Toulmin Method of Argument

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ToulminModel.ppt
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The Toulmin Model

A tool for diagramming

“informal” arguments

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Stephen Toulmin

  • Stephen Toulmin, originally a British logician, is now a professor at USC. He became frustrated with the inability of formal logic to explain everyday arguments, which prompted him to develop his own model of practical reasoning.

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The three basic elements:

  • Claim (assertion or proposition)
  • Grounds (proof, grounds, support)
  • Warrant (inferential leap)

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Claims

  • A claim is the point an arguer is trying to make. The claim is the conclusion, proposition, or assertion an arguer wants another to accept.
  • The claim answers the question, "So what is your point?”
  • example: “Rosario is an American citizen, because she was born in the United States.”
  • example: “Barack Obama doesn’t wear a flag pin on his lapel, so he must not be patriotic.”

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More about claims...

  • There are four basic types of claims:
  • fact: claims which focus on empirically verifiable phenomena
  • judgment/value: claims involving opinions, attitudes, and subjective evaluations of things
  • policy: claims advocating courses of action that should be undertaken
  • definition/classification: indicates what criteria are being used to to define a term or what category something falls into

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Grounds (proof or data)

  • Grounds refers to the proof or evidence an arguer offers.
  • Grounds can consist of statistics, quotations, reports, findings, physical evidence, or various forms of reasoning
  • example: “I’m a vegetarian. One reason is that I feel sorry for the animals. Another reason is for my own health.”
  • example: “I made the dinner, so you can do the dishes.

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More about grounds...

  • Grounds are the support the arguer offers on behalf of his/her claim. The grounds answer questions such as:
  • "What is your proof?“
  • "How do you know?“
  • "Why?”
  • example: “It looks like rain. The barometer is falling.”
  • example: "The other Ritz Carlton hotels I've stayed at had great pools, so I'll bet this one has a great pool too."

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Still more about grounds...

  • grounds can be based on:
  • evidence: facts, statistics, reports, or physical proof
  • source credibility: authorities, experts, celebrity endorsers, a close friend, or someone's say-so
  • analysis and reasoning: reasons may be offered as proof
  • premises already held by the listener

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Clue words for identifying grounds

  • The grounds for an argument often follow words such as “because,” “since,” “given that…”
  • example: “Airports should x-ray all luggage because a bomb could be placed in a checked baggage.”
  • example: “I expect to do well on the test, since I studied all night for it.”

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Warrants

  • The warrant is the inferential leap that connects the claim with the grounds.
  • The warrant is typically implicit (unstated) and requires the listener to recognize the connection between the claim and grounds
  • The implicit nature of warrants means the “meaning” of an argument is as much a part of the receiver as it is a part of the message.
  • Some arguments are “multi-warranted,” e.g., based on more than one inferential leap

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More about warrants...

  • The warrant performs a "linking" function by establishing a mental connection between the grounds and the claim
  • example: “Muffin is running a temperature. I’ll bet she has an infection.”

  • example: "That dog is probably friendly. It is a Golden Retriever.”

(warrant: sign reasoning; a fever is a reliable sign of an infection)

(warrant: generalization; most or all Golden Retrievers are friendly)

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Still more about warrants...

  • warrants can be based on:
  • ethos: source credibility, authority
  • logos: reason-giving, induction, deduction
  • pathos: emotional or motivational appeals
  • value premises: values shared by, or presumed to be shared by, the receiver(s)

  • note: these categories aren't mutually exclusive, there is considerable overlap among the three

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the first triad
sample argument 1

Claim

Grounds

Warrant

The Lakers are likely to win the ballgame tonight

They are playing

at home

(unstated) Generalization: The home team enjoys an advantage in basketball

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the first triad
sample argument 2

Claim

Grounds

Warrant

“Slumdog Millionaire” is a wonderful movie.

It was nominated for 10 Academy Awards

(unstated) Sign: a movie’s greatness can be measured in the number of Oscar nominations it receives

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the first triad
sample argument 3

Claim

Grounds

Warrant

Biff was probably in a fight

He has a black eye

(unstated) Sign: A black eye is a reliable indicator that a person has been in a fight

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the first triad
sample argument 4

Claim

Grounds

Warrant

If you surf at Huntington Beach right after it rains you risk getting a bacterial infection

Runoff from the rain washes bacteria into the ocean

(unstated) Cause-effect: bacteria in the water causes surfers to get ill.

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Limitations regarding the Toulmin model

  • The Toulmin model offers a somewhat static view of an argument
  • Focuses on the argument maker, not the target or respondent
  • Real-life arguments aren’t always neat or clear
  • The Toulmin model is an analytical tool
  • Useful for dissecting arguments before or after they’ve been made
  • Not as useful, practical in the “heat” of an argument
  • Since warrants are unstated, different listeners may perceive them differently

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