psychology

 The distinction between passionate and companionate love has been further refined by psychologist Robert Sternberg (1986, 1988), who has proposed an interesting theo- retical framework for conceptualizing what people experience when they report being in love. According to Sternberg, love has three dimensions or components: passion, intimacy, and commitment (• Figure 7.1):

• Passion is the motivational component that fuels romantic feelings, physical attraction, and desire for sexual interaction. Passion instills a deep desire to be united with the loved one. In a sense, passion is like an addiction, because its capacity to provide intense stimulation and pleasure can exert a powerful craving in a person.

• Intimacy is the emotional component of love that encompasses the sense of being bonded with another person. It includes feelings of warmth, sharing, and emotional closeness. Intimacy also embraces a willingness to help the other and openness to sharing private thoughts and feelings with the beloved.

• Commitment is the thinking or cognitive aspect of love. It refers to the con- scious decision to love another and to maintain a relationship over time despite difficulties that may arise.

Sternberg maintains that passion tends to develop rapidly and intensely in the early stages of a love relationship and then declines as the relationship progresses. In contrast, intimacy and commitment continue to build gradually over time, although at different rates (• Figure 7.2). Thus Sternberg’s theory provides a conceptual basis for the transition from passionate to companionate love. Passionate love, consisting mainly of romantic feelings and physical attraction, peaks early and quickly subsides. However, as passion weakens, many couples experience a growth in both intimacy and commitment as their relationship evolves into one of companionate love . & Regan, 1998). If intimacy does not flourish and if a couple does not make a mutual decision to commit to each other, their relationship will be on shaky ground when passion fades and conflicts surface. In contrast, commitment and a sense of bonded- ness and mutual concern can sustain a relationship during periods of dissatisfaction and conflict.

All three of Sternberg’s love components are important dimensions of a loving relationship, but they typically exist in different patterns and to varying degrees in different relationships. Moreover, they often change over time within the same relationship. Sternberg suggests that such variations yield different kinds of love—or at least differences in how people experience love (see Figure 7.1). For instance, the absence of all three components yields what Sternberg calls nonlove (what most of us feel for casual acquaintances). When only intimacy is present, the experience is one of friendship or liking. If only passion exists, without intimacy or commitment, one experiences infatuation. The presence of commitment without passion and intimacy yields empty love (such as might be experienced in a long-term, static relationship). If intimacy and commitment exist without passion, one experiences companionate love (often characteristic of happy couples who have shared many years together). When passion and commitment are present but without intimacy, the experience is fatuous love, a kind of foolish involvement characteristic of whirlwind courtships or situations in which one worships and longs for another person from afar. Love char- acterized by passion and intimacy but no commitment is described by Sternberg as romantic love. Finally, when all three components are present, the experience is con- summate love, the fullest kind of love, which people often strive for but find difficult to achieve and sustain.

(Crooks, 20160101, p. 193)

Crooks, R. L., Baur, K. (20160101). Our Sexuality, 13th Edition [VitalSource Bookshelf version]. Retrieved from https://bookshelf.vitalsource.com/books/9781305887428

2.  Describe some of the reasons why reliable contraception is a major worldwide concern today.  What are some individual and societal benefits associated with access to contraceptives?

Worldwide contraceptive use has increased dramatically in the last several decades: An estimated 63% of partnered women of reproductive age practice contraception. Unfortunately, the use of modern contraceptives by the poorest of the world’s poor in developing countries remains low. For example, only 6% of married women in Nigeria, compared to more than 70% in the United States and China, use birth control (Reading, 2012). Tragically, millions of women and couples around the world are un- able to exercise their right to decide freely and responsibly whether and when to have children (Alkema et al., 2013). About 222 million women in the developing world have an unmet need for effective contraception (Sedgh & Hussain, 2014a). In 2012, 85 million pregnancies—40% of all pregnancies in the developing world—were unintended and 50% of the unintended pregnancies ended in abortion (Sedgh & Hussain, 2014b).

