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Body Image 26 (2018) 78–82

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Body Image

j o u r n a l h o m e p a g e : w w w . e l s e v i e r . c o m / l o c a t e / b o d y i m a g e

rief research report

ppearance-related themes in children’s animated movies released etween 2004 and 2016: A content analysis

ennifer A. Harriger a,∗, Kelsey N. Serier b, Madeline Luedke b, Sienna Robertson b, shley Bojorquez c

Pepperdine University, United States University of New Mexico, United States Duquesne University, United States

r t i c l e i n f o

rticle history: eceived 4 January 2018 eceived in revised form 15 June 2018 ccepted 15 June 2018 vailable online 27 June 2018

a b s t r a c t

Research suggests that children demonstrate an awareness of cultural messages regarding appearance; specifically, that thinness is desirable and fatness is objectionable. In 2004, Herbozo and colleagues pub- lished research examining the content of popular children’s movies. This widely cited study has provided the foundation for various studies examining the impact of media on children. The purpose of the current study was to extend the findings of Herbozo et al.’s (2004) research to include more recent movies. Two independent coders viewed the 25 top-grossing U.S. animated feature films since 2004 and indicated

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the number of appearance-related themes present in each movie. Movies in the current study contained significantly more appearance-related themes focused on male muscularity and the role of personal con- trol related to weight compared to earlier films. These findings are consistent with cultural trends and

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demonstrate the importa

. Introduction

It has been suggested that media are the most effective com- unicators of American sociocultural ideals regarding appearance

Clay, Vignoles, & Dittmar, 2005), and exposure to ideal body mages via media results in increased levels of body dissatisfaction n females and males ranging from preadolescence to adulthood Dohnt & Tiggemann, 2006; Grabe, Ward, & Hyde, 2008; Leit, ray, & Pope, 2002). Although media messages regarding the ideal ody are not necessarily novel, Western culture has become more ocused on appearance over time (Engeln, 2017), and the stigma- ization of higher-weight individuals has increased in recent years Shentow-Bewsh, Keating, & Mills, 2016). Exposure to such mes- ages has been linked to poor self-esteem, body dissatisfaction, and educed psychological functioning in adults and children (Harriger, 012; Puhl & Latner, 2007). While less research with younger hildren exists, children as young as age three demonstrate a pref- rence for thin and an aversion to larger bodies (Harriger, Calogero,

itherington, & Smith, 2010), and this preference may be shaped

y media exposure (Sands & Wardle, 2003).

∗ Corresponding author at: Social Science Division, Pepperdine University, 24255 acific Coast Highway, Malibu, CA 90263, United States.

E-mail address: [email protected] (J.A. Harriger).

ttps://doi.org/10.1016/j.bodyim.2018.06.004 740-1445/© 2018 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

f continued examination of children’s media influences. © 2018 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Much of the research focused on media, especially in the adoles- cent and adult literature, examines real-life characters or images; however, programming targeting younger children often features animated characters (Klein & Schiffman, 2005). Children identify with and learn from the animated characters they observe, and exposure to appearance-related content at a young age can play a vital role in the formation of beliefs about appearance and body size (Harriger, 2012). Cultural messages regarding the ideal body are present in children’s animated movies (Herbozo, Tantleff-Dunn, Gokee-Larose, & Thompson, 2004) and cartoons (Klein & Schiffman, 2006), and internalization of these messages can lead to body dissatisfaction and disordered eating in children (Harriger, 2012; Klein & Schiffman, 2006). Successfully characterizing the content of children’s current animated media would be an important step in furthering our understanding of the influences of appearance- related media on young children’s body image.

Herbozo et al. (2004) conducted a content analysis examining popular children’s movies released between 1938 and 1998 (for a complete list of movies please refer to the Herbozo et al. (2004) arti- cle) and found that the majority of children’s movies (but not books) contained appearance-related messages emphasizing cultural ide- als regarding appearance (i.e., thinness for females and muscularity

for males). Additionally, many movies portrayed higher-weight characters negatively (Herbozo et al., 2004). To our knowledge, no studies have examined appearance-related messages in more recent children’s movies. Klein and Schiffman (2005), (2006) eval-

J.A. Harriger et al. / Body Image 26 (2018) 78–82 79

Table 1 Types of appearance-related themes (see Table 2) represented in each movie.

