated by digital mockups and digital humans.

Conventional ergonomic approach in the aviation and aerospace industry The human factors/ergonomics community has put forward its best efforts to address the man–machine interface issues in aviation and aerospace industry using physical mockups and trials with real humans. Research and development related to human factors mainly focused on the pilot and cockpit

Figure 1 Traditional ergonomics approach in the aviation and aerospace industry

Virtual ergonomics: aviation and aerospace

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Aircraft Engineering and Aerospace Technology: An International Journal

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working environment (Gramopadhye and Drury, 2000). Combat situations force pilots to adorn protective equipment, which adds to muscular load and affects postures. Keeping this in focus, mechanical load and muscle fatigue in neck induced by different head-worn equipment including helmet, and neck postures were studied with the help of volunteering helicopter pilots (Thuresson et al., 2005; Forde et al., 2011; Oord et al., 2012). An explorative investigation focused on a spinal creep measurement technique in a simulated aircraft environment was performed using human volunteers (Whiteley et al., 1991). An investigation was conducted by Smith (2008) into the dynamic characteristics and human perception of high-frequency multi-axis vibration with occupants seated on a military aircraft seat fitted with different cushions and exposed to operational vibration. Taking a cue from complaints of flight attendants in short-distance flights, studies on musculoskeletal loads while moving trolleys on board aircraft (Glitsch et al., 2007; Jäger et al., 2007; Schaub et al., 2007) were performed by replicating aircraft floor in a laboratory. An experiment was performed in a specially designed and fabricated flight simulator using volunteers (performing flight simulation operations) to measure the head tilt and pilot fatigue by detecting and measuring head motion (Zallen et al., 2012). The next section highlights application of DHM in aviation and aerospace industry (see Figure 2) to demonstrate the gradual adoption of this technology for moving toward virtual ergonomics.

Virtual ergonomics approach in aviation and aerospace industry Historically, in the year 1967, an anthropometric computer model named First Man (later known as Boeman), utilizing anthropometric dimensions of scalable 50th percentile man, was used to assess the reach and accessibility in aircraft cockpits (Bubb and Fritzsche, 2009) and it provided an alternate for templates. Bubb and Fritzsche (2009) have also mentioned about another model named TEMPUS, developed for NASA in 1985, drawing inputs from a previously developed man model. Blanchonette (2010) stated that a computerized

biomechanical man model named “Combiman” was created using anthropometric data from six military data bases, having the capability to furnish view plots and also find out the reach capability of a pilot, taking the effect of clothing and harnesses into account.

Cockpit, flight deck and crew workstation design Li (2009) stated that DHM had been widely used in design of aircraft cockpits, and most aircraft manufacturers had been using their own or commercially available virtual human modeling software. Human factor issues like process conflict in a multi-crew cockpit design emphasizing on vision and accessibility aspects were evaluated using DHM (Sun et al., 2011). DHM was effectively used to predict the probable pilot behavior in a proposed cockpit design for jet aircraft (Meulen and DiClemente, 2001). Hudson and Zehner (1998) initiated the development process of a validation technique, which was expected to enable proper spatial accommodation in cockpit almost entirely in the digital domain. Further, Hudson et al. (2000) stated that DHM is the basic element in the cockpit design process. Cockpit analysis of a civil aircraft based on ergonomic principles utilizing Chinese pilot body dimensions was performed considering comfort angle ranges, elements in cockpit like seat, rudder pedal, stick, lens hood, center console and top panel (Hong-jun and Bi-feng, 2009; Zhang et al., 2007). DHM was productively used by Karmakar et al. to perform a detailed vision analysis for pilots in jet aircraft cockpit (Karmakar et al., 2012). A digital mockup of a civil aircraft cockpit was evaluated using various percentiles of the Chinese pilot model in a DHM platform for ergonomics evaluation of main parts of cockpit such as seat, main flight panel, glare shield, rudder pedals, stick, center console, top panel, etc. Results were subsequently verified by field tests for implementation of human-centered design philosophy in cockpit design (Rune et al., 2008). Virtual evaluation of preliminary civil cockpit layout design was performed using Cockpit Ergonomics layout and Assessment system (CEA) with the help of Chinese digital manikins for investigating pilots operation postures, which was expected to result in