(Crooks, 20160101, p. 302)

Crooks, R. L., Baur, K. (20160101). Our Sexuality, 13th Edition [VitalSource Bookshelf version]. Retrieved from https://bookshelf.vitalsource.com/books/9781305887428

Making contraceptives available to the men and women throughout the world who desire to use them will enhance the quality of their lives and help alleviate over- population. At the end of the 20th century, worldwide population stood at 6.5 billion, compared with less than half that number—2.3 billion—in 1950. The United Nations projects an increase to 8.9 billion by 2050. Of that growth, 95% is expected to occur in poorer, develop- ing countries whose populations already exceed the avail- ability of bare necessities: housing, food, and fuel. When impoverished families have many children, they cannot secure adequate food, health care, and education for each child. Moreover, overpopulation (and overconsumption of the world’s resources by developed countries) poses a dire threat to the earth’s en- vironment. An essential factor in controlling population levels is to expand women’s access to education and economic opportunity (Sedgh & Hussain, 2014a). Throughout the world, women with higher levels of education have

(Crooks, 20160101, p. 303)

Crooks, R. L., Baur, K. (20160101). Our Sexuality, 13th Edition [VitalSource Bookshelf version]. Retrieved from https://bookshelf.vitalsource.com/books/9781305887428

3.  Describe the differences in sexual development and/or sexual functioning from childhood to adolescence to adulthood to late adulthood.  What is one sexuality issue that might present in each of the four stages?  Be sure to document all your information from the text and outside sources.

Sexual Behavior During Infancy

and Childhood

• The traditional view of infancy and childhood as a time when sexuality remains unexpressed is not supported by research findings.

• Infants of both sexes are born with the capacity for sexual pleasure and response, and some experience observable orgasm.

• Self-administered genital stimulation is common among both boys and girls during the first two years of life.

• The inclinations we have as adults toward giving and receiving affection seem to be related to our early opportunities for pleasurable contact with others, especially parents.

• Masturbation is one of the most common sexual expres- sions during the childhood years. Parental reactions can be an important influence on developing sexuality.

• Sex play with other children, which can occur as early as age 2 or 3, increases in frequency during the 5- to 7-year-old age range.

• Separation of the sexes tends to become pronounced by the age of 8 or 9. However, romantic interest in the other sex and curiosity about sexual matters are typically high during this stage of development.

• The ages of 10 and 11 are marked by keen interest in body changes, continued separation of the sexes, and a substantial incidence of homosexual encounters.

The Physical Changes of Adolescence

• Puberty encompasses the physical changes that occur in response to increased hormone levels. These physical developments include maturation of the reproductive organs and consequent menstruation in girls and ejaculation in boys.

Sexual Behavior During Adolescence

• The sexual double standard often pressures males to view sex as a conquest and places females in a double bind about saying yes or no.

• The percentage of adolescents who masturbate increases between the ages of 13 and 19.

• An emerging social phenomenon, adolescent sexting, in- volves sending sexually suggestive photos or text messages via the Internet, cell phones, or other electronic devices.

• Noncoital sexual expression is a common sexual behavior among adolescents. Noncoital sex refers to erotic contact that might include kissing, touching, manual stimulation, or oral–genital stimulation—but not coitus.

• Adolescent sexual expression is now more likely to take place within the context of an ongoing relationship than it was during Kinsey’s time.

• A decrease in the number of both young men and young women who experience intercourse by age 19 has occurred over the last five decades.

• Teenagers use the Internet for blogging, social networking with peers, seeking health information, accessing pornography, researching school topics, and posting personal profiles.

• Adolescent participation in forced or consensual multi- person sex (MPS) is an emerging public health concern. MPS is associated with a variety of variables including experiencing sex prior to age 15, having an STI, dating and/or child sexual abuse victimization, and recent exposure to pornography.

• During the 1990s and 2000s, adolescent coital rates leveled off and decreased appreciably for all but young teenagers.

• Same-sex experiences during adolescence can be experi- ments or an expression of permanent sexual orientation.

Adolescent Pregnancy

• The United States has the highest rate of adolescent pregnancy in the industrialized West. In recent years the incidence of adolescent pregnancy in the United States has fallen.