Children’s Movies 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16

Big Hero 6 X X X X X X X X X X X Brave X X X X X X X X X X Cars X X X X X X X Despicable Me X X X X X X X X Despicable Me 2 X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X Dr. Seuss’s The Lorax X X X X X X X X X X X X X Finding Dory X X X X X X Frozen X X X X X X X X X X X X How to Train Your Dragon X X X X X X X X X Inside Out X X X X X X X X X X X X Kung Fu Panda X X X X X X X X X X X X Madagascar 3 X X X X X X X X X X X Minions X X X X X X X X X X Monsters University X X X X X X X X X X Ratatouille X X X X X X X X X X Secret Life of Pets X X X X X X X X X X X Shrek 2 X X X X X X X X X X X X X X Shrek the Third X X X X X X X X X X X Shrek Forever After X X X X X X X X X X X X X The Incredibles X X X X X X X X X X X X X X The Lego Movie X X X Toy Story 3 X X X X X X X X X X Up X X X X X X X X X X Wall-E X X X X X X X X X X

u s a t i a b c

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first author facilitated a discussion regarding the rationale for the codes assigned and any discrepancies in the coding. During the training, the agreement percentages ranged from 90 to 97% across all themes. Upon completion of the training, the coders viewed

Zootopia X X X X X X

ated the content of animated cartoons from all major animation tudios from the year 1930 to the mid-1990s. They found that ttractiveness was associated with socially desirable qualities, and hin characters were more likely to be portrayed as more attractive, ntelligent, happy, energetic, loving, and prosocial than larger char- cters. Additionally, higher-weight characters were more likely to e depicted as unattractive, and the percentage of higher-weight haracters declined significantly between 1960 and the mid-1990s.

In their analysis of gender role portrayals in Disney movies, ngland, Descartes, and Collier-Meek (2011) reported that more raditional Disney movies depicted higher levels of gendered atti- udes towards the princesses and the princes than more recent

ovies. What is interesting, however, is that the depiction of tronger female protagonists in merchandizing is more feminized han the depiction in the movie itself (Coyne, Linder, Rasmussen, elson, & Birkbeck, 2016). Another study found that girls with

ower levels of body satisfaction had “higher levels of princess ngagement” one year later. The authors hypothesized that young irls with lower body image may seek out Disney princesses as appearance-related role models” (Coyne et al., 2016). While gen- ered attitudes in children’s movies have shifted over the past everal decades, no studies, to our knowledge, have assessed hether the prevalence of appearance-related content in more

ecent animated movies has changed as well. It has been asserted hat the portrayal of the thin ideal in Disney princess movies (and e would argue appearance-related messages in other animated ovies as well) may be one of the earliest forms of influence for

oung children (Coyne et al., 2016), which may convey the message hat physical appearance is more important than other qualities.

While England et al. (2011) provide valuable information egarding gendered roles in more recent Disney movies, they id not examine appearance-related themes, include movies cre- ted by other popular companies, such as Nickelodeon, or include ovies that featured non-human characters, such as Toy Story or

ars. The current study will examine appearance-related themes

n popular children’s animated movies released since the publica- ion of the Herbozo et al. (2004) study, regardless of Production ompany or types of characters portrayed. Given the increased bsession with appearance in Western culture (Engeln, 2017) and

X X X X X X X

the increased prevalence of weight stigmatizing messages in the media (Shentow-Bewsh et al., 2016), we hypothesized that the percentage of appearance-related themes would be higher in the current sample of movies compared to the sample of movies assessed by Herbozo et al. (2004).

2. Method

Content analysis was used to identify appearance-related mes- sages in children’s popular animated movies. The movies were obtained from Box Office Mojo’s list of the top-grossing U.S. ani- mated films and is presented in Table 1. We selected the top 25 movies from the list, excluding movies included in the Herbozo et al. (2004) analysis, movies released prior to 2004 when Herbozo et al. published their analysis, and movies currently in the theater when the list was obtained. The 25 movies in the final list were released between 2004 and 2016.

Two research assistants were trained to code the movies using the items created by Herbozo et al. (2004)1. The appearance- related themes can be found in Table 2. During the training, the coders, blind to the hypotheses of the study, were provided with detailed information and examples of the themes (provided by the first author of the Herbozo et al. study). Stunkard, Sorensen, and Schulsinger’s (1983) Figure Rating Scale was used to determine whether characters were thin or higher weight. Coders viewed 10 movie clips ranging from 5 to 10 min, including clips from movies in the Herbozo et al. (2004) study, and were instructed to code whether each theme was “present” or “absent” as they viewed the clips (i.e., a “1” indicated the presence and a “0” indicated an absence of an appearance-related theme). After each clip, the

1 The original list of themes included the terms “obesity” or “obese”. In an effort to use less stigmatizing language and avoid medical terminology, we changed the terms to “higher weight.” All other wording remained consistent.