Figure 2 Application of DHM in the aviation and aerospace industry

Virtual ergonomics: aviation and aerospace

J. Sanjog, Sougata Karmakar, Thaneswer Patel and Anirban Chowdhury

Aircraft Engineering and Aerospace Technology: An International Journal

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considerable resource saving in prototype testing and improvement in cockpit design efficiency (Lijing et al., 2009). Various elements considered for operational postures using CEA included change of pilot’s eye point to the designed eye point; evaluation of accessibility and visibility of cockpit layout’s main instrument panel, control display of anterior central pedestal control stand, central pedestal control stand, top control board, sun shield, left and right and side console, steering column and pedal; design of eight postures in accordance with flight mission and assessment of upper limb and body joint movements. Air flow and heat transfer in a fighter plane’s cockpit was simulated for thermal comfort studies using virtual pilot models (Shen and Yuan, 2011). A project aimed at reducing errors encountered during initial positioning and posturing of virtual humans (for evaluating flight control and display locations in fighter aircraft) was successfully addressed by using 3D body scans of real people and creating posture libraries (Oudenchuijzen et al., 2011). A new method was proposed (based on characterizing and visualizing pilots’ vision and reach zone at a pre-defined posture using digital mockup) to assess and optimize design for improving intuition aspect in virtual environment for civil aircraft flight deck layout design (Shi and Zhang, 2012). Zheng and Fu (2011) explained the requirements of digital human model applicable to flight deck design and procedures to assess workload based on ergonomic standards. Digital mannequins corresponding to Indian pilot population were used in ergonomics evaluation of crew workstations located in rear fuselage of an advanced naval version light helicopter (Pinto and Taneja, 2005). DHM was utilized to determine extent of design modifications necessary and several design changes were recommended for a particular type of combat aircraft to accommodate female users (Lockett III and Archer, 2009). Lockett III and Archer (2009) demonstrated an example of human figure model (wearing clothing and equipment) being used to perform an exhaustive evaluation of design characteristics of egress passages.

Aircraft passenger seat comfort evaluations It was visualized that customers were unhappy due to the tendency of aircraft companies to increase the number of passengers per aircraft by increasing seat height and decreasing seat pitch. Issues of aircraft passenger seat design problem considering layout optimization and profit- maximizing constraint were exercised by Nadadur and Parkinson (2009) using the digital human model. Virtual humans were also used in assessing comfort of airplane passenger seats from users perspective (Green and Hudson, 2011).

Aviators’ musculoskeletal load and fatigue due to protective equipment Based on ideal facial dimensions for five face-size categories, five digital 3D head forms of US workers (who uses personal protective equipments like respirators) were developed by Zhuang et al. (2010). Aerial combat maneuvering causes fatigue and musculoskeletal loads on military aviators due to factors related to seating, task posture, vibration and head-supported mass. Quoting this fact, a fatigable whole- body musculoskeletal model to calculate neck musculoskeletal loads and fatigue of aviators was conceived and necessary

investigations were done for two frequently adopted postures (Zhou et al., 2013). This approach is claimed to be suitable for designing aviation helmet to lessen fatigue or injury potential.

Human space flight training, evaluation and space suit development Guo and Liu (2007) observed that because astronauts must finish a lot of operations in a short time, there was a necessity to train them before hand on ground. To accomplish this need, a hand model in a virtual environment was used to substitute real hand to accomplish grasp, pull, push and grip functions of the hand. Scope of DHM in training can be further understood from NASA’s proposal for utilizing it to capture tasks of experienced technicians and train the next generation workers for designing space ships (Demirel and Duffy, 2007). Use of avatars in human spaceflight training (Osterlund and Lawrence, 2012) has given further insight into recent developments in aerospace applications. Effect of avatars and virtual environment on users was documented in a comparative assessment of learning outcomes while teaching an aerospace engineering design course via virtual worlds (Okutsu et al., 2012). In another study, DHM was used to evaluate astronaut tasks in preliminary design phase of a European space agency module built for manned space flights to international space station (Sundin et al., 2000). Impact of space suit parts and body dimensions on center of mass of a seated crew member was assessed using digital manikin as a part of the suit development process (Blackledge et al., 2011).