• Approximately 750,000 unmarried U.S. adolescent females become pregnant each year. Adolescent pregnancy is often associated with social, medical, educational, and financial difficulties.

• Many adolescents who have intercourse do not use contraceptives consistently or effectively.

• The low rate of contraceptive use among U.S. adolescents is related to a number of factors, including ignorance, false beliefs, inadequate home- or school-based sex education, misconceptions about health risks associated with some contraception methods, embarrassment

over acquiring contraceptive devices, concerns about confidentiality, and lack of communication with partners about birth control.

• Strategies for reducing the teenage pregnancy rate in the United States include upgrading the family planning clinic system, establishing a compulsory national sex education curriculum, educating males about their contraceptive responsibility, providing access to condoms in middle schools and high schools, and increasing dialogue between parents and children about sex.

Sex Education

• One answer to the question of when to start discussing sex with our children is when they start asking questions. If communication does not spontaneously occur, it may be helpful for parents to initiate dialogue, perhaps by simply sharing their feelings or asking nonstressful, open-ended questions.

• Some important topics—particularly menstruation, first ejaculation, and nocturnal orgasms—are rarely discussed unless parents take the initiative.

• Although most adolescents prefer their parents to be the primary source of sex information, evidence indicates that peers are considerably more likely than parents to provide this information, often in a biased and inaccurate manner.

• Even though an overwhelming majority of parents and other adults support school sex education, only a minority of American schools offer comprehensive sex education programs.

• Research indicates that comprehensive school-based sex education programs increase the use of birth control, reduce teenage pregnancies, reduce high-risk sexual behavior, do not hasten the onset or frequency of coitus, and do not increase the number of an adolescent’s sexual partners.

(Crooks, 20160101, pp. 399-401)

Crooks, R. L., Baur, K. (20160101). Our Sexuality, 13th Edition [VitalSource Bookshelf version]. Retrieved from https://bookshelf.vitalsource.com/books/9781305887428

Single Living

Remaining single instead of marrying or living together, or following divorce, has become an increasingly prominent lifestyle in the United States. Census data from 2012 show that 1 in 4 households had a single person, compared to 1 in 6 in 1970 (Toppo & Overberg, 2013). In spite of the still present cultural expectation of marriage, many individuals decide they prefer to remain single (Petrovic, 2014). A recent survey found that 55% of unmarried individuals said they were not looking for a committed relation- ship (DePaulo, 2012). For individuals who are single after a divorce, 45% say they do not want to marry again, 31% are not sure, and the smallest group, 21%, say that they would like to marry again (Wang & Parker, 2014).

(Crooks, 20160101, p. 402)

Crooks, R. L., Baur, K. (20160101). Our Sexuality, 13th Edition [VitalSource Bookshelf version]. Retrieved from https://bookshelf.vitalsource.com/books/9781305887428

Cohabitation

Many never-married adults are not living by themselves: About 24% of never-married adults ages 25 to 34 currently live with a partner (Wang & Parker, 2014). In the past few decades both the number of people choosing cohabitation (living together in a sexual relationship without being married) and societal acceptance of what was once an uncon- ventional practice have increased significantly. Census figures reveal that by 2012 about 7.8 million unmarried heterosexual couples were living together in the United States, compared to 2.9 million in 1996 (Benjamin-Guzzo, 2014).

(Crooks, 20160101, p. 404)

Marriage

Marriage is an ever-changing institution found in virtually every society. It has tradi- tionally served several functions for society and individuals: Marriage typically provides stable family units, in which children acquire knowledge about their society’s rules and mores through the teachings of their married parents or kinship groups. Marriage also functions as an economic partnership that integrates child rearing, performance of household tasks, and earning an income into one family unit. Despite the ubiquity of marriage, however, 2008 was the first year when more than 40% of babies born in the United States were born to unmarried women. The highest percentage of these children were born to cohabiting parents (Lichter et al., 2014).

(Crooks, 20160101, p. 405)

Sexuality and Aging

In general, people are living longer and remaining sexually active for a greater portion of their lives (Elders, 2010). In the later years of life, most people begin to note cer- tain physical changes taking place in their sexual response patterns (Herbenick et al., 2010a), as described in Chapter 6. Some women and men who understand the nature of these changes accept them in stride. Others observe them with concern.