80 J.A. Harriger et al. / Body Image 26 (2018) 78–82

Table 2 Percentages and test statistics of appearance-related themes in the Herbozo et al. (2004) and current study.

Appearance-Related Themes Percentages Herbozo et al. (2004)

Percentages Current Study �2 p

1. At least one female figure is thin 60 72 0.79 .38 2. At least one male figure is muscular 32 76 9.55 .002 3. Characters have many different body shapes and sizes 100 96 1.00 .32 4. Character’s love for another character depends on his or her physical

appearance 60 52 0.32 .57

5. Female physical attractiveness is associated with positive traits (sociable, kind, happy, or successful)

80 84 0.13 .72

6. Thinness is associated with positive traits (sociable, kind, happy, or successful)

72 72 0.00 1.0

7. Male physical attractiveness is associated with positive traits (sociable, kind, happy, or successful)

60 64 0.08 .77

8. One attractive male has a slim or muscular body 56 68 0.75 .39 9. At least one character is concerned with his or her physical

appearance or losing weight (character makes direct comments about needing to lose weight or about his/her appearance, character expresses unhappiness with current appearance/weight)

32 40 0.34 .56

10. Exercising is depicted as a means of losing weight (running on a treadmill to lose weight)

0 20 5.44 .02

11. Higher weight is seen as a problem for at least one character (other characters do not want to befriend the character, the character is treated negatively due to body size, the character’s body size prevents him/her from engaging in activities)

28 56 3.94 .05

12. At least one higher-weight character is seen eating food or in a setting related to food

48 80 5.44 .02

13. At least one higher-weight character is disliked by others 36 48 0.72 .39 14. Higher weight is associated with positive traits (sociable, kind,

happy, or successful) 80 84 0.13 .72

15. Higher weight is associated with negative traits (evil, unattractive, unfriendly, or cruel)

64 72 0.36 .55

16. Evil characters have unattractive physical features (unpleasant 64 80 1.56 .21

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ach of the 25 movies in their entirety and recorded whether an ppearance-related theme was present or absent in each movie. Ini- ially, Cohen’s Kappa, the measure for inter-rater reliability, ranged rom moderate to excellent for all themes (.60–1.0). Each coder rovided written explanations for each of their codes, and any dis- greements were resolved via discussion between the coders (led y the first author). After discussion, Cohen’s Kappa was excellent 1.0) for all themes.

. Results

Movies that contained 12 or more appearance-related themes ere Despicable Me 2 (16), Shrek 2 (14), The Incredibles (14), Dr.

euss’s The Lorax (13), Shrek Forever After (13), Zootopia (13), Frozen 12), and Kung Fu Panda (12). Movies that contained the fewest umber of appearance-related themes were Cars (7), Finding Dory 6), and The Lego Movie (3). Table 1 contains the number of ppearance-related themes in each movie.

Female thinness was portrayed in 72% and male muscularity as portrayed in 76% of the movies. Positive traits were associated ith female attractiveness in 84% and male attractiveness in 64% of

he movies. Thinness was also associated with these positive traits n 72% of the movies. At least one attractive male had a slim or

uscular body in 68% of the movies, and in 52% of the movies, a haracter’s love for another character was dependent on physical ppearance. Characters displayed many different body shapes and izes in 96%, and evil characters had unattractive physical features n 80% of the movies. At least one character was concerned with his

r her physical appearance or losing weight in 40% of the movies. igher weight was linked to negative traits in 72% and to posi-

ive traits in 84% of the movies. Finally, at least one higher-weight haracter was disliked by others in 48% of the movies.

We then compared the percentages of the themes present in the movies in the current analysis to those in the Herbozo et al. (2004) study. See Table 2 for the results of this comparison. We found significant differences between the two studies in 4 of the 16 themes. In the current study, male muscularity was portrayed in 76% of the movies, compared to only 32% in the original study, �2(1, N = 25) = 9.55, p = .002. Exercise was depicted as a means of losing weight in 20% of the movies in the current study but none of the movies in the original analysis, �2(1, N = 25) = 5.44, p = .020. Higher weight was portrayed as a problem for at least one character in 56% of the movies in the current study compared to 28% of the movies in the original study, �2(1, N = 25) = 3.94, p = .047. Finally, at least one higher-weight character was seen eating food or in a setting related to food in 80% of the movies in the current study compared to 48% of the movies in the original study, �2(1, N = 25) = 5.44, p = .020. No other significant differences were found.