Design support in space station Advantageous features of the DHM technology, which helped in developing a human modeling process for “International Space Station”, ensured configuration management of required digital mockups, provided reliable methodology for simulating and analyzing human tasks and hardware layout, facilitated communication of design requirements and helped significant cost savings by reducing the amount of late redesign and expensive mockup tests (Graham and Hebermehl, 2001).

Maintenance applications in aircraft and space station In their research paper, Abshire and Barron (1998) discussed application of virtual human simulation in maintenance of certain aircraft systems, leading to design improvements. Maintainability of radar components, replacement of power supply and general ergonomics of ammunitions trailer were carried out using digital human models (Ianni, 2011). Using vision analysis as an example, ergonomics investigation related to virtual maintenance of civil airplane was demonstrated by Wang et al. (2008) with the help of the DHM software. A Boeing human modeling system was used to verify component accessibility and also to perform mandatory anthropometric analysis of on-orbit crew interfaces for “International Space Station” in a cost-efficient and timely manner (Nelson, 2001). Li (2009) reported about the use of the DHM software in investigating designs from a view point of maintenance accessibility, manual task timing, part removal and replacement by aerospace organizations. He observed that the DHM technology guaranteed maintainability of complex parts/products.

Virtual ergonomics: aviation and aerospace

J. Sanjog, Sougata Karmakar, Thaneswer Patel and Anirban Chowdhury

Aircraft Engineering and Aerospace Technology: An International Journal

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Cognitive ergonomics research initiatives Current innovative research directions in DHM technology are centered on modeling of pilot’s cognitive process into virtual human. Because human error is cited as one of most significant challenges for cockpit design in twenty-first century, development of human machine interface technologies will draw inputs from cognitive neurosciences to provide new models to be applied in human-centered design loops for cockpit in aeronautics (Berberian et al., 2013). Cognitive models being determined by their core capabilities (visual attention allocation, workload, crew interactions, procedures, situation awareness and error prediction) are nowadays being considered as important tools in aircraft design, analysis and evaluation (Zhang and Xue, 2013). Complex human behavior models are being used to generate predictions of operator performance inside more complex operational domains (e.g. process control, aircraft and air traffic control operations), and the need of the hour is to design and validate performance of human behavioral models (Gore and Milgram, 2013). Interactions between an aircraft model and human agent symbolized by the pilot and co-pilot (with features like system dynamics, monitoring, decision action, mental dynamics, etc.) were simulated for air traffic and flight desk operations in a case study (Mamessier and Feigh, 2013).

Future research avenues It is proposed that DHM can be used to address ergonomic issues in ground activities like security check, reception and services afforded to passengers including those with special needs, passenger baggage (loading and unloading in aircraft’s hold and retrieved luggage delivery) and bulk cargo handling, ferrying of passengers to/from aircraft, on board passenger service, air traffic control, parking and maintenance, aircraft marshaling, refueling and manufacturing. DHM technology is yet to be utilized for investigations related to other modes of air travel like aerostat, airship, balloon, glider and paraglide. It is recommended that user-centric design approach should be adopted for these proposed avenues along with cockpit workspace and passenger space with proper consideration of anthropometric, biomechanical, behavioral and cognitive aspects of targeted users.

Discussion and conclusion The present paper is a systematic compilation of an up to date information regarding application of DHM in man–machine interface studies in aviation and aerospace industries. Initially, an effort was made to equip readers with basic knowledge by providing concise information regarding ergonomics and DHM. Additionally, a few examples of traditional/ conventional ergonomic approaches involving construction of physical mock ups and trials with real humans have been given. Comparison between conventional approach and virtual approach will help readers to visualize usefulness of the DHM technology. These efforts have been taken to provide a holistic view to make readers aware and interested in exploring benefits of DHM in aviation and aerospace applications. Capability of virtual human modeling technology to perform investigations using digital mockups and digital humans/