An important source of the confusion and frustration that many aging people feel is the prevailing notion that old age is a sexless time (Kellett, 2000). Why has aging in our society and in other societies often been associated with sexlessness? (See • Figure 13.4 for a global comparison.) Part of the answer is that U.S. culture is still influenced by a philosophy that equates sexuality with procreation and makes it seem not quite ac- ceptable for older people to have and express sexual needs. Moreover, the media usually link love, sex, and romance to the young. However, as the percentage of seniors in the population continues to increase, the consumer goods market more frequently presents vibrant, sensual ads featuring older women and men ( Jarrell, 2000). In addition, as the generation that reached adulthood during the so-called sexual revolution era moves into senior citizenship, the notion of a sexless old age may become obsolete, and the view of sexuality as a potential for a lifetime of pleasure will become more common (Elders, 2010).

(Crooks, 20160101, p. 423)

4.  Discuss the incidence of and particular issues involved with the following sexual behaviors among adolescents:           a. masturbation           b. petting           c. intercourse           d. same-sex contact

Masturbation

Although a significant number of teenagers do not experience sexual intercourse by the age of 19, many masturbate. As we saw earlier in this chapter, masturbation is a common sexual expression during childhood. The NSSHB found that masturbation was consid- erably more common than partnered sexual activities during adolescence (Herbenick et al., 2010a). During adolescence the behavior tends to increase in frequency. Mastur- bation frequency rates among females are notably lower than among males for all age groups, including adolescents. The NSSHB reported that about 26% of females, ages 16–19 years, reported solo masturbation during the previous month. A comparable figure for males in the same age range was approximately 60%. By age 19 about 66% of females and 86% of males had engaged in solo masturbation (Herbenick et al., 2010a).

Masturbation can serve as an important avenue for sexual expression during adoles- cence (Kaestle & Allen, 2011). Besides providing an always available outlet for sexual tension, self-stimulation is an excellent way to learn about one’s body and its sexual po- tential. Teenagers can experiment with different ways of pleasuring themselves, thereby increasing their self-knowledge. This information may later prove helpful during sexual interaction with a partner.

(Crooks, 20160101, p. 379)

The changes in

sexual mores consisted mainly of the prevalence of kissing and “petting” (sex play short of intercourse) among young unmarried people that went beyond acceptable Victorian standards, but women usually avoided premarital intercourse to prevent pregnancy and jeopardizing their reputations.

(Crooks, 20160101, p. 18)

Crooks, R. L., Baur, K. (20160101). Our Sexuality, 13th Edition [VitalSource Bookshelf version]. Retrieved from https://bookshelf.vitalsource.com/books/9781305887428

The citation provided is a guideline. Please check each citation for accuracy before use.

Sexual Intercourse

A frequently quoted statistic in sex research is the number of people in a given cat- egory who have engaged in “premarital sex.” As a statistic in sex surveys, premarital sex is defined as penile–vaginal intercourse that takes place between partners before they are married. However, the term premarital sex is misleading for two reasons. First, as a measure that is frequently used to indicate the changing sexual or moral values of American

(Crooks, 20160101, p. 381)

youth, it excludes a broad array of noncoital heterosexual and homosexual activities. For some people, abstaining from coitus before marriage might not reflect a lack of sexual activity. Second, the term premarital has connotations that may seem highly inappropri- ate to some people:

(Crooks, 20160101, p. 382)

A recent survey of more than 17,000 adolescents found that about 1 in 10 teenagers report having experienced sexual contact with same-sex partners (Pathela, 2011). Most of these contacts took place not with older adults but between peers. These data, or the behaviors they describe, do not entirely reflect later orientation. Same-sex contact with the intent of sexual arousal can be either experimental and transitory or an expression of a lifelong sexual orientation. Many gay and lesbian adolescents do not act on their sexual feelings until adulthood, and many people with heterosexual orientations have one or more early homosexual experiences.