4. Discussion

Collectively, the findings of the content analysis demonstrated that appearance-related messages continue to be prevalent in chil- dren’s animated movies. We had hypothesized that the percentage of appearance-related themes would be significantly higher in the current sample of movies, and this hypothesis received mixed sup- port. Of the 16 themes assessed, the percentages of four themes (at least one male figure is muscular, exercise is depicted as a means of losing weight, higher weight was seen as a problem for at least one

character, and at least one higher-weight character was seen eat- ing food or in a setting related to food) were significantly higher in the current analysis compared to those assessed by Herbozo et al. (2004). No other significant differences were found.

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Interestingly, when considering the results of the current con- ent analysis, it seems that the focus on male muscularity in hildren’s animated films has increased over time. In the Herbozo t al. (2004) study, the ideal female body type was portrayed more requently than the ideal male body type; however, in the current nalysis, the portrayal of ideal female and male body types were elatively equal. This finding is consistent with the more recent ocus on appearance and muscularity for males in the media (Daniel

Bridges, 2010) and may be linked to the increase in body dis- atisfaction in males (Tiggemann, 2011). Given the high levels of ppearance-related messages in children’s animated movies and he findings that exposure to ideal images in the media is linked o body dissatisfaction in both females (Dohnt & Tiggemann, 2006) nd males (Bartlett, Vowels, & Saucier, 2008), it is important to ontinue to examine children’s media and mechanisms by which edia my become internalized by young children. In the current study, there were no significant differences in the

ositive or negative portrayals of higher-weight characters com- ared to earlier movies. There was, however, increased focus on xercise as a means for losing weight, the relationship between igher weight and food consumption, and the problems related to igher weight. This is not surprising since obesity has been high-

ighted as a public health issue in Western society, and many believe hat weight is controllable through the consumption of healthy oods and engagement in exercise (Pearl & Lebowitz, 2014). The elief that weight is related to factors under an individual’s control as been linked to higher levels of stigmatization towards higher- eight individuals (Puhl & Brownell, 2003). Researchers have also emonstrated that stereotypical beliefs about weight are present

n young children (Harriger et al., 2010), and animated children’s ovies may play a role in shaping beliefs about the role of personal

esponsibility related to weight. Additionally, while some movies, such as the Shrek quadrilogy,

ay have attempted to utilize higher-weight characters as the pro- agonists and to teach children that beauty comes from within, here are numerous contradictory messages throughout the movies hich may be confusing to children. While the movies may initially

hallenge the stereotypical views related to appearance, they high- ight America’s preoccupation with appearance and weight and

ay either shape or reinforce beliefs regarding weight in young hildren. Internalization of these beliefs can lead to discrimina- ion and stigmatization of higher-weight individuals in school and ther social settings (Bissell & Hayes, 2011; Puhl & Latner, 2007). dditionally, recent research has found that there has been an

ncrease in the relationship between adolescents’ perceptions of heir weight and their psychosomatic health from 2002 to 2014, hich is likely, in part, related to media consumption (Whitehead

t al., 2017). While the messages were relatively similar in movies depicting

oth human and animal characters, it was found that movies such s Cars and The Lego Movie were among those with the fewest num- er of appearance-related messages. It would be useful to examine dditional media outlets, such as television shows and video games, o determine whether all media depicting non-biological objects ontain less appearance-related messages.

This research is not without limitations. First, this study involved ubjective interpretation of the messages present in children’s nimated movies, and findings may not be generalizable to all hildren’s media. In order to examine any temporal changes that xisted in the themes from the Herbozo et al. (2004) study, a deduc- ive method was employed; however, inductive methods may have nabled us to highlight additional themes, including the contradic-

ory messages regarding weight present in the films. The coding lso was limited in that only the presence or absence of a message as reported. It is possible that some movies are riddled with these essages, while others may contain one instance of the message.

age 26 (2018) 78–82 81

This was not captured in the current coding scheme and may be a future research direction. Finally, given that this study involved a content analysis, it is not possible to determine whether expo- sure to these films results in internalization of appearance-related messages.

Future research would benefit from examining alternative types of media and including an experimental component designed to determine whether beliefs about body size in children are affected by exposure to media containing messages regarding appearance. While parents and educators may combat some of these messages through moderating media exposure and media literacy programs, partnerships with various media outlets may prove more beneficial in the long-term.

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