manikin proved advantageous when compared with the traditional/conventional approach, which uses time- consuming trials with costly physical mockups and real humans. This was demonstrated in a study where the DHM software was effectively utilized to investigate and improve ergonomic design and usability of modern army aviation systems with reduced analysis and development timelines (Hicks et al., 2010). Curtney (2011) mentioned that though human (pilot) interaction with aircraft cockpit could be well visualized in a 3D CAD environment, real human trials might be essential as accuracy of best CAD programs might not be as high as those with real human beings in human factors evaluations. Blanchonette (2010) has given information regarding names of commercially available DHM software used and also some case studies with reference to aviation industry. Bubb and Fritzsche (2009) highlighted the use of commercial DHM software by renowned firms like British Aerospace, Boeing and Airbus. Researchers, students or trainees in academia and industry, industrial designers, engineers, occupational health-care professionals with interests in ergonomics, overall cockpit design including cockpit control devices and cockpit control panel instrumentation, auxiliary equipment design in aviation and aerospace disciplines are sure to have gained domain-specific knowledge from this manuscript. It will encourage them to take forward application of DHM in the aforesaid fields. The DHM approach in design helps designers/ergonomists/ engineers to get engrossed in various ergonomic factors and perform what-if scenarios, thereby helping to learn effect of proposed/concept design specifications on the targeted/ intended user population (Chaffin, 2009). DHM has the potential to ultimately replace most if not all of conventional investigation methods/practices in human factors/ergonomics discipline. Successful DHM applications has taken place mainly in industrially developed countries and it is necessary to take the required steps for promoting widespread use of this technology in developing countries for benefit of all concerned.

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Virtual ergonomics: aviation and aerospace

J. Sanjog, Sougata Karmakar, Thaneswer Patel and Anirban Chowdhury

Aircraft Engineering and Aerospace Technology: An International Journal

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About the authors

J. Sanjog is Research Scholar at Department of Design in Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati-781039, Assam, India. He received his MTech degree in Mechanical (Production) engineering from Calicut University, Kerala, India. He is a life member of different scientific communities such as Indian Society of Ergonomics, Indian Society for Technical Education and Indian Science Congress Association.

Sougata Karmakar is Assistant Professor at Department of Design in Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati-781039, Assam, India. He received PhD in Physiology from the Bharathiar University, Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu, India. He is now working in the fields of occupational ergonomics, product design and virtual ergonomic evaluation with the digital human modeling software. He is member of different scientific communities such as Human Factor and Ergonomics Society (HFES), Indian Society of Ergonomics (ISE), Indian Science

Congress Association (ISC), Physiological Society of India (PSI), Indian Association of Biomedical Scientists (IABMS), etc. He has published a good number of research papers in various reputed international journals. Sougata Karmakar is the corresponding author and can be contacted at: [email protected]

Thaneswer Patel is working as Assistant Professor in the Department of Agricultural Engineering, NERIST, Nirjuli, India, since 2006. His previous professional excellences include working for Project Officer in AICRP-sponsored project in 2005-2006 at AgFE Department, IIT Kharagpur. He is actively involved in teaching and research. He has guided many BTech thesis and one MTech thesis. He has received BTech in Agricultural Engineering (2001) from CAE, Jabalpur, and MTech in specialization of Farm Machinery and Power (2004) from IIT Kharagpur. He is pursuing PhD from Design Department at IIT Guwahati. He has several life memberships of professional societies such as ISTE, ISAE, ISCA and SESI.

Anirban Chowdhury is Research Scholar at Department of Design in Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati-781039, Assam, India. He completed MSc in Human Physiology from University College of Science and Technology, University of Calcutta, India. He is now working in the areas of cognitive ergonomics of product design and management. He worked on occupational health and safety at Regional Occupational Health Centre (E), Indian Council of Medical Research (ICMR). He is life member of Indian Society of Ergonomics and Indian Science Congress Association.

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Virtual ergonomics: aviation and aerospace

J. Sanjog, Sougata Karmakar, Thaneswer Patel and Anirban Chowdhury

Aircraft Engineering and Aerospace Technology: An International Journal

Volume 87 · Number 3 · 2015 · 266 –273

273

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