Gay, lesbian, and bisexual teenagers frequently encounter adverse societal reactions to their sexual orientation (Savage & Miller, 2011). Consequently, they may find it es- pecially difficult to become comfortable with their developing sexuality. Unlike many other cultures in the world community, American society is not noted for embracing the fact of adolescent sexuality, even the often assumed heterosexuality of its young people. American teenagers who are at variance with the dominant heterosexual script can therefore experience a double societal rebuke of both their sexual orientation and the fact that they are sexually active.

(Crooks, 20160101, p. 387)

Crooks, R. L., Baur, K. (20160101). Our Sexuality, 13th Edition [VitalSource Bookshelf version]. Retrieved from https://bookshelf.vitalsource.com/books/9781305887428

5.  What is hypoactive sexual desire?  When is it considered a problem?  Discuss physiological and psychological factors associated with it.

Treating Hypoactive Sexual Desire Disorder

Many aspects of the treatment for hypoactive sexual desire disorder are similar to spe- cific suggestions for resolving other sexual problems. These include

• Encouraging erotic responses through self-stimulation and arousing fantasies • Reducing anxiety with appropriate information and sensate focus exercises • Enhancing sexual experiences through improved communication and increased

skills—both in initiating desired sexual activity and in refusing undesired sexual

activity • Expanding the repertoire of affectionate and sexual activities • Scheduling “date” nights where the couple has set up time and privacy to be sexual

(Herbenick et al., 2014)

Masturbation is also a way to accommodate a problematic difference in sex drive in a couple. The partner who wants sexual release more often than the other can mastur- bate while the other partner kisses and caresses him or her without needing to become aroused or experience orgasm.

Most therapists combine suggestions for specific activities with insight therapy, which can help a person understand and resolve any subconscious conflicts about sexual pleasure and intimacy. When low sexual desire is a symptom of unresolved relationship problems, therapy focuses on the interactions between partners that contribute to the lack of sexual desire (Alperstein, 2001).

(Crooks, 20160101, p. 463)

6.  Discuss the effects of spinal cord injury on sexual abilities and expression.  What coping strategies may be used to enhance sexual sharing?

Major disabilities, such as spinal cord injury, cerebral palsy, blindness, and deafness, have widely varying effects on sexual responsiveness. Some people with these disabilities can maintain or restore satisfying sex lives; others find that their sexual expression is per- manently reduced or impaired by their difficulties. In the following sections,

we look at some of these problems and discuss sexual adjustments that people with disabilities can make.

SPInAL COrD Injury People with spinal cord injuries (SCIs) have reduced motor control and sensation because the damage to the spinal cord obstructs the neural pathways between body and brain. Although the SCI does not nec- essarily impair sexual desire and psychological arousal, a person with an SCI has impaired physical ability for arousal and orgasm; this impairment varies greatly according to the specific injury (Alexander & Rosen, 2008). Research indicates that 86% of men and women with SCIs feel sexual desire, more than half experience arousal from physical stimulation, about 30% become aroused from psychological stimulation, and 33% experience orgasm or ejaculation (Mathieu et al., 2006). Research has found that Viagra can increase arousal and erection for some men with SCIs (DeForge & Blackmer, 2005).

Cutting-edge research on women with complete spinal cord injuries has found that vaginal/cervical self-stimulation can cause orgasm. Brain imaging tech- niques that have identified brain activity occurring during orgasm in uninjured women have identified similar activity from vaginal/cervical self-stimulation in women with complete spinal injuries (Pappas, 2012). The physiological data in- dicate that the vagus nerve provides an alternate pathway from the vagina/cervix to the brain, bypassing the spinal cord (Whipple & Komisaruk, 2006).

Much of the sex counseling for individuals and couples faced with SCIs consists of redefining and expanding sexual expression. Thus, sensory amplifi- cation—developing heightened sexual responsiveness in the inner arm, breasts, neck, or some other area that has retained some feeling—can enhance pleasure and arousal (Rosengarten, 2007).

(Crooks, 20160101, p. 443)

Crooks, R. L., Baur, K. (20160101). Our Sexuality, 13th Edition [VitalSource Bookshelf version]. Retrieved from https://bookshelf.vitalsource.com/books/9781305887428