2(tomato)done

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CHAPTER 1
New World Encounters
Preconquest–1608

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AMERICAN STORIES

A History of the United States

First Edition

Brands  Breen  Williams  Gross

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Native American Histories Before Conquest

• 20,000 years ago—Siberian hunters became first American inhabitants
• 14,000 years ago—humans reached tip of South America
• These Paleo-Indians did not suffer from many communicative diseases

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Routes of the First Americans

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The Environmental Challenge:
Food, Climate, and Culture

• Native Americans enjoyed an abundant supply of meat
• Some suggest they over-hunted and caused the extinction of several large species
• Climatic warming probably played a much bigger role
• 5000 years ago—agricultural revolution
• Crops included maize, squash, and beans
• Shift from nomadic hunting and gathering to permanent villages or large cities

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Mysterious Disappearances

• Anasazi culture—Chaco Canyon
• Sophisticated irrigation
• Well-built roads for transportation
• Adena and Hopewell peoples—Ohio Valley
• Large ceremonial mounds
• Extensive trade network
• Cahokia—Mississippi Valley
• Large ceremonial mounds
• Far-flung trade network

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Aztec Dominance

• Aztecs settled valley of Mexico
• Center of large, powerful empire
• Highly organized social and political structure
• Ruled through fear and force

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Eastern Woodland Cultures

• Atlantic coast of North America
• Native Americans lived in smaller bands
• Agriculture supplemented by hunting and gathering
• Likely were the first natives encountered by English settlers

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Locations of Major Indian Groups and Culture Areas in the 1600s

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A World Transformed

• Large numbers of whites profoundly altered native cultures
• The rate of change varied from place to place
• Native traditions changed radically for cultural survival

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Cultural Negotiations

• Diversity of language groups, ethnicities
• Place in society defined through kinship
• Communal, charismatic, sociopolitical formation
• Diplomacy, trade, war organized around reciprocal relationships

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Confederacies
of Eastern North America

• Huron—southern Ontario near Lakes Ontario and Erie
• Iroquois—central New York
• Powhattan—Chesapeake

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Threats to Survival: Trade

• Native Americans were eager for European trade
• They became dependent on, and indebted to, Europeans
• Commerce also influenced warfare patterns

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Threats to Survival: Disease

• Contact brought population decline among American Indians
• Cause: lack of resistance to epidemic disease
• Smallpox
• Measles
• Influenza
• Rate as high as 95%

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West Africa:
Ancient and Complex Societies

• Diversity of sub-Saharan cultures
• Islam
• Strong traditional beliefs
• A history of empires
• Mali
• Ghana
• Daily life centered on elder-ruled clans

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Trade Routes in Africa

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Beginnings of the
Slave Trade

• Fifteenth-century Portuguese charted sea lanes from Europe to sub-Saharan Africa
• Native rulers sold prisoners of war to Portuguese as slaves

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How Many Slaves?

• Seventeenth century—ca. 1000 Africans per year
• Eighteenth century—5.5 million transported to the Americas
• By 1860—ca. 11 million
• Before 1831, more Africans than Europeans came to the Americas

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Europe on the Eve of Conquest

• Tenth century—Leif Ericson settled “Vinland”
• Late fifteenth century—preconditions for overseas settlement attained
• Rise of nation-states
• Spread of new technologies
• Spread of old knowledge
• 1492—Columbus initiated large-scale European colonization

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Building New Nation-States

• Population growth after 1450
• “New monarchs” forged nations from scattered provinces
• Spain
• France
• England
• “Middle class” a new source of revenue
• Powerful military forces deployed

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Imagining a New World

• Spain the first European nation to achieve conditions for successful colonization
• Unified under Ferdinand and Isabella
• 1492—Jews and Muslims expelled
• Conquest of Canary Islands provided rehearsal for colonization

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Myths and Reality

• Columbus persuaded Queen Isabella to finance westward expedition to “Cathay”
• 1492—initial voyage
• Three subsequent voyages to find cities of China
• 1506—died clinging to belief he had reached the Orient
• Made possible Spanish dominion in America

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The Conquistadores

• Independent adventurers commissioned by Spanish crown to subdue new lands
• By 1512—major Caribbean islands decimated
• By 1521—Cortés destroyed Aztec empire
• 1539-1542—de Soto explored Southeast
• 1540-1542—Coronado explored Southwest

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Voyages of European Exploration

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From Plunder to Settlement

• Encomienda System rewarded Conquistadors
• Large land grants
• Indian inhabitants provided labor or tribute
• Appointed officials answered only to crown
• Catholic Church
• Protected Indian rights
• Performed mass conversions
• By 1650, half million Spaniards in New World
• Unmarried males intermarried
• Mixed-blood population emerged

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The French Claim Canada

• 1608—Samuel de Champlain founded Québec
• French empire eventually included
  St. Lawrence River, Great Lakes, Mississippi
• French crown makes little effort to foster settlement
• Fur trade underpinned economy
• Indians became valued trading partners

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The English Enter the Competition

• Claimed New World territory under Henry VIII
  (r. 1509-1547)
• England achieved preconditions for colonization under Elizabeth I

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Birth of English Protestantism

• Protestant Reformation played a major role in England’s rise to dominance
• 1517—Martin Luther sparked reform in Germany
• 1536—John Calvin’s Institutes published in Geneva
• Reformation pitted European Protestants against Catholics

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The English Reformation

• Tudor monarchs brought political unity
• Reformation under Henry Vlll (r. 1509-1547) strengthened Crown
• Protestant reform accelerated under Edward VI
  (r. 1547-1553)
• Death of Mary I (r. 1553-1558) cut short English Catholic Counter-Reformation
• Elizabeth I (r. 1558-1603) consolidated English Reformation

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Militant Protestantism

• Lutheran Reformation
• God speaks through Bible, not through Pope or priests
• Justification by faith alone for salvation
• Calvinist Reformation
• John Calvin stressed God’s omnipotence
• Predestination—some persons chosen by God for salvation
• Calvinist Christianity expanded in northern Europe
• France—Huguenots
• Scotland—Presbyterians
• England—Puritans

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Woman in Power

• Elizabeth I (r. 1558-1603) a very capable monarch
• Elizabeth introduced Via Media
• Protestant Doctrine
• “Catholic” Ritual
• Ended religious turmoil in England
• Elizabeth’s excommunication by Pope prompted Spanish crusade against England
• England aligned with Protestant nations against Catholic powers

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Religion, War, and Nationalism

• Spanish hostility made Elizabeth the symbol of English, Protestant nationhood
• Sea Dogs’ seizure of Spanish treasure made them English heroes
• Elizabeth’s subjects raided Spain’s American empire
• 1588—Spanish Armada defeated

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Irish Rehearsal for American Settlement

• English experiences in Ireland shaped how they would conquer the New World
• To the English, the Irish were wild and barbaric
• They would view Native Americans the same way

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English Conquest of Ireland

• Ireland was a laboratory for English colonization
• Irish viewed as backward
• English under Elizabeth seized Irish land

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English Brutality

• English ethnocentrism benign when Irish docile
• English employed brutal methods, such as massacring women and children, to crush frequent Irish resistance
• English adventurers compared Native Americans with “wild” Irish

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An Unpromising Beginning: Mystery at Roanoke

• Sir Walter Raleigh established Roanoke colony in 1584
• He named the region Virginia after the Virgin Queen
• The colony failed and Raleigh tried again in 1587
• The colonists disappeared without a trace and their fate remains a mystery

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Campaign to Sell America

• By 1600, no English settlements in New World
• Richard Hakluyt advertised benefits of American colonization
• Claimed that England needs American colonies